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NBSIR 78-1530

Mobile Home

Studies: The

Living Room Fire

Role of Interior

Edward K. Budnick

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

September 1978

Interim Report

^QC

100

.U56

78-1530

Sponsored principally by:

Division of Energy, Building Technology and Standards

Office of Policy Development and Research

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Washington, D.C. 20410

NBSIR 78-1530

MOBILE HOME LIVING ROOM FIRE

STUDIES: THE ROLE OF INTERIOR

FINISH

Edward K. Budnick

Center for Fire Research

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

September 1978

Interim Report

Sponsored principally by:

Division of Energy, Building Technology and Standards

Office of Policy Development and Research

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Washington, D.C. 20410

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary

Dr. Sidney Harman, Under Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technoiogy

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director
rV.T
TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

V

LIST OF TABLES vi

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vii

Abstract 1

1.

INTRODUCTION 2 1.1 Background 2 1.2 Review of Previous Research 2 1.3 Objectives 4 1 . 4 Approach 4

2

.

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM 5 2.1 Test Facility

2.2 Living Room Construction . . . . 2.3 Living Room Furnishings

2.4 Initial Burning Items

2.5 Interior Finish Materials. . . . 2.5.1 Wall Materials

2.5.2 Ceiling Materials . . . . 2.5.3 Noncontributing Materials

2.6 Full-Scale Test Criteria . . . . 2.6.1 Carbon Monoxide . . . . . 2.6.2 Temperature

2.6.3 Oxygen Depletion

2.6.4 Smoke Density

2.7 Measurements

2.7.1 Ambient Measurements . . 2.7.2 Test Measurements . . . .

5

56

7

7

7

8

8

89 11

11

14

15

15

15

3. PROCEDURE 17

3.1 Full-Scale Tests 17

3.2 Laboratory Evaluation of Materials 17

4. RESULTS 18

4.1 Full-Scale Fire Tests 18

4.2 Laboratory Test Results. 19

5. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS 19

5 . 1 General 19

5.2 Wood Crib and Upholstered Chair Fires. ..... 20

5.2.1 Test 15: 6.4 k'g (14 lb) Wood Crib 2 0 5.2.2 Test 16: 16 kg (35 lb) Upholstered Chair 21

5.2.3 Impact of Burning Wood Crib or Upholstered Chair on Fire Buildup 22

5.3 Tests with 6.4 kg (14 lb) Wood Crib 23

5.3.1 Tests 1, 2, 3, 9 [Prefinished Lauan Plywood Walls]. . 23

5.3.2 Tests 4, 5, 7, 8 [Fire Retardant Treated Lauan

Plyv/ood Walls] 2 4 5.3.3 Tests 6, 13 [Gypsum Board Walls] 26

5.4 Tests with 16 kg (35 lb) Upholstered Chair 27

5.4.1 Tests 10, 12, 14 [Prefinished Lauan Plywood Walls]. . 28

5.4.2 Test 11 [Gypsurri Board Walls] 30

111
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)

Page

6 . DISCUSSION 31

6.1 Fire Growth in Room of Origin 31

6.2 Effects of Fire Growth and Spread on Attainment of Limiting

Conditions 33

6.2.1 Carbon Monoxide 34

6.2.2 Temperature 35

6.2.3 Oxygen 36

6.3 Smoke Generation 36

6.4 Fire Development - Impact on Life Safety 38

6.5 Surface Flammability as a Fire Safety Criterion 39

6.5.1 ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test Method 39

6.5.2 Comparison of Full-Scale Results and ASTM E-84 FSC . 40

7. SUMMARY 4 2

8 . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 45

9. REFERENCES 46

Appendix A. Chronological Tabulation of Test Observations A1

Appendix B. Plotted Test Data Illustrating Key Changes in Various

Measured Conditions . b1

Appendix C. Photographic Sequences of Fire Buildup for Selected

Tests Cl

Appendix D. Ranges and Limits of Error for Instrumentation D1

IV
LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Photographs of typical single-wide mobile homes

used in conducting full-scale fire tests 52

Figure 2. Plan view of mobile home test unit 5 3 Figure 3. Plan view of test location in mobile home illustrating

two fuel loading densities based on removeable

contents 54

Figure 4. Plan view of mobile home illustrating location of

experimental measurements 55

Figure 5. Illustration of typical test setup; location and

positioning of initial burning items 56

Figure 6. Burning rate of a 6.4 kg (14 lb) cross-piled wood

crib and the resulting temperature rise in the

upper room 5 7 Figure 7. Illustration of characteristic shape and height of

flame from a burning 6.4 kg wood crib 5 8 Figure 8. Burning rate of a 16 kg (35 lb) upholstered chair and

the resulting temperature rise in the upper room .... 59

Figure 9. Maximum levels of incident heat flux 60

Figure 10. Temperature 25 mm below ceiling in center of living

room for selected tests 61

Figure 11. Comparison of maximum upper room temperature with

maximum incident flux at the floor level 62

Figure 12. Illustrates time from intermittent flame impingement

on the wall surface to 100°C, 1.5 m above floor

beyond back exit door near entrance to bedroom No. 1 , . . 63

Figure 13. Illustrates time from intermittent flame impingement on the wall surface to 1% (vol) CO concentration ,• or

41 800 (ppm) (min) , 1.5 m above the floor beyond

back exit door near entrance to bedroom No. 1 64

Figure 14. Illustrates time from intermittent flame impingement

on the wall surface to 14% (vol) O 2 concentration,

1.5 m above the floor beyond the back exit door near

the entrance to bedroom No. 1 65

Figure 15. Illustrates time from intermittent flame impingement

on the wall surface to 0.26 OD/m optical density, 1.2 m above the floor beyond back exit door near entrance

to bedroom No. 1 66

Figure 16. Illustration of the elapsed time from flame impingement

on the wall to limiting conditions of temperature, CO,

and O 2 and the attainment of flashover for 16 fullscale mobile home fire tests 67

Figure 17. Flashover data matrix for full-scale mobile home living

room fire tests with 6.4 kg wood cribs and upholstered

chairs 68

V
LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd)

Page

Figure 18. Material hazard matrix (based on ASTM E-84 FSC) 69

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Furniture items used in tests with moderate

fuel loading 70

Table 2. Physical and fire properties of interior finish

materials 71

Table 3. Description of interior finish materials used in

each of the sixteen full-scale tests 72

Table 4. Test conditions for full-scale mobile home fire

tests (living room series) 73

Table 5. Instrumentation locations 74

Table 6. Selected results of full-scale mobile home fire tests

(living room series) 75

Table 7. Selected levels of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,

and oxygen measured in living room 1.5 m above floor 76

Table 8. Selected levels of temperature, optical density,

carbon monoxide and oxygen at various locations in

the mobile home 7 7 Table 9. Measured concentrations of CO, CO 2 and O 2 in tests

15 and 16 78

Table 10. Grouping of tests based on peak levels of temperature,

carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen measured

in the living room. 79

Table 11. Elapsed time from initial flame impingement on the wall

surface to limiting conditions of temperature, carbon

monoxide and oxygen, and 0.26 OD/m optical density in

the corridor beyond the back exit door . . . 80

VI
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Title VI of the Housing ana Community Development Act of 1974 provided

for the development of a Federal mandatory standard for mobile home construction and safety. Statutory responsibility for development and promulgation

of such a standard was delegated to the Secretary of the Department of

Housing and Urban Development (HUD) . Title VI explicitly authorized HUD to

undertake mobile home safety research and development in order to improve the

mobile home construction and safety standards, particularly in those areas which impact personal injuries and deaths and property dairiage in mobile homes.

A key area identified as a potential problem in mobile homes was fire

safety. Various statistical sources indicated that while the incidence rate was approximately the same, the injury and life hazard and the extent of property damage were three to five times greater than that of conventional residences [ 1- 11 ] 1

.

Most residential fires are initially localized and small in size, but

the design characteristics inherent in mobile homes such as fire load density, room geometry, and combustible finishes may provide the potential for rapid

fire development, resulting in higher temperatures, sirioke , and toxic gas generation in a relatively short period of time. While various design and structural features appear to be possible contributors to this problem, interior

finish materials used on walls and ceilings have been cited as one of the most

important contributors to fire spread in mobile homes. No organized research

studies have been performed to evaluate this thesis. Therefore, in 1975,

within the statutory power under Title VI, the Office of Policy Development

and Research of HUD requested that the Center for Fire Research at NBS expand

and accelerate the activities of an ongoing research project. The purpose

of this ongoing project was to provide experimental data on the potential

growth and spread of fire in mobile homes.

The Federal Mobile Home Construction and Safety Standard was promulgated, effective June 15, 1976. This mandatory standard adopted many of

the provisions contained in the existing Standard for Mobile Homes (NFPA 501B,

ANSI A119.1), a voluntary consensus standard previously utilized by many

mobile home manufacturers and state and local regulatory officials. Included

in the provisions adopted from NFPA 501B was a surface flame spread criterion

for interior finish materials based on the ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test Method.

(The ASTM E-84 test method is a nationally recognized method for evaluating

the surface flame spread characteristics of interior wall and ceiling materials. ) In addition, results from initial segments of the Mobile Home

Fire Safety Project were evaluated and criteria based on this evaluation were

incorporated into the Standard.

Work has continued at NBS in the area of fire safety in mobile homes since

promulgation of the standard. This report includes the results and analysis

from a segment of the work completed to date. This work encompassed sixteen

full-scale fire tests conducted in a living room under a controlled set of

conditions, in which various combinations of wall and ceiling interior finish

materials were exposed to small incidental fires represented by upholstered

chairs and wood cribs. These fires were conducted in a typical single-wide

mobile home constructed in accordance with the NFPA 501B Standard for Mobile

Homes in effect in 1972 and which had comparable structural, material and

spatial characteristics to mobile homes presently being constructed to comply

with the current Federal standard. Analyses of these tests were directed at

evaluating the extent of the potential hazard to life and property damage

occurring in each of the sixteen tests.

^Numbers in brackets refer to the literature references at the end of this

paper

.

Vll
The criteria used to evaluate the hazard to life were selected based on available reference literature, and included temperature, carbon monoxide, and

oxygen deficiency. The criteria used to evaluate the extent of property damage were the rate of fire growth and the attainment of flashover in the living room which was the room of fire origin. Flashover is defined for this report

as a fire phenomenon in which the upper level fire gases and ceiling radiate

sufficient energy to the lower half of the room to cause ignition and rapid,

complete fire involvement of all combustible materials.

Standardized laboratory fire tests were also conducted to characterize

some of the more critical fire properties of the various interior finish ma- terials utilized in the full-scale testing. Correlations between behavior

under full-scale conditions and comparative ratings or measurements in smallscale or standard laboratory tests have not been fully established.. Therefore,

an evaluation was made to determine the extent to which the results of the

presently required ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test can characterize the performance of

these materials when installed on the walls and ceiling in a full-scale mobile

home fire test.

Analysis of test results indicate similarities to previously established

experimental findings regarding key factors in the fire buildup process in

compartments. Two significant factors which qualitatively identify these

similarities are:

(1) Total room involvement occurred primarily as a result of radiative

heat transfer from the heated gas layer in the upper part of the room to the combustibles in the lower part of the room. Lateral

heat transfer and direct flame contact were, not sufficient to involve other combustibles.

(2) Variations in fire buildup occurred, depending on the fire properties of the interior finish materials. These variations directly

affected the rate of fire growth and spread, the severity of the

fire, and the resulting effects on life safety.

viii
MOBILE HOME LIVING ROOM FIRE STUDIES:

THE ROLE OF INTERIOR FINISH^

Edward K. Budnick

Abstract

A series of sixteen full-scale fire tests was conducted

in the living room of a typically constructed single-wide

mobile home. These tests were designed (1) to evaluate the

effect of a variety of combinations of wall and ceiling ma- terials on fire growth and spread and the production of

smoke and toxic gases when exposed to an incidental fire,

and (2) to determine the relationship between the surface

flame spread properties of the interior finish materials

as determined by the ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test and the behavior of the materials as installed under actual full-scale

conditions

.

The test procedure was based on a fire scenario in

which the interior wall surface was exposed to an incidental fire from a standardized 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood crib or

a 16 kg (35 lb) upholstered chair positioned in a corner

in the living room. Performance of the various combinations of wall and

celling materials was evaluated based on (1) the rate of

fire buildup and extent of living room involvement, and

(2) changes in the environment in the corridor and bedroom

areas which may adversely affect the life safety of the

occupants. Measurements utilized in the evaluation of

changes in the environment due to fire growth and spread

included gas temperatures, irradiance, concentrations of

carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen, and smoke densities. Under this set of conditions it was found that the

fire properties of the interior finish materials directly

affected the rate of fire growth and spread, the severity

of the fire, and the resulting effects on life safety.

Key Words: ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test; carbon dioxide; carbon

monoxide; fire growth; fire tests; flame spread; flashover;

interior finishes; life safety; mobile homes; radiant heat

flux; room fires.

This work was principally supported by funds provided by the Division of

Energy, Building Technology and Standards, Office of Policy Development and

Research of the U.S. Departmient of Housing and Urban Development with supplemental funding by the Center for Fire Research at the National Bureau of Standards .

1
1 . INTRODUCTION

This report provides technical data on an individual segment of the re- search conducted under the Mobile Home Fire Safety Project. A final report

will be forthcoming in which this data will be analyzed along with data collected in other segments of the project, including full-scale fire testing in

the kitchen, bedroom and corridor areas of a single-wide mobile home. Recommendations will be included in the final report.

1.1. Background

A major research project is ongoing at the National Bureau of Standards

to examine some of the characteristics which may affect fire growth and spread

in a single-wide mobile home. An area of significant emphasis in this project

is the conduct of full-scale fire tests to provide experimental data on fire

growth and spread. As part of this full-scale testing, tests were conducted

to characterize the fire growth potential in a living room area of a typical

single-wide mobile home primarily as a function of the interior finish materials on the walls and ceiling. This report provides an examination of the re- sults of sixteen full-scale experimental fire tests conducted in the living

room area of a 3.7 x 18.3 m (12 x 60 ft) single-wide mobile home constructed

in accordance with the NFPA 501B, 1972 Edition, Standard for Miobile Homes.

The structural, material and spatial characteristics of the mobile home were comparable to those in mobile homes constructed to the current Federal standard.

Examination of fire loss statistics [1] indicates that most residential

fires are initially small in character, do not spread beyond the room of fire

origin, and by themselves do not pose a serious problem. It appears, however,

that the nature and quantity of combustibles around the fire and the geometry

of the enclosure are among principle factors having a significant influence

on the growth and spread of this incidental fire. Past research has indicated

that combustible compartment linings can contribute to the spread of an un- wanted fire. Therefore, the interior finish materials on the walls and ceiling

in a typical mobile home may provide surfaces for the possible spread of a small fire, as well as increased production of heat, smoke and potentially toxic

gases. The proper selection of the finish materials, based on measured fire

properties, and control of the location of installation of interior finish ma- terials can potentially provide an increased level of fire safety to the occupants and a reduced fire severity from an incidental fire in a mobile home.

1.2. Review of Previous Research

A great deal of work has been done to provide information regarding the

dynamics of the fire buildup process in enclosures. Much of this work has

been directed toward the conduct of full-scale room tests to provide experimental data on fire development, and in particular, the growth and spread of

small incidental fires.

Whether or not a small incidental fire will stay small and confined to

the initial burning item, or grow rapidly to a fully developed room fire depends on many factors. Some of the more significant environmental factors

include room geometry, thermal properties of materials, ventilation, location

and burning characteristics of the initial burning item, and the proximity

and arrangement of other combustibles including interior finish materials and

furnishings.

Although sophisticated computer programs are under development to predict

fire growth, at present there is no complete quantitative methodology for

determining the growth of fire in terms of all of the above key factors. However, during the interim period a considerable amount of information has been

2
developed which can provide an understanding of key mechanisms affecting fire

growth and spread in a typically constructed room. For instance, Waterman [12] identified the heating of combustibles by ra- diation as a key mechanism for flashover in a room fire. He further indicated

that the radiation was primarily obtained from the ceiling and upper walls.

Evidence of the significance of this phenomenon has subsequently been reported

by Fang [13] and Quintiere [14] at NBS , and by Croce, Emmons and Modak based

on work conducted at Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FMRC) [15-17].

The FMRC study was based on the measurements taken in three full-scale

bedroom fires. They reported that the radiation heat transfer from the heated

smoke layer beneath the ceiling contributed significantly to room flashover.

Fang [13] reported that radiative energy from the heated upper room gas layer

promoted flashover. He also indicated that full involvement of the room oc- curred when temperatures in the upper part of the room ranged from 450 to 650°C.

(Flashover is defined as the rapid, complete fire involvement of all combustible materials resulting from the energy radiated from the high temperature

of the fire gases, and upper wall and ceiling surfaces.)

Two key factors which seem to influence the attainment of temperatures

in this range in the upper room are (1) the duration of burning and the maximum burn rate of the initial burning item, and (2) the contribution of the

other combustibles which become involved. It has been reported that in one series of experiments in a 3.64 x 3.64 m (12 x 12 ft) enclosure 2.43 m (8 ft)

high, a maximum burning rate of 40 g/s was reached or exceeded before room, flashover occurred [18]. While this occurred under one set of controlled con- ditions it may approximate the necessary rate of burning for room flashover

for fires in similar enclosures.

The peak burn rate of incidental items of furniture generally do not approach 40 g/s. Results of work conducted by Gross and Fang [19] indicated

that a peak burn rate in excess of 15 g/s did not occur for a variety of low

intensity fires from the burning of incidental combustible items such as waste

containers. Although there do exist items of furniture which alone could burn

at a peak rate of 40 g/s or more, both Fang [13] at NBS and Castino, et al. [20]

at Underwriters' Laboratories (U.L.) conducted full-scale fire tests in en- closures in which exposure of various types of combustible interior finish ma- terials to small combustible items with peak burning rates from 6 to 10 g/s

resulted in room flashover. The additional energy beyond that produced from

the burning combustible item necessary to flash over the enclosure was attribut(;d to the involvement of the interior finish materials.

Fang [21], in subsequent work, indicated that fire buildup from the interirem spread of fire could occur only when combustibles are located within a prescribed hot air region surrounding the burning item. For incidental items

of moderate burning rates, adjacent combustibles must be located within 0.15 m

(6 in) of the burning item to result in inter-item fire spread.

Bruce [22] indicated, based on six tests conducted at the Forest Products

Laboratory, that interior finish materials did not affect fire development.

However, in that series of tests, the ignition source, along with a considerable amount of fuel, was placed in the center of the room at a distance of

0.47 m (18.5 in) from the wall. The significance of the distance between other

combustibles, including interior finish materials, and the burning item or items has already been identified as a critical factor in fire development.

Involvement of the wall materials is not likely during initial fire buildup

when an incidental fire occurs at distances on the order of 0.5 m (19 in)

from the wall.

The involvement of interior finish materials in fire development has been

generally considered as a significant factor in the spread of room fires. Many

building codes, including the Federal Mobile Home Construction and Safety

3
Standard, have included criteria to regulate the use of interior finish ma- terials on the walls and ceilings. The test upon which the primary criterion

is based in most of these codes is the ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test. However, it is

not clear to what extent the conditions and test procedure in the tunnel ra- tionally simulate the environment in an enclosure in which an incidental fire

has occurred [23].

Lee and Parker [24] in investigating the potential development of fire

safety criteria for naval operations (shipboard fire safety) expressed con- cern for the difficulties which may arise when assessing fire hazards based

"solely on laboratory tests." They indicated the need to better understand

the fluid dynamics, thermal, physical and chemical factors influencing fire

buildup; they also reported the need for an improved interpretation, understanding, and application of existing laboratory test methods and the development of better ones which provide information that correlates with the key

factors in room fire buildup.

As previously stated, work is being done to develop mathematically based

models to predict fire buildup depending on the factors such as room geometry,

interior finish, furnishings, and ventilation. While these models would potentially identify the key properties of combustibles which could be measured

by laboratory testing, their availability for use in analyzing fire hazards in

varying occupancies is not anticipated for some time. In the meantime, additional experimental data must be collected to provide insight into the potential control of fire growth in residential occupancies such as mobile homes in

order to limit damage and prevent deaths.

1.3. Objectives

The objectives of this particular segment of the project were:

(1) to provide quantitative technical data regarding the fire buildup

process resulting from an incidental fire in the living room of a typically designed single-wide mobile home, primarily as a function

of interior finish; and

(2) to provide an evaluation of the extent to which the results of the

presently required ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test can characterize the hazard

of these interior finish materials when installed on the walls and

ceiling in the living room of a mobile home.

1.4. Approach

A large scale test is intended to represent an actual real world condition

However, in order to provide experimental data on a variety of interior finish

materials, tests must be conducted under a set of controlled conditions. There

fore, a single fire scenario was selected; a fire scenario is a postulated

probable occurrent of ignition, the subsequent chain of events leading to a fire loss or injury, and the reasonable relationship of that occurrence to

the nature of the occupancy.

A key in selecting the scenario to evaluate interior finish materials is

the size of the initial burning item and its position in the room. The size

of the initial burning item can be so selected that the influence of the interior finish materials appears insignificant. It can be very small, or located such that the interior finish is not exposed during initial fire buildup.

Or, it can be too large, thus masking the effects of the interior finish. Both

of these extremes have appeared in some tests and can result in inconclusive

information, indicating that the interior finish materials are incidental to

fire development and should not be considered in evaluating fire hazards.

4
But, regardless of the size of the initial burning item selected in evaluating materials, a reasonably severe orientation consistent with practical

usage, such as a corner configuration, is generally recommended. Therefore,

the full-scale fire test procedure was designed based on the scenario that

an ignition might occur resulting in an incidental fire in the corner of the

room. For this case the interior finish materials on the walls and ceiling

were studied to determine if they significantly influence the growth and spread

of the fire, and the resulting severity. Formulation of this scenario was based on statistical evidence that most fires occurring in residental occu- pancies are initially small in size; and, in a high number of mobile home fires

the spread of fire from the initial burning item occurs via the wall and ceiling

lining [1,3,4,5,6,7,25].

The results of the full-scale tests were examined from two viewpoints.

First, an assessment of fire growth and spread in the room of origin was made,

based on the various combinations of wall and ceiling materials tested. This

assessment was based on measurements of incident heat flux and gas temperatures

at strategic locations in the room of origin, and provided information on the

rate of fire buildup and extent of room involvement from exposure of various

lining materials to a standardized ignition source. Further assessments included examination of smoke generation and changes in concentrations of carbon

monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen resulting from the fire buildup.

Secondly, changes in the environment in adjacent areas outside the room

of origin as a result of fire buildup were examined. This effect of fire

buildup on conditions in the corridor at the back exit door and in a remote

location bedroom was based on changes in the levels of temperature, smoke density, carbon monoxide concentrations and oxygen depletion.

Laboratory tests conducted on the materials included the standard tests

:

ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test, ASTM E-162 Radiant Panel Test, NFPA 258 Smoke Density

Chamber Test, and experimental tests: NBS ease of ignition test, and NBS rate

of heat release calorimeter. A qualitative evaluation of the relationship between the room fire buildup process and the laboratory measured surface flame

spread classification of the wall and ceiling materials (ASTM E-84) is provided.

In addition, the test data derived from the other laboratory tests is provided

for additional edification.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

2.1. Test Facility

The test facility was a conventional single-wide mobile home approximately

3.7 X 18.3 m (12 x 60 ft) with a living/dining room, kitchen, bathroom,

and three bedrooms (reference figures 1 and 2). The living/dining room, which

was approximately 3.5 m (11 ft 4 in) wide, 7.5 m (24 ft 5 in) long, and had

a ceiling height of 2.1 m (7 ft 0 in) resulted in a net usable floor area of

22.7 m (244 sq. ft). The initial burning item was positioned in the northwest corner of the living room for each of the sixteen tests. A ceiling-high

partition, constructed of asbestos cement board, was placed in front of the

kitchen area to prevent damage from the test fires. The partition was coverea

with whichever wall material was being tested. During all tests, the exterior

doors and windows were closed, but not sealed, to provide an initial quiescent

or calm air condition. The doors leading into bedrooms No. 2 and No. 3 and the

bathroom were also closed. The doorway to bedroom No. 1 remained open.

2.2. Living Room Construction

The construction of the living room was typical of mobile homes. The

exterior wall system was composed of nominal 51 mm x 76 mm (2x3 in) hemlock

studs, 406 mm (16 in) on centers, with 64 mm (2.5 in) of single- thickness

5
glass fiber insulation between the studs and the aluminum exterior siding.

The glass fiber insulation contained a paper vapor barrier adjacent to the

back side of the interior wall finish material.

Interior partitions were constructed with nominal 51 x 51 mm(2 x 2 in)

studs, 406 mm (16 in) on centers with no insulation between the studs. The

roof was constructed of painted aluminum exterior sheeting mechanically

fastened to a system of wood bow-string trusses, 406 rrim (16 in) oh centers,

insulated by 76 mm (3 in) of glass fiber above a polyethylene vapor barrier.

The floor covering was 3.3 mm (0.13 in) thick vinyl asbestos taken from a continuous 3.7 m (12 ft) wide roll, mechanically fastened to the 19 miri thick

(0.75 in) particle board subfioor by staples. The living room was constructed

with six windows, 660 x 762 mm each (26 x 30 in) in size. Two each were

located in the west, north, and east walls. Figure 2 provides a detailed

plan view of the mobile home.

The various interior finish materials used for wall and ceiling con- struction in these tests were selected to provide a range of materials which

have different surface flame spread properties. The interior finish materials

were mechanically fastened to the studs on the walls and the ceiling trusses

in accordance with recommended practices for installation of the interior

finish material. Assembly was completed at least 48 hours prior to the start

of each test.

2.3. Living Room Furnishings

All furnishings used in the living room were of 'the type commonly found

in a mobile home. For thirteen of the tests, the only furniture other than

the ignition source was a sofa constructed of a wood frame, cushioning of

polyurethane foam and cotton, and covered with a rayon fabric. The sofa was placed against the east wall, approximately 2.4 m (8 ft) from the corner

where the initial burning item was located. In these tests the living room

was considered to be sparsely furnished. This procedure was based on the

premise that it is unnecessary to include other combustible furnishings when

assessing the influence of the interior finish material on initial fire growth

when exposed to an incidental fire from a single burning item - the primary

objective

.

In order to examine the reliability of this premise, a higher fuel loading

was selected for some of the tests. In these tests which were considered to

be moderately furnished, the additional items of furniture used were a matching

upholstered chair constructed of the same materials as the sofa, two end

tables and a coffee table constructed of pine and particle board, a kitchen table

constructed of vinyl-covered polyurethane foam with steel frames and legs (see

figure 3 for diagrams of the sparsely and moderately furnished rooms) . In

fourteen tests there were curtains, made of a polyester fabric, over the six

windows in the living room. Due to the nature of tests 15 and 16 the curtains

were not installed. As indicated by figure 3b, the furnishings in the moderately

furnished tests were located throughout the living/dining room area, providing

an approximate fuel loading of 4.9 kg/m 1 Ib/sq ft) . Table 1 lists the

individual items of furniture providing the moderate fuel loading.

6
2.4. Initial Burning Items

For eleven of the tests, identically constructed crossed-piled wood cribs

were utilized as the initial burning item. The weight of the wood crib was approximately 6.4 kg (14 lb) with overall dimensions of 356 x 356 mm, 300 mm high (14 x 14 x 12 in) . The wood crib was constructed of 28 pieces of 51 x 51 X 356 mm (2 x 2 x 14 in) nominal hemlock arranged in six 4-stick layers

and two 2-stick layers, and conditioned at 70°F and 50% relative humidity

until the moisture content and the resulting change in v;eight stablized.

The size and weight of the wood crib was selected based on experimental

work conducted at the National Bureau of Standards to simulate a fire due

to ignition of a small piece of incidental furture [20]. An incidental item

of furniture is described as an icem of furniture which if ignited and burning

apart from other combustibles will not result in room flashover and will not

pose a serious haaard to life safety. Test results based on this previous

experimental work indicate that the essential characteristics of a typical

incidental fire from a small piece of furniture such as temperature and heat

flux levels, burning tim.e, and the size and shape of the flame can be duplicated

by the burning of a standardized 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood crib.

In tests 10,11,12,14 and 16, the initial burning item was a mediumsized upholstered chair. The chairs, weighing 16 kg (35 lbs), were alike in

construction and produced by the same manufacturer; constructed of wood,

polyurethane foam and cotton materials and covered by rayon fabric. The chairs

were stored in a nearby test building where temperature and humidity are nearly

constant at 75 + 5°F and 35 + 10% RH until the weight of the chair stabilized.

2.5. Interior Finish Materials

Table 2 lists all of the interior finish materials tested and some of

the more pertinent measured properties obtained by conducting experimental

laboratory and standard fire tests. The full-scale tests were designed to

examine the performance of a number of combinations of wall and ceiling

materials under a similar fire exposure. Table 3 identifies the materials used

in each of the 16 tests.

2.5.1. Wall Materials

Three basic types of wall materials were tested: untreated prefinished

lauan plywood; fire retardant treated lauan plywood; and printed paper finished

gypsum board.

Two thicknesses, 4 mm (5/32 in) and 6.4 mm (1/4 in) , of untreated prefinished lauan plywood were tested. Both were typical of the wall material

commonly used in conventional mobile home construction and were purchased

commercially

.

Lauan plywood specimens treated for fire retardance by two separate

methods were tested. One method of treatment involved the application of two

coats of a clear intumescent type fire retardant coating, covered by a clear

varnish overcoating, to 4 mm thick prefinished lauan plywood. The fire re- tardant coating was commercially available and was applied in accordance

with the manufacturer's instructions. Test 4 and 8 were conducted with walls

constructed of this material. The other type of fire retardant treatment

utilized was a chemically treated vinyl film surface, 0.38-0.46 mm (0.015-

0.018 in) in thickness, glued to unfinished 4 mm thick lauan plywood. This

material was tested in tests 5 and 7. While the material was experimental,

it potentially could be made commercially available.

7
The printed paper Lr^also^L^irSal ly available,

a simulated wood grain surface; this material

2.5.2. Ceiling Materials

TWO types of ceiling materials were used in °","rtiS"p?ernteriors tLted in the mobile home. JS’els The

finished low density cellulosici er available commercially.

panels were ° ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

,c/i ^ in) thick gypsum board with a prefinished

The other material was 8 mm (J/l® t ? x 3 7 m (4 x 12 ft) sheets and

surface. This material was obtained in 1.2 x 3 . / m x i^

is also commercially available.

2.5.3. Noncontributing Materials

and ceiling were constrncted of w. ( 1/2 in^ thich^sh^ ^ ^ (hereafter referred to as calcium silicate-CaSiOs ) , inscaxi

in) gypsum board.

2.6. Full-Scale Test Criteria

for evaluating the test results were based on two related

Thp second aspect of fire growth of importance in establishing fire safety

criteal ?o Evaluate the results of these full-scale tests was tne

effect of the fire on the environment in adjacent areas outside e effect o necessity, any approach to this must be pursued in terms of

In^'assessment of the impact of the changes in the environment on

oiirrpnt state-of- the-arc does not permit a precise quantitative y

based assessment of the direct hazard to humans associated with exposure to

nrls iSlSrmStiSn concerning the clinical toxicology in humans of specUic

;ieTM;i decomposition products is at best meager [261. Obviously, not until

eoidemiologic^data from humans are available to supplement laboratory anim,a

see e^d Experimental data collection under physical fire testing can a true assessment of the hazards be made.

Nothwithstanding the lack of epidemiologic information on human effects,

the dominant adverse conditions occurring due to a fire can be measured.

Dominant conditions present in building fires which are known to adversely

affect human health include the development of high temperatures and carbon

mon^Le concentrations, and the depletion of -^raospheric oxygen^c^^^^

r261 While there are other concerns such as smoke particulate matter a other toxic gas species which may be generated in sufficient quantities to

result in conditions which would adversely affect the life safety of

OOOOpOnOO lefore such levels of temperature, CO or O, are reached, these rnree dominant factors are the most reliably measured under full-scale experiment

ation.

8
Limiting criteria were selected to evaluate these principal factors

affecting the life safety of occupants of the mobile home in the event of a fire originating in the living room. Performance of the various combinations

of wall and ceiling materials installed in the living room was analyzed based

on the changes in the environmental conditions along the normal paths of

egress and in the bedrooms in terms of the measured changes in temperature,

CO and O 2 . In addition to monitoring these conditions which have a direct

impact on life safety, measurements were taken outside the living room to

monitor the amount of visible smoke being produced by the fire. These data

were collected to provide some information on the accumulation of smoke along

the corridor which is the principal path of egress.

Thresholds for limiting conditions of temperature, CO and O 2 under a fire condition beyond which adverse physiological or psychological effects

would result have not been established. Difficulties in pursuing this have

arisen due primarily to the variation in 1) exposure times, 2) vertical and

horizontal distribution of gases, 3) the activity rate of the occupant, 4) the

general health of the occupant, and 5) the lack of clinical epidemiologic data

as mentioned previously. However, for purposes of analysis there is sufficient

information available to tentatively establish levels at which adverse effects

being to occur. Therefore, limiting conditions for life safety have been

selected based on literature references available to the author. In selecting

these thresholds, no consideration has been given to either the synergistic

effect or additive effects resulting when limiting conditions are exceeded

for two or more of these measured conditions. Further, the thresholds suggested

here are based on the levels of these elements which result in "incipient

incapacitation" rather then death. Incipient incapacitation is defined as that point at which physiological and psychological effects are sufficient

to impair thinking and influence physical efforts to escape. The criteria

are based upon the assumption that these critical levels represent threholds

for human beings who are capable of normal physiological and psychological

behavior. The thresholds should not be interpreted as precise boundaries

but rather an approximation, based on the literature and the unique characteristics of the occupancy type being assessed, of the levels of conditions which

would result in adverse effects.

2.6.1. Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide (CO) , while not the only toxic combustion gas, is produced

in such large quantitites in most fires that it is considered an important

life safety factor [27]. Experimental full-scale testing has revealed that

quantities of CO far in excess of amounts necessary to result in human

incapacitation and death are often generated [17,28-34]. In addition, clinical

studies of the causes of fire deaths have also lended support to this concern.

For example, Zikria et al. [35-38], working with the clincal examination records

and autopsy reports of fire victims in New York City, found that CO poisoning

rather than respiratory tract damage was the significant factor with victims

having post burn survival times less than 12 hours. In a fire fatality study

currently being conducted at Johns Hopkins University [39,40] it has been

reported that CO exposure resulted in sufficient carboxyhemoglobin in the

blood to either directly cause or contribute to death in 80% of the cases

cited.

A person's ability to function reliably can be significantly affected by

exposure to CO. Progressive effects include dizziness, dimness of vision,

nausea, increase pulse and breathing rates, loss of orientation, unconsciousness,

convulsions and death [41] . How much CO a human being can tolerate is to a large extent a function of time, concentration, and physical activity. For

example, the threshold limit for exposure to CO for an 8-hour period has been

established as 50 ppm [42]

.

However, criterion based on exposures to high

concentrations of CO is not as readily determined. In fires where ventilation

9
is restricted, incomplete oxidation of carbon occurs leading to concentrations

of CO as high as 138 000 ppm in short periods of time [43].

From a clinical standpoint, CO poisons by asphyxiation; that is, CO is

absorbed via the lungs into the blood resulting in a reduction in the amount

of hemoglobin (Hb) available for oxygen transport because of hemoglobin's

greater affinity for CO than for O 2 . The level of reduction can be determined

by measuring the carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) content in the blood resulting from

the intake of CO, and can be demonstrated by the reaction:

K

CO + HBO 2 COHb + O 2 [44]

To determine the COHb level from the CO concentration an uptake equation based

on CO concentration and the time of exposure must be used. Stewart [45] has

developed such an equation which is preferable to other available equations

because it is based on experiments where human volunteers were subjected to

very high CO concentrations such as might be expected under a fire exposure.

The equation is applicable for exposure times of less than 30 minutes,

beyond which saturation and elimination can begin to take effect. The equation

would also not hold beyond the time at which incapacitation occurs. Different

equations would be used for low concentration- long duration exposures [46]

.

The amount of CO which can be tolerated (or, the amount of COHB content

in the blood) also depends on factors including the individual's ventilation

rate and the level of CO 2 exposure, which are difficult to assess under the

rapidly changing conditions resulting from a fire. The CO uptake is directly

proportional to the ventilation rate, which is around 6.5 l/min for an individual at rest [47]

.

This rate can be increased by both an increase in

activity and/or exposure to CO2

. For example, exposure to a 4% CO 2 con- centration will more than double the ventilation rate [48]

.

In considering

both stimuli, which are likely to be present in a fire, Babrauskas [49] selected

18 il/min as the appropriate accelerated ventilation rate which could conservatively

be attained by either a 5% CO 2 exposure or by light work. In selecting the

same elevated ventilation rate for this study, the resulting uptake equation

can be expressed in finite difference form:

AC0Hb{%) = 5.98 x lO""* (C0)^'°^^ (AT) [49]

where CO is expressed in ppm and At is the elapsed time (minutes) ; an initial

value of COHb = 0.75% [47] is used. For this test series values were computed

up to the time when the threshold for incipient incapacitation was reached.

This threshold was selected at COHb = 25% based on a study by Kimmerle [50] in

which this level resulted in symptoms associated with incipient incapacitation

as defined for this study.

In addition to the threshold for time-rated accumulation, another

limit must be selected for CO exposure. Instantaneous doses of high levels

of CO must also be considered due to the physiological effects such as cardiac arrythmia [51] which can occur independently of the effects of

increased COHb. Claudy [41] reported on the affects of exposure to high

concentrations of CO. The results of his work indicate that incipient

incapacitation may occur with only a few short breaths at an exposure level of

10,000 ppm CO. And, at a slightly higher concentration of 12 800 ppm Claudy

reported that unconsciousness could occur in two to three breaths, followed

by death in one to three minutes. Based on this an instantaneous threshold

of 10 000 ppm (1.0% by Vol) CO was selected as a criterion in addition to the

time-rated exposure resulting in COHB level of 25%.

10
2.6.2 Temperature

The most prominenr characteristic of a fire is the increased temperature

due to the release of thermal energy. In terms of human exposure to elevated

temperatures, this can result rn dehydration, heat exhaustion, sloughing of

the trachea lining and hemorrhaging in the respiratory tract, skin surface

burns, and shock due to pooling of blood at the body surface [52,53].

Research has been conducted involving investigation of thresholds for

exposure to temperature which results in adverse physiological effects. In

the Los Angeles School Burns conducted in the 1950' s, a temperature of 65°C

(approximately 150°F) at the five-foot level was selected as the critical

temperature for teachers and children to enter and leave through a corridor

[54]. In fire tests conducted oy the National Research Council of Canada,

150°C (approximately 300°F) was considered the maximum level for breathing.

Results of experiments conducted in 1947 by Moritz, et al. [55] on large

animals having a surface area-mass relationship near that of humans indicated

that the relationship between exposure time and temperature level is hyperbolic; that is, as the exposure temperature is increased the exposure time

to reach a specified injury threshold is reduced. Further, Moritz, et al.

reported that for exposure times on the order of two to five minutes, air

temperatures of 100°C (212°F) represented the threshold for local burning

and hypermia (general burning) . In other animal studies (with smaller

animal specimens) during that period Bond [56] reported that death occurred

in two minutes when the exposure temperature was 100°C (212°F) . While the

differences encountered in these two studies may have been the result of the

difference in the size of the animal specimens (significantly different area- mass relationship) it could also have resulted from variation in an unreported

experimental variable such as humidity.

Increased humidity which is a common phenomenon in a fire, will result

in injury thresholds being reached at somewhat lower temperatures. Work by

Montgomery, et al. [57] in 1975 indicated that in humid air rapid skin burns

would occur at 100°C (212°F), and 150°C (300°F) represented a temperature

exposure level at which escape was not likely.

For this study, a temperature threshold of 100°C (212°F) was selected to

represent the point of incipient incapacitation. Consideration was given not

only to the studies reported herein, but also to the type of occupancy and to

the likelihood that humidity would be present at increased levels (though a precise measure would not be made) throughout the mobile home as a result of

the fire. It was felt that an occupant might be expected to withstand this

exposure level under moderate humidity levels for only a short period. And,

as the humidity increased during the fire, the short exposure period before

the onset of incipient incapacitation would be reduced even more.

2.6.3. Oxygen Depletion

Excessive reduction in oxygen is normally confined to the immediate

environment of a fire. However, due to the geometry of a single-wide mobile

home the possibility exists that oxygen depletion may be of a great enough

magnitude to affect life safety outside the living room area. Extensive experimental research has been conducted to define tolerable

ranges for the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood to insure satisfactory

metabolic activities. Most of this research has been structured to provide

specific information on reduced atmospheric pressure, and concentrations of

oxygen ranging from 20.9% to 100%, as well as variation in the concentrations

and mixtures of the inert gases. The results of these kinds of experimentation have provided well defined ranges for the partial pressure of oxygen

from metabolic requirements under variations in controlled atmospheres [58].

11
While the amount of clinical information on reduction in the partial

pressure of oxygen under normal atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg) is limited, some information is available, based partly on experimental work, on test

animals and partly on analytical extrapolations from the extensive research

conducted under the auspices of the space program.

As the partial pressure of the oxygen in the circulatory system is

reduced, the movement through the body and the amount is altered. Reduction

in the concentration of oxygen in the air breathed in will affect the partial

pressure of the oxygen in the body, and to a proportionate amount affect the

metabolic functions. The lack of sufficient oxygen for metabolic activities

results in the occurrence of either "anoxia" or "hypoxia." Anoxia occurs

when no oxygen is available, and is characterized by symptoms such as near immediate convulsions, paralysis and death. Hypoxia occurs due to a relative

lack of sufficient oxygen, and depending on the severity, the symptoms may

range from only subtle changes to those associated with anoxia [48].

Pryor, et al. [59] indicate the following symptoms resulting from

progressive reduction in the concentration of oxygen in the air breathed in

under normal atmospheric pressure;

Physiological Symptoms

Respiration volume increases, muscular

coordination diminished, attention and clear

thinking require more effort

Dizziness, shortness of breath, headache,

numbness, quickened pulse, efforts fatigue

quickly

Nause and vomiting, exertion impossible,

paralysis of motion

Symptoms become serious and stupor sets in;

unconsciousness occurs

Oxygen

Concentration

17% O

2

14% O 2

11% O

2

8% O

2

These symptomatic reactions to reduced levels of oxygen are reasonably agreed

upon by other researchers, including Einhorn [60] and Kimmerle [50], with

minor shifts in the groupings or ranges of percent concentration.

Studies conducted to examine the physiological effects of the rate at

which the oxygen concentration in the air is depleted indicate that the

physiological reaction may vary. When anoxia occurs slowly due to a gradual

reduction in the oxygen concentration in the air, initial symptoms include

dyspnea upon exertion and cyanosis. The effects are quite gradual and the

individual may be unaware. The individual will gradually pass from a state

of "stupor" to unconsciousness and total collapse. However, motor symptoms

may be totally absent [61]. Kraines [62] reports, based on experimental and

accidental incidents, that in gradual reductions in oxygen to as low as 10%,

the subjects encountered these symptoms, the body and mind becoming gradually

less responsive, with no apparent suffering.

However, under conditions resulting from fire development, the

concentration of oxygen per unit volume of air is likely reduced rapidly.

Studies by Henderson and Haggard [63] and reported by Pryor [64] suggest

that when anoxia occurs rapidly, four distinct stages can be identified. In

the first stage, the respiration rate increases. In the second stage, the

respiratory rate becomes erratic, labored and convulsive; the inspiration

rate is weakened, the expiration rate prolonged, and consciousness is lost.

The third stage results in symptoms such as convulsions and collapse, shallow

and infrequent respiratory movements, and a progressively slower and weaker

pulse rate.

12
There is a fourth stage which is characterized by termination of

respiration and heart arrest. The following diagram illustrates the ranges

of oxygen concentrations associated with the various stages suggested by

Henderson and Haggard [63]

%02 BY VOL.

NORMAL

FIRST STAGE AT 16-12%

RESPIRATION VOLUME INCREASES

PULSE QUICKENS

MUSCULAR COORDINATION DIMINISHED

ATTENTION & CLEAR THINKING

REQUIRES MORE EFFORT

SECOND STAGE AT 14-9%

RESEMBLES ALCOHOLIC INEBRIATION,

HEADACHE, NUMBNESS, MUSCULAR

EFFORTS FATIGUE READILY AND CAUSE

FAINTING, CHEYNE-STOKES RESPIRATION

THIRD STAGE AT 10-6%

EXAGGERATES EARLIER SYMPTOMS

NAUSEA AND VOMITING, EXERTION

IMPOSSIBLE, PARALYSIS OF MOTION

AND SENSATION, UNCONSCIOUSNESS

20

19 -|

18 -j 17 4.

r 16 4

( “1

14 H H

12 -|

s 11 4

!; 10

9

FOURTH STAGE | BELOW 6%, RESPIRATION STOPS, 7 A

CONVULSIVE MOVEMENTS

HEART ARRESTED 6-8 MINUTES 6 4

AFTER THE RESPIRATION | 5

-

4

3

^ 1

1 J

EFFECTS OF REDUCED OXYGEN ATMOSPHERES

(Reprinted from Pryor [64])

Based on this information, a value of 14% oxygen concentration has been

selected to represent the threshold for incipient incapacitation for humans.

While the various sources indicate slight differences of opinion in the types

of symptoms occurring at 14% oxygen, it is clear, particularly in light of

the interpretation of the progress of anoxia in terms of stages of severity

of symptoms by Henderson and Haggard [63], that concentrations of oxygen

below 14% will result in serious physiological effects which may impair the

judgement capabilities and physical movement of an individual.

13
2.6.4. Smoke Density

The presence of smoke can delay or prevent escape under fire conditions.

In buildings were the occupancs are unfamiliar with the escape routes or stairwell locations, the reduction in visibility can involve strong psychologic

factors as well as basic physiologic responses. Where the occupants might be

familiar with the exit routes such as in a mobile home or other single family

residences, they may be expected to some extent to negotiate smoke-laden

pathways. However, even under familiar surroundings, when a certain perceived

level of smoke is present people may be hesitant to pass through a corridor

area and may completely refuse to, or at least proceed much more slowly

through the smoke.

Extensive full-scale and laboratory research has been conducted to

determine critical smoke levels under various occupancy types and under

numerous combinations of conditions [65].

While references [66] and [67] cite critical smoke densities which are said to take account of eye irritation, the optical density of 0.0066 per

meter derived from reference [66] is probably unreasonably low because it

represents the onset of apprehension rather than a test of the limits of

endurance of the observers. The optical density of 0.21 per meter derived

by Malhotra [68] is said to be based on the Los Angeles School Burns number 2 [69]. However, nowhere in more recent studies is a critical value of 20%

light transmission over a 10 foot path length to be found. As a matter of

fact, the report on the Los Angeles School Burns [69] mentions only that 80%

obscuration is the critical value for tenability, but identifies neither the

location nor the length of the light path. From the information given in the

two reports of the Los Angeles School Burns [69,70], it is possible to surmise

that the light beams subject to 80% obscuration might have been as short as

3.3 meters or as long as 18.3 meters. It appears most probable that the light

beam involved a double traverse of a corridor 3 to 5 meters wide or a path

length of 6 to 10 meters. The critical optical density for that case would

be 0.075 to 0.11 per meter. On this basis, it appears more reasonable to

assign a critical optical density of about 0.1 per meter to the results of

the Los Angeles School Burns. Rasbash [71] reassessed his earlier work as well as later work by Jin [72-74] and concluded that his original correlation

[75] represents a useful worst condition which includes in an approximate way

the effects of eye irritation. From a study of behavior of people in fires

by Wood [76] he also judged that a minimum visibility for escape from fire is

about 10 meters, and that this corresponds to an optical density of 0.08 per

meter

.

In the work by Jin [77,78] a smoke level which corresponded to a similar

psychological effect as being blindfolded was developed. The walking speed

of human volunteers was measured down a smoke-filled corridor using

"irritating" and "non-irritating" smokes. Walking speeds were also measured

by the same volunteers down the same corridor with the volunteers blindfolded.

The smoke level which resulted in the same walking speed as being blindfolded

was then obtained.

This work led Jin to establish an equation:

KV = 2 where K = extinction coefficient (m~M and V = visibility (m)

.

Jin further

differentiated between the irritating and non-irritating smoke, recommending

a limiting value of K = 1.2 m“' for the former and K = 0 . 5 m“ ^ for the

latter. The extinction coefficient can easily be expressed in terms of OD/m.

While review of these studies reveals a wide range of smoke densities

selected to represent critical levels, a rough consensus from five of the

studies [67,68,75,79,80] would suggest that an optical density of approximately 0.26 OD/m over a viewing distance of three to five meters can" be used

14
to represent the level of smoke at which impairment of physical features and

possible disorientation of the individual might occur in an occupancy such as

a mobile home. Approximately the same value was selected by Bukowski [81],

Harpe [82] and Heskestad [83] for similar conditions.

Therefore, a smoke concentration of 0.26 OD/m was selected to represent

a level at which emergency escape along the normal paths provided in a typical

single-wide mobile home would be impaired. This level of impairment should

be distinguished from the thresholds selected for temperature, carbon monoxide,

and oxygen which were selected to represent levels at which "incipient incapacitation" would likely occur. An optical density of 0.26 OD/m is intended to

represent a concentration of smoke which might interfere with an occupant '

s

movements by effecting his vision, but would not necessarily prohibit zhe

individual from moving through it. It is expected that the more critical

level of incipient incapacitation would be reached either at a somewhat higher

concentration of smoke or a concentration of 0.26 OD/m in combination with the

threshold for one of the other three conditions.

These conditions were monitored continuously during the tests, from the

time of ignition of the initial burning item until either flashover occurred

or the instrumentation indicated a significant reduction in fire intensity

and no additional fire growth, whichever occurred first.

2.7. Measurements

2.7.1. Ambient Measurements

In the tests conducted with the wood cribs, the moisture content of the

wood crib and the wall and ceiling finish materials were measured and recorded

for each test using an electrical moisture meter. Outside and inside temperatures and relative humidity were also recorded, as were wind velocity, wind

direction, and barometric pressure. In those tests using the upholstered

chair as the initial burning item, the moisture content of the chair materials

could not reliably be obtained from use of the moisture meter and was therefore omitted.

2.7.2. Test Measurements

Figure 4 is a diagram illustrating the locations where measurements of

changes in test conditions were taken. Table 5 lists each channel and the

type of measurement taken. Ranges and limits of error are listed in

appendix D.

Forty-eight thermocouples were located throughout the mobile home to

measure changes in air temperature during the tests. The thermocouples

located in the center of the room in bedroom No. 1, bedroom No. 3, the dining

room and the living room were made from 0.61 mm (0.0239 in/24 gage) Chromel

and Alumel wires enclosed in glass fiber insulation with bare beaded ends.

All remaining thermocouples consisted of commercial assemblies of 0.91 mm

(0.0359 in/20 gage) Chromel and Alumel wires packed in mineral insulation

and enclosed in a 3.15 mm (0.124 in) diameter inconel 702 sheath with a grounded junction.

Calibrated commercial water-cooled total heat flux transducers were used

to measure the incident heat flux levels on the floor in the center of the

living room and on the floor at the north and south ends of the corridor.

The transducers were positioned to provide a vertical view towards the ceiling

to collect data on the heat flux at the floor as a result of the radiation

from the hot gases and the high temperature surfaces in the upper part of the

room. In addition, for several tests (tests 9-16) , two transducers were placed in the north wall behind the initial burning irem and one was placed

15
in the ceiling in the center of the living room. The transducers located in

the north wall provided data on the levels of incident heat flux exposure to

the walls from the initial burning item. The transducer installed in the

ceiling provided some limited information regarding the incident heat flux

at the surface of the ceiling at a distance from the corner where the fire was started. The manufacturer's maximum specified range for the transducers

installed in the floor was 5.7 W/cm^ (5 BTU/ft^-sec) . The maximum for the

remaining transducers was 23 W/cm^ (20 BTU/ft^-sec)

.

Light transmission through the smoke was monitored during the tests to

determine the level of obscuration from the smoke which accumulated along the

corridor and which passed through the corridor and into the bedroom areas. A

vertically aligned smoke meter was positioned midway between the walls at the

north end of the corridor and measured the smoke moving into the corridor

along the ceiling. An identically constructed smoke meter was installed in

the south end of the corridor just beyond the back exit door at the entrance

to bedroom No. 1 in the same configuration. The smoke was measured by

monitoring the attenuation of a collimated 0.46 m (18 in) beam of light from

a tungsten lamp impinging on a phototube; the path of the beam was vertically

aligned from 610 mm (24 in) below the ceiling to 152 mm (6 in) below the

ceiling.

The smoke density at various heights above the floor was monitored at

the saiTie locations at the north and south ends of the corridor. Horizontally

aligned smoke meters were positioned at 0.6, 1.2, and 1.8 m (2, 4 and 6 ft)

above the floor at these two locations to provide experimental data on stratification of smoke outside the room of fire origin along the corridor

and at the entrance to bedroom No. 1. The smoke w^s measured continuously

by monitoring the attenuation of a collimated beam of light from a tungsten

lamp impinging on a photodiode. The beam of light was horizontally aligned

across the corridor and had a path length of approximately 0.77 m (30 in)

.

Combustion gas concentrations were sampled continuously in the living room and at the south end of the corridor beyond the back exit door at the

entrance to bedroom No. 1. These gases were filtered through glass fiber to

remove soot and particulate matter and chilled through an ice bath to remove

condensable vapors before being passed through an infrared gas analyzer to

determine concentrations of CO and CO 2. Concentrations of O 2 were measured

by a chemical oxygen cell. All three gases were sampled at 1.5 m (5 ft)

above the floor.

A high temperature, water-cooled, strain gage load cell was utilized to

monitor the weight loss rate of the initial burning item during each test.

A commercially available A.C. powered ionization-t^pe smoke detector

having a sensitivity of 6.4 OD/m (2%/ft) when tested in a U.L. type 217 smoke

box at an air flow rate of 0.15 m/s (30 f/m) , was installed on the inside

wall of the north end of the corridor approximately 229 mm (9 in) below the

ceiling and 381 mm (15 in) from the kitchen wall.

Graphical documentation of the fire tests was obtained with 35 mm color

slides, 16 mm color movies, and a black and white video tape. In addition,

observations were recorded on a tape recorder and transcribed after each

test.

Data for each test were input to a high-speed multiple-channel data

acquisition system every 10 seconds and recorded on magnetic tape in order

to be processed by computer. The data recorded in this manner included

output signals from thermocouples, smoke meters, gas analyzers, heat flux

transducers, and the load cell. The signals from 24 thermocouples, the heat

flux transducers, gas analyzers and the load cell were also simultaneously

recorded either on strip chart or multipoint recorders.

16
3. PROCEDURE

3.1. Full-Scale Tests

The interior finish materials were mechanically fastened to the wall

studding and ceiling trusses in accordance with recommended practices for

installation of interior finish materials. Assembly was completed at least

48 hours prior to the start of the test. The moisture content of the interior

finish materials was measured by an electrical moisture meter just prior to

the test. Table 4 lists these measurements.

The air temperature in the mobile home was maintained as close as possible

to 22 + 4°C (72 + 7“F) . The moisture content of the walls and ceiling ranged

between 5 and 10%. The conditioning of the interior environment of the mobile

home within closer limits was not achieved because of the high ambient temperatures and relative humidity during the period when most of the tests were

conducted.

The temperature, wind velocity and direction, and relative humidity were

also recorded. Tests were not conducted during rainy periods or when relative

humidity was exceptionally high. Table 4 lists these measured test conditions

for each of the 16 tests.

In the tests using the 6.4 kg (14 lb) cross piled wood crib as the initial

burning item, each wood crib was positioned on a load cell platform in order

to measure its weight loss throughout the test. The crib was 254 mm (10 in)

above the floor, and approximately 25 mm (1 in) from the adjacent walls forming

the northwest corner. A 200 x 200 x 25 mm (8x8x1 in) metal pan containing

150 cm^ of heptane was placed under the wood crib as an ignitor. The moisture

content of the wood cribs was measured by an electrical moisture meter just

prior to ignition.

In those tests using the upholstered chair as the initial burning item,

the chairs, having an approximate weight of 16 kilograms (35 lbs) were positioned on the load cell platform, again in the northwest corner with the back

of the chair approximately 25 mm (1 in) from the walls comprising the corner.

The chairs were ignited by placing a commercially available 9l (9.5 qt) capacity polyethylene waste container containing 225 gm (8 oz) of crumbled newspaper adjacent to the left arm of the upholstered chair and igniting the newsprint. (Figure 5 illustrates the two initial burning items and their position

in the corner configuration.)

Prior to ignition, all exterior windows and doors were closed but not

sealed, providing an initial quiescent atmosphere. In addition, the doors

to bedrooms No. 2 and No. 3 and the door to the bathroom were closed; the

door to bedroom No. 1 remained open.

3 The ignition of the 150 cm of heptane in the tests using the wood cribs,

and the ignition of the 225 grams of newsprint in the tests using the upholstered chairs was accomplished by remote electrical ignition of a wooden

match.

Visual observations and photographic records were made of the development

of the fire and all measurements were recorded from the time of ignition

until the test was terminated.

3.2. Laboratory Evaluation of Materials

Laboratory test methods are frequently utilized to measure various

material characteristics such as ignitability , surface flame spread, rate

of heat release and smoke generation. For the interior finish materials

used in this series of full-scale fire tests, the tests utilized were:

17
Characteristic Laboratory Test Method

Ignitability

(1) ease of ignition test [84]

Surface flame spread

(2)

ASTM E-84, Standard Method of

Testing for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials

(3)

ASTM E-162, Radiant Panel Test

Heat release rate

(4)

NBS rate of heat release calorimeter [85]

Smoke Generation

(5)

NFPA 258, Smoke Density Chamber

4 . RESULTS

4.1. Full-Scale Fire Tests

In the eleven tests conducted using a 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood crib as the

initial burning item, the initial development of the wood crib fire varied

somewhat. Due to the rapid consumption of the 150 cm ^ of heptane, an initial

period was characterized by a rapid lengthening of the flame towards the ceiling.

Exhaustion of the heptane, which occurred within a range of 60 to 90 seconds

after the beginning of the test, was accompanied by a reduction in flame

height followed by a gradual buildup of the wood cr^-b fire until a fairly

stable burn rate was reached. Close observation during this period indicated

that while there was some intermittent flame impingement on the wall, there was no involvement of the interior finish materials during the period of fire

initiation resulting from the burning heptane.

In the five tests conducted using a 16 kg (35 lb) upholstered chair as the primary fire source the period of initial fire development was significantly

longer than in those tests utilizing the wood crib. This Occurred as a re- sult of a less intense exposure of the chair to a low order fire from a waste

container filled with burning newsprint. In addition, as in the case of the

wood crib tests, there was variability in the time required for involvement

of the chair, and the subsequent exposure of the wall and ceiling materials.

The approximate time at which flames impinged on the wall in the eleven

tests using the 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood crib ranged from 32 to 110 seconds; in

the five tests using the upholstered chair the range was from 180 to 330

seconds.

The statistical variance (mean squared deviation) within the grouping of

chair tests was greater than that for the crib tests. Further, the most

rapidly developing chair fire nevertheless took more than a minute longer to

expose the wall than any of the eleven crib tests. Aside from this variation

in the rate of development of the initial fires, the general development of

the room fires and the resulting changes in measured conditions were similar.

The tests varied in length depending on the development of the fire from

the initial burning item and the extent of involvement of materials comprising

the interior finish. The series of photographs in appendix C provide some illustration of the variation in fire growth observed for a number of tests.

The tests ranged from just over 5 minutes in test 1 to approximately 20 minutes

in test 16. The tests were terminated either when there appeared to be no further involvement of the interior finish materials or, when total room involvement occurred (flashover) . The determination that no further involvement

of the walls and ceiling would result from continuing the test was based on

1) a reduction in temperature levels at selected locations monitored continuously during the test, and 2) a noticeable reduction in the magnitude of the

fire and the area exposed. As previously defined, flashover, or conditions

18

f

a
suitable for total room involvement, was considered to have been reached when

materials including the upholstery fabric on the sofa and the vinyl asbestos

flooring were ignited. When this occurred, it was the result of radiation

heat transfer from the hot gas layer and the heated surfaces in the upper

part of the room. Measurements of particular interest obtained in the full-scale tests

are tabulated in tables 6, 7 and 8 for convenient reference. Table 6 includes

measurements of maximum temperature at various locations in the upper part

of the living room and incident heat flux measured at the floor level. Table

7 provides a tabulation of the concentrations of CO, CO2 and O 2 in the center

of the living room. Finally, table 8 lists the elapsed time to reach selected

levels of temperature, CO, O 2 and smoke density at locations throughout the

mobile home.

Appendix A includes the records of the visual observations for each of

the sixteen tests. Appendix B is a compilation of plotted data illustrating

key changes in measured conditions due to fire buildup. For example, the

plotted data in figures B1 to B16 illustrate the changes in temperature 25 mm below the ceiling and 25 mm above the floor in the center for the living

room for each of the sixteen tests. In addition, changes in incident heat

flux at the floor level are plotted on the same set of coordinates providing

comparative information in the living room. Figures B17 through B32 provide illustrations of the changes in temperature

CO, CO 2 and O 2 in the center of the living room for each individual test.

Figures B33 through B48 are plots of temperatures, CO concentration, time-raced

CO accumulation, and O 2 depletion outside the living room in the corridor

beyond the back exit door for each of the sixteen tests. Figures B49 through

B64 are plots of the percent light transmission 1.2 m above the floor at two

locations: the north entrance to the corridor and beyond the back exit door

at the entrance to bedroom No. 1.

Figures B65 through B74 are plots of changes in temperature 25 mm below

the ceiling in the center of the living room and at the north entrance to the

corridor. Tests with similar wall materials are included on the same plots

to assist the readers following the analysis of results.

4.2. Laboratory Test Results

Table 2 provides a tabulation of the results of the laboratory tests

conducted to measure some of the properties of the interior finish materials.

5. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

5.1. General

Review of the mass of data collected for these sixteen tests resulted in

the selection of a number of specifically located measurements to characterize the process of fire growth in the living room and the effects of this

fire growth on the environment outside the living room area. Specifically,

analysis of the growth of the fire within the living room area was based on

1) the change in temperature 25 mm (1 in) below the surface of the ceiling

(TC 13), and 2) the levels of incident heat flux measured at the floor. In

addition, the effect of the fire buildup on the levels of carbon monoxide

(CO), carbon dioxide (CO 2

) and oxygen (O 2 ) were examined. All of these

measurements were taken along the vertical center line of the living room.

In considering the hazard to the occupants of the mobile home from a fire in the living room, it must be assumed that persons in the living room

are alert and capable of reacting to the fire. Limiting conditions are
reached in the living room quickly from the incidental fire, and it is not

likely that a significant escape period can be provided to the occupants of

the room of fire origin. However, some time should be available for

occupants outside the room of fire origin to take corrective action and/or

escape the mobile home. Since movement in a direction away from the fire is

most likely, the back exit door is a strategic location for escape for those

persons outside the living room area. Anyone attempting to escape along the

corridor and out the back exit door must not encounter limiting environmental

conditions such as those defined in section 2.6. The test results show that

when a limiting condition is reached at the back door, conditions are equally

as serve (or worse) all along the corridor and in any rooms open to the fire.

Therefore, the effects of the fire on environmental conditions outside the

living room were analyzed primarily by examining the changes in 1) carbon

monoxide 1.5 m (5 ft) above the floor, 2) oxygen 1.5 m (5 ft) above the

floor, and 3) temperature 1.3 m (52 in) above the floor in the corridor just

beyond the back exit door, at the entrance to bedroom No. 1. Other measurements are included in the analysis where helpful.

In order to analyze effectively the results of sixteen tests characterized by some variation in control variables (i.e., wood crib versus

upholstered chair) and various interior finish materials on walls and ceiling,

the results are separated into three distinct groups. The initial part will

be devoted to a direct comparison of the two initial burning items based on the results of test 15 and 16. The second part will examine the results of

the 10 tests using the wood crib and various combinations of wall and ceiling

materials. The third part of the analysis addresses the series of four

tests with the upholstered chair used as the initial burning item.

5.2. Wood Crib and Upholstered Chair Fires

5.2.1. Test 15: 6.4 kg (14 lb) Wood Crib

Test 15 was conducted to examine the fire growth and resulting changes

in the measured conditions due to the burning of a 6.4 kg (14 lb) cross- piled wood crib in a corner configuration with walls and ceiling constructed

from noncontributing materials. The living room and dining room walls and

ceiling were constructed of 13 mm (1/2 in) thick gypsum board. Panels of

calcium silicate, 13 mm thick (1/2 in), were installed over the gypsum board

in the corner covering a horizontal distance of 2.4 m (8 ft) on both walls,

and 6 m^ ('\-64 ft^) of ceiling space directly above the wood crib.

Ignition of the 150 cm^ of heptane resulted in exposure of the wood

crib. The heat released by burning the heptane and the subsequent initial

involvement of the wood crib resulted in a rapid increase in temperature

along the ceiling and an initial peak flame height of approximately 1.8 m

(6 ft) above the floor in the corner. The maximum temperature reached above

the crib at the ceiling due to this involvement of the heptane was approximately 325°C at 1 min 30 sec elapsed time. This was followed by rapid

exhaustion of the heptane and a significant reduction in temperature. The

initial peaks in figure 6a illustrate the early temperature rise at two

locations in the room due to the burning of the heptane. Thermocouple 13

(TC 13) was located 25 mm (1 in) below the ceiling in the center of the

living room, and thermocouple 4 (TC 4) was located 25 mm (1 in) below the

ceiling directly above the wood crib.

After the heptane had been consumed, the rate of burning of the wood

crib gradually increased as illustrated in figure 6b until a nearly constant

peak burn rate was reached. This occurred after about two minutes, resulting

in a flame height approximately 1.2 m (4 ft) above the floor. This near constant burning, resulting in a relatively stable flame, was observed to

last for approximately 10 to 12 minutes with less than 10% variation before

20
the crib fire began to decay. Figures 7a and 7b illustrate the shape of the

early peak flame and the more stable flame resulting from the burning of

this typical 6.4 kg wood crib.

The maximum temperature reached at TC 13 was approximately 150°C after

13 minutes elapsed time. The maximum temperature reached at TC 4 was 300°C.

These maximum temperature levels remained nearly constant during the period

of stable burning rate of the crib and somewhat beyond; the subsequent decay

in the wood crib fire resulted in gradual reduction in temperature at these

locations. The total weight loss of the wood crib was 4.8 kg (10.5 lb) or

63% of the initial weight.

Further examination of the temperature data revealed that the maximum

average upper room temperature (average of TC 1, 7, 10, 13) was 142 ®C and

the temperature of the heated gases entering the north end of the corridor

along the ceiling reached a maximum of 114 ®C. The maximum level of

incident heat flux measured at the floor level in the center of the room

was less than 0.1 W/cm^

.

Measurements showed a very small change in concentrations of CO, CO 2 and O 2 in the living room. The data tabulated in table 9a showed that

conditions in the room did not vary appreciably from the ambient conditions

recorded at the beginning of the test, although the CO 2 concentration

increased to nearly 1.9%. Therefore, it appears that the changes in

concentrations of CO, CO 2 and O 2 in the living room occurring as a result of

the burning of a 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood crib are of less significance than the

increase in air temperature.

The changes in the environment in adjacent locations outside the living

room were also of significance in this analysis. Table 8 provides a tabulation of measurements collected by strategically located instruments outside the living room along the corridor and in the bedrooms. These data were

tabulated on the basis of criteria outlined in section 2.6. Review of the

data indicated that temperatures 1.3 m (52 in) above the floor along the

corridor and in the bedrooms did not reach 100 ®C; actually, the peak

temperatures measured ranged from a maximum of 57°C at the north entrance to

the corridor adjacent to the living room, to 49°C in bedrooms No. 1 and No. 3.

This shows that the burning of a 6.4 kg wood crib will not result in

temperatures in excess of the 100°C limiting level at 1.3 m (52 in) above

the floor in this particular test configuration. Further, the data indicate

that limiting concentrations of CO and O 2 were not reached 1.5 m (5 ft)

above the floor along the corridor near the back exit door.

The measured reduction in percent light transmission reached a level

equivalent to 0.26 OD/m optical density of smoke 1.2 m (4 ft) above the floor

at 2 min 40 sec and 5 min 50 sec respectively, at the north entrance to the

corridor (HSM #5) and beyond the back exit door (HSM #9).

5.2.2. Test 16: 16 kg (35 lb) Upholstered Chair

Test 16 provided information on the fire growth from a 16 kg ('^-35 lb)

upholstered chair in a corner configuration in the mobile home when the same noncontributing walls and ceiling were installed. In this test, the

construction was identical to test 15, exposing walls and surfaces constructed

of 13 mm (1/2 in) thick calcium silicate panels to the chair fire. The

upholstered chair was exposed to a low intensity fire started in a 9«. (9.5 qt) capacity polyethylene waste container containing 225 gms (8 oz) of

crumbled newsprint placed adjacent to the left arm of the chair (figure 5b)

.

The newsprint was ignited on the top surface by remote electrical ignition

of a wooden match.

21
The flame size from the burning newsprint and waste container was less

than that from the 150 cm^ of heptane. Therefore, the exposure was less severe and the chair fire developed much more slowly than the earlier crib

fires. Exposure of the left arm of the chair resulted in gradual increases

in temperature along the ceiling above the chair and in the center of the

room. As illustrated in figure 8a, the significant rise in temperatures at

TC 4 and 13 occurred initially as a result of the slow involvement of the

polyurethane seat cushion. Later there was a more rapid buildup of fire

along the left arm; this occurred after approximately 11 min 40 sec elapsed

time. The peak temperature occurring at TC 4 was 418°C after 15 min 50 sec. The maximum temperature at TC 13 was 236°C after 15 min 30 sec. These

maximiim temperature levels corresponded to a maximum level of incident heat

flux of 0. 15 W/cm^ at the floor level in the center of the room. As noted

in the test observations, this was the period of most intense burning which

resulted in intermittent flame impingement on the ceiling. Shortly after

this peak level of burning, the burn rate began to decay, resulting in

reduction in air temperatures and lower levels of radiative energy at the

f loor

.

While the flame height and intensity of this fire resulted in higher

peak temperatures than in test 15 (wood crib) , only moderately higher

changes in concentration of CO, CO 2 and O 2 occurred in the burn room. Table 9b provides a tabulation of peak levels of CO, CO 2 and O 2 which are moderate changes from the ambient concentrations measured at the beginning

of the test.

Maximum temperature 25 mm (1 in) below the ceiling in the center of the

room resulting from the burning upholstered chair was 236°C and the peak

average temperature of the combustion gases along the ceiling in the living

room was 215°C. These temperature levels were considerably below the

conditions necessary to flash over the room. Further, the maximum temperature of the gases entering the corridor along the ceiling was 172°C.

The changes in the conditons outside the living room along the corridor

and in the bedrooms at selected locations are tabulated in Table 8. Air

temperature 1.3 m (52 in) above the floor at the entrance to the corridor

(TC 25) adjacent to the living room exceeded the 100°C level established as the limiting condition for temperature. However, this did not occur at the

other reported temperature measurement locations. The maximum concentration

of CO just beyond the back exit door was <0.1% after 17 min 20 sec; the time- 1 rated accumulation reached approximately 9,504 (pmm) ^ 36 (min ) . The concentraj

tion of O 2 at this location did not drop below 18.4%.

1 Consistent with the results of burning the wood crib the threshold for

smoke density was exceeded. A smoke density of 0.26 OD/m was reached 1.2 m

(4 ft) above the floor at the north entrance to the corridor adjacent to the

living room after 8 min 10 sec and just beyond the back exit door after 10 min

10 sec had elapsed.

]

t

f

c

1

b

f 5.2.3. Impact of Burning Wood Crib or ® Upholstered Chair on Fire Buildup

Previous experience indicated that involvement of other combustibles ” occurs when the incident heat flux is of a sufficiently high level. During 8 initial fire buildup this occurs only in close proximity to the burning tl item. Therefore, the total incident heat flux was measured at selected

distances from the wood crib or chair along a horizontal plane directed from 3^ the initial burning item to the front exit door in order to determine how

incident flux varied with distance. This was measured with a total heat

flux tranducer which measured combined radiation and convection.

22
Figure 9 illustrates the maximum levels of incident heat flux measured

at selected horizontal distances from the wood crib and the upholstered chair

in tests 15 and 16 with noncontributing walls and ceilings. The incident

heat flux was primarily due to radiation from the flames and from the heated

walls as a result of the intensity of the burning items. The maximum levels

of incident heat flux dropped off rapidly as a function of distance both in

the case of the burning wood crib and the burning upholstered chair. This

indicated that ignition of combustibles, even a short distance away, would

not likely occur without flame contact with the surface.

Based on this information, it appears that an incidental fire along the

wall, and in particular in the corner, will expose the wall materials and

possibly the ceiling materials to flames and radiative and convective

energy of sufficient intensity to ignite combustibles. However, unless

furnishings and other combustibles are placed in the immediate proximity

of the initial burning item fire growth and spread will not be significantly

influenced by the remaining contents in the room until flashover conditions

are approached.

5.3. Tests with 6.4 kg (14 lb) Wood Crib

5.3.1. Tests 1, 2, 3, 9

[Prefinished Lauan Plywood Walls]

Four tests were conducted to examine the fire growth resulting from

exposing prefinished lauan plywood walls to a burning 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood

crib. Essentially, this group of tests provided data on (a) the effect of

changing the thickness of lauan plywood walls, and (b) using plywood walls

with two types of commercially available ceiling materials having

significantly different fire properties. In tests 1 and 9 the lauan plywood

walls were 4 mm (5/32 in) thick, and the ceiling was constructed of 13 mm

(1/2 in) thick wood fiberboard. In test 2, the same type of lauan walls

were used, but the ceiling was constructed of 8 mm (5/16 in) thick textured

finish gypsum board. In test 3, the walls were constructed of 6.4 mm

(1/4 in) prefinished lauan plywood, and the ceiling was the 8 mm (5/16 in)

thick textured finish gypsum board.

Examination of the time- temperature curves for TC-13 (see figures B1 - B16) indicate that the highest maximum upper room temperature^ levels

reached were in tests 1 and 9. In test 1, a maximum temperature of 743°C was reached at 5 min 10 sec into the test. In test 9, the maximum temperature

reached was 751°C after 5 min 40 sec. Flashover was observed to have occurred

in both tests. In test 1, flashover occurred at 4 min 20 sec, corresponding

to a temperature of 707 °C. Fire growth in test 9 resulted in flashover at

6 min 30 sec into the test which corresponded with a 714 °C temperature level.

Some further verification of these results can be obtained by noting the

levels of incident heat flux measured at the floor during the tests. In

both tests, the maximum levels occurred at approximately the same time as flashover, and were on the order of 2 W/cm^ or higher, which indicates

sufficient levels of radiative energy to ignite combustible furnishings.

Appreciable changes in temperature development occurred when the ceiling

material was changed. In tests 2 and 3, the ceilings were constructed with

8 mm (5/16 in) thick textured finish gypsum board. Further, the thickness of

three prefinished lauan plywood was 4 mm (5/32) in test 2 and 6.4 mm (1/4 in)

In those tests where flashover occurred and the suppression system was activated, the maximum upper room temperature recorded prior to activation

is referenced.

23
in test 3. In test 2 the maximum temperature reached was 429°C after 3 min

30 sec; in test 3, a maximum cemperature of 520°C was reached at 4 min.

Flashover was not observed in either test, and the maximum recorded level of

incident heat flux at the floor in the center of the living room for both

tests was less than 1.0 W/cm^ , considerably below the levels recorded in tests

1 and 9.

Rapid changes in concentrations of CO, CO 2 and O 2 occurred in both tests

1 and 9. At the point when flashover was observed in both tests, the

concentration of oxygen in the living room had dropped below 12%. In

addition, the levels of CO and CO 2 increased rapidly during the period of

flashover, reaching maximum levels of 8.0% and 17.4% respectively in tesr 1 and 6.6% and 17.1%, respectively, in test 9. Minimum levels of O 2 were 7.8%

and 2.6% for tests 1 and 9.

The initial fire development in tests 2 and 3 was similar to that

occuring in tests 1 and 9. The graphical representations of changes in CO,

CO 2 and O 2 illustrates similar rate of change for all four tests during the

initial stages of fire development. However, the lower peak upper room

temperatures reached in tests 2 and 3 indicate a less severe condition, and

this is supported by the results of the measured changes in the gases. As

the fire developed beyond the initial involvement of the walls, in tests 2 and 3 the rate of change of CO, CO 2 and O 2 decreased and lower peak

concentrations of CO and CO 2 and higher concentrations of O 2 resulted. The

minimum levels of O 2 measured in tests 2 and 3 were 17.7% and 14.5%, which

were considerably higher than in tests 1 and 9. The maximum levels of CO

reached in test 2 and 3 were 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively. The maximum levels

of CO 2 reached were 3.8% in test 2, and 6.9% in test 3. These peak

concentrations indicate significant changes in the environment in the living

room as a result of the fire development. However, these changes are considerably lower than in tests 1 and 9.

In all four tests with the prefinished lauan plywood walls an optical

density of 0.26 OD/m was reached in the corridor beyond the back exit door.

In addition, in tests 1, 3 and 9, the thresholds for limiting levels of

temperature, CO and O 2 were all exceeded. In test 2, the only limiting

condition reached was the time-rated threshold for CO accumulation,

41 800 (ppm) 036 (min)

.

5.3.2. Tests 4, 5, 7, 8 [Fire Retardant Treated Lauan Plywood Walls]

This group of tests was designed to provide data on (a) fire growth and

spread from exposure of two separate types of fire retardant treated lauan

plywood walls from a burning 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood crib, and (b) the use of fire

retardant treated walls with two types of ceiling materials having significantly

different fire properties.

j In tests 4 and 8, a clear fire retardant intumescent varnish was applied jj to the 4 mm (5/32 in) thick prefinished lauan plywood walls. In test 4 the ;! ceiling was constructed of 8 mm (5/16 in) thick textured finished gypsum

board, and in test 8, the ceiling was constructed of 13 mm (1/2 in) thick ; wood fiberboard. ; In tests 5 and 7, a fire retardant vinyl film, 0.38-0.46 mm (0.015-0.018

' in) in thickness, was glued to the 4 mm (5/32 in) thick lauan plywood walls.

As in tests 4 and 8, the ceilings were different; in test 5 the ceiling was , constructed of the textured finished gypsum board, and in test 7 the ceiling

was constructed of the wood fiberboard.

24
Examination of temperature results showed that the most severe conditions

occurred in tests 7 and 8. An important common denominator in these two tests was the ceiling material-wood fiberboard. The maximum upper room temperature

in test 7 was 698°C which occurred at 5 min 20 sec into the test. The

corresponding maximum average upper room tempeatures at 25 mm (1 in) and

250 mm (10 in) below the ceiling were 614°C and 617°C, respectively. Flashover

was observed just prior to these maximum temperatures at 5 min 15 sec elapsed

time. The temperature of the combustion gases entering the corridor along

the ceiling after the room flashed over were similar to the gas temperatures

incurred at the same location in tests 1 and 9.

The maximum upper room temperature in test 8 was 673°C at 7 min 40 sec. While this temperature level is normally considered indicative of conditions

which result in total room involvement, it was maintained only briefly and

flashover was not observed. Further, post-test examination of the living

room did not reveal any indication that pyrolysis of the floor material or other combustibles located in the room had occurred. Reference to figure B66

indicates that the attainment of high temperatures along the ceiling took

somewhat longer in test 8 than in test 7. Further examination of the test

data revealed that the maximum average temperatures 25 mm (1 in) and 250 mm

(10 in) below the ceiling (obtained by averaging the tem.perature measurements

throughout the room at that height) in test 8 were 518°C and 402 °C, respectively.

These average temperature levels were considerably lower (over 100 °C lower)

than those measured in tests 1, 7 and 9 when flashover occurred.

The results of tests 4 and 5 indicate a significant effect on fire

growth resulting from changing the ceiling material. The temperature

data indicates a similarity in early fire development in test 5 and 7,

most likely due to the initial exposure and involvement of the walls. And,

altough a larger variance is evident between tests 4 and 8, the time-temperature

curves also demonstrate a similar development of the fire and initial involvement of the walls.

The maximum temperature reached at TC 13 in test 4 was 311°C after 8 min 30 sec had elapsed; maximum temperature in test 8 was 673°C at 7 min

40 sec. And, the maximum temperature of the combustion gases entering the

corridor along the ceiling was 308°C in test 8, but only 197°C in test 4. In

comparing these results for test 4 and 8, it would appear that the influence

of the ceiling material was quite significant with regards to fire development

and the resultant change in temperature in these tests.

Comparable results occurred in tests 5 and 7 as indicated by similar

temperature changes resulting from fire development for the initial 3 min

45 sec of both tests. But again, as in test 4, test 5 reached a lower

maximum upper room temperature of 436°C after 3 min 50 sec. The test results also indicated some variation in fire growth between

the two types of fire retardant treated materials. Less exposure time was required in tests 5 and 7 for the walls to significantly contribute to

the fire spread than in tests 4 and 8. This would indicate that variation

in the fire properties of these two materials is of importance. It should

also be noted that the rate of smoke generation was the highest in this group

of tests.

As explained, test 7 was characterized by rapid fire growth, resulting

in flashover in 5 min 20 sec. This resulted in maximum levels of CO and

CO 2 in the center of the living room of 6.9% and 11% respectively. These

maximum concentrations of CO and CO 2 were on the same order that were measured

in tests 1 and 9. The minimum concentration of O 2 (4.6%) was reached at

5 min 40 sec.

In test 8, temperatures in excess of 670°C were reached in the upper part

of the room but only for a short period. In addition the peak temperature

25
was delayed as were the peak levels of CO, CO 2 and O 2 in the living room. The maximum concentrations of CO and CO 2 measured were 1.0% and 6.0%,

respectively. The minimum concentration of O 2 in this test was 14%, somewhat

higher than in tests 1, 7 and 9.

In tests 4 and 5, the absence of rapid fire growth and high temperatures

resulted in lower and more gradual changes in concentrations of CO, CO 2 and

O 2 in the living room. From this group of tests the maximum size of the fire and the rate of

fire buildup directly affected the measured conditions in the corridor. In

all four tests in this group, 0.26 OD/m optical density was reached in the

corridor. Further, limiting levels of carbon monoxide, temperature, and

oxygen were reached in tests 7 and 8.

The results of test 7 indicated that the elapsed times to reach the

thresholds selected as limiting levels of CO, O 2 and temperature were nearly

the same as the times measured in test 1 using untreated prefinished lauan

plywood walls. The results of test 8 indicated that a considerably longer

period of time elapsed before limiting conditions were reached.

The significance of changing the ceiling material can be seen by

examining the results of test 4 and 5. While smoke generation was similar

in all four tests, in test 4 the thresholds for temperature, CO and O 2 were

not reached. And, test 5 results indicate an increase in elapsed time over

measured results in test 7 with a limiting level of O 2 not being reached.

An interesting observation from the results of this group of tests was that consistently 0.26 OD/m optical density was reached prior to

ignition of the wall. This did not occur in any of the other tests using

a wood crib.

5.3.3. Tests 6, 13

[Gypsum Board Walls]

Two tests were conducted to examine the fire growth resulting from

exposing 8 mm (5/16 in) thick prefinished gypsum board walls with two

types of ceilings to a burning 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood crib. In test 6 the

ceiling was constructed of 8 mm (5/16 in) thick textured finish gypsum

board, and in test 13 the ceiling was constructed of 13 mm (1/2 in) thick

wood fiberboard.

The change in upper room temperature resulting from the development

of the fire in test 6 was very gradual, reaching a maximum of 176°C after

11 min 30 sec elapsed time. This was the lowest maximum upper room temperature

measured at TC 13 for any of the tests. The temperature development at this

location did not vary significantly from that in test 15 in which a 6.4 kg

(14 lb) wood crib was tested with noncontributing walls and ceiling. As one might expect, the maximum level of incident heat flux measured at the floor

in the center of the room during test 6 was negligible.

The maximum temperature reached at TC 13 in test 13 was 316°C after

14 min 20 sec. However, conditions did not vary appreciably from those in

test 6 for the first 10 to 11 minutes. The greater temperature can be

explained based on events which occurred early in the test. The initial

exposure of the wood crib ignited the paper surface on the walls after

approximately 1 minute had elapsed. The fire propagated to the ceiling

and ignited the wood batten strip installed to cover the ceiling joint.

Although the fuel from the paper surface was exhausted rapidly and the

flame envelope receded, the batten strip continued to burn. The heated

gases collected above the ceiling and ignited the unexposed side of the

26
ceiling material. The increase in temperature which occurred after 11 min

40 sec resulted from this burning of the ceiling.

Tests 6 and 13 were both characterized by gradual changes in concentration

of CO, CO 2 and O 2. In test 6, the maximum concentrations of CO and CO 2 were

<0.1% and 1.8%, respectively. Both of these maximum measurements occurred

after 11 min 40 sec. In test 13, the maximum concentration of CO 2 was 3.0%

after 17 min 50 sec. Minimum levels of O 2 were 18.8% after 11 min 40 sec

in test 6 and 17.4% after 17 min 50 sec in test 13.

These results indicate that while there was some variance in fire

development between these two tests, the properties of the wall material

did not provide sufficient extension of the fire to involve the exposed

ceiling surface. It should be noted that in test 13, the easily ignited

wood batten strip was more significant in propagating the fire than the

exposed ceiling surface. The changes in concentrations of CO and O 2 and

the increase in temperature at the back exit door were significantly lower

in tests 6 and 13 than in the tests using prefinished or fire retardant

treated plywood, with the exception of test 4.

As in some earlier tests, 0.26 OD/m optical density occurred at the

back door location earlier than at the entrance to the corridor from the

living room. This was most likely due to the cooling of the heated

smoke as it traveled down the corridor along the ceiling in the heated

gas layer. The cooling effect condensed some vapors, increasing the density

of the smoke and the larger sized particles descended through the cooler

gas layer towards the floor, increasing the smoke density at the instrument

locations closer to the floor.

5.4. Tests with 16 kg (35 lb) Upholstered Chair

Four tests were conducted in which a low intensity fire from a typical

household waste container filled with newsprint ignited the arm of an upholstered chair, exposing the walls and ceiling in the northwest corner

of the living room. In three of the tests the living room and dining room

were moderately furnished, as previously described, providing a fuel loading

of approximately 4.9 kg/m^ (1 Ib/ft^)

.

The interior finish materials were selected to provide two basic

conditions. One combination of wall and ceiling materials was selected

based on the most severe fire which occurred in the series of tests using the

wood crib. The other combination of wall and ceiling materials was selected

to duplicate the materials used in the test which resulted in the least severe fire in the series conducted with a wood crib.

In essence, these four tests were designed to provide experimental data

regarding the selection of a number of basic control variables in the first

series of tests. First, the selection of a wood crib as the primary fuel

source to evaluate such a large number of combinations of wall and ceiling

materials was done to provide some assurance of obtaining a reproducible fire

of the same intesnity in each test. While the burning of an upholstered chair

does not provide that same level of repeatability, it does represent a more

visually realistic fire which one might encounter in a residential occupancy.

Therefore, results of these four tests provide some indication of the validity

of using a wood crib fuel source in this configuration to predict the relative

influence of wall and ceiling materials on fire growth and spread from an incidental fire.

The other primary control variable requiring examination was the

distribution of the fuel loading resulting from furnishings. The results

of tests conducted with noncontributing walls and ceiling indicated that the

27
radiation from burning sa wood crib or chair of these sizes decreased rapidly

as a function of horizontal distance from the burning item. In fact, the

data indicated that the radiation was too low to ignite other furnishings

located at small distances from the burning crib or chair, and that it was most likely that the furniture and other combustible contents would only

become involved as a result of radiation to the lower part of the room from

the hot gas layer along the ceiling. These tests further indicated that the

burning of the 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood crib or the 16 kg (35 lb) upholstered chair

by themselves would not result in ceiling temperatures high enough to provide

sufficient radiation levels to ignite the other combustibles in the lower part

of the room. The results of the three tests in which the rooms were typically furnished

provided experimental data to validate the premise that the furniture, other

than the initial burning item, would have little influence on the growth of

the fire up to the point of flashover in this particular test configuration.

5.4.1. Tests 10, 12, 14

[Prefinished Lauan Plywood Walls]

Three tests were conducted with 4 mm (5/32 in) thick lauan plywood

walls and 13 mm (1/2 in) thick wood fiberboard ceilings. Test 10 was conducted under similar conditions to the tests using the wood cribs,

with the limited number of furniture items. In tests 12 and 14, the room

was completely but moderately furnished as described in section 2.3. These

three tests provided experimental data on (a) the significance of varying the

amount of the fuel loading and (b) the fire severity resulting from the burning

of an upholstered chair, and the effect of these elements on fire growth and

spread in a mobile home constructed of conventional wall and ceiling materials.

In any series of full-scale fire tests there are limitations in achieving

repeatability. To a large degree, this is due to the complexity of the phenomena and the number of variables. However, one would hope for some degree of

repeatability, and the results of tests 12 and 14, conducted under identical

conditions, indicate comparative fire development. While there was approximately 23 seconds difference between the recorded times for the walls to

ignite in these two tests, the results illustrate similar temperature development along the ceiling in the middle of the living room. The maximum recorded temperature levels at TC 13 were 748°C in test 12

and 736°C in test 14. In addition, the maximum average upper room temperatures reached were 656°C and 659°C in tests 12 and 14, respectively. These

temperature levels corresponded with the occurrence of flashover which was observed at 8 min 20 sec in test 12 and 8 min 4 sec in test 14. The incident

heat flux measured at the floor level in the center of the living room at the

time of flashover was 2.14 W/cm^ in test 12 and 2.18 W/cm^ in test 14. This

level of radiative energy flow from the hot gas layer to the lower part of

the room is considered high enough to ignite combustibles; radiative ignition

of the combustibles was observed in both tests.

In test 10, the fire in the upholstered chair developed somewhat sooner,

igniting the wall materials after approximately four minutes had elapsed.

This resulted in a shorter period of time to reach flashover conditions in

the living room. The incident heat flux recorded at the floor during the

period that the maximum temperature was reached at TC 13 ranged from 1.3 to

2.5 W/cm^ . The maximum temperature reached at TC 13 was 771°C, which was

of the same order as in tests 12 and 14. However, this occurred after 5 min

40 sec had elapsed, which was approximately 2 min 30 sec sooner than in test

12 and test 14. This variation in the development of the chair fire was not

totally unexpected. Regardless of this, the rate of temperature rise and the

peak temperatures at TC 13 were similar for all three tests.

28
The maximum temperature of the gases entering the corridor, which provided

some indication of the severity of the fire and the exposure of the areas in

the mobile home outside the living room was 343°C in test 10. The maximum

levels recorded in tests 12 and 14, were somewhat higher at 458°C and 481°C,

respectively, and occurred after room flashover. The additional combustible

furnishings to the room contributed to fire growth after flashover, and was possibly the reason for the attainment of higher peak temperatures in tests

12 and 14, which ran for a short period after flashover was observed.

Very rapid changes in concentrations of CO, CO 2 and O 2 were recorded in

all three tests. At flashover, the concentration of oxygen in the living

room had dropped below 12% in ail three tests. The level of CO in all three

tests at flashover was of the same order; 3.0%, 2.9%, and 3.0% in tests 10,

12 and 14, respectively. During this same period the measured levels of

CO 2 were 10.1%, 10.1% and 12.1% for tests 10, 12 and 14.

In test 10, maximum measured levels of CO and CO 2 of 3.0% and 10.1% were

reached at 5 min 40 sec elapsed time. A minimum concentration of O 2 of 9.0% was reached at the same time. In test 12, the maximum concentrations of CO

and CO 2 of 5.5% and 15.7%, respectively, occurred after 8 min 50 sec elapsed

time. The minimum concentration of O 2 of 3.8% occurred simultaneously. The

maximum concentration of CO 2 in test 14 of 12.1% was measured at 8 min 20 sec into the test. The maximum level of CO (5.4%) and the minimum level of O 2 (8.8%) occurred shortly after this at 8 min 30 sec. Limiting levels of CO, and temperature were reached at the back exit

door in all three tests; limiting levels of O 2 were reached in tests 10 and

14, but in test 12 a limiting concentration of O 2 v/as not reached. This may

be the result of extinguishment of the fire in test 12 immediately after

flashover. In all three tests, 0.26 OD/m optical density was reached in the

corridor

.

The data in table 8 indicate, as one might expect, that the elapsed

times to reach limiting levels of the measured conditions were similar for

tests 12 and 14. The variation was less than one minute with the exception

of O 2 concentration which did not reach 14% in test 12.

Similar levels of smoke density, O 2 , CO and temperature were reached

somewhat sooner in test 10 due to the more rapid initial development of the

upholstered chair fire (on the order of 2-3 minutes) . Despite the variation

in development of the chair fires, the peak levels of CO, O 2 , temperature

and smoke density at flashover were similar in all three tests (with the

exception of O 2 in test 12) . This indicates that while a variation in time

occurred, the actual fire growth and the effects on the environment in the

mobile home outside the living room were similar in these three tests.

A comparison of the maximum temperatures reached, time to flashover,

and gas concentrations between tests with the upholstered chair and those

with the wood crib indicate that both items provide an exposure fire incidental

in size, and that the fire growth is dominated by the extent of involvement

of the walls and ceiling. Further, a comparison of the data among tests 10,

12 and 14 illustrate that (a) the tests are relatively reproducible, and

(b) the effect of the furnishings beyond the single burning item may have

little impact on fire growth in the room up to flashover. This supported

the experimental procedure, confirming that it was not necessary to com- pletely furnish a mobile home to study the impact of the interior finish

materials

.

29
5.4.2. Test 11

[Gypsum Board Walls]

In test 11, the walls were constructed of 8 mm (5/16 in) thick printed

surface gypsum board and the ceiling was constructed of 8 mm (5/16 in) thick

textured finished gypsum board. This test was conducted to examine the fire

growth and spread resulting from ignition of an upholstered chair in a moderately furnished living room (furnished identically to test 12 and 14)

,

but with wall and ceiling materials having different flame spread properties.

This combination of wall and ceiling materials resulted in the least severe

fire when tested with the wood crib ignition source (test 6) . Figure B68

illustrates the rate of temperature change 25 mm (1 in) below the ceiling

in the center of the living room for test 11. In comparing this timetemperature curve with those from tests 10, 12 and 14, a significant difference

in fire development is indicated.

The variability in the initial development of the chair fire was observed , again in test 11. Ignition of the wall surface occurred at approximately

4 min 55 sec into the test which was about one minute later than ignition of

the wall in test 10 (3 min 58 sec elapsed) and approximately one minute sooner

than in tests 12 and 14 (6 min 23 sec and 5 min 50 sec elapsed, respectively)

.

Fire development in test 11 was characterized by a somewhat slower rate

of temperature rise at the ceiling. The paper surface on the walls provided

a surface for sustained flame propagation for a short period of time. This,

along with the attainment of the peak burn rate of the chair, resulted in a maximum temperature of 444°C, 25 mm (1 in) below the ceiling in the center of

the room (TC 13) . This temperature level was approximately 200°C above that

obtained in test 16 (noncontributing walls). However, following this maximum

temperature level the temperature began to drop off rapidly. This corresponded

with the observation that the paper surface had been burned off the walls in

the area exposed to the chair fire, and the walls were no longer involved in

the fire buildup process.

Flashover was not observed in this test. The maximum temperature level

of 444°C recorded at TC 13 was considerably lower than in tests 10, 12 and 14,

and below the levels typically measured when approaching flashover. In

addition, the maximum incident heat flux measured at the floor during this

test was approximately 0.5 W/cm^ , which is considerably lower than the levels

attained in the other tests.

Changes in concentrations of CO, CO 2 and O 2 during test 11 were similar

in character to the temperature change measured along the ceiling (TC 13)

.

A gradual increase in concentrations of CO, and CO 2 and a gradual depletion

of O 2 occurred during initial fire growth. But, after the peak burn rate of

the chair was reached (corresponding to a maximum temperature of 444°C at

TC 13) the concentrations of CO, CO 2 and O 2 in the living room began to stabilize at relatively constant levels.

As indicated by the results of the other tests in this series, the size

of the fire and the rate of fire buildup directly affected the change in the

environment monitored beyond the back exit door at the entrance to bedroom |. No. 1. Since none of the other furniture items present became involved, the

maximum level of fire intensity in test 11 resulted from the burning upholstered chair. :

i Smoke concentration reached a level corresponding to 0.26 OD/m at 9 min j 40 sec into the test. Limiting temperature conditions were reached at this ! location after 11 min 30 sec had elapsed. (The maximum temperature measured

at this location was about 20°C higher, and occurred approximately one minute

later.) The elapsed time to reach 100°C was on the order of 3 to 3 1/2 min- , utes longer than under a similar test setup in tests 12 and 14. A limiting j concentration of O 2 was reached at 11 min 50 sec into the test which was , a
approximately four minutes longer than in test 14. (As noted, a limiting

level of O 2 was not reached in test 12). A limiting concentration of CO was not reached at this location; a maximum percent concentration of 0.3% was measured at 18 min 20 sec elapsed time. The maximum time-rated accumulation

of CO was also very low; 16 720 ( (ppm) 1 • 036 (min) at 18 min 30 sec elapsed time.

6. DISCUSSION

6.1. Fire Growth in Room of Origin

Once a room fire has progressed to the flashover stage dramatic changes

take place in the environment, and the fire spread to adjacent areas is almost

assured. This is of particular concern in a mobile home where this chain of

events can result in total destruction of the room of fire origin and extensive damage to the adjacent areas. Generally, reconditioning of a mobile

home after a fire of this magnitude is not pursued due to the extent of

damage.

The experimental data reported herein indicate that a fire from an incidental ignition such as an upholstered chair or a simulated piece of

furniture in the living room will not by itself generate sufficient heat and

flames to result in a fully involved room fire. The results of tests 6 and

11 provide some information on the effect of the size of the initial burning

item. In test 6, using a wood crib with an approximate maximum burn rate of

6 g/s, the peak temperature measured at TC 13 was 176°C. In test 11, using

an upholstered chair with a maximum burn rate of 16 g/s the peak temperature

at TC 13 was 444“C. This would indicate, as one might expect, that the larger

the initial burning item, the more severe the exposure fire. And, there

exists a maximum burning rate (estimated in previous studies with similar

experimental setups to be on the order of 40 g/s [12]) at which the burning

item alone may result in room flashover.

The effect of other furniture items on the fire growth up to flashover

was considerably less significant under the fuel loading arrangements tested

than the effect of the initial burning item and the subsequent exposure of

the interior finish materials. Generally, ignition of other items of furniture from exposure to the burning item was primarily the result of heat

transfer processes as the conditions in the upper room approached flashover.

As previously indicated in the analysis, the radiative and convective heat

flux dropped off quickly in the horizontal direction which indicated that it was difficult to ignite furniture at distances greater than 15 - 20 cm (6-9

in). As a result of this, involvement of the other combustible furniture

items generally occurred when radiant energy was transferred at a sufficient

rate from the heated smoke layer in the upper part of the room. The minimum

incident heat flux measured at the floor at the point in time when this

occurred was approximately 1.5 W/cm^ , and corresponded to an average upper

room temperature 25 mm (1 in) below the ceiling in excess of 600°C.

The results indicate that the likelihood that an incidental fire will

develop into a fully involved room fire is significantly influenced by the

fire properties of the exposed interior finish materials on the walls and

ceiling. For example, in all four tests in which the interior finish was

4 mm (5/32 in) thick prefinished lauan plywood walls and 13 rom (1/2 in)

thick wood fiberboard ceiling tile, regardless of which incidental burning

item was used, temperatures in the upper room exceeded 600°C and flashover

occurred.

Figure 10 compares the temperature rises at TC 13 for tests 6, 9, 10,

11, 12 and 14. It shows that the use of the wood crib (test 9) or the use of

an upholstered chair (test 10) , or increasing the amount of furnishings in

the room (tests 12 and 14) did not appreciably change the fire severity when

the interior finish materials were the same. However, examination of the

31
temperature rise in tests 6 and 11 indicates that there was a change in fire

development when the interior finish was changed to materials having different

fire properties.

Early fire development was mostly the result of the fuel contribution

from the initial burning item and the wall material. At the point at which

the wall became involved the rate of change (indicated by the slope change in

the plotted results in appendix B) of the measured conditions in the living

room increased abruptly. The involvement of the upper walls and ceiling had

the most influence on the growth of the fire beyond this point. In these

tests when the upper walls and ceiling contributed fuel at a high enough rate

to raise the upper air temperature above 600®C, total room involvement

occurred. When the upper walls and ceiling did not become extensively

involved, the maximum temperature in the upper room did not reach 600°C and

flashover was not observed. Figure 11 provides a comparison of upper room temperature and incident heat flux at the floor. The range of upper room temperatures at which incident heat flux levels were high enough to involve

other combustibles in the room is illustrated.

The results of the individual tests indicate that while there were some reversals in the ordering of the various measured conditions (temperature,

CO, CO^ , O 2 ) the various combinations of wall and ceiling materials resulted

in changes in measured conditions in the living room which fit qualitatively

into three groups. One group consisted of those tests resulting in room

flashover. Another group consisted of those tests in which peak temperatures

at TC 13 did not approach the 600°C level. The third group consisted of those

tests in which a low order change in measured conditions occurred (see table

10 ) . Group 1 The most severe fires occurred in the tests in which untreated prefinished lauan plywood and fire retardant treated plywood walls were used in

combination with low density wood fiberboard ceilings. Maximum upper room temperatures ranged from 673 - 771°C in this group, and flashover was observed in each test. High levels of CO, and CO 2 and low levels of O 2 were

reached

.

Group 2 The tests in group 2 were characterized by lower maximum upper room temperatures, and lower peak concentrations of CO and CO 2

, as well as less

O, depletion. The maximum upper room temperatures in this group were below

600°C, ranging from 311°C to 520°C. The influence of the walls in fire

growth can not be clearly delineated in this group with the exception that

the contribution to fire growth was not sufficient for the fire to reach

flashover. Tests 2 and 3, using untreated prefinished lauan plywood of different thicknesses, resulted in the highest upper room temperatures. One of

the tests using fire retardant treated materials also resulted in temperatures

in this range. However, the data from test 4 indicated that the use of the

other fire retardant treated material with the same ceiling as used in tests

2, 3, and 5 resulted in a lower maximum upper room temperature (311°C).

While initial fire growth was primarily influenced by the extent of

involvement of the walls the significant reduction in the severity of the

fires in the second group appears to be the influence of both the upper wall

and the ceiling materials in limiting upper room temperatures to below 600°C.

The particular influence of the ceiling can be seen when comparing the results

of tests in group 1 and 2 with the same wall material; a dramatic change in

the character of the time-temperature curve for TC 13 is indicated when

changing from the conventional wood fiberboard ceiling to a ceiling of limited

combustibility

.

32
It would appear that test 13 fell into group 2 rather than group 3 primarily as a result of the involvement of the wood fiberboard ceiling

material, even though gupsum board walls were used. The paper surface on the gypsum provided an adequate fuel source to propagate the wood crib fire

to the ceiling for a short period of time. As the fuel was depleted the

flames receded, no longer impinging on the ceiling. However, the ceiling

continued to smolder and the heated gases accumulated above the ceiling membrane, igniting the unexposed side.

Test 11, using gypsum board walls and ceiling, also resulted in changes

which placed it in group 2. As previously described, the burning rate of the

upholstered chair was nearly three times the burn rate of the wood crib.

This, along with the fuel contribution from the paper surface on the walls,

(though considered very low) increased the temperature in the upper part of

the room to a maximum of 444 °C.

A test was not conducted exposing gypsum walls and a combustible ceiling

to an upholstered chair fire. However, there is some indication from the

results of the other tests and the burning characteristics of the upholstered

I chair that a test of this configuration may have resulted in more extensive

involvement. Whether or not the resulting radiative energy from the upper

room to the combustibles in the lower part of the room would be of a sufficient level to initiate flashover can not be determined from these test

results

.

Group 3 The tests in group 3 resulted in the least severe fires in which only

minor changes were measured. The third group consisted of tests 6, 15 and

16. Tests 15 and 16 were conducted with noncontributing calcium silicate

panels on the walls and ceiling in order to examine the burning characteristics

of the two initial burning items. Test 6 was conducted using gypsum board

I walls and ceiling.

I The wood crib fire in test 15, with a maximum burn rate of 6 g/s,

I resulted in a maximum temperature of 149°C at TC 13. The properties of the

'! walls and ceiling in test 6 resulted in a fire which was only moderately more

J severe than in test 15; that is, a maximum upper room temperature of 176°C.

'! In addition, changes in measured concentrations of CO, CO2 / and O 2 were

negligible in test 6.

•| 6.2. Effects of Fire Growth and Spread on Attainment

of Limiting Conditions

Interpretation of quantitative data regarding the actual time available

for an individual to escape a typical mobile home, after being alerted to an ignition which would progress in a manner similar to those in this test

' series, is somewhat difficult. An analysis of the escape rime under an

' emergency fire condition must include an evaluation of factors such as the

size, location, and growth rate of the fire and the physiological and

~ psychological condition of each of the occupants at the time they are alerted

to the emergency condition. In addition, factors such as the number of

occupants, the age of occupants, and whether the escape route from the mobile

home involves moving toward the fire or away from it, are also important. A

conservative estimate would exclude any fire suppression or fire-fighting

activities.

I In order to develop design criteria for life safety in a fire emergency,

all possible fire situations should be considered. However, every possible

fire situation cannot, from a practical standpoint, be examined by full-scale

I! testing, nor can the physiological effects on every human being be clearly

II 33
identified. In order to provide a reasonable description of the fire growth

and its effect on life safety based on these tests, some subjective judgments

must be made.

Experience has shown that once flashover has been reached in a room all

of the combustible materials in the room will be contributing to the intensity

of the fire. Upon reaching this level of fire intensity, the fire will

probably be spreading to adjacent rooms. Therefore, the time required to

reach flashover is a reasonable indicator of the transition point beyond which

effective fire suppression can no longer be depended upon, and damage to the

occupancy and furnishings can be expected to be extensive. Life safety is

obviously in jeopardy beyond this transition point.

Regardless of age, physical capability and hirman tolerance, if occupants

do not escape before flashover, survival is not expected. However, since

tolerable conditions may deteriorate prior to flashover, escape may be prevented or seriously retarded. Therefore, the results were examined to

determine whether or not the contribution of different types of interior

finish materials when exposed to similar ignitions appreciably affect the

change in environmental conditions considered necessary for continued safety

of the mobile home occupants, and whether or not this occurred at a significantly earlier point in time than flashover.

The results of these sixteen full-scale tests confirm that in a typical

single-wide mobile home, the rate of growth and maximum fire size can be used

to determine whether or not limiting conditions are reached, and to some extent the time available for the occupant to respond to the situation.

Ignition of an incidental item of furniture such as a waste basket or upholstered chair can be considered a typical fire incident in a residence. If

the occupants are awake, or if they are aroused by an alarm and are alert,

there should be time available to escape the mobile home prior to being

overcome by the fire.

Under the experimental conditions established for this test series, the

initial incidental fire resulted in flame impingement on the interior wall

surface after a period of time. However, the exact time at which this occurred

varied due to inherent variation in the initial fire development. For ten of

the eleven tests with the wood crib, the extreme difference in the time to

flame impingement was only 24 seconds. One of the tests {test 9) had a some- what larger variation, which was 55 seconds longer than any of the other ten

tests using a wood crib. In the five tests using the upholstered chair, the

variability in the time for flames to impinge on the wall was considerably

larger, ranging from 180 to 330 seconds. Figures 12 through 14 illustrate

both the variation in the time to flame impingement on the wall, and the

elapsed time from flame impingement on the wall to limiting conditions of

temperature, carbon monoxide and oxygen for each of the sixteen tests.

The influence of the variation in initial fire growth prior to exposure

of the wall surface must be adjusted in order to better compare the effect

of the individual wall and ceiling systems when exposed to the same initial

fire. Therefore, table 11 provides a tabulation of data based on the elapsed i time from initial flame impingement on the wall surface to limiting conditions - of temperature, carbon monoxide and oxygen. Discussion of these results

follows.

6.2.1. Carbon Monoxide

As discussed in section 2.6., the thresholds for limiting levels of CO were either 1) a time-rated accumulation of 41 800 (ppm) i • 036 (min ) which is

approximately equivalent to 25% COHb, or 2) an instantaneous concentration of

1.0% CO by volume. One or both of the thresholds for CO was exceeded in ten

of the sixteen tests, and was the first limiting condition reached in six of

these (tests 1,2,7,9,10,12).
ii

II

j

!' In the tests which flashed over, the 1.0% instantaneous concentration

which was reached very quickly, and exceeded by a substantial amount, was

the determining threshold for CG. However, in tests 2, 3, and 8, in which

' flashover did not occur, 1.0% CO was either not reached (test 3), or just

barely exceeded (tests 2 and 8) . In these three tests the time-rated accumu- lation of 41 800 (ppm) 1 • Q 36 (jnin) was also exceeded. Again, however, the

threshold was either exceeded by only a small margin, or after a considerably

longer test duration. In tests 3 and 8, the maximum time-rated accumulation

was noticeably higher than the threshold. This was not due to excessive

generation of CO, as can be seen in figures B35 and B40. Rather, it was

I the result of extended test durations.

I A limiting level of CO occurred in all five of the tests conducted with

prefinished lauan plywood walls and wood fiberboard ceiling, ranging from

ii 2 min 20 sec to 3 min 5 sec. Tests 2 and 3 were conducted under similar

' conditions to tests 1 and 9 with prefinished lauan plywood walls, but in

tests 2 and 3 the ceiling was gypsum board rather than wood fiberboard. The

results show little change in CO generation when testing a gypsum ceiling.

In test 2, a limiting CO concentration was reached after 2 min 30 sec elapsed,

and while 1.0% CO was not reach in test 3, the maximum level recorded was

0.9%, and the time-rated accumulation exceeded the threshold of 41 800

(ppm) 1*036 (min)

.

In examining the results from the tests using fire retardant treated

walls with a wood fiberboard ceiling, the significant variation in perfor-

' mance between the two types of fire retardant treatments under full-scale

test conditions is again evident. In test 8 ( in tuirie scent coating) , a limd tingcondition of CO was reached after 10 min 12 sec but in test 7 (vinyl film)

it occurred in 2 min 56 sec. The results of tests 4 and 5 indicate a similar

I disparity when using a gypsum ceiling with the two different types of fire

retardant treated walls.

I A limiting condition of CO was not reached in any of three tests with

I gypsum walls. These included test 6 with a gypsum board ceiling and test 13

I; with a wood fiberboard ceiling, both using the wood crib exposure fire, and

1| test 11 with gypsum board on both the walls and ceiling, using the upholstered

j chair exposure fire.

6.2.2. Temperature

Limiting temperature conditions were reached at TC 37, 1.5 m above the

floor just beyond the back exit door, in ten of the sixteen tests. In five

of the tests (tests 3, 5, 8, 11, 14) it was the first (or only) limiting

condition reached. Table 11 illustrates the elapsed time from flame impingement on the wall to 100 °C at TC 37 for this test series.

The results indicate that the shortest elapsed time from flame impingement

on the wall to 100 °C at TC 37 occurred in the tests using untreated lauan

plywood walls and a wood fiberboard ceiling, ranging from 2 min 45 sec in

test 12 to 3 min 20 sec in test 9. In tests 2 and 4 where untreated and

fire retardant treated prefinished lauan plywood walls were tested with a gypsiim board ceiling, limiting temperature conditions did not occur; in

addition, in those tests using prefinished lauan gypsum board walls (tests

6, 13) limiting temperature conditions were not reached. However, the

results of the four tests using two types of fire retardant treated plywood

walls indicate considerable variation in temperature development under

full-scale conditions with fire retardant treated plywood materials.

Examination of the temperature data specifically for those tests using

the upholstered chair indicated that the limiting condition was reached in

all four tests (with the exception of test 16 v;ith noncontributing wails

and ceiling). However, in tests 10, 12 and 14, 100°C was reached in three

35
minutes or less. In test 11, using gypsum walls and ceiling, the elapsed

time was 7 min 20 sec which was substantially longer. The results of these

tests indicate that a limiting condition of 100°C can be reached at TC 37

in as little as 2 min 40 sec after initial flame impingement on the wall.

Further, the use of a gypsum board ceiling may provide an appreciable advantage in limiting temperature development, specifically for the case of the

wood crib exposure. For example, in test 1 (lauan plywood walls and wood

fiberboard ceiling) and test 8 (intumescent coated lauan plywood walls and

wood fiberboard ceiling), 100°C occurred after 3 min 15 sec and 7 min 56 sec,

respectively. But in tests 2 and 4, in which the same wall materials were

used, but the ceiling was changed from wood fiberboard to gypsum board, the

100°C limiting condition was not reached.

Finally, in those tests using gypsum board walls with the wood crib fire

limiting temperature conditions were not reached. And, in the test using

gypsum board walls and ceiling with the more severe upholstered chair fire,

limiting conditions were reached 7 min 20 sec after flame impingement on the

wall surface. Therefore, the use of gypsum walls and ceiling resulted in the

longest period to attainment of 100 °C at the back door for both the wood

crib and upholstered chair fires.

6.2.3. Oxygen

Oxygen depletion measurements taken 1.5 m above the floor just beyond

the back exit door indicate that in a typical single-wide mobile home a fire

starting in the living room can potentially result in a reduction of oxygen

in the environment in adjacent areas outside the living room to a level which

would adversely affect life safety.

With the exception of test 12, a level of 14% O 2 concentration was reached

in all of the tests using prefinished lauan plywood walls and a wood fiberboard ceiling, ranging from 2 min 50 sec to 4 min 5 sec elapsed time. The

results of tests 2 and 3 indicate that some increase in time occurred when

the ceiling was changed to gypsum board. In test 3, 7 min 18 sec elapsed

from the time of flame impingement on the wall to 14% oxygen concentration,

and in test 2, the limiting concentration was not reached.

The results of the four tests with fire retardant treated plywood walls

indicated similarities in the attainment of limiting concentrations of O 2 and CO. In tests 7 and 8, 14% O 2 was reached after 3 min 6 sec and 9 min

56 sec, respectively. And, in tests 4 and 5, with a gypsum ceiling, the

limiting concentration of O 2 was not reached.

In tests 6 and 13, using gypsum walls, a limiting concentration of O 2 was not reached. However, in test 11, using the burning upholstered chair,

14% O 2 was reached after 7 min 40 sec. It would appear that the lower

intensity of the fire due to the limited propagation beyond the chair did

not result in conditions which caused failure of any of the living room

windows. Without the necessary ventilation, the chair fire was dependent

to a greater degree on the oxygen available in the other areas of the mobile

home. Therefore, eventually a reduction in oxygen to the 14% threshold

occurred, although the elapsed time was considerably longer than in those

chair tests with untreated prefinished lauan plywood walls and wood fiberboard ceilings.

6.3. Smoke Generation

As discussed in section 2.6.4, an optical density of 0.26 OD/m was

identified, as corresponding to a level of smoke density at which obscuration

of physical features and disorientation of the occupant may occur. While

this level of optical density does not correspond to incipient incapacitation

36
as do the levels selected for temperature, carbon monoxide and oxygen, it

does represent the level of smoke accumulation which may begin to impair

emergency escape along normal paths provided in the mobile home.

The results of tests 15 and 16 indicate that an accumulation of smoke

corresponding to an optical density of 0.26 OD/m occurred as a result of the

burning ignition source in approximately six minutes or less. However, this

time was considerably reduced in the other tests due to the involvement of

the interior finish materials.

The elapsed time from flame impingement on the wall to 0.26 OD/m ranged

from 45 seconds in test 12 to six minutes in test 16. Figure 15 illustrates

both the variation in the time to flame impingement on the wall and the time

from flame impingement on the wall to 0.26 OD/m optical density for all

sixteen tests. In the five tests conducted with untreated prefinished

lauan plywood walls and a wood fiberboard ceiling (tests 1, 9, 10, 12, 14)

0.26 OD/m occurred in less than two minutes. In addition, in those tests

(test 2, 3) where the ceiling was changed to prefinished gypsum board, there

was no appreciable change. Therefore, while the involvement of the interior

finish material did influence the rate at which smoke was generated, the lauan

plywood wall materials and the single burning item together resulted in attainment of 0.26 OD/m in less than two minutes, regardless of the type of ceiling

material used.

The results of the tests using fire retardant treated lauan plywood

walls indicate that the combined use of fire retardant treated walls and a gypsum board ceiling (test 4) can provide a marginal increase in elapsed

time from flame impingement on the wall to 0.26 OD/m optical density beyond

the two minutes which occurred with untreated prefinished lauan plywood

walls. However, of more significance in evaluating the smoke data from

tests 4, 5, 7, and 8 was the indication that different methods of fire

retardant treating interior finish materials result in significant variations

in fire development and resulting smoke generation. In tests 5 and 7,

using one type of fire retardant treatment with two different ceilings,

0.26 OD/m optical density was reached in less than one minute after flame

impingement on the wall surface. Of the seven tests conducted with untreated

lauan plywood walls, only two tests (12, 14) resulted in attainment of 0.26

OD/m in less than one minute. This indicates that different chemical

formulations and application techniques for fire retardant finishes on interior finish materials may result in considerable variation in the

generation of smoke under full-scale conditions.

The results of tests 6 and 11 using gypsum walls and ceiling indicated

that a greater delay occurred in reaching an optical density of 0.26 OD/m

compared to tests using untreated or fire retardant treated lauan plywood

walls. In test 6, it was reached in 2 min 20 sec which represents an increase

of 40 seconds over the longest period provided when testing untreated lauan

plywood walls with the wood crib fire. In test 11, using an upholstered chair

fire the elapsed time from flame impingement on the wall to 0.26 OD/m was

5 min 30 sec which was considerably longer than in the tests conducted with

untreated lauan plywood and fire retardant treated walls, and only 30 seconds

sooner than in test 16 using noncontributing walls and ceiling.

Inasmuch as smoke is difficult to measure, and a strong function of the

initial burning item, ventilation, and geometry, and since the measured values

would skew the results out of proportion, it has been decided to exclude smoke

as a criterion at this stage and to base the following discussion on temperature, carbon monoxide and oxygen. However, smoke is a critical factor and

the use of materials which generate little or no smoke is obviously desirable.

37
6.4. Fire Development- Impact on Life Safety

Figure 16 provides a summary of the occurrence of limiting conditions of

temperature, carbon monoxide and oxygen in the corridor as a function of

elapsed time from flame impingement on the wall for this series of full-scale

fire tests. This technique provides a means of examining the performance of

a variety of wall and ceiling systems assuming similar initial development of

the fire.

The time available for emergency escape prior to reaching limiting

conditions within the mobile home under this test scenario can be estimated

based on the information included in figure 16. For example, if a fire

requires 55 seconds for initial flame impingement on the wall to occur, and

an additional 205 seconds to reach flashover (e.g., test 1) then the maximum

time available before survival becomes unlikely and damage is extensive is

260 seconds.

However, changes in conditions prior to flashover may significantly

affect the occupants ability to escape from, the mobile home. When an elevated

smoke level is reached, it becomes difficult for an occupant to move either

along the corridor or in any adjacent rooms in which the doors are not closed.

This difficulty is due in part to the decreased visibility and in part to the

discomfort (i.e., coughing, eye irritation, etc.) caused by the smoke. The

occupant may also have difficulty thinking clearly because of confusion and

fear frequently associated with decreased visibility.

Difficulty in exiting the mobile home through an entrance door may be

increased considerably once an additional limiting condition is reached.

Limiting conditions of temperature, CO and O 2 will directly affect the capacity of the occupant to move. Survival along the egress passages and in any

room not closed to the fire is extremely questionable under these conditions.

Finally, flashover is reached, and with it, as previously mentioned, a significantly reduced probability that one can survive any longer in that

environment.

The information in figure 16 can be interpreted in a number of ways. For

example, if the attainment of a single limiting condition (e.g. , limiting

conditions of temperature, CO, or O 2 ) is considered the point of incipient

incapacitation for an occupant, then the time from flame impingement on the

wall to the point at which this occurs can be determined for each of the

sixteen tests. Other factors to be considered in an exercise of this nature

would be the expected time for initial development prior to flame impingement

on the wall as well as the likelihood that the occupants are aware of the fire, or alerted to its existence by automatic detection.

The present Federal Mobile Home Construction and Safety Standard requires

the installation of a smoke detector in all newly constructed mobile homes.

The reliability and effectiveness of automatic smoke detection is of consierable importance in assessing the benefits one would hope to obtain by

inclusion of such a device. Tests conducted at NBS [86] showed that the

performance of photoelectric type residential smoke detectors in mobile home

test fires varied considerably for changes in test control variables such as location of the device, operation of the heating (or air conditioning) system,

and the alarm threshold of the detector itself. Additional research in this

area will be conducted at NBS in 1978 under the sponsorship of the Department

of Housing and Urban Development.

38
6.5. Surface

6.5.1.

Flammability as a Fire Safety Criterion

ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test Method

The Federal Mobile Home Construction and Safety Standard references the

ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test as the laboratory method for evaluating wall and ceiling

interior finish materials for use in mobile home construction. Specifically,

section 280.203 of the standard limits the surface flame spread of interior

finish materials to a maximum flame spread classification (FSC) of 200 in

accordance with the ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test. No requirements are included for

"smoke developed" or "fuel contribution" which are also obtained from this

test method. The limitation of interior finish materials to those having

a surface flame spread value less than or equal to 200 was adopted based on

a similar requirement in the voluntary consensus standard for Mobile Homes

(NFPA 501B, ANSI 119.1) utilized extensively by mobile home manufacturers and

the state and local regulatory authorities prior to the adoption of the Federal

Mobile Home Construction and Safety Standard in June, 1976.

A literature search was performed by NBS to identify and evaluate the

technical basis for the flame spread requirements presently referenced in

the standard. Review of previous editions of the voluntary standard revealed

that the 1963 and 1964 editions of NFPA 501B had a maximum surface flame spread

requirement of 150 for interior finish materials. The surface flame spread

requirements had been changed to 200 in the 1968 edition of NFPA 501B.

Review of available documents related to committee activities of NFPA

501B provided little relevant technical data regarding the rationale to

support either requirement. Additional literature review of other technical

works on the subject of surface flammability of materials indicated that

little experimental work had been done on structures which resembled mobile

homes in geometry. It is most likely that these requirements evolved from

professional judgment and guidance based on other types of construction where

similar requirements already existed.

Even though surface flame spread characteristics may not dominate fire

growth under all situations, the flammability of interior finish materials

can often determine the potential for fire spread beyond the initial burning

item as well as the development of the fire within the enclosure. Technological advancements have been pursued to provide the building industry with

methods of comparing the surface burning characteristics of materials. While

there are at least three laboratory scale methods of testing for surface flame

spread of materials'^, practically all of the building code requirements in the

United States for control of the f laimability of interior finish materials are based on the ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test method.

The purpose of the test is to determine the comparative surface burning

characteristics of the material under test by evaluating (1) flame spread,

(2) fuel contributed, and (3) smoke developed. The test establishes a basis

on which surface burning characteristics of different materials may be

compared.

A specimen 51 cm (20 in) wide by 7.3 m (24 ft) long, usually in three

sections, is mounted and supported on the top ledge of a long test chamber.

The chamber consists of a masonry (fire brick) , insulated, horizontal tunnel

having an inside width of 44.5 cm (17.5 in), a height of 30 cm (12 in) and a length of 7.6 cm (25 ft). The tunnel is open at both ends, the "fire" and

4ASTM E-84 Test for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials;

ASTM E-162 Test for Surface Flammability of Materials Using a Radiant Heat

Energy Source; FPL Eight Foot Tunnel Method (8 ft tunnel developed at U.S.

Forest Products Labs.).

39
"vent" ends. The specimen, in a ceiling position with the side to be tested

facing down, is subjected to a 1.4 m (4.5 ft) long diffusion flame fed by

139 £./m (4.9 CFM) of methane delivered through two gas ports pointing upward

at the fire end. Forced draft induced by a blower and damper system at the

"vent" end of the tunnel pulls air through a small air inlet upstream from

the burners into the fire end. A prescribed average velocity measured at the

vent end prior to ignition is required. After ignition, a constant negative

pressure (draft) is maintained and controlled by the damper system. The

flame and draft serve to ignite the specimen and to induce flame spread along

the ceiling of the tunnel. Windows located on the side of the tunnel allow

an observer to record the extent of flame spread as a function of time over

the last 5.9 m (19.5 ft) of the 7.3 m (24 ft) specimen. Test duration is 10

minutes. The flame spread classification (FSC) is based on a scale which

has 0 for asbestos-cement board and 100 for a selected grade of red oak

flooring. The FSC calculation is currently based on the area under the curve

which depicts flame distance versus time.

6.5.2 Comparison of Full-Scale Results

and ASTM E-84 FSC

The test results indicated that fire growth and spread depended to a large extent on the temperature rise in the upper room. For the scenario

adopted in this test series the attainment of high temperatures in the upper

room was a function of the amount of heat released from the burning mater.i.als,

including the initial burning item and the walls and ceiling. This principle

is in agreement with the basic concept that the amount of heat generated in a room fire is a function of the rate of heat release and extent of involvement

of the combustible materials in the room. The results presented in this report demonstrate that the rate of fire

development and the attainment of high temperatures in the upper room depended

at least in part on the surface flame spread characteristics of the interior

finish materials. That is, as the flame propagated over the material surface,

a larger area of involvement resulted, providing increased heating and additional fuel. Therefore, as a part of this series, the surface flame spread

classification determined in accordance with the ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test for

each of the interior finish materials was compared with the performance of the

materials under full-scale test conditions. It should be noted that this

comparison was complicated by the interaction between the wall and ceiling

materials during the fire. For example, the individual contribution from

the walls and ceiling could not be delineated. Therefore, it was necessary

to consider the performance of the combination rather than that of an individual wall or ceiling.

In tests 15 and 16 with walls and ceiling of FSC 0, the heat generated

in the room was primarily from the initial fire, which did not spread beyond

the burning item. However, in other tests, the extent of flame propagation

along the interior finish materials (to some extent a function of surface

flame spread characteristics) affected the temperature rise in the upper

room, the production of fire gases, and the attainment of flashover.

Examination of figure 16 shows that the most severe conditions occurred

in those tests in which flashover occurred; the thresholds for limiting con- ditions of temperature, CO and O 2 were reached just beyond the back exit

door at nearly the same elapsed time after flame impingement on the wall as did flashover in the living room. While these events did not occur at

precisely the same time, the maximum range in elapsed time for all of these

events to occur was 85 seconds (test 7) and was as low as 14 seconds (test 14).

In addition, the thresholds were exceeded by a considerable amount (table 8)

indicating that the environmental conditions continued to decay as the fire

developed into the flashover stage, resulting in progressively more severe

conditions.

40
'I

1

1

, In the tests in which flashover did not occur, the rise in temperature

and CO concentration and the depletion of oxygen just beyond the back exit

door was quite different. First of all, only in tests 3 and 8 were the thres-

: holds exceeded for all three measured conditions. In tests 4, 6, 13, 15 and

i 16, none of the thresholds were reached; and, in the remaining three tests

only one or two of the three measured conditions reached the selected thresI holds. A second important point was that in most cases the thresholds were

' only marginally exceeded, indicating that for the threshold values selected,

the rise in temperature and CO concentration and the depletion of O 2 either

did not approach thresholds for limiting conditions, or barely exceeded

them, indicating a borderline case. Noteable exceptions were tests 3 and 8

I in which the accumulated CO exceeded the selected threshold by a substantial

' amount, but after an extended test duration. A final point of interest was

that in the tests in which flashover did not occur, the periods of elapsed

' time from flame impingement on the wall to the attainment of the limiting

conditions were substantially longer than in those tests in which flashover

occurred, therefore, providing additional time to escape.

These results revealed that for fires similar to those in this experimental

setup, the attainment of flashover in the room of origin is an important point

in fire development, both from the standpoint of property damage and life

safety. And, to the extent that flashover does not occur, the environmental

conditions are less severe throughout the mobile home and fire damage is

I limited to the room of origin. Therefore, flashover was selected as the

critical event in fire development, and the surface flame spread properties

of the wall and ceiling materials based on the results of the ASTM E-84 (FSC)

were examined to determine the relationship between the FSC and the behavior

, of the materials as installed under actual full-scale conditions.

In order to specify the range of FSC for combinations of wall and ceiling

materials which will not result in flashover in the living room of a mobile

home, a matrix was developed (figure 17) based on the results of the full-scale

fire tests. The shaded region in the matrix represent those combinations of

wall and ceiling materials which either resulted in flashover or were judged

to have the potential for flashover from exposure to an incidental fire.

Judgments are based primarily on the concepts that (1) material combinations

having lower FSC generally result in lower fire spread rates under full-scale

j conditions, and (2) small differences in FSC, without significant changes in

the thermo-physical properties of the materials themselves do not significantly

I alter fire severity. In addition, while flashover was not observed in test 8,

‘ the combination of a wall with FSC 41 and ceiling with FSC 73 has been included

in the group of material combinations determined to have potential for flashover

I from an incidental fire. This was judged appropriate due to the high upper

I room temperatures measured in test 8 with a wood crib exposure fire. The

temperature data indicated that the conditions in the living room were near

flashover, and it is likely that the more intense upholstered chair fire

I; would have resulted in flashover.

, A number of key points can be drawn from the information in the matrix.

For example, when a ceiling material of FSC 11 in combination with wall

j materials having FSC ranging from 24 to 182 were exposed to an incidental

fire from the wood crib, flashover was not reached. However, flashover

occurred in those tests where wall materials having a FSC of 56 and above

I were tested in combination with a ceiling material having a FSC of 73.

And, based on the assumptions upon which the matrix was constructed, flashover

was considered likely to occur from exposure to an incidental fire from the

i wood crib of any wall material having a FSC of 41 or higher in combination

j with any ceiling material having a FSC of 60 or higher.

^ Flashover occurred in all of the tests conducted with the upholstered

' chair exposure fire with the exception of test 11, constructed with a wall material of FSC 24 and a ceiling material of FSC 11, and test 16 with

noncontributing walls and ceiling (FSC 0).

41
The test results in figure 17 are summarized by selected groupings in

figure 18 to provide guidance in identifying the potential for particular

combinations of wall and ceiling materials to contribute sufficiently to

a fire from an upholstered chair or other incidental burning item to reach

flashover. For the most part, high levels of carbon monoxide, one of the

dominant causes of physical incapacitation, occurred only in those tests in

which environmental conditions approached or exceeded flashover. In those

tests which did not flashover, but resulted in high levels of CO, the CO

thresholds were exceeded after a considerably longer period of time than in

those in which flashover occurred. Therefore, the matrix in figure 18 provides a useful tool in assessing the impact of the FSC of the walls and

ceiling on the potential for reaching flashover, and to some extent the

subsequent hazard to occupants as well as the potential property damage.

In figure 18, three categories or regions of performance are identified:

one region includes those combinations of FSC in which flashover did not occur

another region includes all of the combinations in which flashover did occur;

the remaining region separates the two and represents those combinations along

the boundary in which, due to lack of data, no determination can be made. The

size of this boundary region is dependent upon the number of combinations of

FSC actually tested.

In general, the potential for flashover for a specific sized burning

item and a specific combination of wall and ceiling materials is reduced as the size of the enclosure or room is increased. Therefore, the matrix in

figure 18 applies most reliably to a room and a single burning item of the same sizes as tested. The use of the matrix should be restricted to "conventional materials" . Materials with widely divergent properties such as low density foam plastics or other exposed insulation materials would require

additional full-scale testing in order to determine performance. Therefore,

a reduction in fire losses through specification of interior finish materials

using the matrix in figure 18 would be limited to those fires in which con- ventional interior finish is exposed to an incidental fire such as a burning

upholstered chair or smaller item of furniture in a room of similar

configuration.

It is important to note that while these restrictions in interpreting

the matrix do exist, the ability to construct such a tool based on FSC

illustrates some usefulness of the ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test as an indicator of

the potential fire contribution of wall and ceiling interior finish materials

to fire growth in mobile homes.

7 . SUMMARY

Sixteen full-scale tests were conducted in the living room of a typical

single-wide mobile home. The experimental scenario established for this test

series involved the exposure of a number of combinations of interior wall and

ceiling finish materials to an incidental fire resulting from burning of a 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood crib or a 16 kg (35 lb) upholstered chair located in one corner of the room. Test conditions were as follows: (a) all exterior windows and doors were

closed, but not sealed; (b) all doors along the corridor except the door to

bedroom No. 1 were closed; (c) the mobile home was conditioned to 22 + 4°c5

and a maximum relative humidity of 45%.

^In the tests 11 and 12 the interior temperature was somewhat higher due to

extended periods of warm weather.

42
The tests showed that an incidental fire in the living room resulting

from the burning of a 6.4 kg crossed pile wood crib (simulating a small item

of furniture, a waste container filled with combustibles, or a magazine stand) or a medium sized upholstered chair by itself , without further contribution

from the interior finish or other furnishings, will not result in room flashover or attainment of conditions of temperature, carbon monoxide, and oxygen

deficiency which would incapacitate occupants along the path of egress at the

back exit door of the mobile home.

Further, moderately furnishing the room with typical combustible

furnishings did not appreciably alter the fire development unless and until

flashover occurred. In these tests the burning of a single incidenral item

of furniture did not result in sufficient heat transfer to ignite other items

of furniture, even in relative close proximity to the burning item. Involvement of other furnishings did not occur until conditions conducive to room

flashover were approached.

The type of interior wall and ceiling finish material was found to

significantly affect the growth and spread of an incidental fire. A heated

gas layer from the initial burning item developed in the upper part of the

room. However, as the results indicated, a single chair or wood crib did not

produce temperatures high enough to result in room flashover. In specific

instances, the contribution of the wall and ceiling finish materials provided

the additional energy to heat the gas layer beyond 600 ®C and to transfer sufficient radiative energy to the lower room to result in flashover.

The rate of fire growth and the resulting severity directly affected the

attainment of limiting conditions for life safety. Those fires characterized

by rapid flame spread along the interior wall and ceiling finish beyond the

incidental burning item resulted in rapid deterioration of all of the experimentally measured conditions for human tenability.

Based on these sixteen tests in the living room area of a mobile home

some specific conclusions are drawn;

1. Flame size and exposure temperature during initial fire buildup in those

tests utilizing a standardized wood crib were sufficiently repeatable

to be used for comparisons of the contribution of wall and ceiling finish

materials. In only one of 11 tests did the fire remain localized in the

center of the wood crib for an extended period of time, thus affecting

repeatability

.

2. In those tests using the upholstered chair there was considerable

variation in initial fire buildup. This appeared to be due to variation

in the sequential involvement of portions of the chair.

3. Fire spread beyond the initial burning item occurred as a result of

involvement of the wall and ceiling finish materials near the burning

item. Variation in fire buildup, including rate of fire growth and

spread, the severity of the fire, and resulting effects on life safety

occurred, depending on the thermo-physical and fire properties of the

wall and ceilng finish materials.

4. Flashover, observed to have occurred as a result of radiative heat

transfer from the heated gas layer and the surfaces in the upper room

to the combustibles in the lower part of the room, occurred in those

tests in which the upper room temperature exceeded 600°C. Lateral heat

transfer and flame propagation were not of sufficient levels to involve

other combustibles.

43
5 . A rapid rate of fire growth and the attainment of flashover always

resulted in exceeding all of the selected limits established for occupant

incipient incapacitation at the back exit door.

6. Flashover and limiting conditions of temperature, carbon monoxide and

oxygen deficiency occurred in those tests in which prefinished lauan

plywood or fire retardant treated lauan plywood walls were installed

in conjunction with a wood fiberboard ceiling. The most rapid fire

buildup to room flashover occurred in those tests using 4.0 mm thick

prefinished lauan plywood walls and a 13 mm thick prefinished wood

fiberboard ceiling. Time from flame impingement on the wall to flashover for these tests ranged from 2 min 18 sec (test 10) to 3 min 40 sec

(test 9 )

.

7. Flashover did not occur in rhose tests in which prefinished lauan plywood

or fire retardant treated lauan plywood walls were installed in conjunction with an 8 mm (5/16 in) thick textured surfaced gypsum panel ceiling

and exposed to the wood crib fire.

8. The use of prefinished gypsum walls and a textured surface gypsum ceiling

resulted in the least severe fire in terms of fire growth and resulting

life hazard in the test series conducted with the wood crib and in the

series with the upholstered chair.

9. No appreciable quantitative differences were observed in performance in

tests involving lauan plywood walls of 4.0 mm and 6.4 mm thickness in

conjunction with a textured surface gypsum ceiling. The wall thickness

of 6.4 mm was not tested with a wood fiberboard ceiling.

10. While 0.26 OD/m optical density was reached in all sixteen tests,

presumably from the burning wood crib or upholstered chair, the extent

of involvement of interior finish on the wall affected the time at which

0.26 OD/m was reached. The shortest elapsed times, less than 2 minutes

after ignition, occurred in the tests with prefinished lauan plywood

walls and in the tests with the lauan plywood walls treated with a fire

retardant vinyl film. While this level of optical density does not

correspond to incipient incapacitation as do the levels selected for

temperature, CO and 02» it does represent the level of smoke accumulation

which may begin to impair emergency escape along the normal paths provided

in the mobile home.

11. Limiting conditions of temperature were not reached in bedroom No. 3 with

the door closed in any of the sixteen tests up to the time that flashover

occurred. However, the closed bedroom should not be considered a sanctuary for occupants. These tests were terminated at flashover, but

a post- flashover fire can be expected to result in inter-room fire spread.

The post- test examination of damage indicated that many of the interior

finish materials would not provide a barrier of any significance against

fire penetration under such severe conditions.

12. The use of the ASTM E-84 flame spread rating provides some indication

of the potential contribution of interior finish materials when exposed

to an incidental fire under the conditions established in this test

series

.

This is a report of work in progress, intended to provide experimental

data on a single segment of the research conducted under the Mobile Home Fire

Safety Project. Additional full-scale living room tests are planned to provide supplemental data that will reduce the size of the boundary region in the

riiatrix (figure 18) . A summary report will be forthcoming in which these data

will be included along with data collected in other segments of the project

including full-scale fire testing in the kitchen, bedroom and corridor areas

of a single-wide mobile home. Recommendations will be included.

44
8 . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to thank Mr. B. Buell, Mr. D. Klein, Mr. T. Maher,

Mr. B. Rainey, Mr. S. Steel, Mr. W. Stull and Mr. C. Veirtz for their assistance

in the experimental work, and Mr. M. Womble for his assistance in preparation,

instrumentation, scheduling and the conduct of the experimental work;

Mr. D. Klein for development of a computer software package for data reduction

emd assistance in data analysis.

Some of the materials selected for this test series were provided by the

B. F. Goodrich Chemical Company, National Gypsum Comapny, United States Gypsum

Company, Georgia-Pacific Gypsum and Flintkote Company.

This work was sponsored principally by the Division of Energy, Building

Technology and Standards, Office of Policy Development and Research, U.S.

Department of Housing and Urban Development.

45
9. REFERENCES

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of Fire in Mobile Homes, prepared by Division of Community Injury

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.

[5] Stickney, C. W. , The Mobile Home Fire Protection Problem, a talk presented to Fire Marshals' Association of North America.

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[16] Croce, P. A., A Study of Room Fire Development: The Second Full-Scale

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46
[i [18] A Critical Review of Full-Scale Fire Testing, Final report prepared

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I

I

,| [21] Fang, J. B. , Measurement of the behavior of incidental fires in a

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47
[33] Birky, M. M. and Manka, M. , The Use of Room and Corridor Tests in

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carbon monoxide poisoning in fire victims. Journal of Trauma, 12,

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.

[37] Zikria, B. A., Budd, D. C., Flock, H. F. and Ferrer, J. M., A Clinical

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on Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of Combustion Products,

National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 36-46.

[38] Zikria, B. A., Budd, D. C. , Flock, H. F., et al., What is Clinical

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[41] Claudy, W. D. , Respiratory Hazards of the Fire Service, National Fire

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physiological variables that determine the blood carboxyhemoglobin

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[47] Alarie, Y. and Zullo, P., Predicting Carboxyhemoglobin for Different

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48
![48] Parker, J. F., Jr. and West, V. R. , Bioastronautics Data Book, NASA

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Ferrer, Jr., J. M. , Respiratory Tract Damage in Burns: Pathophysiology

and Therapy, Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 150, Article 3,

618-626 (1968)

.

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[54] Operation School Burning, National Fire Protection Association, Boston,

Mass. p. 269 (1959)

.

[55] Moritz, A. R. , Henriques , Jr., F. C., Dutra, F. R. and Weisiger, J. R.,

Studies of Thermal Injury, Archives of Pathology, 43, 466-488 (1947).

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and the Air War, National Fire Protection Association, Boston, Mass.

(1946) .

[57] Montgomery, R. R. , Reinhardt, C. F., Terrill, J. B. , Comments on fire

toxicity. Journal of Fire and Flammability/Combustion Toxicology, 2,

179-212 (1975).

[58] Wamsley, J. R. , MD, Applied Physiology in Selection of an Atmosphere

for Operational Missions, presented at the 14th Annual Institute of

Environmental Sciences Technical Meeting, St. Louis, Mo., April 29-

May 1, 1968.

[59] Pryor, A. M. , et al.. Hazards of Smoke and Toxic Gases Produced in

Urban Fires, Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas,

Sept. 1969.

[60] Einhorn, I. N., Physio-Chemical Study of Smoke Emission by Aircraft

Interior Material, Part I, Physiological and Toxicological Aspects of

Smoke During Fire Exposure, Report No. FAA-RD-73-50 , I, July 1973.

[61] Sollman, T., Systemic Action of Gases, A Manual of Pharmacology, 7th

Edition (W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 1948).

[62] Kraines, S. H., The correlation of oxygen deprivation with intelligence,

constitution and blood pressure, American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol.

93, No. 4 (Jan. 1937)

.

[63] Henderson, Y. and Haggart, H. W. , Noxious Gases and the Principal of

Respiration Influencing Their Action, 2nd Revised Edition (Reinhold,

New York , 1943).

49
[64] Pryor, A, J. and Yuill, C. H. , Mass Fire Life Hazard, prepared for the

Office of Civil Defense, U.S. Army, Contract Mo. N223 (62749) 68665,

Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, Sept. 1966.

[65] Bukowski , R. W. , Critical Smoke Levels, unpublished draft.

[66] Shern, J. H. , Smoke Contribution Factor in the Fire Hazard Classification

of Building Materials, ASTM STP-422 (1967), American Society for Testing

and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103.

;67] Anonymous, Fire Detection Systems in Dwellings, Quarterly of NFPA, Vol

.

65, No. 3, p. 201 (Jan. 1963).

[68] Malhotra, H. L. , Movement of Smoke on Escape Routes, Part 1 - Instrumentation and Effect of Smoke on Visibility, Joint Fire Research

Organization, Fire Research Note 651 (Jan. 1967).

[69] Anonymous, Operation School Burning No. 2, National Fire Protection

Association, Boston, Mass. (Jan, 1963).

[70] Anonymous, Operation School Burning, National Fire Protection Association, Boston, Mass. (1959),

[71] Rasbash, D. J., Sensitivity Criteria for Detectors Used to Protect Life,

75th International Seminar on Problems of Automatic Fire Detection,

I.E.N.T., Aachen, Germany held March 5-6, 1975.

[72] Jin, T., Visibility Through Fire Smoke I, Report of Fire Research

Institute of Japan (July 1969)

.

[73] Jin, T. , Visibility Through Fire Smoke II, Report of Fire Research

Institute of Japan, 33 (1971)

.

[74] Jin, T., Visibility Through Fire Smoke III, Bulletin of Japanese

Assoc. Fire Science and Eng., 22 (1972).

[75] Rasbash, D. J. , Smoke and Toxic Products at Fires, Trans., J. Plastics

Inst. , p. 55 (Jan. 1967)

.

[76] Wood, P. G. , The Behavior of People in Fires, JFRO, Borehamwood,

England, Fire Research Note No. 953.

[77] Jin, T., Visibility Through Fire Smoke (Part 5 Allowable Smoke Density

for Escape from Fire) , Report of Fire Research Institute of Japan,

No. 42 (1976)

.

[78] Jin, T,, Visibility Through Fire Smoke. Main Reports on Production,

Movement and Control of Smoke in Buildings, 100-153, Japanese

Association of Fire Science and Engineering (1974) .

[79] Gross, D., Loftus, J. J. and Robertson, A. F. , A Method for Measuring

Smoke from Burning Materials, ASTM STP-422 (1967), American Society

for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103.

[80] Bono, j. A. and Breed, B. K., Study of Smoke Ratings Developed in

Standard Fire Tests in Relation to Visual Observations, Underwriters*

Laboratories Bulletin of Research No. 56 (1965)

.

[81] Bukowski, R. W. , Field Investigation of Residential Smoke Detectors,

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 76-1126 (Appendix A) (Nov. 1976).

[82] Harpe, S., et al . , Detector Sensitivity and Siting Requirements for

Dwellings, IITRI, Final Contractors Report, NBS-GCR-77-82

.

50
[83] Heskestad, G. , Escape Potentials from Apartments Protected by Fire

Detectors in High-Rise Buildings, FMRC Serial No. 21017. Department

of HUD, Contract No. H-2034R (June 1974).

[84] Lawson, J. R. and Parker, W. J., Development of an ease of ignition

test using flame impingement, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR in

preparation

.

[85] Parker, W. J. and Long, M. E., Development of a Heat Release Rate

Calorimeter at NBS, ASTM STP-502, 135-151 (1972), American Society for

Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103.

[86] Gawin, W. M. and Bright, R. G., Mobile home smoke detector siting

study, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), NBSIR 76-1016 (May 1976).

51
52
a.

gKB

^ ^ ^ ^ 2^ o

^ ss

il li ^ C3>

53

Figure

2.

Plan

View

of

Mobile

Home

Test

Unit.
54

Based

on

Removeable

Contents.
U-4o III

I'

fIr| I

XJ T3

oo • ^ 0) c U C

01 0 0

rH 0 •H rH XJ rC 4-1 •iH 4J CO

cd (U 0

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G

G XJ XJ XJ 4J •H I G 1 XJ X T3 X r- CN •H rH CN ro U H H H a X X •iH X G G

hH 3 L

55

Figure

Plan

View

of

Mobile

Home

Test

Unit

Illustrating

Location

of

Experimental

Measurements.
T3C

cdCo

•H

Cdoo

.rv CO a e ^ (D I 4^H

0) OQ bDC

4-> »H

CO

C

0)

u

cd iH o cd •H *H a-p

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E-i

C

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C

4^ -H

CdC

U

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4-5 ‘H

CO -P

:3 .H rH CO H O M Oh

LO

0)

Sh

:3bO

•H

56
RATE

OF

BURNING

(g/sj

TEMPERATURE

(°Cj

Figure 6a. Temperatures in upper part of room.

Figure 6b. Burning rate.

Figure 6. Burning Rate of a 6.H kg (l4 lb) Cross-piled

Wood Crib and the Resulting Temperature Rise

in the Upper Room.

57
u

cd

0) seou

bO

bD

C

C tH

•H

C

-PU

rd :d

:d CQ

CO

<D P

p::C Cm

cd

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cd

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:s

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X

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X rH

Ph

w o

ation

of

Characteristic

rom a

Burning

6.4

kg

(14

p

CD

p

CO 0 d :3 s Q P cd

0) tH P 1—1 B

cd t—1 0)C c^

cd ^ P 0

cd

a

u 0 0 d

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•H

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G

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•H Ph C :3 M CQ

cd

t>-

Q)U

ZibO •H

58
RATE

OF

BURNING

|g/$|

TEMPERATURE

|°C|

Figure 8a. Temperatures in upper part of room.

ELAPSED TDliE

Figure 8b. Burning rate.

Figure 8. Burning Rate of a l6 kg (35 15) Upholstered Chair

and the Resulting Temperature Rise in the Upper Room.

59
INCIDENT

FLUX

|W/cm^|

msikmi mm leNiifoii source [m\

Figure 9. Maximum Levels of Incident Flux.

60
61

Figure

10.

Teniperatui’e

25nTM

Below

Ceiling

in

Center

of

Living

Room

For

Selecteci

Tests.
Ijliis/Mi HOOli SMOW

xmj iNSOssMi

62

Figure

11.

Comparison

of

Maximum

Upper

Room

Temperature

With

Maximum

Incident

Flux

at

Floor

Level.
WOOD CR13 TESTS

Figure 12. Illustrates Time From Intermittent Flame Impingement on the Wall

Surface to 100 “C, 1.5 m Above Floor Beyond Back Exit Door Near

Entrance to Bedroom # 1 .

63
TEST

D>

WOOD CRIS TESTS

UPHOLSTERED CHAiR TESTS

INDSCATES CO COriCEMTRATSON

CRITERSON NOT REACHED

a 115i H ^ D>

f

10 5 TS^E(niin) TO mm

IRiPgNGEMENT m WALL

i I ! ! 5 10 15 20

TiiE [minytes] FRO^ FLAiE I^PINGEiENT ON

WALL TO mmm coNomoN

25

Figure 13. Illustrates Time From Intermittent Flame Impingement on the Wall

Surface to 1^ (vol) CO Concentration or 4l,800 (ppm^*°^®x min),

1.5 ni above the Floor Beyond Back Exit Door Near Entrance to

Bedroom § 1 .

64
H WOOD CRIB TESTS

TEST

^UPHOLSTERED CHAIR TESTS

t> INDICATES 02 CD^CENTRATION

CRITERION NOT REACHED

5“ U

2 ^ rist

nsr

"1 r

L«i

9

J13

14

lj'5

16

10 5 TIR^Elmin) TO FLAiE

IMPSNGENIEHT ON WALL

0 0

[>

|D>

iD>

10

i ^

5 10 15 20

Tli^E [minutes] FROi FLAME IMPINGEMENT ON

WALL TO LIMITING CONOiTION

25

Figure 14. Illustrates Time From Intermittent Flame Impingement on the Wall

Surface to l4% (vol) Op Concentration, 1.5 m Above the Floor

Beyond the Back Exit Door Near the Entrance to Bedroom #1.

65
] WOOD CilB TESTS ^ UPHOLSTERED CHAIR TESTS

u

10 5 0 0

Ti^£(minl TO FLAiE

I | liPSMGEH^E^T OM WALL

i

a.

5 10 15 20

mi (minutes) FROli^ FLAii^E li^Pi^SE^E^T OH

WALL TO LHiiitTiHQ COHDITiOM

25

Figure 15. Illustrates Time Pr*om Intermittent Flame Impingement on the Wall

Surface to 0.26 OD/m Smoke Density, 1.2m Above the Floor Beyond

Back Exit Door Near Entrance to Bedroom #1.

66
0^

n

67

Figure

l6.

Illustration

of

the

Elapsed

Time

From

Flame

Irnpingeiiient

on

the

Wal3

to

Limiting

Conditions

of

Temperature,

CO,

Op,

and

the

attainment

of

Flashover

for

Sixteen

Full-Scale

Mobile

Home

Fire

Tests.
1 VEILING iATEGi&LS 1

i

80 COOE IS 4 Isisi 1

S J

1 ! ID C0D£

^ L . FSC 6 11

^ 1 SG 1 73 1

1

i 1 18 0 ©Ei

1 j 14

§ J 23 OD 1 1

li i

\ ^ \ 1

a ^ « 24 (Dil ? 1

! g 1 18

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5 ^

Li n

;; j; 56 0 p «as j

? ® i 9 1,1 ,1

ii S ISO

, 0

1 1

1 1 52 111

'

Ii ji

1

i 13

i a 172

2:18i

1

1 t

1 ^ 5

^

i il_!!L (3)

10 - NBS Mkimkl lOEHTlFSCITlON COOE

FSC - FLAiE SPREAO Cl^SSlFiCATiOil {kSlM E-S4j

O WOOD ciiB mmm soynoE

yP^OLSTEREO Olillil ISHfTIOH SOOiOE

Figure 17. Flashover Data Matrix for Full-Scale Mobile Home

Living Room Fire Tests with 6.4 kg Wood Cribs

and Upholstered CJiairs.

68
Q REOiOi io for tiksumm

yilESTEO REGiOi

0 REGION OEIiOliSIRra^G FLASHOVEB POTEiTlAi

Figure l8. Material Hazard Matrix (Based on ASTM E-8^ PSC)

69
FURNITURE ITEM WT (kg) nESCRTTP^TOV i

Coffee Table CM Constructed of xvood and wood products,

with a high pressure laminated olascic

top surface

2

,

Two end tables 9.1 Similar construction to coffee table

3. Sofa 37.6 Urethane foam padded on wood frame

j construction, ravon fabric covering !

\ Urethane ^oam nadded on wood frame } construction, polyester fabric covering ? 4, Occasional chair 11.3

5. Ignition source 16.0 Cotton and urethane foam padded on ; wood frame construction, rayon fabric

covering

6. Waste container 0.2 Molded polyethvlene |

7. Kitchen cable 15.9

I Table ton constructed of wood products \ and finished with a high pressure

j laminated plastic ton surface: legs • were metal ?

8. ^our kitchen chairs ro Metal frames; back and seat constructed | of wood products, cotton and urethane | padding, and covered with a vinyl ! material

9.

i

i

3 sets of curtains 2.4 Sheer polyester fabric

* Total weight of four chairs

70
I

'I

(U 1—1 o

e4

0) H

CO

0) *H'a3

4-1 CO

cu ‘H

4-» E

0) o • •

<D o 0

pi o

•H POP C PP o u •iP CO pi 0)

Cg > -H

u

U

•H

C *H

U

•'"1 c CO

O

pp

O

OJ C7^ E M pp 1—1

00 o o 0

Pd ‘H • P •H

Pi y| GJ o 0) <U PP

O

CO r"I 4-J n::) S f-H JJO •H d 0) r—1

rH rQ

M 03 4-1 o 1 c &, 00 S 4-4 0)

r-*

r o CO OJ 4^

4->

cGS

GJ rH • • 0) iJ TU CO , , *H GJ cd M 4J • . 4-J 0) O wi CD

M-l pp P-t

T3

(U 1—1

OJ Pd

rO 4-1 Cd •H 1—1 s

0) CO pp 4J

CO Td (U 1—1 H do td pd •H • CO CO

Td

d

Td CU •H

fd CD Td

cd dp cdo 1—!

CO hJ E

QJ (U 1—1 i—!

4-1 cu pp M d

Cd Pm H CU

i-4 CU CO d 4J

•H, 4-1 Cd •H d

CO

d CJ •H d Td Pd d o H Pm, o 1—1

(U 0) 1—!

CO pp

cd cd

P-iH

71
Table

3.

Description

of

Interior

Finish

Materials

Used

in

Each

of

the

Sixteen

Full-Scale

Tests

72
Table

4.

Test

Conditions

for

Full-Scale

Mobile

Home

Fire

Tests

(Living

Room

Series) 1 11 ( r\ 1 <v 4^ j 1 1 1 C 1 i

•pHG zs <u o m e O

m

m ! ^ o O ue o O o 1 ^ ue 0 . • f-H w G m r-. m 00 v£j vC m tn m o m 00 VO fT. 0 O V V V pH

OJ o CJ U 2:

i;

<u 1 w c ue 1 a r—s

ir. in o m

C

m o m o C o ue o i ue ue 1 4J • • • • • • • • 1 r-4 w c VO m m ON 00 so m ON r- 00 o 00 C'. CO 1 “ ; a ‘.r <0 •H o o u 1 1 2. 11 j 1 1 1

<u j (V u c ! ) 1 u D 0) m m <r m re j c m o m c - C S u 4J 5^ • • • • • . • •ic 4c * •K 5 G 9) C >« 00 r*v 00 v3 1 00 00 ON ‘ e o •pH o 5 0 CJ i I'l 2. L' c £ o 8 •H ' -o n: Ino "C 'O § •H X X X X X QJ d) OJ X 0) X d) 1 •H •Pi •H •H •n •TH *H •r-< u P p ^ S U u U u 0) 0) <u p d) d) 1 M <1> u u CJ a CJ CJ CJ CJ u 4H U ,g-> P CJ 4H P p Pfc c. CD -H CD •H CD -H ' 05 TP CC tp H -c no n3 n:: -tt nj •c n) pH CO CO rS (0 1 nj r-^ Kl

t-' 0 0 o o o o o O o O

X

O JZ

O

X o » o X 0 0 Si t 0 O o o o o o O o ^ u X CJ X u 0 0 SI t,i

Cs

a D. Ca i & X 1

>,

:;

u 1: •H•o

•H &•£ eg ON CN r>. LO I—I CN eg <r CO v3 e- eg CM S <0 e <r en m r- CN eg re re re re v3 ue ue m i G D 1 O s: •H i •H H ou 5i o (V CV 00 o m <3* CN <J* <e re o 00 eg r«* fn 1 •H o cn m m VC v3 in m r--. Ov 00 e*. rr. ue 3 3

0)

<0

X

U

Ci4 <v&E N

0)

u o>

m o m 00 CN re CN re ON

X eg >3 re ! H o rH pH CN pH CN re CN CN CN pH CN j 'w/

>>

J! 4J 1 •H 1 •D y—S 1 H S*^ a- GO •«4' m CN j *•3' O C?N O pH ue CN CN ue CN 1 CDco s3

EC

(N <r re CN re CN •3- <* 'vf <r !i T-t 1 4J R •H i ns

'( c0u 0^ Ql. CN •4“ o ej CO 00 CN O eg sO <r CN ue <- 00 i u o vO 'O vO r^. \D X r-^ JN r>. CO CO vD X i o

•H

<u 4J 3

iJ

CCu

<v

s-y ' c

p-B 1 0) CJ CO CO 1^ CN O O CN pH CN o Cv eg { *3- 00 ° \ t-* o 1—i

f—1

rH CN eg CN CN CN eg CN re CN CN pH CM s 'w' CN I 1 i o 11 j !i R11 2: i 1 1 I

4.J j i1 3 CD rH I eg CO <r m v3 1 P*^ 00 ON O pH CN re NT 1 ue i NO a

<l) 1 pH pH pH pH H 1 !i -J 1 _i 1 73

Designates

tViaC

data

could

not

be

reliably

measured
r 01 L i

I Home i-jivlng Room Zerlez: Inst rumen cation vocation

j * —TC 1 TC Living room, north wall 211 cm above floor 1 TC 2 TC - Living room, north wall 188 cm above floor

1 TC 3 TC - Living room, north wall 132 cm above floor

1

1 TC 4 TC - Living room, northwest corner 211 cm above floor

1 5 TC - Living room, northwest corner 188 cm above floor

! j TC 6 TC - Living room, northwest comer 132 cm above floor

1 TC 7 TC - Living room, west wall 211 cm at->ove floor

1 TC 8 TC - Living room, west wall 188 cm above floor

1 TC 9 TC - Living room, west wall 132 cm above floor

1

j TC 10 TC - Living room, east wall 211 cm above floor

1

1 11 TC - Living room, east wall 188 cm above floor

1 TC 12 TC - Living room, east wall 132 cm above floor 8

1 13 TC - Living room, center 211 cm above floor

1

1 14 TC - Living room, center 188 cm above floor

1

1 15 TC - Living room, center 132 cm above floor

1 TC 16 TC - Living room, center 91 cm above floor 1 TC 17 TC - Living room, center 46 cm above floor 1

j TC 18 TC - Living room, center 2.5 cm above floor

1

j TC 19 TC - Living room, south wall 211 cm above floor

1

I, TC 20 TC - Living room, south wall 188 cm above floor

1

1 TC 21 TC - Living room, south wall 132 cm above floor

!

1 TC 22 TC - Living room, south wall HI cm above floor

1 TC 23 TC - Corridor, north 211 cm above floor

1

f TC 24 TC - Corridor, north 188 cm above floor 1

I TC 25 TC - Corridor, north 132 cm above floor jS

1 26 TC - Corridor, north 91 cm above floor

1 "rC 27 TC - Corridor, north 46

'

cm above floor

1 28 TC - Corridor, north 2.5 cm above floor

1 29 TC - Corridor, center 211 cm above floor

I 30 TC - Corridor, center 188 cm above floor

1 TC 31 TC - Corridor, center 132 cm above floor

1 1 32 TC - Corridor, center 91 cm above floor 1

I 33 TC - Corridor, center 46 cm above floor

I TC 34 TC - Corridor, center 2.5 cm above floor

1 1 TC 35 TC - Corridor, south 211 cm above floor

1 TC 36 TC - Corridor, south 188 cm above floor i

1 37 TC - Corridor, south 132 cm above floor i

1 38 TC - Corridor, south 91 cm above floor i

1 TC 39 TC - Corridor, south 46 cm above floor i

1 40 TC - Corridor, south 2.5 cm above floor 1

1 TC 41 TC - Bedroom 3, center 211 cm above floor

1 42 TC - Bedroom 3, center 138 cm above floor 1

1 43 TC - Bedroom 3, center 132 cm above floor1 I 44 TC - Bedroom 3, center 91 cm above floor 1

I 45 TC - Bedroom 1, center 211 cm above floor 1 46 TC - Bedroom 1, center 188 cm above floor 1 1 TC 47 TC - Bedroom 1, center 132 cm above floor

1 RAD 1 Incident heat flux transducer - Living room, center, floor level I 2 Incident heat flux transducer - Corridor, north, floor level

1

1 RAD 3 Incident heat flux transducer - Corridor

,

soutb , floor level

1 I RAD 18 Incident heat flux transducer - North wall , 20cm from comer, .9 m above floor |

1 RAD 19 Incident heat flux transducer - North wall , 20cm from comer, 1,8 m above floors

20 Incident heat flux transducer - Living room, center, ceiling level §

y

1 HSM 4 Horizontal smoke meter - corridor, north. . 6 m above floor i

1 HSM 5 Horizontal smoke meter - corridor, north, 1.2 m above floor l!g

I 6 Horizontal smoke meter - corridor, north, 1.8 m above floor 1 VSM 7 Vertical smoke meter - corridor , north, upper. . 46 m HSM 8 Horizontal smoke meter - corridor, south, . 6 m above floor I HSM 9 Horizontal smoke meter - corridor, south, 1.2 m above floor i HSM 10 Horizontal smoke meter - corridor, south, 1,8 m above floor 1 VSM 11 Vertical smoke meter - corridor , south, .46 m

I CO 13 CO Center of living room at 1.5 m above floor 1 CO 2 14 C02 Center of living room at 1.5 m above floor 1 02 15 02 Center of living room at 1.5m above floor I CO 16 CO South corridor at 1.5 m above floor

1 02 17 02 South corridor at 1,5m above floor

L CELL Load cell

1 2X
Table

6.

Selected

Results

of

Full-Scale

Mobile

Home

Fire

Tests

(Living

Room

Series)

g 1 - 1 0 <j 1

<fl « a 1

(/>

h iTi 9 (0 4) 4^ • J 0.(^5 I U 3 C 1 < (A o

in c

4t «g <z

I^IIIBB } g

g om <Z ofH §m <z

tnod

10:20

r<z z 1 !B *H o 1 r-4 AJ 0) B «-l ffl BJ CO 2 5 3 TO > g d e 0) ^ c II g"' m

in c Ocn

CM

F-i ! SOCMm

io1 ^m o1 in oCOm • lOCOm00o

r- om oCM

00

fH

mo

Os

O oCMO oo©CM oo

CM j § O 1

fl *-S

W CO o oo oCM

L o

CM o om

O om oo cCO o c O

CM oCM 1° \1

'f111 u

01 tocz

r-v MT

-T

4H

CC

to rH

01d

ca

015

*0§

.co

u-

«-<o

*0

Clp

l-I 3

X'

Clu

fl)

iM3U

ClCLd

d. 9 c u H ^ 0) <u 1

t«- c: o: 1 O o CM 1 in

mi1

^r) 11 m

m r- NO 00 O' oc c

|S1

Ipi 'r- oCO 1 XB 3

fiM. 9 u9 n> g

01

a

*-* 6 c 3

0) •co1 o

u-0

01 4^C fe QJ O a c

Of c

•H 01a D > > *H

01

»-i Uoo£ 1 "O 1 <n $ CL £ 1 0) 1 »H 6" 1 dl 1 01

C1—t c

CM

Co cm

lom c o o

<r oCO

C c o

CM oo cfH

li 1*^ jz i j MT ^ inm CO sr oo in in e W

*X 4

CO ^

3r 1-

00m onC in

00

i-H CO

COd

CT o

COo

O'mo o

O'

»-H

Om oo o

MO

CO

f—o

MT

vO

CO

m

01

HIF0 O X tkJ 01

«:

H

Mau€

CO >»d

-a- md00d

O'CMd oo

CMO c

ino: o

O' i

lo1 CO ! rH c

*no

-a'

CM i

CMo

CO

CM co'

<=

Temperature

O Oi £ d

0> 1-1 H 1-1 6 01 o c 0e o

01 Oi a 03

d. = i

OO o 5 s

-oo

(0 01 a e

<0 1-1

i-H ^

01 crCi£ c

i-H om cm o

Mf cCM o< cCM

Cm om o cCO c cm o c ©CO

<n 00

m in 00 o m cc oc -J :q E 3 3 u 5 2 X 01 « o< Z E

0) H

B cc

Id

t-H GO

c^ o

sC

(I'

ri.

p4i CM

CO

1—i CO seHvO o

•aO'

so

00

-«a- r*-

v£> O'

CM

00

00

NO

r-00

O' '£

i-?

01 1-1 H -* iSo o U f-l Q> 01 O. 03 a

Z3 1

oc in > CM <

•s

d. i

CO i*« r-t H

tu 0

01 tocz

in

<N

O o C

CO o

MT o o o

-O’ oo c

<r c

CM c

CO

O c

C"' o oCO

-or <1*1 nO 00 tn CM in r*.

m 00

m O' Mr in «

kL £ 3 3 4J a Q

•HX 01 ^ 1H

G cn

Nd

nC

sf oin<j

O'

CO

CMCM

Mt c MT

»-H SO

00

in

CMCO

vO

ri. CO

C-.

COsf

'Om

\0

so

CM

fO

O'm

sO

CM

Mr in

CM

(1^ uH

44

•d

0)<0 01 o. B

<0 1-1 ^ H

UJ

Cl

01 to o ocn oo o o j1 c(TlO c

Mf o

<r c CCM o o o oc o 1 cn 1 m CO CO t1 m 11

-1 (ii m i <-«.

m 00 «4- 00 CO

fH 2ri

01d

a 3 36 «

iH »i' X c %il

p

<n

r«.

c^

•>» cm

f-M CO

00

fO

'O

rf—<

00

O'

vO

COsO

f—I

in

Mf

-O' HT

QO

<r

sC

rH

CO

sopCO

c"

CM

lime

to

Flashover 0

01 tocr o •»<

ct: Z

a:z

00zscZ0.z

in

cc: Z. ccn

oom

as

z. oCM

00

PCz o

00

aszCC

Z- 1

Time

to

Ignition

of

Wall 0

01 tocz - O'o co o

in S - fO

CO om

OO

00m - -

-Kr- c ' t Ji!

l!

f—

<r CM I-H CM CM CO CO Mr so

Cm oz

aj i <0 1 - 1

CM

m

m vO - i

O' o

rH -

CJ CO

r-H -J ^ 1 —L ^ 1

75

Paper

surface

burned

off

north

and

weat

walls

at

4:47

(Mln:Sec)
Table

7.

Selected

Levels

of

Carbon

Monoxide,

Carbon

Dioxide,

and

Oxygen

Measured

In

Living

Room 1. 5

ni

Above

Floor

76

*NK

•=

Not

reached
Table

8.

Selected

Levels

of

Temperature,

Optical

Density,

Carbon

Monoxide,

and

Oxygen

at

Various

Locations

in

the

Mobile

Horae ] 1 1 1 1 |0 g 1 N- ^ £ |o S 1 5 i <0 ^ ^ gs 1 |4j w-i S I <4 O !• 1 n ha I

19

'^1 U

D ii1 ^ 1 S S o•9

CO 1 i ^ o om 11 o

•c

in o

ro oo

O'

O

'Om 1 o 1 o 1 CM oin

GO

18:10 1 OOc 1 1J es 1 m

»n (*• o

r*. IT 1i] CO

CO

CM ! "

CM

a<

IT

oo 1 <n

COo 00w

fly I o«

h9 in e •• H ag o \ ^ g oo

CO

g

gg oo

MT o<o•• o

<r

<T on oin * g oin 1 g

g

Rated

CO

Accumulation i

outh

End

of

Corridor I T

r:. '"" 4 *u

01

C t/5 H d t T i o ! ^ I so ooo c oCO

in oCM c

'£> om o

-J

C

O' oo

<£> o

ro

CO c

O' ' GO co co

CM

s!

Oi' 3 ^-J C O M < ac §?G D X H

«0

r

CL

CL o

sO

rO

CO

O' , o

'O

CO

GO

-<r o

O'

oo

CO o

Mf

»n

r^ oc

cc

O

sOO•H oor**

•—o oo

O'o Oo

Os

<r o

r"o

ro

CM o

SO om

roo

CM

rCO ! oo

CO

CO

s£> O

•<r

<TO

'^1 ! ejH « »1<<< a§1 0 e CO a •• a c

*H

D

X

D

w

O

-i

<r o oro

oc ofO cd2 or—sO

CXZ o

in oo oo

sO

OizCLzOLzOLz c I 00 ii

p£z 11 j ' O 1

U-. -o 1 O *H 1 I «0

C 1 c o o o !

fl <0 0 1 1 ^

flU T3 I c fs

a ! ^ ^ 0Ha 'o M O

-> trt 5 c = Sj DJ o

•Hm orHfO oCO

df

OMT

<30 o

00 c oo o

CO oCO

vC o

MTn o

oc oo

O' o• • n- L " c

oc 1 1 o|

CMS

n*!

a<? o

CM

O'o o00o ° • •H rO

CM

COOCO

rW o

>oCO 1 o| ! c X I O 4J 1- Ru 3 c k o ! ^ 1 o y 4 y 5 tn ^ C3 £ Oin

ro

O

fO

PCZ g o

MT o

CO

O

*o oron

g oin

00

£Lzin

g

g

Time

to

Reach

0.26

On/M

Smoke

Density

in

the j ^

)“ oo

(N ocn o

<r oo om

r—4 o

ro

Om o oCO

ro

O

•o o

MfO'

no o

CM o

•om oin oj

rMj Og

in, 1 ^ o o

CM

CM o<M o om

Om

CO o

CM o1^CM

O•o- ro o

CM

*o oinO'

O

s£) o inin o ol

GOg

Elapsed

Time

To

Reach

100®C

at

Selected

Thermocouple

Locations

(Min:

Sec) ! 5u o oCM oo

rH Z oo

in oCO

CO

O

in o'5' in o in

CO

00 o00

g g|

<n

ST

CJ

iQCZ g

g

CLZ 6

02z S g

g

g

pcz

eczPLZ z

rCJ o

•<r orom

ocz oo

NO o oo

GO oin o

•o

in oro

00 oin PCZ g

COUH co

'J

diZ 1 Om * om

nO

Oiz oro

-j oo

00 orM o

in

OCO o1—4 QO

m

•o

fM

g

muH o

fO o

vT om<T

g oCOm

O oro o

in o

in

Co nn

CM oro PCz

olo9

in|

uH o

fO o

CM

CM oCOCO oo

CO oo

'O' «g o

CO om oO

Oin

MT oo c

Cm ororo

PCz

o|

Vest

No - o. CO Mf in so - cc O' o ro _Ii

in 11 77

»=

Not

reached
Table 9. Measured Concentrations of CO, CO 2 and O2 in Tests 15 and I 6

Table 9 (a). Concentrations of CO, CO^ and O

2 - Test 15

t

1:

' Initial Concentration

i Percent Concentration |

1 Center of j Entrance to

| Living Room i Bedroom iH .

I

^

''

S CO CO- 0„* 1 CO 0-* 1 2 2 1 2 1

i 0.00 0.2 21.0 1 0.00 21.0 f

1

i Peak Concentration

1 <0.05 1.9 20.4 1 0.26 18.6 i

*Minimum Concentration

Table 9 (b). Concentrations of CO, CO^ and 0^ - Test 16

jj ] Percent Concentration S

1

S

^ j; Center of

. ^ Living Room

Entrance to

| Bedroom #1 5

^ ^ CO CO- 0-*

i) ^ z z

§ CO 0^*

i ^

' Initial Concentration , 0.00 0.1 21.0 0.00 21.0

a Peak Concentration | 0.07 3.1 19.5 0.06 18.4

*Minimum Concentration

78
Table 10. Grouping of Tests Based on Peak Levels of Temperature,

Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Measured in

the Living Room.

79
Table

11.

Elapsed

Time

from

Initial

Flame

Impingement

on

the

V/all

Surface

to

Limiting

Conditions

of

Temperature,

Carbon

Monoxide

and

Oxygen,

and

0.26

OD/m

Optical

Density

In

the

Corridor

Beyond

the

Back

Exit

Door

*0 40 c ii u: h

o »*- i- O

5:15 8:51 1

11:20 CpnE ‘ ^ , 1

12:55

cnom

12:50

1

4:50 <No

«n

cn 2:57 <n<r

r«* O<n

<r

O

CNoCN

20:30

j

1 o

1 H

! »H

S (0

J ^

1 §

1 1

i

'

e *

1 c !-

1 =

8 3

B o

8

1 iu

! u

1 VW

a£

0)eH

>O

00

CO Ch

in

r4

<n g g

00z g

rH

<N g

o 00

<N

osZ

om

c^ g g

»

CM

1

iOc

<j- g

00

Si.

•z. scz O

nC»n o Cin c

g

PSz Oo

cn g

'

1

m <N

c

•HE

vOO

CH

0. oo00

ino 1

'

o 00

•<r ccZ 1 m

osz

sDin

cn

<Mo o asz

OSZ

ce; Z z o

o OSz

i

as 1 z 8

1

vO cu co -

in

in

<N

cfn

(N

"1

cs: z <T\ g

sOin NO

i o ! o

in rN g

o

CN

CN

'

ofz

inc

cn z

os \

I

<N c r. CN

cn o

p <J O H O

l-i 4J<

m

fn

tcg

00<•

<•

scz

o^

in OSz

\0

•«» NOm

o o

<r oCNi m

<r COZ O

m

pszcc: r

CN r«. CN

E

O' G

o r

J-. O 00 00 c vO <N4 O c Gcn o <n c

c

rj

• o < - o CN o w c o nC

0.26

OD/m

At

HSM

5

m

O 00O

'

00o

<r

»n o

o

NOo

CN

CN otn c O om m

m m

m

o

o

c <N CN o in O

Elapsed

Time

to

Flame

Impingement

on

Wall m

m

o•a- 'Oin om

<

in

00 oin o

o

C ocn m

sr o

in <r C 1 c o o o O o o O fH cn <r m o >T

Test - evj

1

<n •<T in sO - 00 ON o -CN cn in nO

80

Not

reached
APPENDIX A CHRONOLOGICAL TABULATION OF TEST OBSERVATIONS

Appendix A. Chronological Tabulation of Test Observations

MHLIV #1

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-5

Ceiling: C-5

Ignition Source

6,4 kg cross piled wood crib

Date: 3/8/76

Time : 11 : 00 AM

TIME (Min I Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00

0:22

0:30

0:33

0:45

0:50

0:55

1:15

1:30

1:40

1:53

2:00

2:15

2:40

2:53

2:58

3:02

3:10

3:30

3:35

3:45

4:00

4:15

4:20

4:47

5:10

5:15

Ignition of heptane

Intermittent flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Fire localized to center of crib

Single station ionization smoke detector alarmed

Flame height increased to approximately 1.5 m (5 ft.) above floor

Increase in crib involvement

Intermittent impingement of flame on wall and ceiling, some charring of panel in corner, ignition of corner molding

Ignition of north wall

Fire localized to corner Flame height receded to < 1.2m (4 ft.) above floor, panel on north wall continued to burn

No further burning of heptane ignitor

Burn rate of crib appears to be steady, resulting, in flame height

approximately .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Burn rate increasing from crib & north wall

Flames from burning plywood intermittently impinging on ceiling

Constant flame impingement at ceiling, lateral flame spread

down north and west walls at ceiling

Gas phase burning at ceiling; failure of curtains on north wall

Ignition of west wall

Gas phase burning across entire ceiling

Failure of curtains on west wall; significant smoke obscuration

Failure of curtains on east wall above observation port

Failure of windows in north wall-flames extended outside unit

Extent of gas phase burning increased-burning gases .6-. 9 m

(2 ft. -3 ft.) down from ceiling

East wall burning from floor to ceiling

Flashover

Gas phase burning continued in north east corner Sprinkler system activated

Termination of Test observations

Post Test Observations

1. Ceiling charred on exposed surface throughout living-dining area.

2. North and west walls burned through from ceiling to floor in vicinity of crib.

3. Failure of exterior metal skin on north wall adjacent to crib.

4. Entire east wall burned through at ceiling, total wall involved.

5. West wall involved down to corridor entrance-approximately 7.6 m (25 ft.).

6. No extensive burn through of ceiling tile (surface burning)

.

7. Extensive fire spread above ceiling-indication that fire penetrated north

wall and burned up into ceiling vent.

8. Floor material burned throughout living room.

A1
MHLIV #2

Interior Finish Materials

Date: 3/17/76

Time: 11:00 AM

Ignition Source

6.4 kg cross piled wood crib

Walls: W-5

Ceiling: C-4

TIME(Min:Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00

0:31

0:40

0:50

1:09

1:15

1:25

1:35

1:40

1:50

1:55

2:00

2:20

2:25

2:40

3:00

3:01

3:35

3:55

4:15

4:35

6:50

10:12

10:15

Ignition of heptane

Single station smoke detector alarmed

Flame impingement on wall

Intermittent flame height approximately 1.8 m (6ft.) above floor

Ignition of wall

Intermittent flame impingement at ceiling

Fire from crib receding

Slight lateral flame spread at ceiling

Ignition of curtains on north and west walls

Flame spread across ceiling to east wall

Gas phase burning one foot down from ceiling across entire

ceiling

Curtain failed on east wall; curtains already down on north and west walls

Smoke level stratified .3-. 6 m (1-2 ft.) down from ceiling

Textured surface on ceiling beginning to discolor

Plywood walls burning .3 m (1 ft.) down from ceiling along

north and west walls

Burn through of panels in corner behind wood crib

Window on east wall cracked

Smoke has accumulated along floor and ceiling, leaving

an area relatively clear between the two layers

Smoke emitted from vent above north wall

Visibility nearly negligible? smoke from floor to ceiling

Gasoline powered generator malfunctioned; resulted in

loss of lighting

Burn through of exterior metal skin on west wall adjacent

to wood crib

Extended period with zero visibility

Actuation of sprinkler system

Termination of test observations

Post Test Observations

1. Burn through of west and north walls at ceiling level.

2. Surface burning in north-east corner.

3. Fire primarily localized to north-west corner.

4. Burn through of exterior skin on north and west walls.

5. Firestopping effective in limiting flame penetration into vent

space adjacent to north wall

.

6. Fire burned into stud cavity on west wall and up through top

plate into ceiling space.

7. No contribution to fire in ceiling space from ceiling material;

ignition of resins and paper face on glass fiber insulation.

8. No damage to flooring.

9. No damage in corridor.

A2
MHLIV #3

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-9 Date: 3/23/76

Ceiling: C-4 Time: 11:00 AM

Ignition Source

6.4 kg. cross piled wood crib

TIME (Min: Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00

0:15

0:18

0:25

0:30

0:33

0:42

0:57

1:00

1:10

1:23

1:42

2:20

2:30

2:35

2:45

2:55

3:02

3:15

3:50

3:58

4:45

4:50

5:32

Ignition of heptane

Flame height approxiiriacely 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Fire localized to center of crib

Flame height increased to approximately 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor

Intermittent flame impingement at ceiling

Single station ionization detector alarmed

North and west walls charred behind crib; flame impingement on wall

Noticeable heat build-up at observation window

Ignition of north wall - lateral flame spread at

ceiling level on north and west walls

Fire receded, flame height less than 1.2m (4 ft.) above floor, no further burning of heptane

Sustained burning of north and west walls

Contribution from walls increasing

Intermittent flame impingement at ceiling

Burn rate of crib increased

Lateral flame spread at ceiling 1.2 m (4 ft.) along north and

west walls

Failure of curtains on north and west walls

Noticeable increase in heat at observation window

Gas phase burning across ceiling

Burning gases .3 m (1 ft.) down from ceiling - east wall

involved

Burnthrough of north and west walls in corner Window on east wall failed

Significant accumulation of smoke

Windows cracked on north wall

Fire penetrated east windows

Period where observation difficult due to excessive

smoke and failure of lighting

11:55

12:20

12:30

Crib burning at constant rate

Sprinkler system actuated

Termination of test observations

Post Test Observations

1. Burn through of north and west walls in corner and along ceiling

of north, west and east walls.

2. West wall charred down to entrance to corridor.

3. Fire penetrated into ceiling cavity; excessive heat above ceiling

in corridor.

4. Firestopping installed in north wall did not fail.

5. No burning of floor material or sofa.

A3
MHLIV #4

Interior Finish Materials

Date: 3/30/76

Time : 11 : 00 AM

Ignition Source

6.4 kg. cross piled wood crib

Walls: W-10

Ceiling: C-4

TIME (Min:Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00

0:27

0:32

0:34

0:45

0:51

1 :04 1:27

1:34

1 :45

3:05

3:45

4:30

4:50

5:07

5:25

5:35

5:57

6:00

6:05

6:19

6:25

6:45

6:55

7:00

7:30

7:55

8:07

8:57

9:24

10:20

11 :55 12:54

14:20

15:00

Ignition of heptane

Intermittent flame height approximately 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Flame impingement of wall; surface adjacent to crib beginning to intumesce

Single station ionization detector alarmed

Intermittent flame height 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor

Walls in north-west corner charring and intumescing

Intermittent flame impingement at ceiling

Fire from crib receded

Fire localized to center of crib; nc further contribution

from heptane

Flame height steady at approximately 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Burn rate of wood crib increasing - flame height

lengthening to 1.2-1. 5 m (4-5 ft.) above floor

No visible indication of failure of intuiTiescent surface

on walls

Pin-hole failure of surface of north wall adjacent

to crib

Sustained burning of north wall in corner behind

crib

Intermittent flame height approximately 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor

Intermittent flame impingement at ceiling

Ignition of molding at ceiling - lateral flame spread at ceiling

approximately .6 m (2 ft.) along north and west walls

Burn through of north wall

Lateral fire spread 1.2 m (4 ft.) along north and west walls

at ceiling

Slight smoke accumulation at ceiling

Intumescing action extending along walls at ceiling

level

Textured surface on ceiling blistering, cracking

Failure of curtains on north and west walls

Gas phase burning across ceiling

Intensity of fire increasing

North wall completely open, burning in stud cavity

Major part of fire still localized to north-west corner; flame spread approximately 1.8 m (6 ft.) across north wall

at ceiling

Cracking of windows on east wall

Poor visibility, can only see burning crib

Noticeable increase in heat at observation window

Burn rate of crib stabilized

No failure of windows

High volume of smoke (yellow) being released out

vent above north wall

Temperature monitored above crib beginning to decrease

Flames appear to have penetrated ceiling membrane

directly above crib

A4
15:26 Termination of test observations

Post Test Observations

1. Extent of fire limited primarily to northwest corner, some burn through

of papers exposed to crib.

2. Fire extended up through stud cavity in walls and into ceiling space.

3 . Top plate burned through in corner

.

4. No apparent failure of firestopping.

5. Wall surfaces intumesced along the ceiling throughout the burn room.

MHLIV #5

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-llB Date: 4/7/76

Ceiling: C-4 Time: 1:30 PM

Ignition Source

6.4 kg. cross piled wood crib

TIME (Min; Sec) OBSERVATION/EVSNT

0:00

0:22

0:30

0:36

0:41

0:48

0:56

1:12

1:22

1:32

1:48

2:07

2:25

2:40

2:45

2:55

3:05

3:25

3:27

3:40

3:55

4:05

4:10

4:28

4:37

4:38

4:55

Ignition of heptane

Intermittent flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Intermittent flame height 1.5 m (5 ft.) above floor

Single station smoke detector alarmed

Intermittent height of 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor

Intermittent flame impingement at ceiling

Flame impingement on wall; discoloration and charring of wall

in northwest comer

Sustained flame impingement at ceiling

Heptane ignitor exhausted, flame height receding,

back corner of crib involved

Flame height less than 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Charring of wall confined to northwest corner behind

crib ' Flame height approximately 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor, burn

rate of crib appears stabilized

Ignition of north wall

Flame height lengthening due to contribution from wall;

dense black smoke accumulating at ceiling

Ignition of west wall

Lateral flame spread along walls at ceiling

Curtains fell from north and west walls

Dense smoke /distinct odor not noticed in other tests

Fire continued to northwest corner

Biirn through of west wall, burning extended into stud

cavity

Gas phase burning at ceiling

Cracking of windows on west wall

Gases burning .3 m (1 ft.) below ceiling

Increase in burn rate in corner

Gas phase burning over entire ceiling

Poor visibility due to smoke

Excessive smoke, can no longer see burning crib

A5
5:20 Zero visibility

7:15 Fire above ceiling at north end of mobile home

No test observations during this period due to excessive smoke build-up

11:15 Apparent burning behind walls in stud cavity; temperatures monitored above crib stabilizing

15:23 Actuation of sprinkler system

15:30 Termination of test observations

Post Test Observations

1. Fire localized to northwest corner.

2. Burn through of north and west walls along ceiling.

3. Some random blistering of vinyl surface on walls.

4. Some fire penetration of ceiling due to failure of west wall

along ceiling; firestopping in north wall performed adequately.

5. Failure of wall was due first to direct flame impingement,

resulting in "pin-hole" failures in the wall surface and shortly

thereafter sustained burning.

MHLIV #6

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-1 Date: 4/14/76

Ceiling: C-4 Time: 2:00 PM

Ignition Source

6.4 Kg. cross piled wood crib

TIME (Min: Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00

0:08

0:15

0:28

0:36

0:40

0:50

1 :10

1:17

1:34

1:50

2:17

3:30

3:38

4:00

5:15

5:35

7:17

Ignition of heptane

Intermittent flame height .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Intermittent flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Height of flame approaching 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor

Single station ionization detector alarmed

Intermittent flame height 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor

Flame impingement on wall and ceiling

Flame height from crib receding; molding burning in corner Ignition of wall surface (paper)

No further burning of heptane, flame height approximately 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Paper on north wall adjacent to crib still burning

Slight smoke generation - grey in color

Flame height from crib stabilized at approximately

1.4 m (4-1/2 ft.) above floor

No burning of wall or ceiling materials

Curtains rerriain as installed

Crib fire still constant at approximately 1.2 m (4 ft.)

Visibility clear, traces of ash from crib and paper

surface of wall materials throughout burn room

Slight increase in smoke, no measureable effect on visibility

A6
8:55

9:20

10:40

11:40

12:05

!

I 13:10

I 14 : 00

i

I 14:58

i 15:12

1 15:55

i

Burn rate of crib decreasing - center of crib

beginning to collapse

Smoke well mixed throughout volume of bum room - visibility into corridor still clear

Smoke emitted at joint between two wall panels on west wall adjacent to crib - poor joint resulted

in burning in stud cavity.

Flame height from crib still stable at approximately

1.2-1. 5 m (4-5 ft.) above floor

Smoke density increasing - difficulty in seeing

corridor

Slight increase in heat at observation window

Flame from crib has reduced to approximately .9 m (3 ft.)

above floor; broad flame base covering most of the

top surface of crib

Niombers on wall at 1.8 m (6 ft.) level adjacent to crib not

visible

Flame height from crib reduced to approximately

.8 m (2-1/2 ft.)

Termination of test observations

Post Test Observations

1. Fire spread localized to wall panels directly exposed to crib on north and west walls; failure of joint 152-203 mm (6-8 inches) from corner on west wall resulted in burning of studs and paper backing on glass fiber

2. No burning above ceiling; no apparent failure of ceiling membrane.

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-IIA

Ceiling: C-5

Ignition Source

6.4 kg cross piled wood crib

MHLIV #7

Date: 4/27/76

Time: 1:45 PM

TIME (Min: Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00 Ignition of heptane

0:23 Intermittent flame height 1 m (3 1/2 ft.) above floor

0:27 Flame height lengthened to approximately 1.5 (5 ft.) above

floor

0:33 Single station detector alarmed

0:38 Fire localized to crib - no flame impingement on walls

0:54 Inteirmittent flame height 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor, flame

impingement on walls resulting in charring and blistering

of walls in northwest corner

1:30 Grey smoke being released

1:48 No further burning of heptane - flame height receded

to 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

2:25 Slight accumulation of smoke - well mixed in upper part

of room

2:33 Ignition of north wall - characterized by pin hole

A7
2:35

2:45

failure of vinyl surface and the immediate release of

dense black smoke

Sustained burning of north and west walls

Dense smoke accumulation at ceiling; can no longer read

1.8 m (6 ft.) marker on west wall adjacent to crib

2:55 Sustained flame impingement at ceiling, ignition of

ceiling

3:00 Flame spread across ceiling to east wall; curtains on north and west walls down

3:18 Black smoke layer .3 - .6m (1-2 ft.) down from ceiling, gases

burning in smoke layer

3:30 Unable to read any wall markers in northwest corner

3:45 Gas phase burning across entire ceiling

4:15 Smoke layers provide no visibility at floor and

ceiling; some visibility at 1.5 m (5 ft.) above floor

4:33 No visibility

5:10 Windows breaking in north and west walls

5:15 Flashover*

5:40 Actuation of sprinkler system

5:40 Termination of test observations

Post Test Observations

1. Failure of all windows in living room.

2. Walls charged throughout living room.

3. Flame propagation extensive above ceiling.

4. Floor cover near crib burned.

* Flashover occurred between 5:10 and 5:20.

MHLIV #8

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-10 Date: 5/5/76

Ceiling: C-5 Time: 1:30 PM

Ignition Source

6.4 kg. cross piled wood crib

TIME (Min:Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00

0:16

0:30

0:33

0:37

0:44

0:48

0:55

1:15

1:16

1:30

1 :47

Ignition of hep-'cane

Intermittent flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Clock malfunctioned

Single station detector alarmed

Intermittent flame height 1.5 m (5 ft.) above floor

Intumescing on north wall adjacent to crib

Flame impingement on wall;

Intermittent flame impingement at ceiling

Constant flame impingement at ceiling

Slight lateral flame spread along north and west walls

and ceiling

No indication that walls are burning - molding ignited

at ceiling

Flame height receded to approximately 1.4 m (4-1/2 ft.), no burning heptane

A8
2:10

2:23

2:50

3:01

3:15

3:30

3:40

4:00

4:20

4:38

5:05

5:25

5:50

6:03

6:25

7:15

7:30

7:46

7:53

8:10

10:00

13:15

15:35

Pin-hole failure in surface of north wall direccly

exposed to flame from crib

Fire from crib stabilized at 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Ignition of north wall up to 1.2 m (4 ft.) marked on northwest corner

Failure of intumescent on north and west walls;

sustained burning

Smoke (grey color) accumulating in upper third of room,

no appreciable affect on visibility

Flame height extended to approximately 1.3 m (6 ft.) in corner Intermittent flame impingement at ceiling

Constant flame impingement at ceiling

Lateral flame spread at ceiling, gas phase burning;

ignition of ceiling

Burn through of north and west walls behind crib

Lateral flame spread 1.8-2. 4 m (6 to 8 ft.) along north and west

walls at ceiling

Suild-up of fire intensity in corner Curtains fell on north and west walls; smoke accumulation

from floor to ceiling

Combustible gases burning near ceiling surface

Fire still confined to northwest corner; increase in

heat at observation window

Significant reduction in visibility

Fire still confined to northwest corner Window in north wall cracked

Increased involvement of gas burning

Intensity of fire in corner increasing; visibility low

Low visibility

Increased heat at observation window

Actuation of sprinkler system, termination of test observations

MHLlV #9

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-13 Date: 5/12/76

Ceiling: C-5 Time: 1:45 PM

Ignition Source

6.4 kg cross piled wood crib

OBSSRVATION/EVENT

Ignition of heptane

Intermittent flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor; detector

alarm

Trace stroke generation from burning heptane

Intermittent flame height 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor

No noticeable flame impingement on walls

Flame height receded to approximately 1.5 m (5 ft.) above floor

Fire localized in center of crib, slight char on north

wall directly above crib

No further contribution from heptane

Flame height receded to approximately 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Flame impingement on wall, charring of north and west walls

A9

TIME (Min: Sec)

0:00

0:33

0:41

0:49

1:00

1:13

1:21

1:42

1:46

1:50
2 :00

2:40

3:00

3:15

3:22

3:33

3:41

3:47

4:00

4:08

4:28

4:45

4:50

4 :55

5:10

5:17

5:27

5:28

5:30

5:58

6:45

7:08

7:08

Flame height has receded to just under .9 m (3 ft.) above the

floor

Flame height increasing - center of fire plume elongated

to 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Ignition of north wall - flame height immediately

lengthened to 6 ft.

Intermittent flame impingement at ceiling

Ignition of west wall - lateral flame spread along

north and west walls at ceiling level

Noticeable increase in fire intensity

Ignition of molding

Flames have spread across ceiling surface

Flames have involved 3/4 of the ceiling surface - primarily gas phase

North wall fully involved along ceiling

Burn through of west wall behind crib

Gas phase burning .3 m (1 ft.) down from ceiling

Fire spread on east wall

Dense smo)ce (blaclc) resulting primarily from ignition

of ceiling

Excessive heat buildup at observation window

Gas phase burning down to 1.5 m (5 ft.) above floor

Increase in smoke obscuration

Ignition of sofa

Flashover

Fire extended out windows in north wall

Gas phase burning from floor to ceiling

Actuation of sprin)cler system

Termination of test observations

MHLlV #10

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-13

Ceiling: C-5

Ignition Source

16 kg. upholstered chair

Date: 5/25/76

Time: 1:30 PM

TIME (Min:Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00

0:05

0:17

0:19

0:27

0:33

0:48

1:04

1:15

2:10

2:18

Ignition of newsprint

Ignition of left arm of chair

Flame height approximately .8 m (2-1/2 ft.) above floor

Grey colored smoke being released from chair

Flame height lengthened to 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Flames beginning to propagate towards back of chair

Single station detector alarmed

Flame height reduced from waste can; burn-through of

exterior chair upholstery on left arm

Flame height receded to approximately .8 m (2-1/2 ft.);

low intensity

Approximately 50% of waste container has burned or melted

Flame has propagated around to front of chair impinging

on cushion

AlO
2:35

3:00

3:35

3:45

3:58

4:12

4:22

4:35

4:39

4 :45 5:00

5:08

5:14

5:18

5:40

5:40

Flame height 1 m (3-1/2 ft.) above floor - increase in area

of chair involved

Flame impingement on wall

Noticeable accux.-iulation of black smoke

Cushion becoming involved

Ignition of north wall - flame height immediately

increased to 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor; intensity of fire

increased, intermittent impingement at ceiling

Constant flame impingement at ceiling

Lateral flame spread along north and west wails at

ceiling, primarily gas phase burning

Curtains down on north and west walls

Ignition of west wall at ceiling - approximately 2/3 of

surface area of the chair involved

Flames have spread across ceiling to east wall

Gas phase burning across entire ceiling, rapid increase

in fire intensity in corner

Gas phase burning approxirrately .3 m (1 ft.) down from ceiling

Ignition of floor material

Flashover

Actuation of sprinkler system

Termination of test observations

Post Test Observations

] 1. Observation windows distorted (appeared to be drawn in towards

I fire) windows broke on east, north and west walls.

' 2. Surface of ceiling damaged throughout living room (approxirriateiy

I 144 ft^) burn through of ceiling above chair.

3. North wall burned through from floor to ceiling adjacent to waste

I container.

I 4. Burn-through of east, north and west walls along ceiling.

! 5. Ignition of floor occurred prior to flashover - 75% damage to floor,

i 6. Limited burn through of wall and ceiling materials due to rapid

I growth of fire from low intensity to flashover.

' 7. Chair developed slower than 6.4 kg crib, providing more preheat

I time

.

MHLIV #11

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-1 Date: 6/11/76

Ceiling: C-4 Time: 2:12 PM Ignition Source

16 kg. upholstered chair

TIME (Min: Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00 Activation of electric match - newsprint has not

visibly ignited

0:25 Termination ________

Ignition of newsprint

Flame height approximately .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Ignition of fabric on left arm of chair adjacent to waste container

0:00

0:20

0:25

All
0:39

1:05

1:40

2:00

2:05

2:30

2:50

2:55

3:30

4:00

4:10

4:40

4:55

4:58

5:15

5:27

5:45

6:00

6:10

6:30

7:45

8:00

8:50

9:25

9:35

9:40

10:00

10:20

10:35

10:00

10:20

10:35

10:53

10:58

11:20

11:30

11:45

12:15

12:30

13:00

13:25

14 :15

16:00

17:00

18:20

Detector alarmed

Burn-through of fabric on chair

Flames have spread across top of left arm of chair

Fabric has opened on left arm - ignition of cotton

ticking

Large particulate matter from burning newsprint

Slight flame spread towards back of chair - no impingement

on wall

50% of waste container destroyed; slight accumulation of

grey smoke at ceiling

Continued grey smoke from burning cotton in chair

Fire localized to waste container and part of left arm

of chair

Flame height lengthening - .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Flame impingement on wall

Flame height 1 m (3.5 ft.) above floor

Ignition of paper surface on north wall

Flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Intermittent flame height 1.5 m (5 ft.) above floor

Evidence of flame spread to underside of chair

North wall charred in corner; no attachment

Intermittent flame height 1.5 (5 ft.) above floor

Flame impingement on cushion

Flame height constant at 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Some flame propagation on cushion, burn through of left arm - direct flame impingement on cushion

Back of chair involved

Cushion involved - black smoke indicated involvement

of polyurethane foam

Flame height 1.5 m (5 ft.) above floor - direct impingement

on north wall

Burn rate of chair increased

Accumulation of black smoke at ceiling - both arms of

chair involved

Flame height 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor - increased

fire intensity in corner

Drapes falling on north and west walls; flames

intermittently impinging on ceiling

Initial lateral fire spread along ceiling

Flame height 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor - increased fire

intensity in corner Drapes falling on north and west walls; flames

intenrdttently impinging on ceiling

Initial lateral fire spread along ceiling

Lateral flame spread .9-1.2 m (3-4 ft.) along

north and wesc walls at ceiling

Sustained burning of right arm of chair

Lateral flame spread 1.8-2. 4 m (6-8 ft.) along north and

west walls at ceiling

Visible crack in north wall

Excessive accumulation of black smoke

Visibility reduced significantly

Fire still localized to corner - direct flame

impingement on north wall

Visibility negligible at floor - intense flame

exposure on north wall

Smoke from ceiling to floor

Fire still localized in northwest corner, excessive

heat at observation window

Flames localized to right arm of chair, partial

collapse of structure of chair

No sustained burning of carpet

Flame height receded to less than 1.2 m (4 ft.)

Termination of test observations

A12
Post Test Observations

1. Fire localized to northwest corner.

2. Paper ignited on first panels on north and west walls; paper surface

burned off ceiling directly above fire.

3. No involvement of furnishings or newspaper flashover indicators in

burn room

.

4. Floor cover charred in immediate area of ignition.

MHLIV #12

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-12 Date: 7/28/76

Ceiling: C-5 Time: 11:00 AM

Ignition Source

16 kg. upholstered chair

TIME (Min: Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

' 0:00

j 0:30

! 0:54

0:55

0:58

1:00

1:05

1:15

1:30

1:45

1:55

2:45

1

' 2:50

3:40

' 3:50

' 4:05

4:30

4:40

4:45

4 :48 4:50

I 5:05

5:25

5:30

' 5:48

! 6:15

6:20

6:23

6:25

6:30

6:31

6:50

6:56

7:00

Ignition

Slight charring on left arm of chair

Flame height approximately .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Ignition of curtain

Curtain melting away

Flame height approximately .3 m (1 ft.) above left arm of chair

Burn-through of fabric on left arm of chair

Smoke detector alarmed

Flame height approximately .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Chair charred on left side

Flame height approximately .6 m (2 ft.) above floor

Waste container melted down approximately 25%

Slight amount of grey smoke being given off by chair

Some charring on wall from waste container

Some grey smoke being emitted from wall

Approximately 0.1 m^ (1 sq. ft.) of char on wall from waste can Sustained burning of left arm of chair

Increase of charring on north wall

Waste can 90% melted

Fire spreading underneath chair

Waste can completely melted - open burning (on floor)

of newsprint

Flame impingement on chair cushion

Fire still primarily confined to newsprint and left arm of chair

Flame impingement on wall

Flame height increasing to above left arm of chair

Char area on wall increasing - smoke being emitted

from this area Flame height approximately .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Ignition of wall

Flame height approximately 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Flame height approximately 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor

Intermittent impingement on ceiling

Burn through of wall into stud cavity

Fire still localized on left side of chair

Complete involvement of first panel on north wall

A13
7:02

7:12

7:24

7:30

7:35

7:38

7:50

7:58

8:07

8:08

8:14

8:16

8:20

8:20

8:22

8:26

8:29

9:05

9:10

9:25

9:30

Smoke being emitted out exterior of north wall

Lateral flame propagation approximately 1,2-1. 5 m (4-5 ft), along

north and west walls

Lateral flame propagation approximately 1.8 m (6 ft.) across

north wall

Gas phase burning approximately .5m (1 1/2 ft.) below

ceiling

Lateral propagation 2.4-3 m (8-10 ft.) across west wall

Burning of back of chair

Smoldering of newsprint (flashover indicator) on coffee table

Full involvement (including cushion) of chair in corner

Smoke being emitted out living room door

Windows in north and west walls crack

Ignition of newsprint (flashover indicator) on end

table

Ignition of flashover indicator on coffee table

Ignition of sofa

Flashover

Windows in east wall crack

Gas phase burning approximately .9m (3 ft.) below ceiling

Involvement of furnishings

Sprinkler syscem activated - termination of test observations

Sprinkler system shut down

Sprinkler system reactivated

Sprinkler system shut down

Post Test Observations

1. Burn through of north wall from floor to ceiling in area of left arm

of chair.

2. Burning of studs and insulation in area of left arm of cliair.

3. Charring of all 4 walls at ceiling level.

4. West wall charred from ceiling to .6m (2 ft.) mark beginning at northwest

corner and extending to north edge of sofa. Char area decreases

starting at north edge of sofa but extends into corridor.

5. Peeling of surface plies of lauan wall vertically from ceiling

down .8m (2 1/2 ft.), horizontally from northwest corner to south end

of sofa.

6. Surface of ceiling damaged throughout entire burn room and down

approximately 1.5 m (5 ft.) into corridor.

7. Newsprint flashover indicators on north end table and coffee table

both ignited.

8. Damage to all furnishings in burn room.

9. Damage to carpet throughout entire burn roomi. Carpet shrunk away

from walls in some locations.

10. Cracking of windows in north, west and east walls.

A14
MHLIV #13

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-14 Date: 8/18/76

Ceiling: C-6 Time: 11:00 AM

Ignition Source

6.4 kg. cross piled wood crib

TIME (Min:Sec) OBSERVAT lON/EVENT

0:00

0:11

0:27

0:31

0:39

0:43

0:53

0:57

1:03

1:06

1:08

1:14

1:16

1:24

1 :31 1:38

1:45

1:47

2:01

3:03

3:22

3:50

4:00

4:20

4:47

5:00

5:25

5:45

6:20

6:25

6:52

7:30

7:45

8:47

9:00

9:25

9:30

10:00

Ignition

Center of crib involved

Flame height at 1.2m (4 ft.)

Smoke Detector alarmed

Flame height at 1.5 m (5 ft.)

Impingement of flame on north wall

Intermittent flame impingement at ceiling

Charring of north wall in corner, ignition of paper

surface

Flame impingement at ceiling

Slight discoloration of ceiling

Charring of north and west walls

Ignition of molding at ceiling

Some gas phase burning at ceiling

Some charring at ceiling, .6-. 9 m (2-3 ft.) from corner Flame height at 1.2 m (4 ft.)

Batten strip is burning at ceiling

Heptane has burned out

Flame height from crib approximately 1 m (3 1/2 ft.) above floor

Part of the burning batten strip fell to floor

Flame height approximately 1.4 m (4 1/2 ft.)

Biorning of paper on north wall

Flame still localized in corner

Still some glowing on ceiling batten strip; however,

no indication of further involvement

Some burning in ceiling cavity above ceiling material

Paper has burned off the wall in northwest corner Flame height approximately 1.4 m (4 1/2 ft.)

Continued burning in ceiling cavity of back side of

ceiling material

Living room is saturated with grey colored smoke, however

west wall is still clearly visible

Flame height approximately 1.4 m (4 1/2 ft.)

,

localized to northwest corner Continued burning in c'eiling cavity of back side of

ceiling material

Smoke being emitted out vent in ceiling

Brief flaming on exposed side of ceiling

Flame height from ignition source approximately 1.2m

(4 ft.) above floor

Brief flaming on exposed side of ceiling

Flame height stabilized at 1.2 m (4 ft.); is no longer

contributing to the spread of the fire

Second ceiling panel from corner beginning to crack and break up

Burning of gases at ceiling level

Visibility decreasing - 1.8 m (6 ft.) mark on west wall no longer visible

Burning of batten strip at ceiling level

A15

10:23
10:35

10:54

11:30

13:00

13:05

13:10

13:20

13:50

15:40

16:10

16:20

16 :30

17:35

18:40

Flaming of ceiling material now exposed

Nothing is visible in the living room except the crib

and the burning in the ceiling

Grey smoke being emitted from vent on roof of the

mobile home

Noticeable increase in radiation at observation

window (at floor level)

Flames moving at ceiling level toward east wall

Entire first ceiling panel is open - burning on exposed and unexposed sides

Flames at ceiling are .6-. 9 m (2-3 ft.) from ease wall

Free burning above ceiling visible through opening

in ceiling at north wall

Smoke being emitted from roof vent at south end of

mobile home

Fire still freely burning in ceiling cavity

No indication of any window failures

Fire burning in the roof vent space in the eave

of the north wall

Continued free burning in ceiling cavity at north

end of mobile home

Termination of test observations

Post Test Observations

1. Damage to walls localized to northwest corner. There was no burn-through

.

2. Bum-through of ceiling at north end of mobile home.

3. Burning of unexposed side of ceiling material at north, end of

mobile home.

4. Discoloration of exposed side of ceiling material throughout

most of living room.

5. Extensive damage to studding and insulation in ceiling cavity at north end of mobile home.

6. No damage to sofa or other furnishings

.

MHLIV #14

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-12 Date: 8/31/76

Ceiling: C-6 Time: 12:00 noon

Ignition Source

16 kg. upholstered chair

TIME (Min: Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00 Ignition

0:14 Burning of curtains near waste can

0:19 Ignition of chair on left side

0:22 Flame height approximately .6 m (2 ft.)

0:32 Smoke being emitted from arm of chair

1:45 Smoldering along left side of chair - no additional

flame propagation

2:30 Flame height approximately .9 m (3 ft.)

A16
2:40

3:15

3:25

4:00

4:05

4:06

4:20

4:27

5:20

5:25

5:37

5:50

6:20

6:25

6:35

6:42

6:55

7:10

7:12

7:20

7:22

7:25

7:29

7:35

7:36

7:44

7:50

8:04

9:10

9:15

9:30

10:20

Increased burning of waste can

Flame height approximately .6-. 9 m (2 1/2-3 1/2 ft.) above

floor, left side of chair becoming slightly more involved

Charring of wall approximately ,3m (1 ft.) above floor

opposite waste can Flame height approximately 1.2 m (4 ft.)

Waste can collapsed

Entire left side of chair involved

Flame height approximately 1.2m (4 ft.) ; flame impingement on wall

Char area on wall increasing in size

Plies are beginning to separate in plywood

Char area approximately .2 m^ (2 sq. ft.)

Flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) - contribution is still primarily

from the chair

Ignition of wall at the .6 m (2 ft.) mark

Flame height approximately 1.4 m (4 1/2 ft.)

Flame height approximately 1.5 m (5 ft.)

Smoke accurriulating in upper part of room - 1.8 m (6 ft.) marker

no longer visible

Flame impingement at ceiling

Flame front moving away from corner at ceiling level

Flame spread 1.2-1. 8 m (4-6 ft.) from corner in both directions

at ceiling

Gas phase burning .6 m (2 ft.) down from ceiling

Chair cushion involved

Flames completely across north wall

Flame spread to 3 m (10 ft.) mark on west wall

Gas phase burning throughout burn room

Top surface of chair fully involved

Newsprint ignited on end table

Newsprint ignited on coffee table

Ignition of sofa

Flashover

Flames out north end of mobile home

Burning in the ceiling cavity throughout north end

of mobile home

Smoke being emitted from south end of mobile home

Activation of sprinkler system; termination of test observations

Post Test Observations

1. Second hand of clock malf\inctioned during test - clock may not be

accurate in photographs.

2. Involvement of wall materials throughout the burn room.

3. Charring of carpeting throughout the bxxrn room.

4. Charring and burning of both corridor walls down approximately as far as the door of bedroom No. 1 (master bedroom).

5. Damage to ceiling throughout the living room; involvement of all

furnishings in the living room; distortion of the observation windows.

A17
MHLIV #15

Interior Finish Materials

Date: 10/21/76

Time: 3:45 PM

Ignition Source

6.4 kg. cross piled wood crib

Walls: W-16

Ceiling: W-16

TIME (Min: Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00

0:15

0:29

0:30

0:40

0:47

0:55

1:00

1:15

1:30

1:35

1:45

1 ;48 2:00

2:17

2 :30

3:00

3:00-8:00

8:00

8:30

9:00

9:00-13:00

13:00

13:30

13:50

14 :00 14:30

15:00

15:30

15:40

16:45

17:20

17:35

17:55

19:05

19:25

20:00

Ignition

Flame height approximately 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Smoke detector activated

Flame height approximately 1.2 m - 1.4 m (4-4 1/2 ft.)

above floor

Flame height approximately 1.5 m (5 ft.) above floor

Intermittent flame impingement on wall

Flame height approximately 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor

Flame height approximately 1.8 m (6 ft.) above floor

Flame impingement on ceiling

Flame impingement on ceiling

Flames receeding from ceiling

Flame height 1.2-1. 4 m (4-4 1/2 ft.) above floor

Heptane burned out - crib continued to burn

Flame height .9-1.2 m (3 1/2-4 ft.) above floor

Flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

No appreciable change in conditions or size of fire

Flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor, no significant change

in visibility

Flame height .9-1.2 m (3 1/2-4 ft.) above floor

Flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

No appreciable change

Flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Crib beginning to collapse in center

Flame height 1.2 m (4 ft.) above floor

Flame height 1 m (3 1/2 ft.) above floor

Flame height 1 rr. (3 1/2 ft.) above floor

Flame height 1 rn (3 1/2 ft.) above floor

Flame height 1 m (3 1/2 ft.) above floor, flame more yellow,

not as intense

Flame height 1 m (3 1/2 ft.) above floor

Flame height .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Flame height .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Flame height .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Flame height 152-203 mm (6-8 in.) above top of crib

(approximately .6 m (2 ft.) above floor)

Crib has collapsed throughout the center

Termination of test observations

A18
MHLIV #16

Interior Finish Materials

Walls: W-16 Date: 9/28/76

Ceiling: w-16 Time: 2:30 PM

Icmition Source

16 kg. upholstered chair

TIME (Min:Sec) OBSERVATION/EVENT

0:00

0:20

0:43

0:53

1:00

1:15

1:35

1:45

2:10

2:15

2:35

2:45

2:55

3:35

4 :10

4 :45 5:25

5:35

6:10

7:00

8:00

8:30

8:45

9:30

10:00

11:00

11:45

12:05

13:00

13:30

14:10

14:30

15:00

15:25

Ignition of newsprint

Flame impingement on left arm of chair

Smoke detector alarmed

Waste can (polyethylene) melting

Flame height .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Slight flame propagation along left arm of chair

Waste container 50% melted

Flame height approximately 152 mm (6 inches) on left arm of chair

Slight involvement of polyurethane foam

Increased involvement of left arm of chair; flame size

increased to 229 mm (9 in.) along arm Waste container totally destroyed

Flame height approximately .9m (3 ft.) above floor (.3 m

high on chair arm)

Initial burn through of left arm of chair, some exposure

of chair cushion to intermittent flaine

Significant amount of left side of chair involved

Flames have propagated around towards front of chair, flame

impingement on wall

Flamie height .3 m (1 ft.) above arm of chair

Flames propagating towards back of chair

Flame height approximately 1 m (3.5 ft.) above floor

Flame attachment to seat cushion -102 mm - (4 in.) flame height

Increased exposure of seat cushion from burning along

left arm

Some accumulation of smoke particulate - no noticeable

reduction in visibility

Increase in smoke generationFlames propagating along front of chair

Flames have propagated under seat cushion; flame height

approximately .9 m (3 ft.) above floor

Dilution of grey colored smoke throughout room Approximately 1/2 of surface of seat cushion (left

side) involved; flame height 1 m (3.5 ft.) above floor and

noticeable increase in fire intensity

Marker at 1.8 m (6 ft.) location on north and west walls in

the corner no longer visible

Seat cushion is 3/4 involved - flame height increased

to 1.7-1. 8 m (5.5-6 ft.)

Visibility poor; flame envelop appears to be intermittently impinging on ceiling

Ignition of right arm of chair; flames at ceiling

Marker at 1.5 m (5 ft.) level not visible

Marker at 1.2 m (4 ft.) level not visible

Total involvement of back of chair; seat cushion

nearly consumed

Noticeable increase in temperature at observation

window

A19
15:40 Maximum intensity of chair fire appears to have been

reached

16:45 Involvement of chair primarily on right side

17:30 Marker at .9m (3 foot) level no longer visible

18:30 Noticeable decay in fire intensity

20:00 Termination of test observations

A20
APPENDIX B. PLOTTED TEST DATA ILLUSTRATING KEY CHANGES

IN VARIOUS MEASURED CONDITIONS

TEM(*£RATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPfRAlVRE

(DEG

C)

ms (seoomcs)

0 200 3fOO 400 S@0 000 700 800 900 lOOO 1100 1200

B2. Gae Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured In Center of I. Ivins' Hoorn

B1

IMClOENT

FLUX

(W/CM®)

maOENT

FLUX

(W/Ch^j
1000

Tim£ (SIlCOKCS) 100 200 )00 400 SOO 600 700 BOO SOO 1 1—I—I

1—I

1 ;

;—I—I—I—I—I I I t

I

900 taoo -

700 !“

1000 —I1)00 —I12C0 —1&-0

TEMP AHO KEAT FLUX. DV RW. TCST 3

TC 13 - 2S MM SELC5W CElUi4C TC ia - 25 MM ASOWE FLCXW: MO 1 - floor UlVEL

1 i

J

&00 j -C

y 500 r

400 ^^.Q

300

200

liOO

J L J ^ L.

-IJ

-] i .0

1 ! 3.C 400 SOO SOO 7S3 lOGO 1100 1200 TMC (SCCC»LOS)

G!iO(; SOO

B3. Gas Temperature and Incident Heat flux Xeaaured in Center of Living Room

IQ&O

700 r

tut a

P

400

200 !-

I 100 !-

ICO 200 300 tlPPEEO TSeE (SCCOAOS)

400 50C SCO 700 SCO SOO ICOO 1100

i 1 f 1 ) ^ )

1 r-—1r \ i 1 ! : 1 1 1i

1 r

i n

-

TEMP AWO HLaT flux. UV ^14. TEST 4

TC 13 - 26 li5M SELDW CDUfsG — TC 18 25 iSM ASOvE FLOOR

RAO 1 - Floor level

J

-

~ -

“ i

— -i - J

-

1 i

) 1

-1J

I "1

-i

, , , J

lOO 2CO 30D too SCO SOO 700 eupsco rs4c (sacoMOS) SCO SOO 1000

1200&-0

-4.D

^3-0

2.0

I .0

3q,0

1130 1200

B4. Gaa Teiaperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured in Center of Living Room

32

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/CM")

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/C>/)
TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(0£C

C)

!

B5, Gas Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured in Center of Living Room

iOOO

900

800

700

600

SCO -

400 -

300 -

200

100 H

100 —I

200 —I

300 —I

£LA?'SED TaiE (SECOWOS) 400 SCO 600 700 1—I—i—

r

t i i r SCO —I

1000 —S liOO i2CiO

i—I— —15-0

r

TEMP AMO f€AT FLUX. LiV fiSaS, H3T 6 TC 13 - 25 MM cause

TC 16 - 23 MM ASefVE FLOOR

RAO 1 - FLOOR level i4.0

3.0

0^0

t^^aeisamJm i. -i 1 L. 100 200 30C 400 sac SOG 7QC ELAPSEO ruZ (SEQ34C5) 600 see loco uao

12.0

Mi.O

. -JQ.G 1200

B6. Gas Teaperature and Incident Keat Flux Measured in Center of Living Room

B3

INCIDENT

FLUX

[Vrf/CM*}

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/C*/)
TEMPERATVJRI

(OEO

C)

TCmPERATuRC

(0£C C)

£LM>S£0 TMC (SECONDS)

B7. Gas Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured in Center of Living Room

100 —I

200 —r~

300 —r~

ELAPSED TtUC (SECO^CS) 400 SOO ^0 700 T

i—^—i—

r

1—I—

r

BOO —r~600 T—

r

1000 —I

1100

T

1 T 1200 -^6.0

400

300 !-

too

TEUS* AND f€AT FLUX. UV RM. TEST &

TC 13 - 2S MU KLOW CeUWC — TC 18 - 23 Mfat ASOliC FlOOj* RAO 1 - Floor level 4.0

400 eoo 600 7Q9

ELAPSED VUi£ (SECOSVDS) 800 900 1000

B8. Gas Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured in Center of Living Room

B4

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/C^f)

IMClOEMT

FLUX

(W/CM‘)
TEMPCRAnJUE

(OEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

ELAPSED TWE (SECONDS)

ELAPSED TMC (SECONDS)

B9. Gaa Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured In Center of Living Room

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

BIO. Gas Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured In Center of Living Room

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/CM*)

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/CM*)
TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

0 lOO 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 000 BOO 1000 1100 1200

Bll. Gas Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured In Center of Living Room

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

B12. Gas Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured In Center of Living Room

B6

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/CM*)

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/CM*)
temperature

(DEC

C)

^

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

B13. Gas Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured In Center of Living Room

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO BOO 700 SOO BOO 1000 1100 1200

B14. Gas Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured In Center of Living Room

B7

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/CM*)

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/Cl/)
TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(OEC

C)

EUM»SCD TWE (SECONDS)

B15. Gas Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured In Center of Living Room

1000

100 —I200 —I300 —I—

ELAPSED TWE (SECONDS) 400 SCO 600 700 "T T T “T T ~r T

eoo —r~

soo —I— lOOO —I

1100 —I— 1200S-0

4.0

900 -

800 -

700 -

600

500 -

400 -

300 -

200 -

100 -

TEMP AND HEAT FLUX. UV RM. TEST 16

TC 13 - 2S MM BCIjOW COUNC

TC 16 - 23 MM A80VE FLOOR

RAO 1 - floor LEVEL

~i—

r

100 200 300 400 SOO 800 700

ELAPSED TIME (SECONDS) 600 900 1000

3-0

2.0

1 -0

0.0

1100 1200

B16, Gas Temperature and Incident Heat Flux Measured In Center of Living Room

B8

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/Cfc^)

INCIDENT

FLUX

(W/CM*)
CONCENTTWTION

OR

DEPLETION

(Pa

Bv

VOL)

B17, Gae Temperature, CO and CO^ (2 Concentration), and 0^ (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

ELAPSED TIME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO 800 700 800 BOO 1000 1100 1200

B18. Gas Temperature, CO and CO

2 (Z Concentration), and 0^ (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

B9

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)
concentration

or

depletion

(PCT

rr

VOl)

C0NC£NTRAT)0N

or

depletion

(PCT

by

vOl)

elapsed TMC (SECONDS)

0 100 zoo 300 400 SOO 600 700 BOO 800 1000 1100 1200

B19. Cas Temperature, CO and CO^ (% Concentration), and 0^ (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

0 100 ZOO 300 400 SOO 600 700 BOO BOO 1000 1100 1200

B20. Gas Temperature, CO and CO^ (% Concentration), and 0^ (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

BIO

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEG

C)
CONCENTRATtON

0«

DEPLETION

(PCT

BY

vOL)

C0NCENTRATX)N

OR

DEPLETION

(PCT

BY

VOL)

ELAPSED TRIE (SECONDS)

0 lOO 200 300 400 SOO SOO 700 BOO 800 1000 1100 12001000

900

BOO

700

600

SOO

400

300

200

SOO

0 0 100 200 300 400 600 BOO 700 BOO 900 1000 1100 1200

ELAPSED TRIE (SECONDS)

B21. Gas Temperature, CO and CO^ (% Concentration), and O

2 (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 BOO 800 1000 1100 1200

B22. Gas Temperature, CO and CO^ (% Concentration), and 0, (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

Bll

temperature

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)
CONCENTHATtON

0«

DEPLETION

(PCT

BY

vOL)

COnCENTRaTX)N

OR

DEPLETION

(PCT

BY

VOL)

ELM>SED T»«E (SECONDS)

B23. Gas Temperature, CO and CO

2 (% Concentration)^ and O

2 (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 BOO SOO 1000 1100 1200

B12

TEMPERATURE

(DEG

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEG

C)
B25. Gas Temperature, CO and CO

2 (% Concentration), and 0 (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

^

ELAPSED TMC (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO SOO 700 800 800 1000 1100 1200

B26. Gas Temperature, CO and CO

2 (% Concentration), and O

2 (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

B13

TtMPQRATURE

(DEC

C>

TEMPERATURE

(DEG

C)
CONC£NTl^ArtON

OS

OEPimON

(PCT

*Y

vOl)

£|>PS£0 TMC (SECONDS)

B27. Cas Temperature, CO and CO

2 (% Concentration), and 0^ (% Depletion)

Measured In Center of Living Room

EUkPKD TIME (SECONDS)

0 IQO 200 900 400 SOO 800 700 BOO 000 1000 1100 1200

B28. Gas Temperature, CO and CO^ (% Concentration), and O

2

( 7- Depletion) Measured in Center of Living Room

B14

TEMPCRATURC

(DEC

C)
COHCENTRATON

OK

OEPlCDON

(«rr

»Y

VOL)

B29. Gas Tenperature, CO and CO

2

( 7> Concentration), and 0^ (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

ooLUo

B30. Gas Temperature, CO and CO^ (% Concentration), and 0^ (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

B15

TEMPERATURE

(DEG

C)
a>PSEO TMC (StCONOS)

B31. Gas Temperature, CO and CO

2 (% Concentration), and O

2 (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

elapsed TME (SECONDS)

ELAPSED TUC (SECONDS)

B32. Gas Temperature, CO and CO

2 (t Concentration), and 0^ (% Depletion) Measured In Center of Living Room

B16

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)
7S000 ^

60000

i 4S000 o

p

5

o0 30000

s

I 15000 p

0

B33. CO (% Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation (ppm^‘°^^ min), and 0 Depletion

Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door. ^

75000 [

u

60000 - r

2

Q,

(L

§45000 - O

P

3o 30000

^16000

P

0

lB34.

ELAPSEO DMC (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 600 900 1000 1100 1200

CO (% Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation (ppm^'*^^^ min), and 0 Depletion Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door. ^

B17

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)
T1HC-RATE0

CO

ACCOMOLADON

(WN

•

PPM'**)

TIkC-RATEO

CO

ACCUMULATION

(MIN

TSOOO

60000 -

A 5000 II

»-

soooo -

16000 -

0 *-

B35.

ELAPSCO TIME (SECONDS)

75000 r

5000 -

soooo I16000 h

0 L

ELAPSEO TtkC (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SCO 600 700 000 900 lOOO 1100 1200

B36. CO (”{ Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation (ppm^‘^^^ min), and 0 Depletion

Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door.

^

B18

TEMPERATURE

(OEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEG

C)
7SOOO r

SOOOO - r

s

§46000

O

P

3

U SOOOO

$

^16000

0

>-

R37. CO (% Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation min), and 0, Depletion Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door. ^

7SOOO

60000 -

§45000

O

P

3

z>H SOOOO -

^16000

P

B38.

ElAPSEO nhC (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 BOO 800 lOOO nOO 1200

CO (% Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation (ppm^‘*^^^ min), and O

2 Depletion Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door

.

B19

TEMPCK4TUBE

(DEC

C)

TEMPEJ^TURE

(DEC

C)
0 •sooo r

60000 - r

s ;

|4&000 r

C- I o

p

3

O 30000

S

I 16000 I- I

0 L

B39.

ELAPSED TH(C (SECONDS)

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 600 000 1000 1100 1200

CO (4 Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation (ppm^'^^^ min), and 0 Depletion

Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door. ^

75000 r

60000 - r

?

-

§45000 i8

$

^16000 -

0

ELAPSED DME (SECOOS)

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 600 000 lOOO 1100 1200

B40. CO (% Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation (ppm^'°^^ min), and 0 Depletion

Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door, ^ B20

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)
t)»c-rate:o

CO

ACCoMumnoN

(mn

•

pp«'“)

tiic-rateo

co

accumulation

(min

0 15000 r

60000 - r

I

1 6000

soooo

16000

0

>-

B41

.

ELAPSED TIME (SECONDS)

too 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 800 800 1000 1100 1200

CO (% Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation min), and 0

^ Depletion Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door.

15000 r

60000 -

Ih

45000 -

r

h

90000 -

ISOOO -

0

*-

ELAPSED DME (SECOM3S)

1.036 B42. CO (% Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation (ppm Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door. min), and 0^ Depletion

TEMP£J«ATUPE

(OEC

C)

TEMPCPATUNE

(OEC

C)
0 ’5000 r

60000 - r

i

§45000

0

P5

1u 30000

2

•15000 I

0 L

ELAPSED time (SECONDS)

B43. CO (% Concentration) , Time-Rated CO Accumulation (ppm ' min) , and 0^ Depletion

Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door.

7 5000 r

60000 r

i

§45000

^

30000

15000

0

lELAPSEO DME (SECONDS)

0 IGO 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 000 1000 1100 1200

BAA. CO (% Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation (ppra^’^^^ min), and 0 Depletion

Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door.

B22

7EMPERATUBE

(OEC

C)

TEMPEJ4ATJRE

(DEC

C)
T1I€

-RATED

CO

ACCUMULATION

(MN

•

PPU’H

T»€-RATEO

CO

ACCUMULATION

(MIN

TSOOO r

60000 - r

t

IMOO -

0 L

B45.

ELAPSED TIME (SECONDS)

’SOOO r

60000 -

4SOOO -

30000 -

18000 -

0 •-

EA6.

ELAPSED TIME (SECONDS)

CO (% Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation min), and 0 Depletion Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door. ^

B23

TEMPERATURE

(DEG

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEG

C)
0 Tsooo r

60000 - r

f ;

§45000 -

^SOOOO

^16000

P

BA7.

ELAPSED TIME (SECONDS)

’5000

|-

h

60000 - r

i 4 5000 o

p

3

^30000

.*15000 -

B48.

ELAPSED TIliJE (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

CO (% Concentration), Time-Rated CO Accumulation (ppm^’^^^ min), and 0., Depletion

Measured Just Beyond the Back Exit Door.

B24

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)
B49. Smoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit door

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

B50. Smoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

B25

SMOKE

DENSITY

(OD/M)

SMOKE

DENSITY

(00/M)
SMOKE

OCNSmr

(00/M)

SMOKE

MNSmr

(00/M)

ELA/>SEO TMC (SECONDS)

B51. Snolie Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 BOO 900 LOOO 1100 1200

B52. Smoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

B26

SMOKE

DENSITY

(OD/M)

SMOKE

DENSITY

(OD/M)
SMOKE

OENStTY

(00/M)

_

SMOKE

OENSTTir

(00/M)

B53. ScDoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO COO 700 000 BOO 1000 1100 1200

B54. Smoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

B27

SMOKE

DENSITY

(00/M)

SMOKE

DENSITY

(00/M)
ELAPSED TMC (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 600 000 1000 1100 1200

ELAPSED TMC (SECONDS) '

B55. Smoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

ELAPSED TMC (SCCONOS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

B56. Smoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

B28

SMOKE

DENSITY

(OD/M)

SMOKE

DENSITY

(00/M)
SMOKE

DENSITY

(00/M)

_

DENSITY

(00/M)

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 BOO BOO 1000 1100 1200

B57. Smoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

B58. Smoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

B29

SMOKE

DENSITY

(OD/M)

SA40KE

DENSITY

(OD/M)
ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 900 400 600 600 700 BOO 900 lOOO UOO 1200

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

B59. Smoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 900 400 600 600 700 800 900 lOOO 1100 1200

Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

B30

SMOKE

DENSITY

(00/M)

SMOKE

DENSITY

(OD/M)
SMOKC

DENSITY

(00/M)

SMOKE

OENSlTY

(00/M)

ELM*SCO TMC (SEXONOS)

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

B61. S«olte Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

ELM>SCD TMC (SECONDS)

B62. Smoke Density (OD/m) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

B31

SMOKE

OENSlTY

(00/M)

SMOKE

OENSlTY

(00/M)
SM^E

OEN^

-

SMOKE

DENSTTr

(00/M)

ELAPSED TME (SGCONOS)

0 100 TOO 300 400 SOO 000 700 000 900 1000 1100 1200

B63. Snoke Density (OD/b) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

B64. Smoke Density (OD/ra) Measured at the Entrance to Corridor from Living Room and Just Beyond Back Exit Door

B32

SMOKE

OENSTTY

(OD/M)

DENSITY

(00/M)
TEMPeRATURC

(OEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

ELAPSED Tine (SECONDS)

B65. Comparison of Gas Temperature Measured Near the Celling In the Center of the Living Room for Selected Tests

ELAPSED TMC (SECONDS)

0 too 200 900 400 SOO 600 700 BOO SOO 1000 1100 1200

ELAPSED TMC (SECONDS)

B66, Comparison of Gas Temperature Measured Near the Celling In the Center of the Living Room for Selected Tests

B33

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C>

TEMPERATURE

(OEC

C)
TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

ELAPSED TIME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 BOO 900 1000 1100 1200

B67. Comparison of Gas Temperature Measured Near the Celling In the Center of the Living Room for Selected Tests

ELAPSED TME (SECONDS)

B68. Comparison of Gas Temperature Measured Near the Ceiling in the Center of the Living Room for Selected Tests

B34

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)
TEMreRATUHE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

B69. CcMiparlson of Gas Teaperature Measured Near the CelllnR In the Center of the Living Room for Selected Tests

ELAPSED TMC (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO 800 700 000 BOO 1000 UOO 1200

B70. Comparison of Gas Temperatures Near Celling at Entrance to Corridor

from Living Room for Selected Tests

B35

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C>

TEMPERATURE

(DEG

C)
TEMPI3WT0RE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERAnjRE

(DEC

C)

ELAPSCO TME (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 SOO 800 700 BOO BOO 1000 1100 1200

B71. Comparison of Gas Temperatures Near Celling at Entrance to Corridor

from Living Room for Selected Tests

ELAPSED TIME (SECONDS)

from Living Room for Selected Tests

B36

temperature

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)
TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)

B73. Comparison of Gas Temperatures Near Ceiling at Entrance to Corridor

from Living Room for Selected Tests

ELAPSED TWE (SECONDS)

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

B74. Comparison of Gas Temperatures Near Ceiling at Entrance to Corridor

from Living Room for Selected Tests

B37

TEMPERATURE

(DEC

C)
% »34v.

».» <^si K5«

'JtXi Bue ' W ' Qtt(

i^.r ^ ji**’-

fc tSBd ., E

'.<1. .ll?y

y -If afij, ^

Tnfci^l*^ t t »5(MWjj»S .»*

H

^

< i%in^t* . j««. V>^y<i ji

'

'' ^** I**'

*t:l'> " ii^A'ii i>, ajygel»>*^'\

i*» *" »ti*i»i»in ^

‘ ' AiM &i^ 430^" UVft ^ «W7TV»/r.^ ;m-- M'< i». Vt"^

"

.

^ WISwBSE’" = '^y

t»l’ B0«3f 1J*JVJJ'flO'jl . - ^3PW^' Kli . - _.f . :. ^‘: : • •«:.;< ' *--***»«

ii h ~li ~ •* -- 1

-

|i Jill ^^ IJ|

l ^ |^% _ |*lll - n ~ ~-ri T^V^ - rftlAi 1 - ]’t~~t^-T1t‘^V^ "~- ~> ~1f~ ~

|

* - ' "An Wf '' :*' '^'^-'i^ -

^ ,_ 4»t- Oil

^

oii%^ - uen <M») :'. 9|« 6«a .

' ‘>5’*^' ^ .oor :*' ‘•'^^'H;'’ 0005 p

-,-t
APPENDIX C. PHOTOGRAPHIC SEQUENCES OF FIRE BUILDUP

FOR SELECTED TESTS

Photographs 1 through 7 illustrate fire

build-up and resulting damage in Test ill with 4 mm thick prefinished lauan plywood

walls and 13 mm thick cellulosic fiber

ceiling.

Photo 1. Flame localized in center of wood

crib (37 sec. elapsed).

Photo 2. Ignition of wall material (1:44 min.

elapsed)

.

Cl

Photo 3. Extension of flame towards ceiling

(2:45 min. elapsed).
Photo 4. Advanced flame propagation across

ceiling (3:19 min. elapsed).

Photo 5. Initial phase of room flashover

(3:27 min. elapsed).

Photo 6. Damage in comer; illustrates

bum-through to exterior and damage to structural members and insulation.

Photo 7. Illustrates extent of damage in living room including sofa which ignited during flashover. C2
Photographs 8 through 14 Illustrate fire

build-up and damage occurring in Test #2

with 4 mm thick prefinished lauan walls and

8 mm thick prefinished gypsum board ceiling.

Photo 8. Initial burning of wood crib (10 sec. elapsed)

.

Photo 9. Involvement of wall material and

extension of flame towards celling (50 sec. elapsed)

.

C3

Photo 10. Flame Impingement at ceiling (1:30 min.

elapsed)

.
Photo 11. Increased involvement of walls and

lateral propagation of flames along the ceiling.

(2:38 min. elapsed)

Photo 12. Burning of upper walls along celling

(3:31 min. elapsed).

Photo 13. Illustrates damage in comer including bum-through of walls and charring

of structural members.

C4

Photo 14. Illustrates damage in living room. Ceiling has been removed to observe the extent

of damage.
Photographs 15 through 21 illustrate fire

build-up and damage occurring in Test #4

with 4 mm thick fire retardant treated walls

and 8 mm thick prefinished gypsum board

ceiling.

Photo 15. Initial burning of wood crib (13 sec. elapsed)

.

Photo 16. Fire localized to burning wood crib.

Charred area in comer indicates intumescing of surface treatment (3:35 min. elapsed).

Photo 17. Burning of molding in comer; flame

extension to ceiling. (4:01 min. elapsed)

C5
Photo 18. Wall is Involved; flames have

extended slightly along ceiling (5:53 min.

elapsed) .

Photo 19. Crib fire has reduced in intensity;

wall material continues to bum and flames have

extended laterally along ceiling (8:35 min.

elapsed)

.

Photo 20. Illustrates damage in comer Includ- Photo 21. Illustrates damage to comer in living

ing bum-through of walls and extensive charring room and charring of upper walls along celling,

along celling. Minor damage observed above

ceiling.

C6
Photographs 22 through 28 Illustrate fire

build-up and damage occurring in Test #6

with 8 mm thick gypsum board walls and ceiling.

Photo 22. Initial burning of wood crib (5 sec. elapsed)

.

Photo 23. Burning of the paper surface on the wall. Flame has reached maximum size (4:18 min.

elapsed)

.

Photo 24. Continued burning of wood crib; no contribution from interior finish (4:18 min.

elapsed)

.
Photo 25. Wood crib continuing to bum at nearly a constant bum rate (6:39 min. elapsed).

Photo 26. Reduction in intensity of burning

crib; noticeable smoke accumulation (15 min.

elapsed)

.

Photo 27. Illustration of damage in comer.

Charring of Insulation and structural member

due to penetration of wall material along a vertical joint.

C8

Photo 28. Illustrates limitation of damage to comer in living room.
Photograph 29 through 35 illustrate fire

build-up and damage occurring in Test #10

with 4 mm thick prefinished lauan plywood

walls and 13 mm thick cellulosic fiber

ceiling.

Photo 29. Initial fire localized to waste

container and left arm of chair (50 sec. elapsed)

.

Photo 30. Waste container nearly destroyed.

Increased involvement of chair (8:55 min.

elapsed)

C5

Photo 31. Wall material Involved. Flame

extension to ceiling (4:05 min. elapsed).
Photo 32. Extensive propagation along upper

walls and across ceiling (4:55 min. elapsed).

Photo 33. Initial stage of flashover. Radiant

ignition of floor covering (5:11 min. elapsed).

Photo 35. Illustrates damage to interior finish

and sofa in living room.

Photo 34. Illustration of damage in comer. Bum-through of wall in comer; charring

damage to ceiling material.

CIO
Photographs 36 through A2 Illustrate fire

build-up and damage occurring in Test #11

, with 8 mm thick prefinished gypsum walls and ceiling.

Photo 36. Initial fire localized to waste con- tainer and left arm of chair (53 sec. elapsed).

Photo 38. Increased Intensity of chair fire;

flames approaching celling. (9:55 min. elapsed)

Photo 37. Waste container melting; increased

involvement of arm of chair; burning of curtain

and wall surface (4:58 min. elapsed).

Cll
Photo 39. Chair fire has reached maximum

intensity; flame impingement on ceiling,

(11:42 min. elapsed)

Photo 40. Reduced intensity of chair fire; no involvement of interior finish; noticeable

smoke accumulation (13:30 min. elapsed).

Photo 41. Illustrates damage in comer. Photo 42. Illustrates damage to interior finishconfined to comer; no involvement of other

combustibles

.

C12
APPENDIX D. RANGES AND LIMITS OF ERROR FOR INSTRUMENTATION

APPENDIX D. RANGES AND LIMITS OF ERROR FOR INSTRUMENTATION

Instrument Range Limits of Error

Thermocouples 0 to 277°C +2.2°C

277 to 1260°C +0.75% of reading

Heat Flux Transducers

RAD 1 0 to 5.7 W/cm^

RAD 2 0 to 5.7 W/cm^

RAD 3 0 to 5.7 W/cm^ 10% of reading

RAD 18 0 to 23 W/cm^

RAD 19 0 to 23 W/cm^

RAD 20 0 to 23 W/cm^

Gas Analysers

CO 13 0-10% +2% of range

CO 16 0-2% +5% of range

CO 2 14 0-20% +2% of range

0^ 15 0-20.9% +1% of reading

O 2 17 0-20.9% +1% of reading

Smoke Meters

HSM 4,5,6,8,9,10 0-10 mV +4% of reading

VSM 7,11 0-15 mV +10% of reading

Load Cell -225 to +225 kg +0.1% of reading

D1
NBS-1 14A (REV. 7-731

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLIC ATION OR REPORT NO. NBSIR 78-1530

2. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient’s Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Mobile Home Living Room Fire Studies: The Role of

Interior Finish

5. Publication Date September 1978

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

Edward K. Budnick

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Worlc Unit No. 7526389

11. Contract /Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Division of Energy, Building Technology and Standards

Office of Policy Development and Research

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Washington, D.C. 20410

13. Type of Report & Period Covered

Interim Report

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most si^ifleant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention It here. )A Series of sixteen full-SCale fire teStS WaS

conducted in the living room of a typically constructed single-wide mobile home. These

tests were designed (1) to evaluate the effect of a variety of combinations of wall and

ceiling materials on fire growth and spread and the production of smoke and toxic gases

when exposed to an incidental fire, and (2) to determine the relationship between the

surface flame spread properties of the interior finish materials as determined by the

ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test and the behavior of the materials as installed under actual

full-scale conditions.

The test procedure was based on a fire scenario in which the interior wall finish was exposed to an incidental fire from a standardized 6.4 kg (14 lb) wood crib or a 16 kg

(35 lb) upholstered chair positioned in a corner in the living room. Performance of the various combinations of wall and celling materials was evaluated

based on (1) the rate of fire buildup and extent of living room involvement, and

(2) changes in the environment in the corridor and bedroom areas which may adversely

affect the life safety of the occupants. Measurements utilized in the evaluation of

changes in the environment due to fire growth and spread included gas temperatures,

Irradlance, concentrations of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen, and smoke

densities. Under this set of conditions it was found that the fire properties of the

interior finish materials directly affected the rate of fire growth and spread, the

severity of the fire, and the resulting effects on life safety.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons

)

Key Words: ASTM E—84 Tunnel Test; carbon dioxide; carbon monoxide; fire growth;

fire tests; flame spread; flashover; Interior finishes; life safety;

mobile homes; radiant heat flux; room fires.

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(THIS REPORT)

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