BLM-managed mineral acreage underlying other surface acreage

(excluding National Park Service and Fish and Wildlife Service units)

2 3

4

5

Interpreted Cultural SitesInterpreted Paleo Sites
America’s Priceless Heritage:

Cultural and Fossil Resources on Public Lands

U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Land Management

November 2003
The mention of trade names or

commercial products does not

constitute endorsement 

or recommendation for use by 

the Federal Government.

Copies available from:

Bureau of Land Management

National Business Center

Printed Materials Distribution 

Service, BC-652

P.O. Box 25047

Denver, CO 80225-0047

303-236-7637

Order number P-445

or on the Web at 

www.blm.gov/heritage

BLM/WO/GI-03/007+8100

Cover photo: Canyon View

Ruin is a Navajo refugee site in

the Dinetah region of northwest

New Mexico. Built atop a

boulder with a commanding

view of Largo Canyon, this

defensive site offered a safe haven

for local Navajo farmers and

herders from attacking Utes and

Spaniards in the early 1700s.

For more information about

BLM’s Cultural Heritage

Program, please contact:

Richard Brook 

Bureau of Land Management

1620 L Street NW (204LS)

Washington, DC 20036

202-452-0330

richard_brook@blm.gov

Suggested citation:

U.S. Department of the Interior.

2003. America’s Priceless

Heritage: Cultural and

Fossil Resources on Public

Lands. Bureau of Land

Management, Washington,

DC. BLM/WO/

GI-03/007+8100. 18pp.
iii

Preface:

An Invitation to the Reader

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is responsible for

managing 261 million acres of public land—about one-eighth of

the United States. Most of these lands are in the Western United States, including Alaska, and they include extensive grasslands,

forests, high mountains, arctic tundra, and deserts. BLM also

manages about 700 million acres of subsurface mineral resources,

as well as numerous other resources, such as timber, forage, wild

horse and burro populations, fish and wildlife habitat, wilderness

areas, and archaeological, historical, and paleontological sites. 

BLM administers the public lands within the framework of

numerous laws, the most comprehensive of which is the Federal

Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA). FLPMA

directs BLM to follow the principle of “multiple use,” which

means managing the public lands and their various resource values “so that they are utilized in the combination that will best

meet the present and future needs of the American people.” 

This multiple use mission requires BLM to address quality 

of life issues, including providing clean air and water; providing recreational opportunities; protecting wildlife; and safeguarding

cultural and fossil resources; as well as providing for a sound

economy through the production of energy, food, and fiber and

by sustaining local communities and their heritage.

Given the scope of its multiple use mission, BLM affects more

Americans on a daily basis than any other land management

agency. The Bureau constantly faces the challenge of 

ensuring a balance of land uses among perspectives that are 

occasionally, if not often, competing. BLM recognizes that 

people who live near the public lands have the most direct 

connection and knowledge of them, as well as a commitment 

to their stewardship. At the same time, the Bureau maintains a

national focus because these lands belong to all Americans,

whose appreciation of them continues to increase.

BLM’s central challenge is to balance the demands of growth and

the imperative for conservation. America is entering into a new era

of conservation to achieve a healthier environment and a more

secure economy—what Secretary of the Interior Gale Norton
iv

calls the “new environmentalism.” Secretary Norton sums this

new environmentalism up in a visionary approach she calls the “four Cs”—using communication, cooperation, and consultation, all in the service of conservation. At the heart of the four

Cs is the Secretary’s belief that for conservation to be successful,

BLM must involve the people who live on, work on, and love

the land.

The Bureau’s ability to partner with public land users; local residents; nonprofit groups; universities; “friends of” organizations; and State, local, and tribal governments fosters a wide and

diverse support network. This network is essential not only

because the agency has limited staff and budget resources, but

because there is a wide variety of stakeholders who are concerned

about public land management. The Bureau has been working

cooperatively with partners and volunteers for decades and that

work has yielded outstanding results towards attaining common

goals and values. Secretary Norton’s approach to conservation is especially relevant to

the management of cultural and fossil resources on public lands.

These resources are a constant source of fascination for visitors. People look to these resources for recreational opportunities...for

fulfilling their curiosity about the recent and remote past...for 

contemplating their origins...for preserving and continuing their

cultures...for finding peace and quiet. The Secretary’s approach to

managing these resources was furthered on March 3, 2003, when

President Bush signed a new Executive Order, which directs Federal agencies to advance the protection, enhancement, and 

contemporary use of historic properties, particularly by seeking

public–private partnerships to promote the use of such properties

as a stimulus to local economic development. The Executive Order

is an important component in a new White House initiative called

Preserve America, which was announced on March 3, 2003 by First

Lady Laura Bush. The Preserve America program will serve as a

focal point for the support of the preservation, use, and enjoyment

of America’s historic places. 

The Bureau is proud of its mission and understands why it is

crucial to the Nation’s future. The Bureau’s vision is to live up to

this ambitious mission and thereby meet the needs of the lands

and our people. In order to achieve this goal, the Bureau must

seek new ways of managing that include innovative 

partnerships and, especially, a community-based focus that
v

involves citizen stakeholders and governmental partners who 

care about the public lands and the cultural and fossil resources

found on them. This document is an invitation to you—the

public BLM serves—to continue your ongoing dialogue with 

us about the health and future of the Nation’s cultural and 

natural legacy. Tell us what is important to you, what you care

most about, what you want saved, and how BLM can work 

collaboratively to preserve our priceless legacy.

This document is an invitation

to you...to continue your

ongoing dialogue with us

about the health and future

of the Nation’s cultural

and natural legacy.
These resources

are important to our

understanding of

both recorded

history and

prehistory... 
1

Introduction

The public lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) contain a wealth of cultural and 

paleontological resources. These resources are important to 

our understanding of both recorded history and prehistory—

the period of time before written history. They represent a 

priceless heritage, which must be protected for the next generation. The purpose of this report is to highlight the wealth of

these cultural and paleontological resources, focus attention on

the increasing challenge with regard to their preservation, present

what BLM has done in the past, and ask for the public’s help in

defining what yet needs to be done if we are to preserve these resources and save our vanishing past.

Our Nation’s Cultural and

Paleontological Resources 

The public lands are dotted with literally hundreds of thousands of

archaeological and historic sites that document at least 13,000 years

of human history. These sites include everything from ancient Paleo-Indian mammoth kills to tantalizing oversized ground 

figures etched in desert pavements (intaglios), from awe-inspiring

prehistoric complexes of Anasazi pueblos and cliff dwellings to

evocative and mysterious rock art, from intriguing Spanish and Russian period exploration to lonely outposts of historic era 

exploration and settlement, from more recent historic sites 

documenting trails that immigrants followed westward and lighthouses that guided ships at sea to evidence of mining, ranching,

railroading, and even 20th century military activities. The physical

manifestations of these and other time periods and cultures are 

collectively referred to as “cultural resources,” and they represent a

significant part of our Nation’s cultural heritage.

The cultural resources on western public lands represent all

major periods and events in the broad sweep of human 

occupation in the West, from prehistoric times up through the

present era. These resources are studied by archaeologists with

great interest because they tell the story of all kinds of people, representing nearly every cultural tradition and ethnicity present

in American society. In general, these people include first

Americans (ancient cultures and contemporary Indian tribes)
2

and immigrant Americans (explorers, miners, ranchers, homesteaders, soldiers, and others). Undamaged, BLM’s cultural resources have the capability to tell us when people first arrived

on the continent, how they dispersed, how cultures flourished,

what led to their demise, how they perceived the spiritual world,

how they interacted with other cultural groups, how they

exploited and perhaps overexploited their environment, how

they treated the dead, how and why they came into conflict, and

much more.

While archaeologists are interested in cultural resources, 

paleontologists are interested in fossil resources found on public

lands. Fossils are the remains, imprints, and traces of once-living

organisms preserved in the Earth’s crust that can relate the story

of origins and endings played out over nearly 4 billion years of

the Earth’s 4.5-billion-year history. Fossils of thousands of kinds

of plants, animals, and other organisms, including tiny trilobites

more than 600 million years old, dinosaurs with razor-sharp

teeth and claws from between 210 and 65 million years ago, and Ice Age lions and cheetahs, can be found on the public lands. Fossils found on public lands are important for the story they

can tell us about the development of life on Earth and about the

physical changes in the Earth itself. They provide clues to a myriad of important and intriguing questions, from the “hot” topic

of dinosaur extinctions to studies of plate tectonics (the geology

of the Earth’s structural deformation). Consequently, the public

lands provide great outdoor laboratories and classrooms for the

study of paleontology and also contribute significantly to public

exhibits found in museums. For example, BLM’s ClevelandLloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah has produced fossils that are

exhibited in over 40 museums worldwide. Undamaged, BLM’s

fossil resources can reveal not only how the plant and animal

communities have changed, but how the face of the Earth has

been altered by the movement of continents, the uplift of 

mountain ranges, the appearance and disappearance of ice caps,

and the flooding and drying of huge areas of land.

Why These Resources

Are At Risk

While these resources contribute to our understanding of the

origins of life and of civilization in North America, they also
dazzle, delight, thrill, bewilder, and fascinate any person who

comes upon them, whether that person is a curious tourist, an

intrepid backcountry adventurer, an accidental visitor, an artist

in search of inspiration, or an inquisitive scientist. The fact is—

these resources belong to all people for all time. However, the

cultural and paleontological resources on BLM public lands,

both those that are visible and those that are still unexposed, are

seriously at risk. They are threatened by individuals who appropriate them for their personal enjoyment or profit, the unanticipated effects of legitimate recreational activities, and unauthorized land uses that diminish the resource base. Additionally, natural processes are forever reshaping the landscape and eroding

what, even to begin with, may never have been more than a onein-a-million preservation occurrence. Cultural and paleontological resources are affected by: • Theft and Looting: Throughout the decades, the 

BLM public lands have been an easy target for thieves

and looters. Today, the plundering and destruction of

cultural and paleontological treasures has become a 

highly lucrative business involving a network of looters,

expert fences, and knowing buyers in the United States, Japan, Switzerland, Germany, and elsewhere. We know

that some individuals involved in the looting of cultural remains are also involved in the theft of fossil resources.

We know that some of these individuals are engaged in

other illegal activities, such as dealing drugs. We know,

too, that most artifacts and fossils taken from the public

lands are very difficult to track to their place of origin.

And we know that as looted objects move further up 

the trafficking chain and wind up at such places as 

art galleries, auction houses, Internet sites, and even

museums, their ownership and sale is lent a veneer 

of legitimacy. Unlike in many other countries of the 

world, where cultural artifacts that lie below the ground

belong to the State and individuals purchasing an “antique” must receive and produce a certificate of

authority to prove their right of ownership, in this 

country, illegal possession must be proven by law

enforcement authorities. And this is often difficult, 

if not impossible.

Clearly, sites and localities concealing commercially valuable artifacts and fossils are the primary targets of looters,

3
4

although objective estimates of the extent of damage and

destruction to such places are essentially nonexistent.

The theft of hundreds of fossils from the public lands

every year is destroying the contextual information critical for interpreting fossils and reducing areas available for

scientific study and public enjoyment.

•Population Growth in the West:Destruction and

degradation of cultural and paleontological resources is

not solely the result of theft and looting, however. Increasing visitation to the public lands is resulting in

both intentional and inadvertent damage to these resources from collection, vandalism, surface disturbance,

and other depreciative behavior. Remote areas, once 

protected by their distance from populated areas, are 

now within easy reach of the hardy and well-equipped

hiker, off-highway vehicle user, and urban and suburban resident. Additionally, the cultural resources of the West

and sites where dinosaur bones have been found are

attracting visitors from all over the world to areas where

they may negatively affect fragile resources if they are not

better informed. Unfortunately, individuals who visit the public lands 

will sometimes appropriate cultural and paleontological resources for personal enjoyment. Even seemingly 

mundane artifacts have been used in the decor of 

modern homes. One BLM archaeologist witnessed 

bathroom sinks formed from hundreds of prehistoric

potsherds pieced together, metates used for splash blocks

below drain spouts, and glass containers of potsherds 

and arrowheads displayed on coffee tables. There are

documented cases of prehistoric petroglyphs being sawed

from panels on the public lands and incorporated into

fireplaces or used to decorate the outsides of homes. 

This practice of using ancient artifacts in the decoration

of private homes contributes to the loss of our common

legacy from the past and must change if we are to keep

the past from becoming relegated to the mantlepiece 

of posterity.

• Forces of Nature:Natural deterioration also plays a 

role in reducing resource diversity. Erosion, weathering,

and arroyo cutting can all impact cultural and 

paleontological resources.
5

Regardless of the cause of damage to these resources, the result is

the same—they are being lost in no less of a dramatic fashion

than a rare illustrated manuscript having its pages torn apart and

tossed into a fire, extinguishing the compelling story it can tell

us for all time. 

How BLM is Addressing

the Challenge 

The management of cultural and paleontological resources on

the public lands is overseen by the BLM Washington Office’s

Cultural and Fossil Resources and Tribal Consultation Group,

which reports to the Assistant Director for Renewable Resources

and Planning. The BLM earmarks funds for cultural resource

management and other programs from the funding it receives

through the Appropriations Act for the Department of the

Interior and Related Agencies, under the title of Management of

Lands and Resources. In fiscal year 2002, BLM’s cultural

resource management appropriation was $14.2 million. This

appropriation was expected to fund numerous tasks, including:

• protection, study, management, and stabilization of

BLM’s cultural and paleontological resources

• interpretation of these resources

• educational initiatives promoting the teaching of higher

order thinking skills, science, math, and other required

school subjects using cultural and paleontological

resources

• protection and curation of museum collections recovered

from on-the-ground investigations

• consultations with Indian tribes and Alaska Native 

corporations

• development of partnerships with non-Federal entities

• repatriation of museum collections subject to the 

provisions of the Native American Graves Protection 

and Repatriation Act

There are approximately 150 cultural and fossil resource specialists in BLM who are responsible for an overwhelming number of
6

resources, including a projected 4 to 4.5 million archaeological

and historical properties, thousands of paleontological localities,

and millions of museum objects housed in 3 Federal and at least

160 non-Federal museums. These specialists conduct numerous

tribal consultations that result in hundreds, if not thousands, of

contacts annually. In addition, BLM’s cultural resource specialists

fulfill National Historic Preservation Act responsibilities 

for approximately 8,000 land use actions, even though the

appurtenant compliance costs are borne by applicants and 

not by BLM’s cultural resource management appropriation. 

They are also involved in permitting scientific research and 

coordinating with law enforcement authorities to protect 

threatened sites.

BLM is addressing the urgent need to preserve cultural and paleontological resources on public lands in various ways. The longterm protection of these resources has been established as one of

the Department of the Interior’s strategic goals. This goal is

intended to highlight and address threats to these resources effectively. Each of the BLM States has identified the cultural and

paleontological resources in their areas of jurisdiction, as well as

some specific challenges in managing these resources. The States

have also explored low- and moderate-cost solutions to address

these needs. They have entered into partnerships to help alleviate

the workload and the financial burden associated with caring for

these resources. In addition, BLM is trying to educate the public

about the importance of preserving these precious resources by

interpreting many cultural and paleontological sites and supporting existing school curriculums through the Heritage Education

Program and Project Archaeology.

What More Needs to Be Done

Though BLM is doing what it can to preserve cultural and 

paleontological resources, additional action must be taken. In

1999, Congress asked the Secretary of the Interior to review Federal policy concerning fossils, a task that involved the Bureau

of Land Management, Bureau of Reclamation, Bureau of Indian

Affairs, Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Forest Service, and Smithsonian Institution. The agencies concluded that fossils on Federal lands

often needlessly deteriorate or disappear through theft, vandalism, and other causes, and that the problem is exacerbated by

lack of personnel and resources for assessment, management, 
and protection. The Secretary’s report, “Fossils on Federal and

Indian Lands” (May 2000), recommended that renewed

Congressional attention could significantly advance Federal 

policy on fossils, and that Congress should consider the merits 

of a framework for fossils analogous to the Archaeological

Resources Protection Act, including the need for stiffer penalties

for those who damage and steal certain fossils.

In March 2001, the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation

issued the report, “Caring for the Past, Managing for the Future:

Federal Stewardship and America’s Historic Legacy,” which

points to the wealth of historic resources managed by the Federal

Government, describes both the successes and failures in their

preservation, and recommends specific measures to correct many

of the problems. Among other things, the report recommends

establishing legislation to encourage, rather than impede, 

public–private partnerships through more widespread creation

and use of “friends of” organizations, which work with Federal

managers in support of private fundraising and other activities,

and providing better funding and staff support for Federal 

historic preservation activities.

Americans share in this unique cultural legacy preserved on our

public land. We are enriched by its collective ownership and

impoverished in many ways by its loss. The recommendations in

the reports mentioned above, as well as the recommendations

that emanate from public discussion, are important to the

preservation of the cultural and paleontological resources on

BLM public lands, and it is critical that we take action now. To

the extent that our cultural and natural heritage is an expression

of our identity as a Nation and as a people, the loss of these

resources is something that affects us all.

The need to protect these precious resources is urgent—BLM

does not have the luxury of leaving the preservation or restoration of a unique cultural or paleontological resource for another

day. As the agency pursues its multiple use mission, we need the

help of the public to do so in a manner that meets contemporary

economic and community goals, while conserving our priceless

heritage for the next generation.

7
BLM’s cultural

resources represent all

major periods and

events in the broad

sweep of human history

in the West. 
9

General Cultural

Timeline for the

Western U.S.

BLM’s cultural resources represent all major periods and events

in the broad sweep of human history in the West. From the

expansion of people across the continent around 13,000 years

ago to the Cold War just ended, BLM sites tell the stories of 

people who have lived on this land.

The archaeological record holds precious information about the Paleo-Indians who populated North America at the end of the Ice Ages. These people hunted throughout the continent, 

leaving occasional traces of their passing at sites such as the Mill

Iron site in Montana, the Dietz site in Oregon, and the Mesa

site in Alaska.

The Paleo-Indian way of life gave way to the Archaic tradition

by about 7,500 years ago. Hunters and gatherers adapted to

changing environments, giving rise to many distinctive cultural

patterns throughout the West and through time. In the Far West, Northwest, and Great Basin, different variations of the

Archaic tradition continued until Europeans were encountered.

Thousands of BLM archaeological sites tell the story of this long

period of human history.

In other parts of the West, including portions of the Southwest

and Great Plains, people adopted agriculture to supplement

hunting and gathering. By about 2,000 years ago, the Anasazi

and Mogollon in Arizona and New Mexico, for example, lived in

villages, grew corn and other crops, and engaged in long-distance

trade. The Pueblo peoples of the area are descended from these

early farmers, and the areas where they settled are some of the

most remarkable archaeological sites in the country.

Contact with Europeans during and after the 16th century A.D.

brought disease, warfare, and significant cultural change. The

adoption of the horse by Plains people, for example, led to the

development of a highly mobile hunting and raiding way of life,

very different from what came before. Disease ravaged native

populations, weakening their resistance to the great tide of

change coming across the continent. 
10

Event Time

Earliest settlers enter North America

Paleo-Indian hunters populate the continent

Archaic way of life begins; diverse

hunting-gathering cultures develop,

lasting until contact with Europeans

in parts of the West

Bow and arrow come into use

Farming appears among the people

of the Southwest

Anasazi construct cliff-house communities and

apartmentlike complexes of 1,000 rooms

or more, which are abandoned by A.D. 1300

Expansion of Numic-speaking peoples

in the Great Basin

Migration of Athabascan-speaking

peoples from the north into the

Pacific Northwest and Southwest

Contact with Europe; Columbus arrives in

the Western Hemisphere

11000+ B.C.

9500 B.C.

6000 B. C.

0 B.C.

100 B.C.

A.D. 1000

A.D. 1100

A.D. 1100-1400

A.D. 1492

Cultural Timeline—Before European Contact
11

Event Time

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado leads Spain’s

invasion of the Southwest

European diseases periodically ravage native

peoples’ communities

Horses transform Plains Indian culture, enabling

tribes to hunt buffalo more efficiently and

to range farther

Russia “discovers” Alaska

United States declares independence

Companies vie for fur trade in the West

Lewis and Clark Expedition

General Land Office established

Indian Removal Act passed; Eastern tribes

removed to the West

Joseph Smith publishes Book of Mormon,

leading to eventual Mormon settlement in Utah

Westward expansion along Oregon Trail begins

California gold rush begins after discovery

of gold at Sutter’s Mill

20,000 Chinese arrive in California in search of gold

Coast-to-coast telegraph completed

Civil War begins

Homestead Act passed allowing claims of up to

160 acres of public lands

Indian wars

First cattle trail blazed from Texas to New Mexico

Transcontinental railroad completed

General Mining Law enacted

Custer’s last stand at the Battle of the Little Bighorn

Geronimo surrenders after more than a decade of guerrilla warfare

Forest Service established

National Park Service established

Bureau of Land Management established

Urban expansion, increased recreational use of western lands

A.D. 1540-42

A.D. 1600-1900

A.D. 1650

A.D. 1741

A.D. 1776

late 18th century

A.D. 1803-06

A.D. 1812

A.D. 1830

A.D. 1830

A.D. 1843

A.D. 1848

A.D. 1852

A.D. 1861

A.D. 1861

A.D. 1862

mid to late

19th century

A.D. 1866

A.D. 1869

A.D. 1872

A.D. 1876

A.D. 1886

A.D. 1905

A.D. 1916

A.D. 1946

A.D. 2000

Cultural Timeline—After European Contact
Exploration and trade drove the initial European forays into the West as early as the Spanish incursion into the Southwest in the

1540s and the Russian claim to parts of Alaska after 1741. By

the end of the 1700s and early 1800s, various nations—Spanish,

French, English, Russian, and American—competed to have and

to hold the vast lands and resources of the West. The Lewis and

Clark Expedition in the early 19th century marked the beginning of America’s relentless overland push westward and the

claiming of lands through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. 

As the Indian wars of the late 19th century forced many native

peoples onto reservations, new immigrants came to settle the

land. The lure of gold and free land drew many to the West,

where Americans mingled with others to form new rural 

communities. Farming, ranching, logging, and mining 

supported local peoples, with communities linked to distant

urban and industrial centers through such trails as the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, the Oregon Trail, the Pony Express, and Butterfield Stage route. BLM’s many archaeological sites tell the

stories of these early western communities.

The 20th century brought further changes to the West. The Federal Government left its own legacy upon the land with 

the establishment of the National Forests, National Parks, and 

in 1946, the Bureau of Land Management. Native peoples,

many from reservations, have continued to use Federal lands 

for both sacred and secular purposes. The American military

trained for the two World Wars and the Cold War on vast

stretches of the public lands. Today, increasing populations and

urbanization are driving higher demand for recreational uses of

these western lands. Indian groups today remain vitally concerned with their history

and culture, as do many descendants of the early historic communities in the West. The traditional cultural knowledge of

these living groups provides valuable insights into past ways of

life. Yet the history of the American West is still only partly told.

Large questions remain: What was life like for the earliest people

on this continent? What effect did major technological innovations—such as the bow and arrow, irrigation, and agriculture—

have on the Indian history of this continent? How did the many

different native peoples relate to one another and the land on

which they lived? What effect did European epidemic diseases

have on American Indian societies? What was life like in the West for those—mainly minorities and women—whose voices

12
are rarely heard in traditional American histories? How did 

historic Euro-American land use patterns affect the ecology of

the region today?

The thousands of archaeological sites on BLM lands, as well as

the elders in traditional communities, can provide answers to

these and other important questions. BLM has a strong 

obligation to manage and protect those places on the lands that

contain a significant part of this Nation’s cultural heritage for

current and future generations of Americans.

13

BLM has a strong obligation to manage

and protect those places on the lands

that contain a significant part of this

Nation’s cultural heritage...
BLM issues Paleontological Resource Use Permits

to qualified scientists who want to 

conduct scientific investigations. Permits are

required for virtually any activity involving fossil 

vertebrates, as well as for work that focuses on 

scientifically significant invertebrates or plants.

Not all fossil collecting requires a permit. Anyone

may collect reasonable amounts of common 

invertebrates and plants for noncommercial use,

such as for a personal collection. Petrified wood,

which is treated as a mineral material in the 

regulations, may also be collected in limited 

quantities.

A permit serves primarily as a communication 

tool between researchers and BLM, increasing

BLM’s understanding of the important fossils on

lands it administers and its ability to care for

them. This information is also used in creating

interpretive materials for the public, such as signs,

brochures, and museum displays. Specimens 

collected through the permit process must be kept

in reputable museums and universities, where they

remain the property of the Federal Government,

held in trust for the American people. Museums

act as stewards for these resources, making them

available in perpetuity for ongoing study, education, and enjoyment.

Commercial use of fossils from public lands is 

not allowed. The sale or barter of fossils removes

them from the public trust. If specimens are stolen

from public lands and sold for profit, they are

available to only a few individuals rather than to

the public as a whole. Theft of fossils is a problem

of unknown scale, but documented cases show

that commercial dealers, as well as unscrupulous

private collectors, are involved.
Geologic Time Scale

The geologic time scale is a method of dividing Earth’s history.

Initially, it was used to mark differences between fossils to divide

thick sequences of strata into related groups, formations, and

beds. Later, a classification of these formations of strata and 

larger units was produced. At the time, the sequence included

only deposits from the last three eras of Earth’s history. 

This organization of rocks resulted in the development of the

geologic time scale. The time scale is made up of three kinds of

geological units:

• Rock units describe the physical characteristics of the

rocks themselves. 

• Time units refer only to the passage of time. For 

example, the Cenozoic era is all of the time between 

65 million years ago and today. Eras are divided into

periods or systems, and further into epochs and ages.

The Cretaceous period, for example, is a division of the

Mesozoic era preceding the Cenozoic, and is the time

between 144 and 65 million years ago. 

• Time-rock units involve both time and rocks or fossil

sequences in rocks. Thus, the Cenozoic consists of the

rocks that were deposited during the Cenozoic era and

the fossils that define its boundaries. Although fossils

themselves cannot give an age in years, the order of the

appearance or disappearance of various fossils in layers 

of rock provides the basis for the geologic time scale we

use today. 

Generally speaking, fossils from all fossil-bearing geologic time

periods in this country are represented on public lands managed

by BLM.

15
MESOZOIC ERA

Cretaceous period

Jurassic period

Triassic period

144-65

205-144

250-205

Era/Period/Epoch Time (million years ago)

Geologic Time Scale

Sauropod - 

Early Jurassic to

Cretaceous periods Ammonites -

Occurred from

the Paleozoic

era to the

end of the

Mesozoic era

CENOZOIC ERA

Quaternary period

Holocene epoch

Pleistocene epoch

Tertiary period

Pliocene epoch

Miocene epoch

Oligocene epoch

Eocene epoch

Paleocene epoch

1.8-0

0.01-0

1.8 -0.01

65-1.8

5-1.8

24-5

34-24

55-34

65-55

Smilodon

Merycoidodon

(Oredont)

Procamelus

PALEOZOIC ERA

Permian period

Pennsylvanian

(Carboniferous period)

Mississippian

Devonian period

Silurian period

Ordovician period

Cambrian period

290-250

330-290

354-330

417-354

443-417

490-443

545-490

Trilobites -

Lived throughout the

Paleozoic era

Graptolitea

Theropods - 

Triassic to

Cretaceous periods

PRECAMBRIAN TIME 545 and older

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Conclusions

BLM’s Cultural Heritage Program is confronted with a 

staggering array of responsibilities, which encompass much 

more than just on-the-ground management of archaeological,

historical, and paleontological resources. Meeting these responsibilities with a limited number of professionals and a

tight budget continues to be a challenge. Clearly, BLM field

offices have had to look for creative solutions to address the 

massive protection, stabilization, and management issues 

with which they are confronted. Bureauwide, volunteers and

cost-share arrangements have augmented BLM’s capability by 

at least one-fourth, annually leveraging the cash equivalent of

more than $3 million in work for the benefit of the Cultural Heritage Program. Some BLM States, notably Colorado and

Arizona, have made tremendous use of outside funds, tapping

into their States’ lottery and gambling profits to obtain more

than $2 million in grants in recent years to accomplish critical

work. Outside funds have also been obtained through these and

other such sources:

• Save America’s Treasures program, which is a national

effort to protect America’s threatened cultural resources

• Grants under the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act and its successor, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), which 

provide transit enhancement funds to carry out historic

preservation work at sites along transportation routes

• “Green sticker” funds, which are from fees paid by offhighway vehicle users for adequate and managed facilities

and safeguards to protect natural, cultural, and historic resources on public lands

The Cultural Heritage Program has also made strides in obtaining a share of BLM’s “deferred maintenance” money to address

the stabilization needs at some of our standing historic structures. Some States have established Site Steward Programs, in

cooperation with State and other Federal entities, to patrol and

monitor threatened sites. Additionally, BLM continues to

encourage universities to operate field schools and conduct research on public lands to enhance our understanding of the vast resource base.

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Still, in the years ahead, BLM’s responsibility to protect and preserve the Nation’s cultural and paleontological resources will

require yet more creative solutions. The Cultural Heritage

Program staff intends to pursue a dialogue with the general public, Congressional oversight committees, and our partners and

interest groups to identify other low- and moderate-cost measures that can be implemented in the coming months and years

to focus increased attention on the threatened cultural and paleontological resources over which we have stewardship responsibilities. Among the options we hope to explore with the public

and our partners are to:

• Strive to make the public a full partner in the 

management and protection of the threatened cultural

and paleontological resources using existing tools such as

BLM’s cultural heritage Web site (www.blm.gov/heritage)

and “friends of” organizations, as Congress envisioned

when it amended the Archaeological Resources

Protection Act in 1988

• Continue to expand the use of nontraditional sources 

of funding, such as grants from non-Federal and private

sources, Save America’s Treasures, and TEA-21 to 

accomplish critical work

Through these and other options, BLM hopes to protect the 

cultural and fossil resources on public lands and preserve

America’s priceless heritage for future generations.

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