COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Photographi'd by Army Air Corps AIRPLANE VIEW OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS (LOOKING SOUTH)

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Vol. 8, No. 12 JUNE, 1932

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. See page 3 ot cover tor prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified praiftice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce waile, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of produdf, method, or

practice. Its fumftion is to bring together all parties interested in a projecfl of this characfter, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified practice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradtice, formulation of a simplified pradtice program, and presentation of

that program for adtion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSt for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in condudting periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradtice may be applied to any com- modity or adtivity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effedtive any application of simplified pradtice which

will reduce waSte, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering conStrudtion adtivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conStrudtion, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged, Streadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building adtivity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fludtuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objedtive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respedt to other Strudtures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZA TION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

. . BUT. . TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAllister

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adtivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSting

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting adtivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits fron

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares directories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Directory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their ProduCts.” It also

aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSt,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional inter- changeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aCtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the induStry.
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 8 WASHINGTON, D. C., JUNE, 1932 Number 12

SUBJECT ANALYSIS

OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS Page

Standai'd terminology needed for occuijational classifi- cations 347

Uniform occupational nomenclature and personnel

management 347 Bureau of Labor Statistics commends standards 349

Industrial j(jb classification from viewpoint of mobilization . 352

Organized labor approves of standard classifications 353

Relatioii of standard nomenclature to the census 350

CONSTRUCTION

Some problems in marketing colored plumbing fixtures.. 307

The consumer’s right to grade-marked lumber 365

Wood molding designs and sizes standardized 370

PUBLICATIONS

Agricultural Department issues three new standards 364

Airi)lane receiving equipment for visual radio range

beacons 368

Bibliography on standardization 369

Compilation of navigation laws published by Bureau of Navigation 373 National directory of commodity specifications 346

New handbook issued on stresses in wood poles for over- head electrical lines 364

Overhead electric-railway material 364

Petroleum code handbook announced 360

Recommendation for glassine bags now in print 364

Wood molding designs and sizes standardized 370

METALS

Conservation through standardization 373

Copi^er alloys in ingot form 369 Diamond core drill fittings 355 Economies for industry in simplification work 373

Identifying the simplified line of carriage, machine, and

lag bolts 372

Milling cutters and reamers 374 Recommendations for commercial laundry machinery

approved by conference 372 Recommendation on bedsteads, springs, and mattresses

before industry for approval 374 Home problems in marketing colored plumbing fixtures. _ 367 Standards of accuracy in measurement 361 GROUP ACTIVITIES American Standards Association 358

Colorado specifies dyed gasoline ciualities 362

Federal specifications 354

Progress in paper-testing standards 358

Radio amateurs 357

Standard accounting manual for public works officials distributed 374

I’niform gas tax laws urged 360

GLASS

Testing clinical thermometers 360

TEXTILE AND RUBBER Page

Recommendation on bedsteads, springs, and mattresses

before industry for approval 374

Surgeons’ gloves' 355

INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

Conserving natural resources through i-esearch 354

Industrial research 359

WOOD

New handbook issued on stresses in wood jjoles for over- head electrical lines 364

The consumer’s right to grade-marked lumber 365

Wood molding designs and sizes standardized 370

INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN

British standard for transformer insulation 370

Standard symbols proposed for vise in electrotechnics 371 PAPER

Economies in paper industry through simplification 372

High degree of adherence for recommendation covering

bank checks, notes, drafts, etc 371

Progress in paper-testing standards 358

Recommendation for glassine bags now in print 364

ELECTRICAL

British standard for transformer insulation 370

New handbook issued on stresses in wood poles for over- head electrical lines 364

Overhead electric-railway material 364

Standard symbols for use in electrotechnics 371 COLOR

Color standardization program adojited by scale com- pany .' 369

Colorado specifies dyed gasoline qualities 362

Some problems in marketing colored plumbing fixtures. _ 367

AUTOMOTIVE

Colorado specifies dyed gasoline cjualities 362

Desirability of uniformity in traffic devices 356

Marketing specifications proposed for gasoline 369

Petroleum code handbook announced 360

Uniform gas tax laws urged 360

QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Identifying the simplified line of carriage, machine, and

lag bolts 372

Milk standards of Rhode Island 355

Testing clinical thermometers 360

The consumer’s right to grade-marked lumber 365

MISCELLANEOUS

Economics in centralized purchasing 363

Grinding wheels 371 Stoddard solvent 372

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. in. daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated '\^isitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of tjipical dis- coveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

121708—3: 1 345
NATIONAL DIRECTORY

of Commodity Specifications

C

ONTAINING a foreword by Herbert Hoover, former Secretary of Commerce

and now President of the United States, the second (revised) edition of the

National Directory of Commodity Specifications was released by the Bureau

of Standards during the month of May.

For the specification user and the specification writer, whether producer or con- sumer, and for those interested in any way in the standardization of grades, qualities, or dimensions of any commodity, this directory will be found invaluable for supplying infor- mation in a concentrated form concerning specifications and standards promulgated by

national specifications-making bodies. In the book are contained directions for obtaining

actual copies of the specifications themselves.

This publication is a revised edition of the directory first published in 1925. In it

will be found listed the standards and specifications of trade associations, technical

societies, and organizations that are representative in a national way of industry or some

branch of industry, as well as the standards and specifications of governmental agencies

that represent the Federal Government as a whole. It is truly a compilation of current

nationally recognized specifications.

The same decimal system of classification of commodities has been used in this edition

that prevailed in the first edition, some minor changes and additions being made to take

care of new material. The classification system used tends to throw together specifications

and standards relating to the same subjects, so that specification-making bodies may take

note of or be forewarned of duplication of material. Moreover, a special effort has been

made to increase the usefulness of the directory to the purchaser desiring to use nationally recognized specifications. For example, where the use to which a commodity is put

is not self-evident from the title of the specification, a brief statement of this use has been

given, if known. There is also given a brief summary of each specification, so that the

reader may to some extent judge for himself whether the scope of the specification fits his

particular needs. Cross-referencing has been used to tie up related specifications.

Elsewhere in this issue of COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY will be found instructions for ordering the 1932 National Directory of Commodity Specifications.

346
JUNE. 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 347

STANDARD TERMINOLOGY NEEDED FOR OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS

A Symposium on Standard Terminology Participated in by Several Agencies That Have Given Much

Study to the Problem

Industry and commerce have rapidly become accus- tomed to the advantages of standard nomenclature and

sjiecifications for matei'ial, ecpiipment, articles, and

jirocesses.

A not inconsiderable degree of interest has been

manifested from time to time in the possibility of

achieving analogous benefits through the cooperative

development and extensive use of uniform occupational nomenclature, defined by appropriate descriptions or “ specifications ” that would be kept currently

accurate. The following ]nipers point out some of the weaknesses in the present situation, the need for improvement and greater uniformity in occupational terminology. and some of the benefits available for accomplishment. They indicate also the more important

principles and factors bearing upon the feasibility and

the technique of such a project.

UNIFORM OCCUPATIONAL NOMENCLATURE AND PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

By IsMAB Baruch ^

The human mind naturally seeks to find order in

the world about it. An environment in Avhich each

object is given a separate and distinct name and is considered indiA'idually Avithout reference to its possible similarity to other equally familiar objects

Avould be much too complex for the reasonable con- duct of even eA’eryday affairs. Accordingly, to sim-

])lify the things Avith Avhich it has to deal, mankind

from earliest history has sought to find and group

together things that are related in some essential

jjoints, and to call by the same name things AAdiich are found to have certain attributes in common.

Classification—the earliest and simj^lest method of

discoA’ering order and relations among things—and

its indispensible concomitants definition and systematic nomenclature foian a basis for all scientific method, and therefore a logical approach to the constructiA’e solution of scientific, social, or economic

problems. Advantageous uses of the process of classi- fication are common. For example, through the activities of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics,

Federal standardization of farm products on a national scale coA'ering significant gradations in quality

has become an important tool of commercial agriculture. The Bureau of Standards has fostered the

establishment of commercial standards and specifications for the products of manufacturing industries.

One of the significant results of such projects is that the same standards, specifications, cpiality grades,

and nomenclature are used by a large number of persons, associations, and concerns located at Avidely

separated points in the country. The adoption of

such standards has sub.stituted a common A'ehicle of

expression and a common basis of action for a mass

of uncoordinated standards and terms. In per-sonnel admini.stration a .similar need for a com- mon AThicle of expression for systematically naming

and describing ])ositions and occupations has been

recognized and met by a large number of private enterpiuses and public jurisdictions, inducting cities,

counties. States, and national goA^ernments, through

the management device knoAvn as a “ classification

plan ” for positions.

A classification plan for the ])ositions in any organization facilitates the handling of all personnel problems. It giA’es operating departments a definite means

of expressing their exact personnel needs to the em- ployment office, because it proAucles a common job language. It aids the employment office in selecting employees, because it furnishes a picture of the work to be performed and a standard statement of minimum

qualification recpiirements. It provides a sound basis tor establishing and adjusting salary rates, because

positions inAmlving the same work are classified in the same group under the same job title. It proA’ides management with a means of bringing similar lAositions to- gether in the same class so that they may be studied as one large group rather than singly. It makes it possible to group properly for statistical anah^sis and in- terpretation facts regarding occupations and positions.

In a small-scale enterprise the manager generall}'' is well acquainted with indiAudual positions and employees and is able to handle Avithout a formal pre- determined plan such personnel problems as he may

haA^e. In a large-scale organization, howeA’er, direct

obsei’A^ation by executives is impracticable. When the

responsible executiA'e realizes the impossibility of constantly remembering and mentally arranging the facts

about thousands of positions, he appreciates the

necessity for considering positions by groups or classes instead of indiAudually. He decides that the basis of

this grouping or classification of positions shall be

their existing duties and responsibilities, because these are the characteristics Avhich render them alike or different for most purposes of personnel management.

He knows that since neAv and different classes are fre- quently created because positions grow or decline Avith

tlieir incumbents, or because organization and Avork

processes or methods are improA^ed, he must lAi'ovide a i)i'ocedure foi' elFecting such coi’responding changes

as may be needed in the classification plan itself. He

realizes also the necessity of designating each class or occupation with a standard name, so that similar positions will have the same name and different ones Avill have different names. And, most important of all, he

appreciates that, in order that each user or reader shall not be left to his own understanding of AAdiat these

standard names mean, there must be available to all concerned “ specifications ” of these classes, con- tinuously revised to reflect current facts, defining Avhat

these names imply and signify, and describing each

1 Assistant Director, U. S. Personnel Classification Board. group or “ class ” of positions.
348 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY TUNE. 1932

This is the substance of what is now, in both private

enterprises and public jurisdictions, a recognized technique. Standardization of occupational nomenclature

is regarded as one of the inseparable parts of a lai'ger

program having as its objectives not onl}^ a common

job language but also formal dehnitions of the job

names, and the identification of existing positions ac- cording to these names. The technique also recognizes

that positions and classes are in a fluid state, rather

than a fixed mold, and therefore it provides for keeping the classification plan and the common language

up to date, because they both need to be amended and

altered current!}^ as occupations or positions change

materially in their duties, characteristics and qualification requirements.

Following this procedure, the Personnel Classification Board, at the request of Congress,'^ developed and

published in 1931 a classification and salaiy standardizatioh plan for about 104,000 positions in the field service of the Federal Government.® As a part of

this plan, it prepared 1,633 standard class specifications.^ Idiese specifications show, for each class, {a) a proposed standard official title; (6) the duties and

responsibilities of the positions in the class, broadly

summarized; (c) examples of work performed; and

{(1) the minimum qualification requirements as to education, experience, knowledge, and ability.

In the classification projects separately carried out by private enterprises and public jurisdictions up to the present time, each organization has confined itself to its own jurisdictional limits. But in view of the

advantages arising from a single classification plan

for positions, it becomes of interest to considei' the

additional advantages which would result if in- dividual projects could be sjmchronized into one co- ordinated classification plan.

Were standardized terminology and coordinated

specifications for jobs available for use within one community, one State, or throughout the country, an

increase in the effectiveness of public employment

agencies would be noticeable.' The social and economic

value of a public employment agency may be measured

by its ability to assist demand and supply to find each

other promptly. The jirocess of bringing the two

together depends upon information about jobs, on the one hand, and about applicants for employment on

the other. It depends also upon the facility with

which this information is adequately and promptly

available for use in the public emplojunent agency.

Occupational names should be convenient vehicles for

conve}dng and recording such information. At

present, however, a wide diversity of meaning is at- tached to even the most frequently encountered oc- cupational terms. Varying practices and varying

trade customs have led to the use of different occupational names for the same duties and the same occupational names for different duties. Such conditions

tend to obscure the qualification requirements of a named position, as well as the qualifications of the

applicant for emplo}unent as conveyed through the names of the positions previously held. All too fre- quently one needs to go behind the name to be sure of

his facts. There is, accordingly, much opportunity

= Act of May 28, 1928, sec. 2. 45 Stat. 776. ^Report of Wage and Personnel Survey. H. Doc. No. 602, 70th

Cong., 2d sess. Closing Report of Wage 'and Personnel Survey. H.

Doc. No. 771. 71st Cong.. 3d sess.

^ P. C. B. Form No. 18. Preliminary Class Specifications of Positions in tile Field Service. H. Dee. Nor-?T2, 71st Cong., 3d sess.

and incentit'e for progress in developing uniform

occupational nomenclature and also definitions or and incentive for ju'ogress in developing uniform oc- cupational nomenclature and also definitions or specifications. because these would serve as a fund of current information about the duties of positions to be filled. Uniform occupational nomenclature would simplify

the exchange of information between public emiiloyment agencies as well as between employers and pros- pective emjiloyees. It would afford a common basis

for answering such questions as the following; For

what kinds of positions is there the greatest or the

least supply? For Avhat kinds are qualified candidates difficult to obtain? For what kinds are plenty

of qualified persons available? In what kinds of positions nia}' a large turnover be anticipated ? Information of this character would also prove of

inestimable value to those interested in vocational

training and guidance who regard the solution of

many economic and labor problems as dependent in

part at least on influencing the worker’s entrance to the labor market. With more accurate information

available as to the nature, duties, and qualification re- quirements of positions, together with the normal lines

of promotion, it becomes possible for educational authorities to construct courses fitted to the industrial

needs of a community and the vocational needs of its future workers. Thus a more satisfactor}^ correlation

between the efforts of schools and the activities of in- dustrial and commercial establishments will result,

and those who are charged with the responsibility of

vocational guidance will find it possible to exert an in- formed influence iqion sources of labor and to direct

it away from aleady overcrowded occupations and

toward new and developing opportunities.

In inquiring into the feasibility of a national^ coor- dinated classification plfin, it should be remembered

that some individual classification projects have been

characterized by size and complexity, large occupational variety, and wide geographic scope, to an extent sufficient to test the soundness of the methods

developed and to demonstrate their applicability to large and intricate occupational structures. Various groups at different times have discussed

ways and means for achieving national uniformity and

coordination of occupational nomenclature. This aim

covers such a vast field as to be almost overwhelming in the volume of the details involved. The technique for it has, however, already been established in

its major outlines; the problem is largely one of secur- ing interest, cooperation, men, and money.

Progress has been made toward coordination within

given communities. An interesting curi’ent example

is the industrial survey now being directed in Balti- more and Cumberland, Md., by the employment commissioner of the State of Maryland under the joint

auspices of several city. State, and commercial organizations. The principal objectives of this survey are

to collect information i-egarding the duties, tasks, and

qualification requirements of industrial and commercial positions in the communities; to segregate these

positions into classes on the basis of likenesses and

differences in the work which they involve; to de- velop specifications describing the work and qualification requirements of each class of positions; and

to establish a standard name for each such class. The division on industry and trade of the Social

Science Research Council is also actively interested in
JUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 349

the general problem of nationallj" uniform occupational nomenclature and nationally coordinated job

specifications. It recently lias held conferences of

specialists under its auspices and is endeavoring to work

out plans for experimental develojmient of methods

and jirocedures in certain selected communities.

Xational uniformity of occupational nomenclature

and national coordination of specifications of classes of positions are matters that lie far off in the future.

It is inevitable that this should be so. As is largely

the case with the commercial standardization and

simplification toward which the Bureau of Standards

is working, the procedure of standardizing and defining occuiiational nomenclature is a gradual one, be- cause it must come about not through law, but through

mutual agreement, and can only be attained when it becomes apparent that it is to the best interests of

all concerned to adopt the standards.

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS COMMENDS STANDARDS

Ethelbert Stewart, Commissioner of Labor Statistics

In considering anj^ subject it is highl}'- desirable

that one should have or be able to get an acciirate

knowledge of the subject. He should be able to think

clearly. This necessitates an accurate vocabulary, and,

if need be, there must be a modification of the vocabulary as it exists to make it represent clear and ac- curate tliought, even to the extent of coining new

words. A comparison of a very old dictionary with

a modern one show’s the growth of language, the death

of old words, and the birtli of new w’ords. Some sarcastic critic has remarked that “the

English language is a medium for concealing

thought.” With its thousands of w’ords and its many

synon3mis and near synonyms a fair-minded person

can generally express himself clearlj^ to another per- son wdio knows the language as Avell as he does, but, on the othei’ hand, a designing person or a careless

person can very eft'ectuallv camouflage a thought in good dictionarv Avords. Unfortunately’ tliere is also

indefiniteness, incompleteness, and inaccuracy^ in the

English vocabulary’. Probably this is more noticeable

in the fields of industry than in any other phase of

life. Here one finds sucli vague and general terms as operath’e, mechanic, or laborer, and such specific

terms as Aveaver, heel burnislier, or puddler. Here also one finds such peculiar trade Avords as teaser, expediter, bull w’orker, and many^ others of like character, having in an industry a technical meaning quite

foreign to the common meaning, and often having sev- eral entirely different meanings.

To illustrate, the Avord “ teaser ” is found in the

glass industry as designating the man Avho stokes the

fire under the melting ])ot; in the blast funiace this

term has been found as designating the man aa’Iio controls the floAv of molten iron in the “ pig ” bed. In a cotton mill a teaser is found Avho operates a machine

that breaks up cotton Avaste and removes the foreign

matter. The term “ teaser ” has still other meanings.

These unusual definitions may, or may not, be found

in a dictionary’. Frequently industrial-occupation

terms are encountered that are not found eA’en in a technical dictionarv.

Among the many’ duties of the Bureau of Labor

Statistics of the United States Department of Labor,

one is to collect, compile, and ])ublish data relating to

Avages, hours of labor, accidents, and other items iii i-elation to employees in the industries of the. United

States. Since its creation in 1885 the bureau has made

such .studies in many’ industries, and repeated studies

liaA’e been jnade in many of the more important in- dustries. Iti almost eA’erv Avage study special agents

are sent b_v tlie hui-eau to collect data directly from the

pay rolls of representative establishments, the service

of agents being necessary in the collection of data in

any A’olume.

The greate.st difficulty’ encountered by’ the bureau in

collecting Avage data is to determine the occupation of

the individual employee. A grand average Avage coa’- ering all employees seldom has much significance, as

it may’ include Avorkers ranging all the Avay from

highly skilled to utterly unskilled men. To make the Avage figures significant and of real

use, it is necessary’ to classify the employ’ee by occupation. For example, in a shoe factory’ the A’amp cutter

is directly interested in the Avages of other A’amp ciit- ters, and the A’am^i stitcher is in turn mainly interested

in the Avages of the vamp stitcher; the employ’d' also Avants information b_v occupation, and the public too. Often, hoAve.A’er, a pay’ roll shoAvs only’ a name or a number. This satisfies the employ’er and the foreman

Avho knoAvs Avhat the employee is doing, eA’en if there

is no concise occupation term designating the work

done. They’ can designate the Avork done in a general

tlescriptiA'e w’ay’ Avithout using the occupation Avord. HoAveA’er, in collecting and combing data from many’

establishments it is necessary’ to hav’e a short occupational term. Frequently’ there is a generally’ accepted

term. If not, such a term may’ be found in some one

or more of the establishments, and such term is ac- cepted by the bureau to designate that particular work

in all of the establishments ; for example, “ draAver-in ” used in cotton-mill employ’inent. In some instances

Avhen no adequate occupation term is found the bureau

may be forced to coin a term based on the significant

word in the description of the Avork performed. An

illustration of a coined term is “ leg breaker ” in the

slaughtering industry’.

In one instance employees on several kinds of Avork

differing not only’ in w’hat was done, but also in the

rate of pay, were all classed as laborers by’ the in-,

dustry. Here the term “ laborer ” Avas altogether too broad to be satisfactory. In this industry’ seA’eral kinds of Avork w’ere each giA’en an occupation term,

Avhich action w’as apjAroved by’ the industry’. In an- other instance a distinct kind of Avork Avas done by’

certain machine tendei'S designated by’ the establishment only as laborers. In this case the company’ objected to a distinct occupation term because the coni-

])any’ thought that the use of a definite term Avould

giA’e an air of importance to the Avork and cause the

employee to ask a higher rate of pay.

The Bureau of Lal)or Statistics, in the 47 years

of its existence, has done much to standardize and

deA’eloj) occupational terms. In its Avage reports data

are compiled for each of the im|)ortant occupations

of the industry being studied. To avoid sti'etching
350 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE. 1932

out the publication, the less important and only oc- casionally found occupations are grouped as “ other

employees.'’ Each wage report published contains a

list of all occupational terms and operations found in the establishments canvassed, accompanied by a brief

description of the work done and a statement of the

occupation term under which the particular term is classified by the bureau. Frequently the various processes of the industry are also described in sufficient detail to make the occupation terms more understandable. Secret processes, of course, are never published,

tliough they may be known to the bureau.

The descriptions of occupations for the several in- dustries in Avhich studies have been made are now

being brought together into a dictionary of industrial

occupation terms. This dictionary will not only be

of service to the bureau in its studies in wage lines,

but in other fields as Avell, such as accidents, compensation, working hours, etc. It is believed also that

this dictionary will he of service to all ]>ersons who

are engaged in a standardization of occuj)ations.

Only by such standardization can there be exact knowletige common to all persons interested in any

particular industrial suljject.

RELATION OF STANDARD NOMENCLATURE TO THE CENSUS

By A, ]M, Edwards, Bureau of llie Census

The Bureau of the Census has developed no standard nomenclature of occupational terms; and it can

not, as a part of its decennial census of occupations,

develop such a standard. The census enumerators at each decennial census make a house-to-house canvass and enter on the schedules the occupations of the gainful workers of the respective families. They sehlom

go to the factories, offices, and other places of employment, and usually they do not see the gainful workers.

While the enumerators are instructed to return carefully the particular processes performed, the kind of

work done, or the character of sendees rendered by

each worker enumerated, it probably is true that in

most cases they return the occupations as reported to them by the housewife, the children, or others from

whom they receive information about the breadwinners of the family. In nian}^ cases, therefore, the

occupational designations returned are not the technically exact or scientifically accurate designations for

the occupations they represent, but rather the designations commonly used by the workers and their families. Some of these popular designations describe

fairly well the processes performed by the Avorkers;

others do not. Furthermore, these common or popular

designations sometimes vary from one section of the

country to anotlier, from one imlustry to another, and

even from one establishment to another in the same

industry. Some of tliem are no more standardized

than are the colloquialisms in the vocabidai'ies of the

Avorking people themselves.

The Bureau of the Census must, of necessity, accejjt

the occupational terminology of the Avorking ])eople. Avith all its inconKistencies, Avith all its inaccuracies,

and Avith all its lack of standardization. Also, in order

to convert the occupational returns into occupation

statistics, the Imreau must foianulate its classification

of occupations to conform Avith the occupational ter- minology of the Avorking people ; and it must change

its classification as this popular terminology changes.

Ce/ims index of occupations . —In prejiaration for

coding tlie millions of occupational designations to be

returned on their schechdes by census enumerators, the

Bureau of the Census, prior to each decennial census,

lirepai’es an index of occupations. This index is comprised, maiidy, of occupational designations returned

at preceding censuses. It is supplemented, however,

by designations gleaned from A^arious occupational

glossaries and from other sources. The index is printed in tAvo forms—classified and al]jhabetical—

a

separate volume being clevotedTo each form. In the

classified index the occiqiational designations are ar- ranged in classified form, each under the proper oc- cupation of the census classification. AA’hile in the

alphabetical index the occupational designations are arranged alphalietically and each designation is fol- loAved bjr a symbol iiidicating to Avhich occupation of

the classification it belongs. Coding clerks, each using

a copy of the alphabetical index of occupations, assign

a punch symbol to each occupational designation re- turned. These punch symbols are Avritten on the

schedxdes and later are punched on cards, for mechanical sorting and counting by electrical machines.

To give a clerk an index made up of the technically exact and scientifically accurate names of occupations

and aslc her to code the occupations returned by census enumerators Avould be like giving a student Avho had

not studied French a French dictionary to look up the

meaning of English Avords. Actual examinations have

shoAvn that technical designations are not used by

those Avho give information to census enumerators.

The folloAving designations, coj)ied from announce- ments of United States civil service examinations, may

be scientifically accurate, but they Avill not be fouml

on census enumerators’ schedules

Aviation engine mechanic.s’ helper. Assistant dust explosion prevention engineer.

Automatic :3-xV addressograpli operator.

.Associate chemist in forest products.

.Tunior special agent and research assistant. Census classification of occupations.—Since the

Bureau of the Census must classify the millions of

popular occupational designations returned by its enumerators, it is evident that its occupation classifi- cation can not be more specific or more technically exact than are the returns to lie class! led. The classi- fication must be rather general. In order to kee]>

the census occupation classi'ication as nearly as practicable abreast the occupational activities of the people, it has been necessary to make many changes in it to conform with the rapid and striking occupational

changes in our country during the past century.

Hence, AAdiile many of the census classifications Iuiat

jiersisted unchanged for several decades, others have

lieen changed. The census classification, therefore, is not a standard classification, if by standard clas.sifica- tion is meant a classification that jjersists from decade

to decade Avithout change. And the census classifi1 Editor’s note.—In modern personnel administration, a “ stand- ard ’’ clas.siflcation means one that is regarded as constantly^ subject

to revision in order to keep it currently correct. The classification plan includes, as one of its most important features, machinery and a
JUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 351

cation can not be standardized if it is to keep pace

with future changes in onr industrial organization

and in the occupational activities of our people. The

problem of census occupation classification and statistics is a dynamic and not a static problem.

It is the pi'ovince of the Bureau of the Census to record what is, not to dictate what should be. In its relation to occupational terminology and classification,

the Bureau of the Census is the historian, not the

pioneer. At each decennial census the bureau takes a snapshot of the occupational activities of the people,

and in its occupation indexes and its statistical tables

it presents this picture—nomenclature as well as numbers—as accurately as is practicable.

Comflete standardization of occupational terminology impossihle.—The occupational terminology of

a people is but part and parcel of its language; and

this terminology can no more be completely standardized than can the language of which it is a jiart. In

a country like ours, with its great diversity of in- dustries, with its minute subdivision of labor within

each industry, and with the rapid change of processes

that accompany new inventions and discoveries, it is evident that some occupational names will become

obsolete and l)e discarded; that others will lie re- tained but with changed meaning, or with more than

one meaning; and that many new names Avill be introduced. Our occupational terminology can no more be

completely standardized than can the occupational

jirocesses in our growing and constantly changing in- dustrial system. In short, our occupational terminology can be completely standardized only if and

when our industrial progress ceases and the processes

performed by our ivorkers become stationary. May

tliis time never come.

If, by a Avave of her magic Avand, a good fairy

should to-day bring into use a technically exact and

scientifically accurate standard nomenclature of oc- cupations, Avhat would happen? Probably tbis: Tonight some enterprising American Avould invent a iieAV machine for doing more economically and more

rapidly something now done by hand. To-morroAv some factories Avould adopt this new machine, but

others Avould not. And of the factories that adopted

it, some Avould change the occupational designations

of the Avorkers to conform Avith the neAv processes per- formed by them, but other factories Avould not adopt

neAv occupational terminology. The result Avould be

that Ave Avould hav^e the same occupational name for

persons doing quite difterent Avork, and we Avould again

need the services of our kind fairy. In fact Ave Avould

need her services each and every day, if Ave Avould

keep our occupational terminology standardized.

It is one thing to standardize inanimate, unchanging things and quite another thing to standardize

animate, growing things. Man may standardize his

AA'eights and measures, the gage of his railroads, the size of his brick, and the length of his socks, but he can not

standardize the height and Aveight of people, nor theii' emotions, their thoughts, noi- their language. Standardization of our occupational terminology is like infinity—Ave may approach it, but Ave can neA-er reach it.

procedure for amendiUK and altering the classillcation and keeping it always responsive to changes in the characteristics of the positions it

is intended to cover. Not only is a classification to he developed as a standard, fitting positions as they exist at a given time, but it must

be maintained as a standard, fitting positions as they may exist at any time. This is the sense in -which the t('rm " standard classifica- tion " has been used in other articles in this symposium.

Need for improving our occuiKitional terniiinol ogy.—There is urgent need for a common language,

so far as occupational terminology is concerned. If, in our discussion of occupations, Ave are to understand each

other and avoid confu.sion, it is necessary that Ave all speak the same language and not have a babel of tongues.

The present lack of anything a])proachiug a standard

occujiational terminology is A^eiy unfortunate. The

terminology noAv in use precludes exact statement

about occu]iations, and it is quite inadeijuate to meet

the needs of persons and organizations that require

specific and exact information about occupations.

When the Federal Government decided to reclassify

its civil-serAuce einjiloyees, it found that it must first adopt job specifications and occupational terminology.

The Railroad Labor Board had the same experience

Avhen it first attempted to decide a concrete case of

railroad Avages. Similarly, the War Department, the

Nav'y Department, the Civil Service Commission, the

Veterans’ Administration, the Federal Board for Vocational Education, and the Federal Bureau of Labor

Statistics found it necessary to adopt job spedifications

and occupational terminology in order to classify ac- curately gainful Avorkers by occupation.

In the War Department, in the Nav}" Department, in

the Veterans’ Administration, and in each other of the

Federal organizations aboA^e referred to, the attempt

to formulate and to .secure the adojition and use of

standard job specifications and standard occupational

terminology has met many difficulties and has not been

entirely successful. But for any one of these Federal

organizations to formulate and to secure the adoption

and the use, for its own purposes, of job specifications

and occupational terminology is quite a different task

from that of formulating and securing the general

adoption and use of standard job specifications and

standard occupational terminology coA’ering all occupations, AvhereA^er and b}^ AA'homever pursued. None

of these Federal organizations is concerned Avith any

large proportion of the total occupations ; in considei'-

able measure each organization is free to formulate

its OAAui specifications and terminology; and to some

extent each of them can impose by fiat its own specifications and terminology. Conditions are far otherAvise in the great outside world.

It is A^ery imjiortant, at the outset, that we realize

fully the technical and the practical difficulties that

Avill be met in any attempt to standardize the popular

occupational terminology in this country; and it has

been my purpose in this article to point out some of

these difficulties, es]iecially as they relate to the work

of the Bureau of the Census in collecting and classi- fying millions of occupation returns at each Federal

census. But so great is the need for a. higher degree

of comparability lietAveen the occu]iation statistics noAV being compiled by different agencies, that any

improA^ement in such comparability that can be se- cured througli inproving our occiqiational terminology

doubtless Avill be AA'ell Avoifl) the necessary effort. NotAvithstanding the impossibility 'of completely

standardizing our nomenclature of occupations, Avhat has already been acbie.A'ed in this line shoAvs that much

improA’cment can be made in onr pre.sent bapbazanl

nomenclature. The Bui'eau of Census Avill Avelcome

any moA-ement for sucb imjiroA'ement, and eventually

any imjiroA’ement made Avill be I'ctlected in better cen- sus occupation retiinis and statistics.
352 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE. 1932

Pending improvement in our occupational terminolog'v, the different agencies that complete occupation

.statistics could and should arrive at greater uniformity than now exists in the classification of those oc- cupational terms that are now largely standardized.

An occupaion that has a popular and generally used

name should not be classified as skilled one agency,

as semiskilled by another agenc}', and possibly as unskilled by a third agency. Much can be done to- ward standardizing our classification of popular occu- pational terms are now in general use, and such

standardization of classification Avill make the occupation statistics of one agency far more nearly comparable with those of another agency than is now the case.

INDUSTRIAL JOB CLASSIFICATION FROM VIEWPOINT OF MOBILIZATION

By Lieut. Col. C. B. Ross, XJ. S. Army^

The constant progress in the mechanization of

armies ; the development of motor vehicles of all kinds; the increasing importance of the tank, the

tractor, the armored car, the airplane, the dirigible;

the improvement in artillery, as well as in small arms, which has resulted in a capacity for expenditure of

ammunition undreamed of a few years ago ; all have

combined to place planning for the utilization of in- dustry in war on a par with planning for the utiliza- tion of the armed forces. The armed forces will continue to wage war, but they can not do this unless in- dustry supplies them with the equipment, without

w’hich their efforts will be futile. This condition became apparent for the first time

during the World War and, as a result. Congress, in

the national defense act, placed on the Assistant Secre- tary of War a new duty, that of planning for the mobilization of the country’s industry for war production.

Since that time changing conditions have shown

clearly that in any future war industry will have a much larger and more important part to play than

in the last. The first step in industrial Avar planning is the computation of the quantities of the Auirious items that the

armed forces Avill need at the beginning and the rate

at which these items must be manufactured to maintain

a proper supply. The second step is to determine the

secondary requirements of raAv materials, poAver, labor,

transportation, manufacturing establishments, etc., that Avill be needed to fabricate and supply the fin- ished items. Requirements of raAV materials and

poAver, for example, can be expx’essed in total quantities. Even transportation requirements can be stated,

generally speaking, in terms of carloads. These

figui'es will not be accurate, to be sure, but they Avill be sufficiently so to permit inventory of the A'isible supply, estimate war reserA^es required, arrangement

for the needed rejffenishment, and, in some cases, planning for the use of substitutes.

The determination of labor requirements and the

filling of those requirements in the various industrial areas where the need arises is a ]iroblem far more complex in its solution. Here Ave liaA^e to deal not alone

Avith total numbers but also Avith occupational qualifications. The optical-glass maker, the lens grinder,

the highly skilled machinist, and the assembler are equally essential in the manufacture of xianoramic

sights, but their duties are not interchangeable, and

for their particular .skill in handicraft there are no

substitutes.

There are constant changes and imxH’ovements in in- dustrial xjrocesses Avhich result in the reduction of the

1 On duty with thn industiiai mobilizMion plannins branch of the

ottioe of the .“Assistant Secretary of WarLWar Department, Washington, D. C.

skill required of certain classes of Avorkers by subdiAusion of labor, by the substitution of the xiOAver- driA'en machine for hand labor, and otherwise. At the same time the need of highly skilled Avorkers in other

industries—the manufacure of machine tools, for

exainjile—has been greatly increased.

In war time the production of military requirements, xiarticularly tliose the outxmt of Avhich is ex- tremely small in peace time, hundreds of classifications

of these highly skilled Avorkers Avill be required or industry Avill fail in its task. Adequate Avar xilanning

necessitates the comxmtation of industry’s requirements of these Avarious classifications of workers, both

for the manufacture of military requirements and for

the manufacture of essentials for the civilian xioxmlation. It is knoAvn definitely that in war time thei’e will be

serious shortages of certain classifications; in fact,

in several of them there are noticeable shortages eA^en in normal jAeace-time conditions. In such cases the

only alternative is to utilize the services of those

qualified in allied occuxiations and, under Avar conditions, giA^e them the additional training that is re- quired. The highh" skilled machinist Avhen given some InioAvledge of forging, the heat treatment of

metals, etc., may be develoiied into an accexitable tool- maker. But Avhat is a machinist?

Obviously, the comimtation of the number of tool- makers or machinists or boilermakers or molders or airplane mechanics is A-alueless unless those designations conA’ey the same meaning Avherever they are used.

Should industry in Pittsburgh call upon the United

States Employment Service, which in war time is in- dustry’s man-power recruiting agency, to su^iply a required number of steam fitters at a time when such

men are aA^ailable in Chicago, the reiiresentati\"es of

the Employment SerAuce in Chicago must know what

the minimum qualifications of a pipe fitter must be to justify his acceptance as a steam fitter. HoAveA^er, if the required number of steam fitters is not available

anywhere, industry must make the best shift it can

Avith men of the most closely allied trades, as plumbers. At least, they can receive their additional training in much less time than Avould be required for

entirely unskilled men. During seA'eral years past the War and XaA'y

Dejiartments haA^e been attem^ffing to jirevail upon in- Alustry in general to adojit a country-Avide standard

terminology of occupational classifications and x^'e- Xiare sxiecifications of minimum requirements of trade

qualifications under each designation. Industry apXireciates the adA'antages that Avould accrue from the

adoxition of such standard, but to date has not itself seen fit to undertake the task.
JUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 353

Anyone who has worked on the problems connected

with securing industry’s cooperation in the adoption

of standards of any kind will appreciate some of the

difficulties to be overcome. In this case, however,

there enters an additional snarl to be untangled. Occupational classifications are closely linked with wages,

and immediately the question of standardization is raised there appears opxiosition either from employer

grouj)s who wish to decrease wages or from the labor

unions who wish to increase them.

However, the xiroblem of the War and Navy Departments remains. They must compute or require in- dustry to compute the requirements of labor for the war program. This may be in totals by sex for unskilled and semiskilled occupations, but must be by

totals in occupational classifications in the skilled

trades.

Recently there has been appointed a committee of

representatives of the War, Navy, and Labor Departments with jjower to study the problem, evolve specifications for the essential skilled trades, and standardize a terminology" for war pur^ioses. This terminology will be used for industrial war-planning purposes and it will be used in war in all dealings between

industry and governmental agencies, particularly the

United States Employment Service.

This committee has started work, and it is expected

to show material jirogress in the near future.

ORGANIZED LABOR APPROVES OF STANDARD CLASSIFICATIONS

By William Green, Presideoit, American Federation of Labor

To standardize terminology of occupational classi- fications means simply to use terms that will mean

the same to all who use them. This is a problem

on which the labor movement has been working for

many years, and shall be facing indefinitely. During the centuries of hand skills a trade remained

standardized over long periods. Ap^irenticeship

training for a craft was a definite standardized education, teaching the use of tools and materials for the

production of well-known articles. A silversmith, a blacksmith, or a shoemaker meant the same thing

throughout the countries of western civilization.

With the coming of new industry organized as factory" production came modifications in the old hand

skills. 'New tools, power machinery, new materials, new processes have transformed jobs.

Technical progress has been very rapid in some in- dustries, but managements differ in the rajiidity with

which they install changes. Consequently in using the

accepted craft terminology, each coinjiany might have

in mind widely different kinds of jobs. Boys and

girls preparing for industrial vocations frequently

find vocational training preparing for the traditional

trades and callings and come to industries with very

little knowledge of operating machines now in use. Our trade-unions, which for years have been the

conservers of trade skills, are social and industrial

institutions—products of the life experiences of many

generations and potent forces in the xiractical business

world of to-day. These unions ajiply the familiar

occupational terminology of their past ex^ieriences to present-day needs, even though the job itself is changing. Our usage of occupational terms involves historical background and imxiortant institutional considerations, as well as industrial interests. Accepted standards and vested interests go with the old terms. The

unions themselves, like all human institutions, need to

lienefit by the achievements of the past.

Occasionally our unions have been involved in shaiqi

controversies over the application of union terminology", so that the original work imjilied by craft names has been variously and widely" modified. On

the other hand, industry, by changing its tools, xiower,

and materials, has greatly modified the jobs for which

workers are employed. Conflict in union jurisdictions

121708—32 2

arises when crafts endeavor to extend the authority of

their organization to changing work. These are not

essentially contests for power, but exxiressions of inevitable conflict between the established and the new

and involves the maintenance of established unions.

The maintenance of trade-unions is of fundamental

importance to industry and society", for they are the

standard-setting agencies for the largest group of

society. Standards of living for this group determine

the national levels of progress.

So long as industrial units remained small and oc- cupational adjustments were xiersonal, need for standardization of terminology was not so imxiortant industrially. But with increasing scale of production,

work orders became impersonal and the employment

office hired the number of workers required to operate

machines and turn out the required x>roduction. Organization of the labor market became so imperative

during the World War that a Federal employment

service was provided. With the scrapping of war

organization, this service suffered the common fate

and has not been restored even in this crisis of unemployment. When the service was functioning the need

for standard job classifications was conspicuous, for

misunderstanding with regard to the kind of skills needed might send workers on long journeys and hold

up imxierative XM’oduction.

Similar needs have been evident in vocational

training and the collection and compilation of census

material, the first field involving training for industrial ability and the other describing existing facts of

occupations quantitatively. Precision in classification

according to function and industry is important for

analysis in these fields. Standardization of occupational terminology" in- volves different and more difficult elements from

standardization of materials and xM'oducts, for human

sldlls and adjustments are involved. Agreement uxion

standard terminology shoidd be reached through con- ference between those who x^erform the oxierations

and those who give the work orders. We are now

using job classifications that formerly rexiresented a standard concexit, but to-day" are any"thing but

Xirecise. The first stexi must be agreement on job analyses

and then on the qualifications for axq^licants; the job
354 commercial StAilDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1932

itself may be an operation, a craft, or supervising

capacity entailing judgment and discretion, and, if standardized, could be followed through various in- dustries. This would be a distinct advantage for

workers in making adjustments necessitated by technological changes. Though there are great changes

involved in changing from industry to industry, the use of standard terms would promote mutual understanding of work contracts, removing a cause of many

possible conflicts as to rights.

Of course, terminology that remains standardized

after occupations have changed it is a hindrance to understanding. Much of the terminology in use to- day is a carry-over from periods of handicraft skills.

Standardizations carries with it the need for that

flexibility coming from sj^stematic revisions which

are difficult because accepted usages become embedded

in practices and life investments. The basis for new

standardization of job names, useful for industrial

work of the future, is something that ought to be

undertaken as essential to enable workers to adjust

themselves more efficiently to changes in methods of

work.

In undertaking standardization of occupational

classifications, Ave should never lose sight of the fact

that these terms are only tools for use of workers and

managers. Tools must be adjusted to the uses of

humans.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Forty-three specifications were acted on by the Federal Specifications Board during the month of May.

Of this number, 28 were submitted as proposed specifications and 15 for revision. Copies of these specifications (in mimeographed form) and further information can be obtained from the Federal Specifications

Board, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

New designation Specifications proposed F. S.B. No.

HH-B-421

HH-F-211 UU-W-101 WW-C-621

WW-C-631

CCC-D-761 DDD-C-471

KKK-T-701

LLL-F-321

Poultry; live Ducks; dressed

Geese; dressed Rabbits; dressed Aluminum; sheet Varnish; mixing, for aluminum paint Aluminum; powder for paints (aluminum bronze powder).

Pigs’ feet - Sweetbreads (thymus glands) Sausage, liver Scrapple : Drums, steel, type 5 for inflammable or piosonous liquids. Drums, metal, types 5A, 5C, and 5D for acids and other dangerous articles Drums, steel, type 6A for phosphorus, white or yellow... Drums, steel, type 6C for inflammable solids or o.xidizing materials Drums, steel, type 6D tor inflammable solids or o-vidizing materials, single-trip container Aluminum; alloy ingot Tubing; aluminum, round, seamless Tubing; aluminum alloy, round, seamless, aluminumcopper-magnesium-manganese

Blanket; insulating, flexible Felt; insulating, semirigid Wall board; composition

Couplings; hose, cotton, rabber-lined and linen, imlined. Couplings; hose, pneumatic and spray (tor working pres- sures up to 150 pounds per square inch) Duck; cotton (canvass) plied filling yam and single yarns. Gray, khaki and ohve drab (flat duck)

Cloth; sensitized Trucks; motor, gasoline (4 wheels, 2 rear-wheel drive)... Fiber board; insulating, structural

SPECIFICATIONS TO BE REVISED

Z-P-671a

Z-P-681a EE-S-71a

PP-C-251a- PP-F-611a PP-T-791a QQ-A-451

QQ-B-721

QQ-C-551

QQ-L-201

QQ-S-561

ZZ-B-561 GGG-H-191a

GGG-S-311a

LLL-T-791a

Prunes; canned

Prunes; evaporated (or dried) Sauces; chUi and Worcestershire Chickens; dressed (broilers, fryers, and roasters) Fowl; dressed (fricassee) Turkeys; dressed Aluminum; ingot Bronze, manganese; bars, plates, rods, and shapes

Copper-nickel -all oy;castings Lead; shee

Solder; siltver Boots; rubber, short, light Helmets; welders’

Shields; welders’, hand l Turpentine (gum spirits of turpentine and steam-distilled wood turpentine)

134 552

578

30.8 307

493

CONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES

THROUGH RESEARCH

Better conserA^ation of industrial and natural re- sources is the keystone of the relationship between the

industries of the country and the Bureau of Standards, a national agency for conducting experiments

and research work of vital importance to various

classes of consumers, as well as to industry and commerce, said W. E. Emley, in an address May 11, 1932,

before the Hartford section of the American Society

of Mechanical Engineers at Hartford, Conn.

Mr. Emley, who is chief of the bureau’s organic

and fibrous materials division, pointed out that one

of the most successful lines of research work of the

bureau has participated in has been mill research.

For example, should a particularly troublesome plant

problem present itself which challenged the ability

of the most competent, it is possible that the solution

of such a problem will extend beyond the specific case

in a certain industry and pass into “ the highest realms

of pure science.” Here the problem demands cooperative or GoA'ernment research, and this kind of research

is carried out to much better advantage in a small

experimental plant not too directly connected with a

factory.

“ The Federal Government is interested in this kind

of research because the utilization of different raw

materials may result in better conservation of our nat- ural resources,” Mr. Emley said. “ Being itself a consumer, it is able to bring the consumers’ point of

A’iew to bear on questions of quality and cost. The

Bureau of Standards has a number of small factories

designed specifically for mill research.”

AcceiJting the broad classes of research as defined

by the Institute of Textile Research, namely, economic

research, mill research, testing research, and academic

research, Mr. Emley stated that the bureau is interested in all four classes. He pointed out that the

results of academic research in this country are immediately utilized Avitli the traditional American in- genuity and initiative. In closing he pointed out that a research worker

should have the greatest degree of freedom possible.

He drew a parallel between the “ degrees of freedom ” Avhich relates to the physical condition of a material on one hand with temperature and pressure on the

other. The employer should give the research worker

the task of making a new product and then permit the

worker to develop his experiments as freely as

possible. “ Applied research should, in general, be financed

by those individuals who expect to profit from the re- sults,” Mr. Emley said. “ However, if the results may

be expected to conserve natural resources, if they are of interest to consumers who compose a majority of
JUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL STAKDAEDS MONTHLY 355

the population, or if they concern matters of public

health or safety, a government agency may well undertake the work. Pure research should be carried on

by universities in order to maintain their reputation

as seats of learning. But if the work is of sufficiently

broad interest and importance, the general public may

decide to finance it from taxes and have the work

done in a jmblic laboratory.”

MILK STANDARDS OF RHODE ISLAND

By Harkt R. Lewis ^

It is the intention of the Rhode Island Department

of Agriculture to continuously improve the quality of

grade A milk and the requirements for the jiroduction of this grade of milk. It is felt that in grade A

milk the dairyman is producing a quality product, the

greater use of which will mean a more profitable dairy

industry.

During the past year our reports show a very satis- factory increase in the number of A producers and

dealers, a higher average score on A dairies, a higher

average butterfat content, and a lower bacteria

average.

How does grade A diffeffr from any other milk, is the first question liable to be asked by anyone not

informed on the subject. Here is the answer

All grade A milk is milk produced from cows under

State and Federal supervision for the eradication of

bovine tuberculosis. It must come from a dairy which

is frequently inspected in regard to location, construction, and cleanliness of all buildings where milk is produced or handled.

The cleanliness and general condition of the cows,

the construction and condition of all utensils used,

and the methods used in cleaning and sterilizing all utensils are thoroughly checked. The cleanliness and

health of all handlers of grade A milk are particularly

considered.

Grade A milk may be either raw or pasteurized.

Grade A milk must be delivered to the consumer

within 48 hours following production, and delivered

to the consumer within 24 hours after pasteurization.

1 Commissioner, department of agriculture. State of Rhode Island.

A large percentage of Grade A raw milk, however,

is delivered to the ultimate consumer Avithin a very

feAv hours following production. All dairies producing grade A milk for the Rhode Island market are located within an hour’s ride of the final market.

The demand for grade A milk is increasing rapidly.

For the calendar year beginning Januaiy 1, 1931,

grade A licenses in effect increased from 159 to 249. We now have 199 dairies producing grade A milk

from 4,966 coavs; 109 of these producers retail their OAvn milk; 91 are selling to dealers and stores, of

which 50 of the latter are licensed to sell grade A

milk.

The people of Rhode Island consume each day approximately 250,000 quarts of milk, of Avhich 70 per

cent is produced within the borders of the State,

about 17 per cent produced in adjoining klassachusetts and Connecticut territory, and about 13 per cent

is milk brought in from Vermont. Of the 70 per

cent of our milk needs Avhich are produced in the

State, amounting to more than 176,000 quarts daihq some 40,000 quarts is grade A milk. This constitutes a larger proportion of grade A milk on our market

than is usually found on secondary markets in other

regions. This fact means that consumers are taking

advantage of this high-quality product, thereby in- suring safe, clean, Avholesome milk. Furthermore,

Rhode Island producers are benefiting A^ery distinctly

through the large volume of grade A milk which is produced, for it is a fact that because of statutory

limitations grade A milk is all produced Avithin the

State of Rhode Island or immediately adjacent

territory.

DIAMOND CORE DRILL FITTINGS

Announcement that the industry has adopted the

proposed revision of the commercial standard for

diamond core drill fittings Avas made by Bureau of

Standards on May 14. The standard, covering measurements and toler- ances for diamond core drill fittings, was prepared

in order that these materials as produced by the various manufacturers may be interchangeable as to

size and threaded connections. It coA^ers the recognized tolerances and dimensions for the four regular

sizes of casing, casing bits, casing couplings, core- barrel bits, drill rods, and rod couplings.

Printed copies of this standard, entitled “ Diamond

Core Drill Fittings, Commercial Standard CS17-32,”

will be available from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C., in due course.

SURGEONS’ GLOVES

At the request of the American Hospital Association, two recommended commercial standards, one

covering surgeons’ rubber gloves and the other sur- geons’ latex gloves, Avere circulated on April 26 by the

Bureau of Standards for Avritten acceptance by the

industry.

These specifications were developed by the committee on simplification and standardization of the

American Hospital Association in cooperation Avith the Rubber Manufacturers’ Association and cover chemical and physical requirements. The specification for latex gloA^es is someAvhat more severe in its requirements than that for the usual type rubber

gloves and includes aging tests in the Greer oA^en. Acceptances are being receiA^ed in very satisfactory

numbers from producers, distributors, and hospitals

located in all sections of the country.
356 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1932 DESIRABILITY OF UNIFORMITY IN TRAFFIC DEVICES

By Haeey E. Neal ^

At the present time there are in existence in the

United States two codes covering signs and markers

for streets and highways. The first of these codes is entitled “ Manual and Specifications for the Manufacture, Display, and Erection of U. S. Standard Eoad

Markers and Signs ” and was prepared by the American Association of State Highway Officials in January, 1927 ; second edition, April, 1929 ; revised 1931.

The second of these codes, under the title “ Manual

on Street Traffic Signals, Signals, and Markings,” was

prepared in 1928-29 by the American Engineering

Council for the National Conference on Street and

Highway Safety and ivas approved in revised form

by the National Conference in May, 1930.

The American Association of State Highway Officials’ code covers the system of standard caution and

danger signs and route markers adopted by this body

in 1925. This code applies primarily to the marking

of highways outside of municipalities. The National

Conference Code was drawn up to provide a code for

municipal use. This code follows in a general way

the first-named code, but goes beyond it in providing

certain classes of signs not included in the code of the

association and in covering also the subject of auto- matic traffic signals.

The association’s code and the conference code, as has been pointed out, are similar, the caution and

danger signs in each code being of the same general

designs as to shapes and colors. There are, however,

several points of differences in details. The caution

and danger signs in the municipal codes are smaller

than those in the highway code. The “ Stop ” sign in

the municipal code has red lettering, while that in

the highway code has black lettering. In general the

difference in the subject matter common to the two

codes is relatively small. However, the growth of the

extension of the authority of State highway departments over highways extending into suburban and

urban districts has resulted in a need for a combined

code covering the whole field of traffic devices, the

provisions of which will be applicable to both rural

highways and municipal streets. Developments and

improvements in the sign and signal field have made

it advisable to not only reconcile the differences and

combine the two codes but also to revise these codes to include and standardize the use of important improvements in devices for traffic safety.

The need for and absence of uniformity in the

design and application of traffic devices is well exjjressed by the committee on railroad-grade-crossings

elimination and protection of the National Association

of Railroad and Utihty Commissioners in their report

for 1930:

1 Traffic engineer, Ohio Department of Highways, Columbus, Ohio : served as chairman of the joint committee of the American Road

Builders’ Association and the American Association of State Highway

Officials on traffic devices and their application. This article, pre- pared exclusively for Commercial Standards Monthly, is based on

the report of that joint committee.

An example of lack of uniformity in requirements and

practice is shown by replies to a questionnaire submitted to the State commissions by the secretary of this association with respect to the color of advance warning signs. Of the 35 States from which replies were received, 8 have adopted

a white background with black letters, in accordance with

recommendations of this association ; 16 use a yellow back- ground with black letters, in accordance with the recom- mendations of the American Association of State Highway

Officials ; and 11 States require no special colors, while in

1 State black and white as well as black and yellow signs are used, the white background under authority of the public

service commission and the yellow by order of the State highway commission.

This committee believes that the question of color back- ground is not of paramount importance, although the necessity for uniformity in the design, coloring, and method of

installation of all signs and signals and in the indications displayed by such crossing protective devices can not be too strongly stressed. As was stated in our report last year, the danger at all grade crossings is the same, and the warning

given by the devices designed to protect against this danger

should be identical in all of its characteristics wherever en- countered. There may be wide variance in the apparatus

utilized for displaying the indications, but the aspect as

registered in the mind of the traveler on the highway should

at all times and in all places produce the same conscious or subconscious response or reaction. It is apparent that much is to be gained if drivers

everywhere are safeguarded by traffic devices which

are uniform not only in appearance but which are

also displa}^ed in a uniform manner. Another great advantage in uniformity lies in decreased first costs and in economy of maintenance and

replacement. If various political subdivisions demand

traffic devices of designs based on individual ideas

and with modifications as to size, color, symbols, and,

in the case of signs, with copy differences, even though

such variations are slight, each lot requires special or semispecial production. In such cases the econ- omies possible under large-scale production when

there is standardization are lost and the cost to the

public is greatly increased.

No doubt the tendency to depart from uniformity

is due in a large measure to a feeling that present

standards have in many cases been based upon insuffi- cient investigation and that opinions rather than

facts and principles have been the ruling factors in

the decisions made. Confidence in the approved

standards, with consequent uniform adoption of these

standards, can result only from standardization based

upon research which establishes the correctness of

the decisions.

In the field of traffic signs, for example, the contrast values of background and copy colors, words

versus symbols, the use of reflecting devices, and

other details are the subject of controversy. It is reiDorted that there are as many as 43 different se- quences of signal indications and color combinations

used in “ Stop ” and “ Go ” signals. The correct an- swers to these problems can be determined only by

thorough research to determine and evaluate the fact.s and to establish the underlying principles.
JUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDAEDS MONTHLY 357

RADIO AMATEURS

International Brief Air Language Evolved by Amateurs

By C. A. Beiggs '

The ainateur radio operators are primarily interested in communication, and in this connection they

are concerned with a number of standards, some of

which relate to ineasurable quantities and some of

which relate to practices. The success and leadership

of the American amateur has made him dominant in

the field, and the subject must be considered largely

from his activity in international amateur radio

communication.

First, the amateur has been defined by the Federal

Radio Commission as a person interested in radio

technique solely with a personal aim and without pecuniary interest. In this class are included a large number of individuals ranging from persons of outstanding- achievement or skill to persons just beginning to gain a knowledge of the subject.

Of first interest to the amateur are standards of

frequency. Frequency has replaced wave length as a means of designating just where in the radio spectrum

a radio transmission is located; that is, for instance,

just where it will be found in tuning a receiver. The

frequency of a signal corresponds to the number of

complete electrical oscillations per second which characterize it. The number per second is very large. For

instance, a frequency of a million complete cycles per

second is one of those used for broadcasting and cor- responds in ordinary conditions to a wave length of

300 meters in air. In order to reduce the number of figures required to express them, radio frequencies are generally given

in kilocycles ; that is, in terms of thousands of cycles

per second. Thus the frequency of 1,000,000 cycles per

second is expressed as 1,000 kilocycles. The following

bands of frequencies are assigned to amateur stations

in the United States, and the approximate values of

tlie wave lengths in air corresponding are given to the right

Kilocycles Meters

1, 715 to 2, 000 175. to 150.

3, 500 to 4, 000 87.5 to 75.

7, 000 to 7, 300 42.8 to 41.1

14, 000 to 14, 400 21.4 to 20.8

28, 000 to 30, 000 10. 71 to 9. 67

56, 000 to 60, 000 5. 35 to 5.00

400, 000 to 401, 000 .749 to .748 Of tliese the following bands may be used for amateur radio telephony, under suitable conditions

Kilocycles Meters

1, 715 to 2, 000

3, 500 to 3, 550 56,000 to 60,000

175. to 150.

87. 5 to 84. 40

5.35 to 5.00 Amateurs use various means for spreading their

relatively narrow bands to occupy increased angles on

the dials, and they employ signals of Imown fre- quencies in and out of their bands for standardizing

their equipment. Many amateur stations maintain

their transmitters on definite frequencies, so they may

be used by others for calibrating purposes. -

In general the amateurs construct battery-operated

weak-fube oscillators mounted in copper or aluminum

boxes which serve as heterodyne wave meters, which

are calibrated and constitute a repository for standard

frequencies. A phone connection in the plate supply

enables such wave meters to be used for adjusting

transmitters. The wave-meter dial is set for the fre- quency designated and the transmitter is adjusted to give a zero beat note as heard in the phones, the detecting action of the oscillator being sufficient to produce the required effects in the head set. For standardizing the wave meter or for measuring incoming sig-nals, the weak signal from the oscil- lating wave meter is picked up in the amateur’s re- ceiving set and the dial of the wave meter is varied

until it makes a zero beat note with the incoming sig- nal. The result is used for calibrating the wave meter

or for measuring the incoming signal, according to the

purpose of the observation.

The most recent type of wave meter consists of a

special form of oscillating wave meter known as a dynatron oscillator. This employes a screen grid tube

in a special circuit in which a high degree of con- stancy and reliability may be obtained.

By the exercise of ingenuity and the use of harmonics many amateurs succeed in obtaining many

calibrating points from a small number of signals

heard.

A new and standardized form of language has been

evolved by the radio amateurs which permit them to get communications through and completed which

woidd otherwise be impossible under the circumstances. It is based on abbreviations which are very

practical and present an interesting example of a

logical and well-founded practice arising out of ex- perience. It is world-wide, and on account of the en- ergy of the American youth in developing radio, it is based on English. This language is so comprehensive that young American amateurs have sometimes

talked to foreign amateurs and never realized that

they could neither speak the foreigners’ native language nor could the foreigner understand ordinary

English.

This air language is characterized by an abbreviated

and apjiarently phonetic spelling of most of the

words. However, the phonetic aspect is produced

by another guiding principle. For instance, “my”

“ mi.” This is because “ mi,” • can be made in a shorter time than “ my,” as the “ i ” is shorter to make than the “ y.”

Time is very important. The amateur works with

varying and uncertain conditions with transmitters

of low power, and with interference of all sorts often amounting to a bedlam. Frequently contact is made and communication establishecl only with great

difficulty. The curious brief air language has a tre- mendous effect in permitting intelligent contact to be

^ made and messages to be exclianged. American Radio Relay League.
358 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1932 To illustrate the compact nature of this special

language : One amateur, W3NY, after being answered

by a second station, W3CAB proceeds as follows:

W3CAB de W3NY R ge om tnx fr call iir fb dc sigs qsa 4 R 5

in Balto hr 2 msg fr Wash qsp? qrk? qri? qsb? ar. In ordinary language this means:

W3CAB being called nu W3NY. I bear you ; good evening,

old man. Thank you for calling me. Your fine business direct current signals are of good readability and quite strong here

in Baltimore. I have two messages for delivery in Washington (D. C.) Will you take them? What is my signal strength?

What is the character of my signal and what is my frequency?

Go ahead. Here 79 characters conveyed information which re- quired 285 characters to explain in simple plain

English. Notice the polite forms of “ Good evening ” and “ Thank you.” The only place where amateurs

sacrifice brevity is in politeness in opening or closing a transmission, and, curiously enough, this is sometimes elaborated to the point where one amateur substantially thanks another amateur for thanking him.

The international Q signals, consisting of three

letter groups beginning with Q, having a special

meaning, used in radio as a result of international

agreement, form a part of the amateur’s vocabulary.

However, the amateur sometimes extends them to four

letter groups to cover some special need.

The vocabulary for this air language used by the

amateurs can be found in its authentic compilation in

the Eadio Amateur’s Handbook, issued by the American Kadio Eelay League, with headquarters at Hartford, Conn. The majority of radio amateurs are members of this organization.

The amateurs also make use of other quantities

which are not reduced to precise measurement and

standardization, but are determined by judgment.

These include readability and strength of signals and

signal character. The readability or audibility is ex- pressed in a scale of from 1 to 5 established by agree- ment. These are

1. Hardly perceptible.

2. Weak ; readable now and then.

3. Fairly good ; readable but with difficulty.

4. Good; readable.

5. Very good ; perfectly readable. The strength of signals is expressed on a scale of

from 1 to 9, in which 1 represents a signal which can

just be heard and 9 one of the loudest signals possible.

A signal may be loud, but conditions make its readability poor.

The quality of signals are generally given according to their sounds:

RAC Rectified alternate current signals

;

DC Direct current signals;

PDC Pure D. C. signals, specially good;

XRAC The particular character of note ; and

XDC Obtained from crystal controlled receivers.

PROGRESS IN PAPER-TESTING STANDARDS

Progress during the past year in the development of

official association paper-testing methods was reported

to the annual meeting of the Technical Association of

the Pulp and Paper Industry by B. W. Scribner, of

the Bureau of Standards, who is also chairman of the

association’s paper testing committee.

Noteworthy progress was made by the subcommittees on tests for water resistance and chemical properties.

For several years joint laboratory studies of the vari- ous methods proposed for testing the water resistance

of resin-sized papers have been carried on by the subcommittee members. The dry-indicator test proposed

by Carson was finally chosen as the most suitable

method, and a thoroughly standardized procedure was

evolved which has been recommended for consideration as a tentative association method.

The subcommittee on chemical methods completed

tentative methods for alpha cellulose, copper number,

and total acidity, all of which are particularly important in view of the interest in properties associated

with permanence. The alpha cellulose and copper

number methods are based on those proposed by Rasch

and Burton, and the acidity methods is essentially that

of Kohler and Hall.

A complete procedure for testing unimpregnated

roofing felt, comprising tests for saturating properties

and modified procedure for fiber composition, in addition to the usual paper tests, was adopted as an offi- cial association method. This makes a total of 28 offi- cial paper testing methods so far adopted by the

association.

The test development work planned for the current

year deals, in addition to further consideration of

water resistance and various chemical properties, with

pi'inting-ink resistance, grease resistance, fiber composition, testing of soap wrappers, and revision of the

stren^h-testing methods.

The report rendered by Mr. Scribner included mention of suggestions received as to new methods con- sidered desirable of development, and also a resume

of some of the more important developments in general concerning paper testing.

AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

The following current information concerning developments in standardization projects under the

auspices and procedures of the American Standards

Association has been furnished by that association

Gommittee meetings.—Li\ meetings of the U. S. National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission and the Electrical Standards Committee on April 14 and 15, respectively, further steps were taken in the consolidation of the electrical work

of these two organizations within the framework of

the American Standards Association.

As a result a considerable simplification of the technical organization has already taken place. Heretofore the technical work of the USNC of the lEC has

been in the hands of technical committees termed

“ advisors.” Under the new arrangement the technical subject matter is allocated to appropriate sectional

committees. The official spokesman for each lEC

project in international negotiations and contact work

is termed the “ technical advisor,” and in nearly every

case the chairman of the sectional committee serves as

this technical advisor.
JUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 359

INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

Review of the Development of Industrial Research Among World Powers Places United States First

By Maueice Holland ^

Germany probably still leads the world in scientific research and its application to industry, though, since

the World War, the United States has gained proportionally over the Germans in the number of research

workers and the total volume of research. Organized

research in France, as we know it here, is relatively

unimportant, but Great Britain and Japan continue

to progress, particularly in special industrial fields of

research. The significant difference between American and foreign research is our entire lack of Government subsidy.

Great Britain’s research association plan, supported

by the Government and about 25 industries representing 4,000 companies on the basis of pound for pound

subscribed to by each industry, is somewhat handicapped by tradition and conservatism. The plan has

done more to break down alleged trade secrets than

any previous industrial movement, although the equitable distribution of the results of research between

small and large companies is a problem. Failure to use discoveries and apply them to other industries is also a weakness of the plan.

In France there is little organized research, either

national or industrial, because the French believe that

organized research destroys individual initiative. The

position of France in industrial research is about that

of the United States in the late nineties.

In Germany during recent years, particularly in

the postwar period, a succession of handicaps—national economic crises—has decreased the total volume

of research. Since the war a propox’tionately large

increase of science applications to industry has given

America the present advantage over Germany in

number of research workers and total volume of re- search. But world leadership in academic and pure

science research and its integration with a national

industrial structure probably remains still with the

Germans.

The Prussian Ministry of Science is the backbone

of the national organization of research in Germany,

and the German Engineering Society, with which it is allied, one of the most formidable national scientific and engineering organizations in the world. Germany has 840 industrial research laboratories, or more

than one-half as many as the United States, at an

estimated expenditure of one-half of that spent for

research in this country. Representative German in- dustrial companies have the most highly organized,

best equipped, and efficiently managed laboratories to be found anywhere in the world.

In Japan the whole range of industry is represented

in laboratories, with the Japanese in the lead in technological development in the silk and fisheries in- dustries through research, with advances in many

other directions. Out of 90 research institutions in

Japan, 24 are supported by the Government. The

1 Director, division of engineeriiiK and industrial researcli. National Research Council, 20 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York City.

rate of development of industrial technology in Japanese industries foreshadows an economic advance of

great significance to the western world.

In many lines industrial technology in America

is open to the competition of nations with superior

scientific resources, a natural supply of raw materials, or abundant cheap labor required in certain specialized industries. England is an acknowledged world

leader in technology in the textile industries, Germany in chemicals and dyes, Czechoslovakia in beet

sugar, Japan in fisheries. It is important that the American executive and

research director should be acquainted with the difference of national viewpoint toward research, as well as the similarities and essential differences in

methods of operation, types of problems selected, and

the position of research personnel. These differences

of national viewpoint include the relations of Government to private industry, the attitude of management to research, the position of the scientist and

research worker in the social and economic life of

the nation, and the position of each nation in foreign

trade.

This shows the need of holding international meetings of scientists and industrial technologists as a means of finding a solution of world trade problems which have not been met by the erection of tariff walls and other economic and political devices. No

tariff wall can be built high enough to protect the

foreign or domestic markets of American manufacturers against competitors having superior research

resources and advanced industrial technolog;yL

An army of 30,000 scientists is now kept in the field by American industry with its 1,600 research laboratories. In tlie United States the organization of re- search is deeply rooted in the basic principle of individual initiative and competitive enterprise. Cooi9-

erative research, supported by 100 or more trade as- sociations and operated in the interests of industries

as a whole, is as yet a secondary or auxiliary arm of

the service.

In general, those problems which are common to a number of companies should be carried out by trade

association. This eliminates unnecessary duplication

and reduces the cost of the investigational work to any

one company. Combining the experience and knowledge of a number of companies tends to increase the

chances of a successful solution. There are also other

problems which, because of their fundamental nature,

are too expensive to be undertaken by one company.

These and others involving studies over a period of

years, or those dealing with matters of public rela- Gons, should be conducted by the association. Others

which relate to patentable discoveries, special processes, and items of a similar nature can be best

carried out by the individual companies.

The ai’gument has sometimes been raised that industrial research should be conducted and supported by a single manufacturer, thus stimulating competition. In
360 COMMEKCIAL. STANDAEDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1932

such cases the laboratory has advertising value. A

research laboratory is a quality guaranty which promotes confidence among the customers of the particular company. It is contended also that the laboratory often serves as a school for the training of skilled

employees who may be used in other branches of the

company. Finally, it is claimed that the private laboratory may be intrusted with secrets of great value,

especially in the development of new products and

methods.

All these arguments are valid. But they should be

considered as arguments favoring the use of private

research rather than as arguments to be advanced in

opposition to the conduct of cooperative research. Cooperative research must have for its purpose a utili- tarian objective, but this should not be confused with

undertaking practical problems involving so many

variables that they can not be definitely controlled.

In research work involving public relations there is an advantage in cooperative research, since the trade

association or technical society usually can speak with

authority for its industry.

It is not surprising, therefore, that we find some of

the largest companies in industry staunch supporters

of cooperative or trade association research as a supplement to their own investigations. These larger

companies look upon the group research movement as

TESTING CLINICAL THERMOMETERS

The testing of clinical thermometers by the Bureau

of Standards consists in determining whether the

thermometers meet certain requirements as to construction, accuracy, and reliability. Thermometers

which meet these requirements are marked as evidence

that they have been tested and found satisfactory by

the bureau.

At present the requirements are identical with those

of the commercial standard CSl-28, which was

adoj)ted in 1928. Experience at the bureau and else- where had indicated the need of some changes in this

standard, and accordingly a revision was submitted

to the industry in the early part of this year and was

accepted. Acceptance of the revision which will be

known as CSl-32, has been announced by the bureau,

to become effective on June 1, 1932. The new standard will be used by the Bureau of

Standards as the basis of its requirements and testing

procedure, effective July 1, 1932. Thermometers submitted for test after that date must meet the requirements of CSl-32 as to construction and aging, and

will be subjected to the tests prescribed. Thermometers which are found to meet the requirements

are marked with the letters B. S. and the last two

numbers of the calendar year; thus thermometers

tested during 1932 will be marked BS-32. This marliing is used in lieu of a certificate and is evidence that

the thermometers have been found to comply with

the requirements of the bureau and of the commercial

standard.

The fee for testing 10 thermometers or any smaller

number submitted at one time is $1. If more thaii

10 thermometers are submitted for test, the fee is 10

cents each. These fees are subject, to revision from

time to time.

helpful to them in solving broad problems of common

interest to the whole industry, in raising standards of

quality of the industry, and oftentimes in instilling

greater confidence in the results of the investigation

among the public at large.

The attitude of the smaller company toward co- operative research is somewhat different. By grouping themselves together they can solve problems beyond their own private means and can share in the

benefit of fundamental knowledge obtained.

In an article published some time ago in the

Atlantic Monthly the writer attempted to rate the

application of science to industry among some of the

industrial nations of the world in this order: Germany, United States, England, Japan, and hazarded

the prophecy that within five years there would be

two important changes in this list. Since that prediction was made the United States has advanced to first place. Perhaps the reader can guess the other change.

Research is the “ dark horse ” in the race for in- dustrial siipremacy. Any nation which can completely integrate research in the industrial structure

in such a way as to be of maximum service to all industries, that nation has the biggest promise of an

industrial future in the highly competitive world

markets of to-day.

PETROLEUM CODE HANDBOOK ANNOUNCED

A petroleum code handbook, which, in the words

of the editor and publisher, “ gathers into one volume

information that until now has been scattered and

elusive,” has been published by Leonard M. Fanning,

formerly director of the public relations department

of the American Petroleum Institute.

The book contains a directory of 16,000 refining and

marketing companies, much statistical, technical, and

practical information, and a buyer’s guide. Included

in the main section is information on specifications on gasoline and motor oils, as well as fire prevention

in marketing.

UNIFORM GAS TAX LAW URGED

The centering of national attention on the gasolinetax-evasion racket and the possibility of a Federal tax on gasoline make the time auspicious for the adoption

of uniform State gasoline tax laws, according to George D. Locke, vice president of the Barnsdall Refining Co., and newly elected president of the Western

Petroleum Refiners Association.

Mr. Locke suggests that the tax-evasion racket can

be stopped bj^ collection of the tax at the source. He

suggests that the industry ask governors of all States and delegates to a convention which could draft a uniform law for submission to the various legislatures

next January. With the tax being collected for the

States from a few hundred bonded sources rather than

from many thousands of distributors, Mr. Locke believes that evasion would be eliminated. Many of

the abuses which have grown up around exemptions

would be wiped out also by the adoption of uniform

laws.
JUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 361

STANDARDS OF ACCURACY IN MEASUREMENT

A Resume of the Development of the Accuracy of Measurement in Machine Tools

By Lxjthee D. Burlingame ‘

I can well remember when I learned to read a micrometer gage, and how wonderful it seemed to friends and neighbors that measurements in thousandths of an inch could be accurately determined.

This was before the 1-inch micrometer had been

brought out and, indeed, when it was difficult to produce lead screws of that length for micrometer calip- ers which would pass inspection within the required

limit. An expedient made use of in those days was

to make the longitudinal line on the barrel at an

angle to correct errors of lead. While expert mechanics had been able by means of

the vernier caliper to determine thousandths for a period of years following 1850, it remained for the

micrometer to make the use of thousandths “ a com- monplace ”

; and with modern developments this term

can well be applied to micrometers reading to ten- thousandths, and hundred-thousandths are being

recognized as actualities, while physicists now talk

in millionths.

A difference between skilled mechanics of the early

days and those of the present is that while the former

often worked to very close measurements in making

fits, depending on “ feel,” without knowing in decimals what the dimensions were, modern mechanics

have to have a definite knowledge of the size as well

as the relation in figures of one mating part to the

other in order to determine tolerances and limits in

interchangeable work, and to do this by gaging sys- tems such that there will be general interchangeability, no matter in what factory produced.

The high degree of accuracy required in modern

work is indicated by the fact that the machine tools

used to produce gages must be of a higher degree of

accuracy than the gages themselves, because of the

tendency toward degradation in transferring accuracy. Ma.ster gages must be of a higher degree of

accuracy than working gages, and the latter of a higher degree than the work itsef, so that in order

to make interchangeable work that will meet modern

requirements, extreme accuracy of the machine tools

used in the process is essential. One of the important

developments in recent years has been the transferring

of accuracy from the workman to the tools, so that

high-grade work can be produced even by workmen

of limited training and sldll. An example of this is found in the production of accurate master lead

screws, by use of which the commercial product is to be made.

Fifty years ago the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co. undertook the making of a special lathe for

precision work in the commercial production of lead

screws. William A. Rogers, who had been associated

with the Pratt & Whitney Co. in the development of

the Rogers-Bond comparator, was also working on

^ Legal technician, Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co.,' Providence,

R. I. : abstract of paper delivered before recent meeting of the Cincinnati section of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,

Cincinnati, Ohio.

the problem of a precision screw. He asked Lucian

Sharpe, of that firm, if he would undertake to grind

a jjerfect cylinder. Mr. Sharpe said : “ We are not

making perfect mechanisms of any kind any longer

in this establishment. A few years ago we felt competent to undertake perfect work of any and every

kind, but we have grown wiser since then.”

This struggle toward accuracy, Avhile realizing that

perfection is unattainable, applied to making the

master screw above referred to. The method followed was to take as good a screw as could be secured, care- fully determine its inaccuracies, and correct these by

the method shown in the Darling patent. By oscillat- ing the nut by means of the templet formed to correct the errors which had been found in the screw, a second screw made therefrom would be improved rather than

be subject to the degradation previously mentioned.

This better screw, then being used as the lead screw, became the master, from which a still better screw

resulted, the process being continued until the desired

degree of accuracy was obtained—in this case such as

to produce commercial work guaranteed within a variation not greater than 0.0004 inch per foot. Previous to the use of this lathe, one with the best lead screw then obtainable had been reserved for precision

work, and when it w’as discovered that because of ivear

and other variations a shortening in the lead resulted,

it was found that by “jacking up ” the center of the

lathe the lead could be lengthened; and this was re- peatedly done as the need arose, actually pulling the

lag screws from the floor before the scheme was abandoned in faimr of more permanently reliable methods.

The earliest precision machine for linear measure- ment produced in the Brown & Sharpe works was one

designed by Oscar J. Beale in 1878. It employed a microscopic scale for setting the measuring nibs, and

this scale had been compared in Washington to insure

that it could be depended on for accuracy. F. A.

Halsey says of this machine : “ This was the first machine in which the authority of Whitworth as regards the superiority of end over line measures was

disputed ; and the line measure rehabilitated and

placed where it belongs, as the ultimate standard.”

It Avas because Whitworth plugs and rings which

had been imported to be used as basic standards Avere found to be below the standard of accuracy to meet

the requirements that the Brown & Sharpe measuring

machine was designed. This machine folloAved shortly

after the comparator made by John E. Sweet, shoAvn

at the Centennial Exposition in 1876. The Sweet comparator, as the author understands it, Avas not a measuring machine in the sense that it determined original

measurements as did the B. & S. machine, but compared one measurement Avith another. The original

B. & S. machine had provision for holding the work

on centers. Since then, hoAvcA^er, there have been deA’elopments in precision measurement so that greater

refinements can be depended on and measurements re- peated, but some of these refinements make the condi-
362 COMMEKCIAL STANDABDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1932

tions very exacting, such, for example, as those affect- ing stability and temperature. On a measuring

machine used in the manufacture of gages and having

a cast-iron bed 18 inches deep, the pressure of a finger

from below will spring the casting enough to allow a plug held between the measuring “ nibs ” to drop, and

the same result follows laying the hand on the upper

surface of the bed, the warmth of the hand expanding

the casting.

For surface standards, such as surface plates,

straightedges, etc., we have means for producing original standards by the 3-plate method first suggested by

Whitworth. This will produce plane surfaces to whatever degree of accuracy is desired, and can also be

applied to the production of squares. An interesting test of surface plates was that of

laying a large plate weighing 450 pounds on the

master plate, the friction being such that it took sev- eral men to move the upper one; then the surfaces were lubricated, and it was found that the heavy

plate would float from its supporting plate when it was out of level but one one-thousandth of an inch

in an inch.

During the World War, when large planers were

required to produce lathes and other tools needed for

munition work, the Amalgamated Machinery Company had a contract for manufacturing concrete planers with beds up to 184 feet in length, and the

question was raised as to whether the curvature of the

earth would have to be taken into consideration in

leveling the ways of such planers. The question

aroused much interest at the time, and it was found

by calculation that if each portion of the bed were

“ level ” the curvature of the surface would be such

that the middle would be two and a half thousandths

liigher than the ends.

To secure accuracy in circular spacing, whether for

graduating, index drilling, or gear cutting, may, like

producing an accurate screw, mean starting with the

l)est available divided wheel or plate, and through a series of corrections producing copies one after another, each being thereby improved, until the desired

degree of accuracy is attained. We can talk glibly

about accuracy to a second of arc, but a little cal- culation shows this to be but 0.0004 inch in a radius of

21 inches, which is less than a third of an inch in

a mile.

The question of producing fits of the desired quality,

such as those for cylindrical parts and for screw

threads, has been receiving serious consideration in re- cent years. A committee has already reported on a proposed series of fits for cylindrical parts, and this is

now being further studied in regard to possible re- vision. In the matter of screw threads, the National

Screw Thread Commission has established certain

types of fit, suited to widely varying needs. The abil- ity to produce these fits commercially has been questioned, and samples of work from producers and users throughout the country have been secured, which are being measured in order to ascertain to what degree

the prescribed tolerances and limits are being complied with.

There are several factors involved in securing

greater production from machines, namely: (1) In- creasing the cutting speeds and feeds; (2) simulta- neous operations and operations on multiple pieces of

work; (3) semiautomatic and automatic controls; and

(4) reducing lost time in loading and between suc- cessive cuts. Important additional considerations, dependent upon the quantity of parts to be produced, are the setting-up time and the cost of special equipment,

which latter, divided by the number of pieces produced, gives the cost per piece. In designing machine

tools for both accuracy and speed this question of

quickened production becomes vital. Following the analysis above given as applied to screw-machine wmrk, the question of the material

I operated upon becomes important. For example,

brass, even though a much more expensive material

than steel, can often be used, producing work at but a fraction of the cost which results when using steel, be- cause of the higher cutting speed that can be employed. Thus a brass knurled-headed screw threefourths inch in diameter and about 2 inches long can

be made in one-quarter the time it would take to machine a steel screw of the same dimensions, and this more than offsets the difference in cost of material,

ro that the brass screw is not only cheaper, but, as

it takes only a quarter as much machine time, the

machine is available for other work. In a drilled

piece nine-sixteenths inch in diameter and about 2

inches long, the time required, if the material is brass, is but one-seventh of what it is for steel, and

the net cost, including the material, but one-third as much. When coupled with the speeding up, multiple

simultaneous operations, or operations on more than

one piece at a time, are possible, a further material

saving of time can be effected. From the fact that there has been such a material

increase of production in recent times, and because

of such progress as has been indicated in this article,

there is reason to believe that the future still holds

possibilities that are beyond our present conception,

possibilities that give promise of greater attainments

yet to come in both accuracy and speed.

COLORADO SPECIFIES DYED GASOLINE

QUALITIES

Specifications for colored gasoline have been drafted

by the State inspector of oils of Colorado, and will

be officially published within the near future. The

specifications setting forth the special qualities a gasoline must have before it may be artificially colored in Colorado are: Gasoline considered to have special qualities, justifying the use of artificial coloring, shall have the following specifications in addition to the requirements

of law for ordinary gasoline, to wit

Octane number—minimum of 70. Sulphur—maximum of 0.05 per cent. Performed gum—maximum of 15 mg per 100 c c. The octane number shall not be attained by the

addition of chemicals or substances which will be

deleterious to the motors in which such gasoline shall be used, and no chemicals or substances shall be so added for such purpose unless the use thereof shall

first be approved by the State oil inspector.
JUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 363

ECONOMIES IN CENTRALIZED PURCHASING

Conservation of Taxpayer’s Money Effected Through Centralized Purchasing of Standardized Articles

By A. H. Moeosco^

No small part of the problem of governmental ex- penditure may be controlled by husbanding our re- sources and going into the competitive market and

giving to the people a maximum return for the public

dollar. The charge is often made that 40 per cent of

the public dollar is lost through inefficiency and waste. If this be true, and one-half of that sum could be

saved by the installation of sound business methods in

all expenditures of Government, much of the problem

would be solved.

Centralized control and costs distribution are but

synoptic connections set up in the daily life of the

purchasing agents. Their pathways are a part of the

intellectual fabric of the purchasing agent and the

reactions to them are almost spontaneous.

We are now passing into a new economic era, one

that calls for new principles, new philosophies, new

recognition of old principles. We have come to the

end of the road for a time at least. New standards

of governmental service must be established. To lower

the standards of living is the last thing America must

do—it must not be done—and the best way to maintain the standard of living is to extend the purchasing

power of the public dollar. The best wa}^ to extend

the purchasing power of the public dollar is through

centralized purchasing, and control and distribution

of supplies.

Centralized purchasing is the establishment of a central authority to obtain needed supplies and equipment for the line branches. To-day more than ever the demand for such organization is paramount. The

dollars are restricted—the demands have expanded.

There is but one answer: We must spend less and we

must obtain more for what we spend. These objectives can best be obtained through central control. Thirtysix States and more than 200 cities have acce]ited this

money-saving device in the United States. Industry

has long ago found in it merit and economy. Government must adopt these economy devices if Government is to carry on. We who are interested in problems of public finance

have long felt the need of a yax-dstick, a measuring rod

by which to detei-mine the efficiency of a governmental

operation. This has been one of our most difficult pi’oblems. Centralized purchasing in a measure provides such a yardstick. We can set up unit costs and

determine after a fashion such costs. Lower unit costs should follow almost as a matter of course, since it is generally true that bulk purchasing does result in

lower price. If centralized purchasing fulfills its function it must of necessity lead to bulk orders, which

in turn lead to lower unit costs. A study of school purchasing in a California county

showed a reduction in unit costs of about 45 per cent

the first year the system was installed. It is difficult to point out a percentage saving in the following 5

"eai’s,

' Tax counselor, California Taxpayers’ Association ; abstract of paper

delivered before California State. County, and Municipal Purchasing

Agents’ Association, Apr. 20-22, 1932, Santa Barbara, Calif.

inasmuch as the organization was functioning and the same reduction could not be obtained. One rather

small county points out a net saving of $6,000 a year

and greater savino- of time to teachers and school

boards. Teacher time is an essential element in the

problem. The most costly item of education is teacher

salaries, which is represented by teaching time in so far as the district is concerned. If this time is spent

in interviews with agents, etc., it can not be given to students.

Centralized purchasing must result in uniform

costs to the taxpayer. Under a disorganized purchase

plan man}^ departments may be in the market at the same time for the same article, resulting in bidding

one against the other, running the price up, and cost- ing the taxpayer different sums for the same article. There is only one source for the money—the tax- payer—and he should and, in these trying times, must

be protected. In a study made in an eastern city,

prices showed from 50 to 100 xier cent variation for

the same article at the same time. A certain northern

California county saved $30,000 in one year at a cost of 3 per cent of the total purchases. On the other

hand, I knoAv of a rural school that had a broom supply that would last 29 years, a red-ink supply that

would last 40 years. Yardsticks are needed; constant study is necessary. Government should know at all times how its unit

costs compare with those of similar governments.

The cost of administration of the purchasing department is somewhat of a check upon its oivn efficiency.

The department should know at all times its costs per

dollar of amounts purchased. Costs should fall within a range of 1 to 4 per cent, depending upon local conditions. Costs that are too high are barometers

that indicate storms. Government can, with wisdom,

from time to time, call in a successful purchasing

agent from the field of industry, go over purchasing

procedure with him, and make improvements, if necessary. There must be set up in these trying times a definite understanding between the purchasing department and all line departments, that they will

not be allowed to change their minds concerning supplies after requisitions and commitments hai^e been

made.

Simplification and standardization are concrete

ideas in the purchasing agent’s vocabulary, and the

demand to-day is greater than eA’er before. Costs can be reduced materially through simplification and

a reduction in the number of items stocked. It is the

duty of a purchasing agent to analyze his stock record

and “ sell ” this idea to the line branches of government. IVe are no longer in a financial position to yield to the desire of the individual. Special service

is great and it might be admis.<=ible when Ave can afford

it, but not to-day.

The problem of Iioav much stock to carry is one

to which purchasing agents have given a great deal
364 COMMEKCIAL. STANDAEDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1932

of thought. When stock is piled up in a warehouse it

is done so by reducing the cash in the pockets of the

taxpayer by a like amount. Ability to supply material when needed is important, but idle stock is frozen

cash in a community, frozen cash is restricted credit,

and restricted credit slows down community development. By this I do not mean that standard materials

should be carried in insufficient quantities, for that

retards the program while awaiting the arrival of new orders. Through a system of stock records and

flagging the danger point can be watched and purchases governed accordingly. This is a real problem

and one that has a direct bearing upon the welfare

of the people of the community. In some cities 5 cents in the tax rate is represented by stock on hand

carried more than nine months.

The installation of a central bureau should result

in reduction in overhead costs—a definite reduction in

paper work. The amount of office work involved is a real expense to the taxpayer. We consider that the

amount of time, the postage, and the drawing up of

specifications will often equal the cost of a small

order. The United States Bureau of Efficiency esti- mates purchasing costs the United States Government

$5 per order. Toledo, Ohio, ran $2.84 per order. If

the department is organized as it should be, the office work should be reduced and thus the cost of buying

cut. To the seller centralized purchasing offers obvious advantages—one call on the part of the sales- man is equal to 20 or 30 under the old plan; one

order is equal to many; one shipment; one delivery; one entr}'-; and the job is finished.

AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT ISSUES

THREE NEW STANDARDS

The Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United

States Department of Agriculture, has just announced

three new standards covering foodstuff. These are

United States Standards for Cabbage for Sauerkraut

Manufacture, Suggested United States Standards for

Sweet Corn for Canning, and a Handbook of Official Standards for Beans. Requests for further information on these standards should be addressed to the

Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

OVERHEAD ELECTRIC-RAILWAY MATERIAL

The printed copies of simplified-practice recommendation for packaging of overhead electric-railway material are now available, and can be obtained from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C.

This simjDlification, which was proposed and formulated by the industry, provides for the packaging of a

specified number of units of the 20 following electric- railway materials : Protecting trolley armour, pole

bands up to and including the 6 inch, pole bands 7

inches and over, fork bolts with insulator one-half

inch in diameter, fork bolts with insulator five-eighths

inch in diameter, angle crossarm braces, flat-steel cross- arm braces, crossings or crossovers, trolley-wire clinch

ears, trolley frogs, straight-line hangers, cap and cone

insulators, section insulators, strain (globe and giant)

insulators, wood strain insulators, feeder pins for steel crossarms, straight-line suspension pullovers, soldered

splicing trolley-wire sleeves, mechanical splicing trol- ley-wire sleeves, and line section switches.

Some time ago the American Electric Railway Association, through its committee on unit piling and

standard packages, made a study of the possibilities

and advantages of reducing varieties of unit packages

for overhead electric-railway line material. The re- sults of this study, which lead to the formulation of the

simplified-practice recommendation, indicated that

such a simplification of the number of units packed in

each container or bundle should prove helpful to manufacturers, distributors, and the electric railway companies as users.

RECOMMENDATION FOR GLASSINE BAGS

NOW IN PRINT

Simplified Practice Recommendation No. R107-31,

covei'ing glassine bags, is now available in printed

form. Copies of this recommendation, which was

proposed and developed by the industry, may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

Sizes of both flat and square bags for specific purposes, such as for packaging bread, pies, and cakes,

and sizes of general purpose bags of capacities from

1 ounce to 2 pounds, as used in the confectionery

trade, are recommended in this simplification

program.

NEW HANDBOOK ISSUED ON STRESSES IN

WOOD POLES FOR OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL

LINES

Since the publication of the fourth edition of the

National Electrical Safety Code, the American Standards Association has approved higher values for the

ultimate fiber stresses of chestnut, western red cedar,

and southern pine, three materials which have been

very extensively used in electrical line construction.

The rule of the National Electrical Safety Code

which involves these strength values made provision

for the accejjtance of the new values after approval

by the American Standards Association. The establishment of these new values makes certain tables

in the code obsolete. Therefore, the Bureau of Standards has published Handbook H-16. entitled “Wood

Poles for Overhead Electrical Lines, ’ for the purpose

of applying new data and tables which are derived

from the revised values of the ultimate fiber stresses of these woods. This publication consequently reproduces the paragraphs from the National Electrical

Safety Code dealing with strength of wood poles and

also the tables given in Appendix F which are similarly affected. In addition new tables are given for

the bending moments due to wind pressures upon poles

of various heights and circumferences.

Copies of this handbook may be obtained from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C.
lUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY 365

THE CONSUMER’S RIGHT TO GRADE-MARKED LUMBER

By Paul S. Colliee ^

When Edward W. Roemer, building commissioner

for the city of Boston, Mass., announced on December

1 of last year that grade-marked lumber for loadbearing purposes would after April 1 be required for

the city of Boston, another milestone was marked in

the history of the lumber industry. A great city,

containing within its borders one of the largest con- suming markets in America, said, in effect, “ We are hereafter going to use lumber of known quality. We

are going to protect the home owners of our city by

refusing sanction to lumber of unknown or doubtful

quality. We are going to give our builders quality

lumber which they can identify as quality material,

and we will do it without limiting the sources of supply and without appreciably increasing the cost to the

consumer.”

To those of us in the lumber industry the news

of this forward step was most welcome. At last there was a great public authority which recognized the

endeavor of the lumber industry to serve and protect

the consumer and which had decided to make the objectives of that effort a reality. To you men, skilled

in the science of construction and the application of

safety standards to and through building regulations,

this development is doubtless most obvious. Like

everything effective, this measure is simple. The city

of Boston is only demanding that lumber shall be used

for certain construction purposes which measures up

to certain quality standards established by the recognized agencies or associations of the lumber industry.

It is logical that you should demand grade-marked

lumber. For years you have recognized standard ce- ment, standard brick, standard steel girders of known

strength, standard plumbing. Why not standard

grade-marked lumber ? Is lumber as good as it used to be?—A large part

of the lumber going into the markets of this country

is cut from virgin trees and refined by machinery

and manufacturing processes far more efficient than

those which were known in the colonial days. There

is no reason in common sense why you should not

obtain lumber to-day which is just as strong, just as durable, just as suitable for the use desired as that

which our forefathers used in the colonial period.

As a matter of fact, lumber to-day is manufactured

far better than it was then and is more suitable for

the particular use for which it is desired.

Closer utilization and competition brings confusion.—^With closer utilization came a multiplicity

of grades and sizes. The manufacturers of each

species tried to reach every consuming market and to prove the superiority of their particular species for

every consumer need. The result was confusion on

the part of the consumer. The architect Avho sought

to specify the proper material found conflicting claims

concerning yellow pine and Douglas fir. He found

hemlock and spruce urged for the same purpose.

Idaho white pine pushed its claim against the original

* Secretary-manager, Northeastern Retail Lumbermen’s Association ; abstract of paper read before the New England Building Officials’ Conference, Boston, Apr. 27, 1932.

Pinus sirobus of New England. Western red-cedar

shingles vied with the white-cedar shingles with which

you are familiar.

In the battle of competition which followed it was

but natural that one species of lumber was used where

another might have been superior. No. 3 common

lumber was sold where No. 1 or No. 2 was really re- quired. Large quantities of green lumber came from

the mills and was accepted by the consumer, who did

not have the necessary knowledge as to how to use it. The consumer was persuaded that the cheapest lumber he could buy was the best lumber for a given

purpose. Price became the hall mark of the buyer,

and as a result the consumer, the American home

owner, has suffered the consequences. If you doubt

this statement, go to almost any large city or its suburbs and examine houses which have been put up

for sale in the last decade, on which sizes have been

skimped, quality has been forgotten, and we now have

cracked ceilings, opening floors, shrinking side walls,

buckling doors, and other evidence of poor material

and poor workmanship. The answer to this condition is to be found in the fact that we have en- deavored to sell a kind of lumber perfectly good for

the use for which it was originally intended for a purpose for which it was not intended. We have

used No. 3 lumber where No. 1 should have been used.

We have used slash grain shingles on a roof where

only strictly vertical edge grain shingles shoidd have

been used.

Simplification and standofl^dization point the way

out.—Out of this confusion of sizes, grades, and grade names of conflicting competitive claims came the

standardization movement, first launched in 1921, in

which every major lumber association of any conse- quence in this country participated. Led by the National Lumber Manufacturers Association, with the

guidance and aid of the Department of Commerce,

the American lumber standards ^ were established.

Principles of simplification were worked out and uniform sizes for the different kinds of yard lumber

were established. Much duplication and overlapping

of sizes was eliminated. The bases for grades more

nearly uniform as between the several species of lumber were established and incorporated in the American lumber standards. Each regional association of

softwood manufacturers then undertook the task of

making its own grades conform, so far as possible,

with tlie general recommendation of the standardization conference.

The simplification of sizes and the establishment of

a basis for a comparable system of grades and grading rules as between the several species were two great

milestones in the history of the lumber industry. The

third step, grade marking, came in logical sequence

in 1928, when the General Standardization Conference

officially adopted grade marking as a part of the

standardization program. Since that time practically

^ Published as Simplified Practice Recommeud.'ition No. 16 by U. S. Department of Commerce.
366 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1932

all of the major associations of lumber manufactures,

lumber wholesalers, and lumber retailers have offi- cially indorsed grade marking as an integral factor of

lumber merchandising.

Grade marking the consv/mers’ safeguard.—Is grade

marking essential to intelligent purchasing It hardly seems necessary to argue this point. Just as the consumer who buys silver with a “ sterling ” mark

knows that he is receiving the proper fineness of silver, so can the purchaser of conscientiously grade-marked

lumber know that he is getting a certified standard

quality. The grade mark is the label on the can. It

is the formula of quality. Grade marking will save money for the consumer, who Avill find that for many

purposes a less expensive grade will serve the purpose.

According to the National Committee on Wood Utilization, many architects and contractors have testified that they always specify or order No. 1 common where

lower grades would have served the purpose equally

well. It was the uncertainty as to receiving the grade

specified that made them demand better quality than was actually needed for their purpose. Intelligent

specification of grades naturally depends upon a knowledge of defects permissible in each grade, and

grade marks will aid consumers in obtaining a better

understanding of lumber grades.

Benefits of grade marking.—Grade marking carried out under the grading rules of the lumber manufacturer and backed by the guaranties of the manufacturer and dealer will assure contractors, builders,

and consumers of a quality product. The presence

of grade marks will provide the necessary basis for the

settlement of a dispute in a satisfactory manner; in

fact, there should be few, if anjq disputes as to quality

under the general practice of grade marking.

Consumers should remember that, when asking for

bids on grade-marked lumber, they place dealers on a

fair coinx^etitive basis. Under this order of things

it is not possible to secure an order and then without

detection substitute one grade for another. The new

regulations in Boston will not result in any interference with legitimate competition. Grade marks

protect the honest dealer and the honest manufacturer

against the unfair practices of people who would

either ignorantly or otherwise take advantage of the, consumer’s ignorance of lumber species and grading.

There are objectors who have said that grade marking will afford an opporunity to corner the market

for certain grades. This might be possible if grade

marking were restricted to a few mills using this

system for selfish gain. However, the grade marking of lumber is not a patented system. Any manufacturer of southern pine, any manufacturer of west

coast lumber, any manufacturer of any species you

may name can to-day have his lumber grade marked

at reasonable cost if he wishes to do so. Grademarked lumber is now available to all who will have

it and at reasonable cost. Olistacles to he surmoimted.—Since as an industry we have adopted the principle of grade marking,

what have we done about it? Why has it been neces- sary for the city of Boston to legally demand grademarked lumber when almost every association of lumber manufacturers provides for the production of

grade-marked lumber, when every association of retail lumber dealers has jiledged its support for years

to create a demand for grade-marked lumber? This

is a pertinent and searching question and goes to the

heart of the problem facing many a community, not

only in New England but throughout the country.

The answer to this question is to be found in the re- sistance of human nature to change.

And so it is in the distribution and sale of lumber.

There are those manufacturers who say, in effect, “ Grade marking does not improve the quality of my

lumber. My customers know what it is and I sell it at

a given price on its merits. Why should I grade

mark ? ” There are retail dealers who say, “ The

builders in my community know me. They know I

will give them what they want and what they are willing to pay for. A grade mark can not improi'^e

the quality of lumber I sell one iota. Why should I add in cost even a few cents to have it grade marked ? ” And there are some lumber manufacturers, some

wholesalers, and some retail lumber dealers who in

effect, if not audibly, have said : “ My claim on behalf

of my lumber Avill be accepted quite as easily as that

of other firms, and therefore I can sell a marginal

grade for the price of a higher quality grade.”

I have presented the viewpoint of those who object

to grade marking lumber, because it is only fair to

state both sides of eveiy question. It is only fair to say that a minority of manufacturers in various parts

of the country and a minority of retail dealers are

indiffei'ent to the principles of grade marking. Yet

to-day, as never before, the majority of those engaged

in the lumber industry recognize the fact that grade

marking is essential because it means the protection

of the consumer. The lumber merchant wants to sell grade-marked lumber because he wants the consumer

to know what he knows—that the lumber the con- sumer receives is of the grade represented. Only as the consumer has this knowledge can there be the

confidence in the industry which is requisite to its ultimate success. Further ohjectives.—Ls grade marking the ultimate

goal in our merchandising program? By no means. We are perfectly aware of the fact that many objectives are still to be reached. The further refinement

of basic structural grades, the further definition of

grading rules, will result in still greater savings to the consumer. We hope in the course of time to meet

this demand for grades which will accurately serve

the consumers’ need. At the present time the West

Coast Lumbermen’s Association is working out recom- mended uses for items of building construction; it is providing a condensed lumber guide for construction

uses, including a simplified lumber specification for use by architects, engineers, and other specifiers

of lumber. This is just one example of the work

which is going on among all groups of lumber manufacturers to-day and which we believe will help to make the work of building officials more effective. Another objective we are working toward is seasoned lumber. As you men know, much of the

difficulty you have had with construction in this

market has been due to green lumber with which our

builders have not been familiar. Something like

eight years ago the lumber dealers, through their

National Eetail Lumber Dealers Association, began

to demand seasoned lumber of definite moisture content. The Southern Pine Association was the first
JUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 367

association of manufacturers to guarantee a definite

moisture content for yard lumber. Other associations are now working toward that goal.

Have we an obligation as retail lumber dealers?

I believe we have, and I feel that In some measure at least we recognize that obligation. The lumber dealers of Boston have resolutely determined to cooperate

to the fullest extent of their ability in furnishing

grade-marked lumber to the buying public. We are launching a campaign among retail lumber dealers

to buy and sell lumb^er grade marked at the mill by

recognized regional associations of lumber manufacturers. We are endeavoring to educate the consumer

to demand the lumber manufacturer’s grade mark,

and in order that there may be no excuse for saying

that grade-marked lumber can not be purchased, we

have set up in Boston an agency for inspecting lumber

which has previously been on the yard, or has been

remanufactured while on the dealer’s yard. This

local agency. Northeastern Lumber Service, is working in close cooperation with the associations of lumber manufacturers to the end that all lumber sold

shall conform as closely as is humanly possible with

the established grading rules.

SOME PROBLEMS IN MARKETING COLORED PLUMBING FIXTURES

G. W. Wray, Assistant Scientist, Bureau of Standards

The introduction of color in the production of sanitary ware brought not only new opportunities for the

l)lumber, architect, and interior decorator, but it brought new problems to producers, distributors, and

home makers—problems which can be met onlj^ by the

adoption of the right marketing or buying policies.

The advent of colored ware had been received with

much enthusiasm. Manufacturers were prompted by

this enthusiasm to unusual efforts. They were quick

to appreciate the opportunities in this new field of en- deavor in spite of the fact that considerable grief at- tended the introduction of colored sanitary ware. They looked upon the demand for color as the solution

of some of their production problem.s. They listened

to everyone and acted on almost every suggestion re- ceived. One manufacturer reported that his company

had often been asked to match a dressing gown or a sample of wall paper. The result was that the market was soon flooded with a conglomeration of colored

fixtures. A host of colors of small differences in

shade originated, changed, and were dropped in the

most capricious way. Grotesque color combinations were foisted upon the buying public, and for a time

the contrary reaction threatened the life of the color

movement.

Another problem concerned the choice of color that

would invite the largest number of sales. Some manufacturers spent a great deal of time in trying to find

out just what the consumer wanted. They were compelled to spend considerable time and money in re- search in order to arrive at a definite conclusion.

Artists were employed to select the proper shade, and

then manufacturing processes had to be adjusted.

Other manufactiu'ers produced something that appealed to their own individual taste or tried doubtful

lines, noting their effect upon the buying public, without any advance information as to how acceptable the

colors would be. In other wtrds, the latter group

worked on “ hunches ” to avoid the expense incident

to research and experimentation in production, and

although once in a while a winning number was ijroduced, mistakes were heavily paid for. The manufacturer who chose a certain color without checking up on

his choice carefullj'^ had great odds against him in the

gamble of picking acceptable colors. Sanitary ware included sinks, lavatories, bathtubs,

closet bowls, tanks, seats, towel racks, soap dishes, etc.

Sinks, lavatories, and bathtubs may be vitreous china

or iDorcelain (all-clay) enameled iron. Bowls are usually vitreous china. Seats are made of wood, hard

rubber, or wood covered with celluloid. Very few

manufacturers, possibly only three or four, produce a complete line. The probability of difference in shade

arises if one manufacturer supplies the vitreous-china

lavatory, another the enameled-iron tub, and still an- other the wood seat for the closet bowl. The differ- ence between these various materials in their ability to

reflect light increases the difficulty encountered in

matching the several colored fixtures when assembled

in a single bathroom.

There is much more to the science of color for ce- ramic ware than merely using an oxide, mixing it with other ingredients and applying it to the ware.

If anything goes wrong with the ware during manufacture, it has to be entirely remade. Blemishes or

off-color ware can not be touched up with paint and

the ware offered for sale as first qualit}^ or regular

selection grade.

Manufacturers have reported that, in making col- ored ware, different batches of material, although

passing through the same processes, often come from

the kilns with slight variations in shade. Absolute

color matches are not always possible, nor are they

believed to be necessary. The manufacturers reached

the conclusion that, if their problems were to be

solved, they should have some simple method of se- lecting standard colors and some simple method of

comparing their products with standard colors. They

are compelled by both economic necessity and technical difficulties to limit the number of colors in which

their products are finished. Some of the colors seen

in other industries are lacking in this type of warebecause they are not yet obtainable under the hightemperature firing conditions necessary in ceramic

processes. Early in 1928 the manufacturers of vitreous-china

plumbing fixtures realized that they faced a unique

situation arising from the introduction of colors. They realized, too, that it was impossible for any one manufacturer to be in a position to dictate the correct

color shades; therefore advisory committees were appointed to meet with representatives of the enameled-
368 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1932

iron industry to consider the color problems. As a

result of several committee meetings and conferences

of manufacturers, extending over a period of almost

three years, held in collaboration with the Bureau of

Standards, six colors—green, orchid, ivory, blue, light

brown, and black—were recommended as standard.

White was not included in the recommendation be- cause it had always been considered a staple finish

by the industry.

A general conference of jiroducers, distributors, and

users was then held on Januarj^ 23, 1931, and the six

colors were adopted as standard. The commercial

standard was later accepted in writing as a standard

of practice by the monoline manufacturers of colored

sanitary ware. The standard became effective for both new production and clearance of existing stocks on

July 1, 1931. The revision interval was set at one

year. The application of the certification plan was

requested by the general conference, whereby lists of

manufacturers who are willing to certify that their

products meet the requirements of the commercial

standard are prepared for Government buyers and for

outside purchasing agents upon request.

The printed commercial standard known as “ Colors

for Sanitary Ware CS30-31,” in addition to designating and illustrating the six colors to be used as a guide in the production and sale of sanitary ware,

includes a list of 299 official acceptors, describes the

method of making color comparisons, includes also a brief history of the project, a condensed report of

the general conference, and the membership of a standing committee to effect a revision of the standard

when necessary to keep it abreast with progress in

the industry.

The general conference decided that a master set of standard samples, consisting of 2 by 4 inch tile with colored glazes, should be retained at the Bureau

of Standards. Duplicate samples as a guide for production were prepared and distributed by the secre- tary of the Manufacturers Advisory Committee for

$1.50 per set to manufacturers desiring them, with

the understanding that all money received from the

sale of sets be turned over in full to the manufacturer of the samples. The sets are labeled, numbered, and initialed by the secretary to indicate they

have been compared with the master samples. The

method of making color comparisons described in

the Commercial Standard is used in matching the

samples.

The standard colors are now being considered for

adoption by many individual manufacturers and by

some industries entirel}'^ outside the colored sanitary- ware field, and it seems possible that they may serve

as a nucleus for a broader standardization of colors. The wide interest that this project has cheated is shown by the fact that 268 sets of duplicate color

reference samples have been purchased by 26 differ- ent industries. Color sets have gone to 23 States, to Canada, and to England. Inquiries come in daily for

information concerning the work, and many com- mendatory letters have been received which are a source of gratification, especially since the project was one declared to be a

‘‘ feeble attempt to do the

impossible.”

AIRPLANE RECEIVING EQUIPMENT FOR

VISUAL RADIO RANGE BEACONS

Radio is used in two principal ways as an aid to air

navigation. One of these is communication and the

other is directional guidance. On the airways of this

country, directional guidance takes the form of radio

range-beacon stations which send out directional

signals which enable the airplane pilot to navigate the

established course along the airway without the use of directional apparatus aboard the airplane.

The Bureau of Standards, serving as the research

division of the Aeronautics Branch of the Department

of Commerce, continuously carries on research for the

improvement of this and other radio aids to air navigation. The radio range beacon is now available in two

forms, one in which a signal is received aurally by the

airplane pilot, and one in which a visual indication on

the airplane instrument board tells the pilot whether

he is on course or off to the right or the left. The vis- ual indicators and associated equipment have become

commercially available.

Airplane operators and others have expressed a desire for information on the installation and use of such

equipment. To meet this, the bureau has jjrepared a complete set of specifications entitled “Airplane Receiving Equipment for Visual Radio Range Beacons,”

which is available free to operators of airplanes or anyone interested, upon request addressed to the Bureau of Standards. This includes information on re- ceiving sets, reed indicators, pointer-type indicators.

combined course and volume indicating instruments,

and an installation wiring diagram.

General information on the visual radio range

beacon system is given in Bureau of Standards Research Paper No. 159, Development of the Visual

Tyjje Airway Radio Beacon System, obtainable from

the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., for 20 cents. To secure satisfactory operation of any

radio receiving equipment on most airplanes it is necessary that the engine and all electrical equipment

be carefully shielded and the airplane structure bonded. Detailed specifications for shielding and

bonding are given in Appendixes 1 and 2 of Second

Report of Liaison Committee on Aeronautic Radio

Research. This publication is obtainable gratis upon

request addressed to Aeronautics Branch, Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C.

Technical information on other phases of the air- plane receiving equipment for the visual radio range

beacon system is given in the following publications,

obtainable from the Superintendent of Documents,

Washington, D. C., at the prices stated : RP330, Automatic Volume Control for Aircraft Radio Receivers,

10 cents ; RP28, Design of Tuned-Reed Course Indicators for Aircraft Radio Beacon, 5 cents; RP160, A

Tuned Reed Course Indicator for the 4 and 12 Course

Aircraft Radio Range, 15 cents; RP338, Theory of

Design and Calibration of Vibrating-Reed Indicators

for Radio Range Beacons, 10 cents ; RP336, A Course

Indicator for Pointer Type for the Visual Radio

Range Beacon System, 15 cents.
JUNE, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 369

COLOR STANDARDIZATION PROGRAM

ADOPTED BY SCALE COMPANY

Six new standard colors have been adopted by the

Toledo Scale Co. in addition to the nsnal white. These

were chosen as the result of a coloi' .standardization

program worked out by a group of ceramic mannfactnrers, using a porcelain finish on their products,

in conjunction with the Bureau of Standards.

Tlie colors are green, ivory, blue, leghorn tan, black,

and light brown. This range of colors fits in Avith j)ractically any color scheme prevailing in modern

retail stores Avhicli have adopted striking, but at the same time, practical decorative effects through use of color. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON STANDARDIZATION

Bibliography on Standanlization, a circular just

issued by the Bureau of Standards, offers to those

interested in standardization precise information on magazine articles and books relating to standardization that appeared during the years 1030 and 1931. Jh-epared uiulei' the supervision of the division of

bibliogra])hy of the Library of Congress, the information contained in this cii’cular in iirevions }'ears

formed a part of the Standards Yeai'book. HoAvever,

in view of the e\’er-growing interest in the bibli- ography, this 3^ear it was decided to issue it as a separate publication.

Copies of the circular (knoAvn as Bureau of

Standards Miscellaneous Publication Xo. ISO) may

be had from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

MARKETING SPECIFICATIONS PROPOSED

FOR GASOLINE

Steps toward establishment of trade standards as marketing specifications for commercial gasoline Avere taken at the tAventieth annual meeting of the Western

Petroleum Refiners Association, held April 6-8, at Excelsior Springs.

Current marketing problems, the tax situation, technical and economic problems of the octane number

race, and practical refinery oiierating problems Avere studied by the association during its 3-day^ meeting.

The propo.sed s])ecifications for gasoline Avere nnanimouslv adojited at the final general meeting and

are sidiject to final approval b_v the a.ssociation diI'ectors. Thev’ are designed to coA’er grades of motor

gasolines Avhich mav" be sold as association standard

grades in some such manner as oil countrv goods

standardized Iw the American Petroleum Institute.

Avhich haA'e the privilege of bearing the A. P. T. monogram.

Western refiners for mauA' A’ears have pi-oduced

commercial gasolines of good antiknock Audue Avhich

they sold on contracts and through spot sales in direct

price competition Avith United States motor gasoline,

for Avhich thei'e are no antiknock requirements. This

ohviouslA'^ places branded ga.solines of good antiknock

value at a disadAxantage, since it ordinarilA' costs more

to produce a gasoline of high antiknock Audue and

such a product is superior for high-compression

engines.

Established trade standards for motor gasolines of

various antiknock values but meeting similar requirements in- other respects, AA'estern refiners believe, Avill do much to clarify both tank-car and retail markets.

The jobber Avill be able to buv W. P. R. A. standard

grades Avith confidence and advertise them as such.

COPPER ALLOYS IN INGOT FORM

In 1929. Avhen the sj^ecial committee of the American Societv for Testing Materials on promotion of

general u.se of specifications for copper alloA's in mgot

form made a snrA’ev of the industrial field, it Avas found that 600 copper-base alloy compositions Avere then in use that might he grouped into 20 classes. Simplification in industry insjhred the hope that

eventuali_A’ each class might be represented by one

composition.

The Non-Ferrous Ingot iMetal Institute sponsored an investigation :it the Ibii-ean of Standards under the

re.searcli associate jilan. The purjiose of the investigation was to obtain data upon Avhich to base further

woi’k of bringing about agreement upon an optimum

numl)°r of tvpical compositions of copper-base ingot

metal and to develop equitable standard specifications for tlie different classes. The adAdsoi'A' committee of the institute suggested

that, as red brass of the nominal composition of iS.") ]ier cent copper and 5 per cent each of zinc, tin, and lead, is one of the most Avidely used cojrper-base commercial

alloys, it should be the first alloy investigated. As

it Avas recognized that no jiarticnlar ty^ie of test bar

is noAV accepted as standard by industrv, seA'eral dis- tinct tyjies Avere selected to be conqiared. I’he effect of pouring tem])ei'ature and the influence of the use of

virgin metal or renielted metal Avere other factoi’s to be studied.

The tensile strength, Brinell hardness, electrical re- sistivitAq and densitv' Avere determined for A'arious

tv’pes of test bars ca.st at temperatures ranging from

1,900° to 2,300° F. The maximunV values Avere obtained

for the test bars cut from the chill ingots, and j)ouring

temperature had little influence on the.se results. SomeAvhat loAver values Avere found for the test bar

obtained b_A- the immersion in the molten metal of a graphite shell. LoAver values Avere olkained foi' the

sand-cast test bai-s. For the latter it Avas found that

a pouring temperature aboA-e 2.200° F. had a pro- nounced inffnence on the ])h_A"sical ])ropei-ties. A

study of the metallographic structure of the test bars

poured at high temperatures indicated that the marked

columnar .sti'uctnre formed under such conditions is accompanied by infei'ior ph}'sical properties.

Microscopic exandnation of the same hai’S shoAved

markings dtie to strain or deformation in the sand-cast

bars that Avere ab.sent in the bar from the immersion

crucible. To this Avas attributed the difference in

pliA^sical pro])erties at the high tempei’atnres.

The alloA' made from remelted metal Avas found to be someAvhat moi'e fluid than from A-ii-gin metal cast undei’ the same conditions. 3'he shrinkage of the

allov from the highest ])oni-ing tem])eratim' to i-oom

tempei'atnre Avas determined. It Avas noted that the

alloy expands slightlv immediately after solidification,

after Avhich it contracts at a uidform nite to room

temj)eratiire.
370 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1932 BRITISH STANDARD FOR TRANSFORMER

INSULATION

The British Standards Institution has just an- nounced a s})ecifieation for the propox’tioning and

testing of transformer interturn insulation. The

sjiecification ])i’ovides foi' the projxortioning of the

interturn insulation of transformers based uimn specified minimum test voltages, and it also provides that,

when required and specified, insulation tests shall be

made upon sample coils insulated in the same way as the windings under consideration and immersed in oil, each test coil having its conductors severed at one

jxoint so tliat the approiudate high-voltage tests may

be a})plied between the adjacent conductors.

Factors are given by which the scheduled test volt- ages are increased with an increase in transformer

rate output, and by which the test voltages are re- duced for transformers below certain rated outputs,

depending upon the line voltage and the connections

employed. The sjiecification applies only to windings

designed for voltages aci'oss their terminals of 1,000

volts and above. It apjfiies to all single-phase and

polyphase transformers, the windings of which may

lie connected in any star or delta formation on 3-]ihase

systems, the neutral point of which is normally at earth potential, Avhether it be insulated or earthed.

WOOD MOLDING DESIGNS AND SIZES

STANDARDIZED

Because of the widespread ajiproval already re- corded, the new standard wood molding designs and

sizes, known as the 7000 Series, Revised 1931, will be

incoiqiorated in the next edition of Simplified Practice Recommendation R16, Lumber, published by the

Bureau of Standards.

In cfimment the bureau states that in no other of its simplification and standardization projects, whether

lumber or other commodity, has any proposed revision

of an existing recommendation met with more spontaneous indorsement than has been accorded this re- vised series of Avood molding patterns and sizes. The neAv series is the result of careful and thorough

work by a subcommittee of the Central Committee on Lumber Standards authorized to draft necessary re- visions to the recommendation. The central committee and its consvdting committee represent the lumber

producing, distributing, and consuming trades as a

Avhole. Those ivho liax^e examined the revised series of moldings are practically unanimous in the belief

that the new patterns and sizes are a great improvement architecturally over the original TOGO Series or any other stock Avood molding patteiuis preAfiously published. Another advantage arises from the practicaIfility of jiroducing the reAused series from lumber of

American standard finished thicknesses and Avidths. These standards are extensively adhered to by lumber

manufacturers and distributors.

Records of the division of simplified practice of the

Bureau of Standards shoAv that formal acceptances

luiA^e been filed Avitli the bureau by lumber manufacturers’ associations representing more than 95 per cent

of the production of stock moldings incident to the

manufacture of lumber; by organized millAAurk manufacturers’ associations representing more than 90 per

cent of the production of stock and special millwork;

by more than 80 per cent of the retail lumber dealers’ associations: by the American Institute of Architects

and numerous of its State and local chapters; and by

hundreds of indiAudual manufacturers, distributors,

consumers, ai-chitects, builders, contractors, and Federal agencies purchasing lumber.

The jiublication entitled “ Standard Wood Moiddings 7000 Series Revised 1931 ” was published by the

Central Committee on Lumber Standards October 1, 1931. Since that date nearly 70,000 copies liaA^e been

distributed among lumber and millAvork manufacturers, architects, other specifiers, and consumers generally. At the request of the central committee, the

division of simplified practice sent a copy of the publication to each of the more than 21,000 established

retail lumber yards in the United States. The Central Committee on Lumber Standards advises that pi-actically every organization representing

producers of lumber, millAvork, and moldings has also approA’ed tlie neAv revised series as standard association practice and that individual members of those

organizations ai'c noAv producing moldings on these

improved stock jiatterns. These patterns are therefore generally available, and it is hoped that all lumlier distributors, architects, specifiers, and consumers

Avill specify that their orders for stock moldings be

filled in terms of the 7000 Series Revised 1931.

I’lie ncAv re\dsed series includes not only full-scale (IraAvings of indiAudual, architecturally correct molding patterns, but also examples of application in his- toric design of the stock moldings portrayed in the

series. The latter is an important feature, lacking

in preA'ious stock-molding publications. The.se examjiles, as Avell as the individual patterns themselves,

Avere deA^eloped by Emery Stanford Hall, FelloAv,

American Institute of Architects. They Avere made

by first taking full-size details of notably historic

buildings and rooms and selecting and fitting stock

moldings into them. This makes it possible to produce true copies of some of the most renoAvned and

architecturally beautiful structures in the world.

These examples go far in illustrating the great variety of combinations that can be obtained through the

use of stock moldings and amply prove that good

design may be interpreted through them. This probably is one of the reasons Avhy this series and the in- formation on hoAv to use them liaA^e appealed so greatly to the architect and professional designer and

to the retail lumber distributor. The architect, con- fronted AAuth the problem of securing individuality of

design at Ioav cost, noAv has access to any number of

fine units at stock cost. The bureau expects to have available for distri- bution Avithin three or four months the fifth edition

of Simjilified Practice Recommendation R16 on Lumber, otherwise knoAvn as the American Lumber Standards. This edition Avill include the complete revised

molding designs and sizes, including the examples

of their assembly. Meanwhile, the publication Standard Wood Mouldings is obtainable from the Central

Committee on Lumber Standards, 1337 Connecticut

Avenue, Washington, I). C., at rates ranging from

30 cents for single copies to 20 cents per copy in

quantities of 100 copies or more.
JUNE. 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 371

GRINDING WHEELS

The revised draft of Simplified Practice Recommendation R45-28, Grinding Wheels, has been mailed by

the Bureau of Standards to all interests of the industry for their consideration and written approval.

Certain new wheel sizes now in general use, and

which are necessai yto meet the curi'ent needs of the

consumer, liave been added to the simi)lified list. It was also found desirable l)y the .standing committee of

the industry to rearrange the tables listing standard

wheels of various types to make the locating of any

particular wheel more convenient.

The revised recommendation will become elfective one montli following the general letter from the Bureau of Standards announcing that the recpiired degree of acceptance to the program has been received.

HIGH DEGREE OF ADHERENCE FOR RECOMMENDATION COVERING BANK CHECKS,

NOTES, DRAFTS, ETC.

Eighty-nine per cent of the bank drafts, certilicates of deposit, cashiers’ checks, special or individual

checks, customers’ drafts, notes, trade acceptances,

voucher checks, collateral notes, special notes (when

folded), and other similar instruments were found

to conform to the size recommended by the industry

in Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 50, entitled “ Bank Checks, Notes, Drafts, and Similar In- struments,” according to a recent survey conducted

among the members of the financial group of the National Association of Purchasing Agents.

The survey also revealed that the adherence to simplified sizes of customers’ and counter checks,

pocket checks, and deposit slijis Avas 86, 82, and 54 per- cent, respectively. Officers of the American Bankers

Association have e.stimated that negotiable instruments are used to settle approximately 96 per cent of

all commercial transactions. The relatively high degree of support accorded the recommendation, therefore, indicates that impoi-tant economies are beingeffected by the sim]dification and standardization of

this class of commercial documents.

The first stej) toAvard the simplification of sizes of

bank checks, drafts, and similar instruments Avas taken

at the May, 1921 convention of the American Bardcers

Association. From that time until 1925 the bankers

Avorked for the general adoption of the standard

.sizes. One of the ob.stacles to standardization Avas that the dimensions as |n-o[)osed failed to meet Avith

the entire approval of the lithographers. In January, 1925, the American Bankers Association enlisted

the serAuces of the division of simjilified practice of

the Bureau of Standards. As a preliminary step,

tlie bureau requested the lithographers to send a (piestionnaire to the members of the Association of Manufacturing Bank and Commei'cial Stationers and the

Lithographers Cooperative Association to secui'e an

expression of tlieir opinion and to determine the technical requirements to be met. ddie results of tliis surA'ey afforded much Auduable material as a basis

for the .selection of a simplified list of sizes and

shoAved a nearly unanimous sentiment in favor of

simplification.

On December 4, 1925, on request of the American

Baidvei-s As.sociation, the diAUsion of simplified practice called a general conference of l)ankers, lithogra])hei-s. and other interests to considei- the recom- mendations of the sim])lification committee. Among

tho.se attending the meeting AA-ere representatives of

the Amei-ican Bankei-s Association, the National As-

.sociation of Manufacturers, the ITnited Ty])otheta' of

America, the National A.ssociation of Purchasing

Agents, the Raihvay Accounting Officei-s Association,

the Association of Baidv and Commercial Stationers,

the Lithographers CooperatiA'e A.ssociation, the RailAvay Treasury Officers Association, the National Association of Employing Lithographers, and the Federal

Government. After a thorough discussion of each

item the conference adojjted the standard sizes as set forth in this recommendation.

STANDARD SYMBOLS PROPOSED FOR USE IN

ELECTROTECHNICS

A list of British standard letter symbols for use

in elect rotechni(-s. Avhich may be recommended for

careful consideration by teachers and .students of elec- trical subjects, and particularly by authors of text- books ami papers on those subjects, has been issued

by the British Standards Institution.

Although a list of letter symbols Avas published by

the International Electrotechnical Commission as longago as 1920, many Avriters still use their oavu symbols

and abbreAuations for electrical uuits and (quantities,

and it is for this purqiose of securing greater uniformity in this direction that the British Standards

Institution has issued the British standard letter S3U11 - bols as a separate quiblication, although -.nany of them

AA-ere included in the British standard glossary of

electrical terms issued in 1926.

The .standard letter symbols noAV issued In- the

British Standards Institution are qu-actically identical

Avith those recommended by the International Electrotechnical Commission in I. E. C. qinblication No. 27,

although one or tAvo changes have been made. It mav

be mentioned, hoAvever. that a comprehensiA-e British

standard list of symbols and abbreA-iations used in engineering is at qire.sent in course of ])re]iaration, and

the letter symbols here referred to Avill form ]>ai-t of

the electrical section of the more extemsive list. In connection Avith the aboA-e statement it is interesting to note that the American Standards Association is issuing a comjdete series of letter and graphical

symbols for electrotechnical use. 4’he folloAving

standards ha\’e been issued : Letter svmbols for elec- trical quantities; gra])hical s^unbols for tele[)hone and

telegra|)h use; SAunbols foi- j)hotometrv and illumination; and symbols for electrical e(juipment of

buildings.

The following ])roposed standai-ds Inn'c been

pi-iuted and are noAV b(‘ing c-onsidei-ed bv the sponsors. ])rioi- to the recommendation to the American

Standai'ds Association that tlu>v be made Ameri(-an

standards: Re])ort on standards foi- gra])hical sA’inbols for radio; report on .standards foi- graqihical symbols

foi- electric ])OAA-(>r and wiring: and report on sA'inbols used for electric traction, in(-ludin<r railwav signaling. 7 “ t “ r“
372 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 19«2 STODDARD SOLVENT

In accordance Avith the recommendation of the

standing committee for Stoddard soh^ent, Commercial

Standai'd CS3-28, the standard aatis reaffirmed AAoth- ont change foi- another year, ending March 1, 1933, or until such time as suitable revisions are accepted

Ijy the industry.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COMMERCIAL

LAUNDRY MACHINERY APPROVED BY

CONFERENCE

Simplified practice recommendations coA'ering washers, tumblers, extractors, and ironers used in commercial laundries Avere approAnd by a general confer- ence of representatiAns of all interests of the industry,

held in Philadelphia, Pa., on INIaA- 2, 1932. The sim])lifie(l schedules for Avashei's and tumblers

ai-e concerned Avith the size, the type of driA'e, the

nunil)er of compartments, the number of cylinder

dooi's, and the nmuher of vertical and horizontal parfitious. Tlie tumbler jirogram also proAudes for the

method of heatiiig. Ty]>es and diameters are considered in tlie extractor recommendation, and sizes,

types, drive, and method of heating are contained in

the flat-Avork-ironer program.

Summary re])ort of these simplification programs,

Avhich Avere suggested and formulated b}'' members of

the industiy, Avill shortly be mailed to all interested

()arties for Avritten appi'oval. The lecommendations

will be effective Avhen the recjuired degree of support

has been received.

ECONOMIES IN PAPER INDUSTRY THROUGH

SIMPLIFICATION

()l)portuinties for Avidespread economies in the

])apei- and ])ublishing industi-ies, ba.sed on the possible simplification of sizes and arrangement of such

items as letterheads, office forms, catalogue pages,

trade and neAvs papers, and punchings for loose leaA'es, Avere discussed at a recent meeting of the paper in- dustry’s simplification committee, held at the Bureau

of Standards, Avhich acts as a coordinating agencAu

Among the groups repi'esented on the committee are the folloAving: American Paper and l^ulp Association, National Imlustrial Advertisers Association,

National Papei- Trade Association, Lithographers

National Association, National Publishers A.ssociation. National Association of Purchasing Agents, Association of National Advertisers, Ihiited Typothetie of America, Direct Mail AdA^ertising Association,

Associated Business Papers (Inc.), and the American

Association of Advertising Agencies.

Members Avho attended the recent meeting first con- sidered Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 22, I which lists 7 sizes of basic sheets of paper for general

printing and jiublishing, 2 for book publishina’, and

() for forms and letterheads. The consensus of those

present Avas that the 35 liy 45i/> inch size listed for use

in general jirinting and publishing should be changed

to 35 by 45 inches. It was decided, hoAvever, that be- fore drafting any reA’ision of this schedule the committee should send a questionnaire to each of the several hundred accejiters of the recommendation, to secure an expression of the Avishes of the industry and

its customers. When the committee has drafted a

suitable questionnaire, the diAusion of simplified practice of the Bureau of Standards Avill be requested to

circularize the various interests and compile the data

for consideration at the next meeting.

R. C. Fay, chairman of the standardization committee of the American Paper and Pulp Association,

suggested that the committee consider including in

the recommendation cover paper and index bristol. Four sizes of the former Avere mentioned, namely 20

b_y 26 inches, 26 by 40 inches, 23 by 33 inches, and. 23

by 35 inches. The three sizes of index bristol tentatiA'ely suggested as adequate for normal requirements

Avere 201/5 by inches, 22% by 28% inches, and

25% by 30% inches. B. I). Stevens, Miehle Printing Press Manufacturing Co., stated that his company is considering a simplification by reducing the variety of sizes of printing

presses it has been manufacturing. "When put into

effect this ijhm Avill reduce 22 sizes of fiat-bed presses

to 4. The suggestion Avas made that, if the other

manufacturers Avould agree to reduce their present

variety of sizes, substantial economies and other benefits couhl be I'ealized. In planning its future activities the committee dis- cussed a number of possible opportunities to effect economies through elimination of excess variety of

items connected Avith the paper and publishing

indu.stries. IDENTIFYING THE SIMPLIFIED LINE OF CARRIAGE, MACHINE, AND LAG BOLTS

All of the manufacturers Avho liaAe accepted Sim-

])lified Practice Recommeudation R60-30, coA^ering

]nickaging of carriage, machine, and lag bolts, have

ex])ressed their intention to identify the simplified

units of ])acking in their nexv catalogues and trade

lists. This identification plan is designed to assist users of

cari-iage, machine, and lag bolts in maintaining close adherence to the Avaste-elimination program. Cooperation by fabricators, storekeepers, purchasing

agents, and other users greatly increases the benefits

and economies possible through simplified ]n’actice.

This is the third simplified practice recommendation to receive 100 per cent identification in trade

literature. The tAvc, other recommendations to receiA-e such identification are RlOO-29 and R61-30, cov- ering AA’elded chain and clay tiles for floors and walls,

respectiA'el3L

The National Assf)ciation of Purchasing Agents, the

American Institute of Architects, the Associated General Contractors of America, the National Electric

Light Association, the American Gas Association, the

Amei’ican Electric RaihvaA’ Association, and other

re]jresentative users of simplified commodities havT' for some time strongly urged that this jiolicy be

adopted ly manufacturers. When the simplified

items ai‘e so identified in trade literature, their selec- tion can be made Avithout difficulty, and often much

Avaste noAV incurred in checking files and auxiliary

records for these data is eliminated.
.irXE. 1932 COMMEKCIAL STANDARDS MOXTHLl' 373

ECONOMIES FOR INDUSTRY IN SIMPLIFICA- | CONSERVATION THROUGH STANDARDIZATION WORK TION

Eiiipliasiziiig the opportunity for self-government

in industiy, E. W. Ely, chief of the division of simplified practice, Bureau of Standards, outlined before

the twenty-first annual meeting of the National Association of Sheet Metal Distributors, held iMay 12 in

Idiiladelphia, the history of simplification work car- ried on by industry in the United States, and reported

that opportunities for simplified practice on a national scale are greater to-day than in 1921, when the

movement started which now saves millions of dollars

annually for American industry.

Increasing evidence of Avidespread interest in simplified practice is shown by Avoi'k that is being done bj'

certain State chambers of commerce, which in many

instances take the lead in such activities. The scope

of simplification is e\’er Avidening, it Avas stated. More

than 10,000 firms have A’olnntarily adopted one or more simplified-practice schedules recommended, prol>osed, ami carried out by industry Avith the cooperation of the Bureau of Standards. A recent survey to determine the degree of adherence to one of the programs shoAved that 82 per cent of the acceptors’ out- put conformed Avith the recommendation. The 18 per

cent deviation Avas caused largely by special orders

to fill specific requirements. This Avhole effort exemplifies self-governmenf by industry.

More and more articles are coming to be considered

for simplidcation eA’ery year. In this category theie I IniA'e been range boilers, expansion tanks, hot-Avaterstorage tanks, flash-light cases, metallic carti'idges,

beds, refrigerators, steel lockers, steel barrels and

drums, holloAV metal doors, kalaniein doors, galvanized Avare, japanned Avare, metal lathes, metal partitions, and. (juite recently, steel office equipment.

In simplified practice, industry has recognized a

basis for the organized cooperatiA’e procedure in eliminating avoidable Ava.ste. Simplification has been ac- cepted by American business as an integral paid of

successful management.

The Bureau of Standards serves as an impartial

agency Avith experience in Avork of this kind and Avith national prestige necessary to command the attention

and confidence of American business men. That the

Avork of the division of simplified practice is appreciated is shown by the fact that most of the recom- mendations for sini]dification Avhich have been made

by industry and published by the bureau have been

followed closely.

These activities of the bureau are purely cooperative. It orders nothing. A request for its service

must come from the industry. When it does, the in- dustry is iiiA'ited to form its oavu survey committee to draft a preliminary recommendation and present it for consideration in general conference of producers,

distributors, and consumers. With conference approval secured, the Imreau then undertakes to attain

the necessary acceptance from the entire industry.

When sufficient support has been pledged by all ele- ments in the industry, the Bureau of Standards lends

its prestige l>y publishing the siinjilified practice

recommendation in its Elimination of Waste series. The program then comes uji periodically for revieAV

and revision by the standing committees of the

industry.

Machines that are designed to make onh' one size and type of an article, and Avhich can not be adapted

to other purposes, undoubtedly paA’ their own Avay in

many cases, editorial!}’ observes the American Machinist, but the chances of doing a prohtable business

Avith a A'ersatile machine adaptable to a considerable

variety of jobs is far greater.

The editorial Avriter of the magazine points out that

reasonable forethought and a fair degree of standardization Aviihin a plant Avill enable it to build a full

line of A'ersatile machines from comparatiA'ely feAv parts. This statement Avas further illustrated by the

example of one manufacturer of machine tools Avho

is AA’orking on a program of this kind. This manufacturer is Avorking on a machine design to handle

both bar and chucking Avork that Avill take close to 75

per cent of interchangeable parts. With these and

only four ditferent frames, and perhaps 25 jAer cent of parts that are not interchangeable, his line will be

able to handle about 90 per cent of the production

Avork done on this class of machine. As against this

j manufactAirer's program, some competitors offer mai chines involving more than a dozen different frames,

and a much larger diversity of parts, Avith no greater

range of Avork.

“ Can it be doubted which of these companies Avill haA'e the lower aA'erage unit cost, and consequently

Avill be in the be.st position to meet com|Aetition,” con- cludes the editorial AvrTer.

COMPILATION OF NAVIGATION LAWS PUBLISHED BY BUREAU OF NAVIGATION

A compilation of naA'igation hiAvs of the United

States, from the first one passed in 1789 and signed

by President Washington, for the collection of ton- nage taxes, to the latest addition to the statute books,

has been published, under the title “ The NaA'igation

LaAA's for 1931,” by the Bureau of NaA'igation. This

is the eleventh time this material has been gathered

into one volume since the first one Avas published in

1880. Since that time the compilation has been

made at 4-year intervals.

The recoo'iiized need of uniform naA'io-ation Daa’s Avas consideretl one of the reasons for the formation of

a nnion of the original 13 Colonies, and the third act of the First Congress of the Imited States provided

for imposing duties on tonnage of A'essels. The same

Congress passed an act for the registering and clear- ing of A'essels and regulating the coastal trade. These

acts are the foundation for the present hiAA's and the

policy of the United States on shipping designed to meet the groAvth and variety of conditions of Avater- borne commerce, Avith increasing regal'd, in the course

of years, to the safety of life. In this neAv book the

Bureau of NaA'igation has made an effort to confine

this volume to the hiAA’s actually in force Avith Avhich

oAvners. masters, and agents of vessels should be

ac(|uainted.

Copies of this book may be had from tlie Superintendent of Documents. (lOAernment Printing Office. Washington. D. C'.
374 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1932 RECOMMENDATION ON BEDSTEADS,

SPRINGS, AND MATTRESSES BEFORE INDUSTRY FOR APPROVAL

The staiuliiig committee of the industry in charge

of Simplified Practice Recommendation R2-30, cov- ering sizes of bedsteads, springs, and mattresses, has

submitted to the Bureau of Standards a proposed re- vision of the present schedule, with the request that

copies be mailed to all the present acceptors for their

consideration and written approval.

This simplification program, which was originally

developed by the industry in 1922, provides for the

lengths and widths of wood and metal beds, and for

the type, size, length, and width of springs for the

simplified schedule of bed sizes. It is further recom- mended that mattresses be made to conform to the

spring dimensions.

The revised schedule will become effective one month

after the anouncement by the Bureau of Standards

that the required degree of support has been received

from the list of acceptors.

MILLING CUTTERS AND REAMERS

To insure that the standard would be in step with

current best practice, the British Standards Institution has announced a revision of its publication on

British standards for milling cutters and reamers

(including milling-machine spindle noses and arbors).

It was believed that a somewhat bigger key was

desirable m the case of tlie larger diameter arbors, and

the tables of dimensions for keys and keyways for

arbors have therefore been amended and extended

to provide for arbors u^J to 5 inches in diameter. The

table of dimensions of gear-cutter hobs has been re- vised and that of hand taper-])in reamers correlated

with the table of dimensions of taper pins in British

Standards Institution Specification jSo. 4G, part 5. One of the most important features of the revision

is the addition of standard dimensions for millingmachine spindle noses and arbors of two sizes, to gether witli the dimensions of adaptors for using oldpattern arbors in the new spindles.

STANDARD ACCOUNTING MANUAL FOR PUBLIC WORKS OFFICIALS DISTRIBUTED

Within the past few days the Committee on Uniform Street and Sanitation Records and the League

of Minnesota Munici])alities have distributed a manual of public works records and accounting to approximately 1,500 public works officials, city managers, comptrollers, and interested governmental

organizations. This manual describes a model installation made in the city of Winona, Minn., and recom- mended for use by cities of 10,000 to 40,000 inhabitants

in improving their procedure.

This manual difi'ers in several respects from the one

in use at Brunswick, Ga., and Kenosha, Wis., which

was published earlier by the committee. Section I of

the new manual explains the essentials of a public

works cost-accounting system and how cost accounts

differ from a city’s general accounts. A list of standard work units to be employed in measuring work

done and in computing unit costs is included.

Section II of the manual contains definite instructions, together with forms for operating the public

works cost-accounting system. The forms covering

labor and pay rolls, equipment, materials, and work

done are illustrated, together with the manner in

which these items and overhead are consolidated into

unit costs on a work and cost ledger.

The committee has found that motor equipment

presents a difficult problem in every city. As a result, Section III of the manual describes and recom- mends three plans for organizing and financing motor

equipment. It sets forth the forms needed for controlling and posting gasoline, oil, repair labor, re- pair parts, and other equipment expense to an individual equipment record. This form analyzes the equipment cost for each piece of city equipment. The sec- tion also explains how equipment expenditures are budgeted and the manner in which appropriation and

cost accounts should be charged for equipment use. Through direct inspection of a large number of

cities in the country the staff of the committee finds

that the general accounting work is, as a rule, of vei'y

inferior order. As an aid to cities needing improvement in this phase of their administration. Section IV

of the manual describes the general accounting re- cpiirements for controlling expenditures and income.

A schedule is included at the end of the section which

shows the main posting entries to be made to all general accounts and cost accounts of the city.

In spite of the great improvement made in budgetary procedure during recent 3^ears, the committee

finds that most cities do not operate a budget worthy

of the name and are not able to control effectively

their expenditures, to plan their income, nor to schedule their work with any degree of certainty. The

manual tlierefure sets forth instructions in considerable detail for preparing a public works work program and for operating and executing a city^ budget.

It describes the steps and shows the appropriate forms

for i)reparing department estimates of expenditures

and income, for submitting budgets to councils, and

for the granting of appropriations. A quarterly or monthly allotment of expenditures is proposed. State- ments of allotment balances and of monthly expenditures are submitted for controlling the execution of

the budget.

The committee finds that a large number of cities throughout the country are adopting its standard pro-

])osals. Not only have seven complete installations

been made by the committee itself, but as a result of

correspondence and the distribution of manuals, of

which the one just described is the most recent ex- ample, city officials themselves are making use of the

committee’s recommendations in order to improve

their local jjractices. The committee is prepared to aid cities which need assistance in adjusting the proposals of the so-called Winona manual to conform

with local conditions. Inquiries should be addressed

to the Committee on Uniform Street and Sanitation

Records, 923 East Sixtieth Street, Chicago, 111.
The New Revised Edition of the

NATIONAL DIRECTORY OF

COMMODITY SPECIFICATIONS

(Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication No. 1.^0) For determining whether an applicable standard specification exists for any commodity

desired, reference should be made to the

National Directory of Commodity Specifications

THE SECOND, REVISED, EDITION of which

has been issued. This was prepared in cooperation with the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic

Commerce of the U. S. Department of Commerce.

In it are listed by title, designating number, and sponsoring organization, standards

and methods of test for all commodities regularly pro- duced in this country. Each

specification is also briefly

summarized as to technical

characteristics, scope, and

special applications. These

special features will aid the

user of the Directory to

select specifications suited to

his particular needs, and will make it indispensable to all large buyers whether Federal,

State, municipal, or other.

Its issuance meets an obligation entered into by the Secretary of Commerce

at the Conference of 1923, at which the State governments were officially represented and also other national purchasing interests. The enumeration of standards and specifications covered in this publication is limited to those adopted by national, technical, and trade

associations and those agencies which speak with

the authority of the Federal Government as a whole. The subjects and titles are grouped in accordance with a decimal system of classifica- tion, are adequately cross referenced, and are provided with a comprehensive index which facilitates rapid reference.

For the specification user and the specification

writer, whether producer or consumer, and for those interested in any way in the standardization of grades, qualities, or dimensions of any commodity,

there is no book equal to this Directory for supplying in- formation in a concentrated

form concerning specifications

and standards promulgated by

national specifications-making

bodies. In it are included di- rections for obtaining actual

copies of the documents themselves.ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

SPECIFICATIONS

Besides the Directory of

Specifications there is being

prepared an Encyclopedia of Specifications in which the

actual text of the nationally

recognized standards and specifications appears. Two volumes of the Encyclopedia have already

been issued. The first volume entitled “Standards and Specifications in the Wood Using Industries,” published in 1927, covers the major

division 400 given above. The second volume,

entitled “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and Their Products,” was published in 1930, and covers the major division 500

given above. Other volumes will be issued as conditions permit. The above two volumes may

be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C., for Sl-50 and S2.75, respectively.

ten major divisions of the

DIRECTORY

Decimal

Class Commodity Group

000 Animals and animal products. 100 Vegetable food products. 200 Other vegetable products. 300 Textiles. 400 Wood and paper. SOO Nonmetallic minerals. 600 Metals and metal products. 700 Machinery and vehicles. 800 Chemicals and allied products. 900 Miscellaneous.

DIRECTIONS FOR ORDERING

THE DIRECTORY OF

SPECIFICATIONS

Copies of the National Directory of Commodity Specifications (cloth bound) may be obtained from the Superintendent

of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., by sending with

the order a remittance (31-75) either in the form of post office money order, cou- pons (issued for the specific purpose of purchasing Government publications), express money order. New York draft, or

cash (at the sender^sown risk). It is important to follow these directions explicitly

to avoid delay and confusion. An order blank is attached for your convenience.

SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS,

Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Please send me the Bureau of Standards publications marked “X”

below. I inclose remittance to cover the cost. PUBLICATIONS PRICE* Foreijin Countries

Directory of Commodity Specifications. $1.75 $2.10

(Miscellaneous Publication No. 130) Encyclopedia of Specifications, vol. 1, Standards and Specifications in the Wood Usings Industries $1.50 $1.70

(Miscellaneous Publication No. 79) Encyclopedia of Specifications, vol. 2, Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and Their Products..

(Miscellaneous Publication No. 110) $2.75 $5.05

* United States, Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Newfoundland, and the Republic of Panama. Send to Number and street City and State
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

^^nnouncing the Hew

STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1932

Prepared annually by the BUREAU OF STANDARDS, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

400 pages, bound in blue buckram

DO NOT FAIL TO READ “ Let us raise a standard to which the wise

Symposium on Standardization in Communication and the honest can repair.”

(CHAPTER I) —WASHIMGTOM.

HE STANDARDS YEARBOOK for 1932

is full of suggestion and data for all engaged in standardiz,ation. The many aspects

of the subject call for a concise summary for

busy men who need

to keep in touch with

the latest advances in

the standards field. The

Standards Yearbook is designed to meet this

need.

To the interest taken

by several departments

of the Federal Government in simplification

and standardiz,ation, a

special chapter is devoted.

The Yearbook includes summaries of

important national and

international standardization activities and accomplishments of the

Government standardizing laboratories of

England, France, Germany, Canada, Japan,

and of the Bureau of Standards of the United

States. Another chapter is devoted to the standardization activities of

American technical

societies and trade asso- ciations.

An abstract of the

work in standardization

conducted by national

standards associations

throughout the world

is another feature of

the Standards Yearbook.

There is also given a brief account of international cooperation in

standardization

.

The Standards Yearbook should be in the

personal library of all engaged in work on

standards, or concerned with its application.

CONTENTS

Chapter

I. Standardization in communication—

a

symposium.

II. International standardizing agencies.

III. National governmental standardizing

laboratories. IV. N a t i o n al industrial standardizing

bodies. V. Federal standardizing agencies. VI. National Bureau of Standards.

VII. Municipal, county, and State purchasing agencies.

VIII. General standardizing agencies, U.S.A.

IX. Standardizing activities of technical

societies and trade associations. X. Index.

DIRECTIONS FOR OBTAINING

PERIODICALS

The periodicals listed may be obtained from the Superintendent

of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., by sending with the

order a remittance either in the form of post-office money order, coupons (issued for the specific purpose of purchasing Govern- ment publications), express money

order. New York draft, or cash—at the sender’s risk. It is important

to follow these directions explicitly to avoid delay and confusion. This order blank is for your convenience.

Superintendent of Documents,

U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. There is inclosed $_ , for which please send me the following

periodicals mar\ed K , listed below, at the prices indicated

Periodicals Prices Amount

inclosed Domestic Foreign

$1.00 $1.25 $

(Miscellaneous Publication 133) Bureau of Standards Journal of Research. 3.00 3.50

(Yearly subscription) .25 .40 (Yearly subscription) 1.00 1.25

(Yearly subscription)

T^ame

7f_umber and street City or town

State or country
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND COMMERCIAL

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY

THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its fir^t year the Journal developed a

liil of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and induStry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a li^l of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue. You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it. Issued montlily

Subscription price, ^3 per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1932

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

^landardiz,ation. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement ini- tiated by President Hoover for the redudfion

of needless si^es and varieties of produdfs and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

dlandardization by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firdf issue

of this new journal said: “Certain standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enadlment. Mandatory standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of standards developed by indudfry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The adfivities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with dlandards

adopted by voluntary agreement.’’

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1932 is the

sixth annual issue of a publication devoted

to the great and growing field of df andardization in its broad aspecTts. It gives a summary

of progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all indudfries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to indudfry. Its achievements are of interedf and concern to business men and manufacfturers as well as lo

engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggedlive

and dfimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interedf

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well' ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.’’

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly Periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.50; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $1.25
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

" * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * + its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, cjuality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Go\ eminent Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operationjDfjDlants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamenSupervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the

patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE; 1932





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