U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2006–5153

Prepared in Cooperation with the Honolulu Board of Water Supply

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water 

Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream, 

Oahu, Hawaii
About the cover: Punaluu Stream flows perennially because of ground-water 

discharge and persistent rainfall over the mountainous interior areas of the 

watershed (background photo). The U.S. Geological Survey records flow 

in Punaluu Stream at an altitude of about 210 feet (gaging station 16303000 

shown in upper left inset) as well as in Punaluu Ditch (gaging station 16302000 

in lower right inset). Punaluu Ditch diverts water from Punaluu Stream and 

consists of a system of 12 tunnels connected by open ditches. The portal to 

the first of the 12 tunnels of Punaluu Ditch is visible in the upper left inset just 

downstream from the gage house at station 16303000. Water flowing out of the 

first tunnel is measured at gaging station 16302000.
Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and 

Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow 

and Habitat, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii

By Delwyn S. Oki, Reuben H. Wolff, and Jeff A. Perreault

Prepared in Cooperation with the Honolulu Board of Water Supply

Scientific Investigations Report 2006–5153

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

Dirk Kempthorne, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

P. Patrick Leahy, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2006

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Suggested citation:

Oki, D.S., Wolff, R.H., and Perreault, J.A., 2006, Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal 

on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii: U.S. Geological Survey, Scientific Investigations Report 

2006-5153, 104 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract ..........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................2

Objectives...............................................................................................................................................2

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................2

Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................................6

Setting .............................................................................................................................................................6

Land Use.................................................................................................................................................6

Climate....................................................................................................................................................6

Geologic Setting....................................................................................................................................7

Volcanic Rocks.............................................................................................................................7

Sedimentary Deposits.................................................................................................................8

 Surface-Water Resources ..........................................................................................................................8

Punaluu Stream.....................................................................................................................................9

Base-Flow Characteristics.......................................................................................................11

Peak-Flow Characteristics.......................................................................................................15

Interaction Between Ground Water and Surface Water.............................................................17

Gains and Losses Below an Altitude of 210 Feet..................................................................18

Seepage Runs and Additional Discharge Measurements..................................................18

Punaluu Ditch ......................................................................................................................................23

Punaluu Ditch Flow Characteristics .......................................................................................24

Ditch Discharge Measurements .............................................................................................24

 Stream Fauna...............................................................................................................................................25

Life History Characteristics of Native Species..............................................................................27

Native Species in Punaluu Stream ..................................................................................................27

Non-Native Species ...........................................................................................................................28

Potential Factors Affecting Abundance of Native Species.........................................................33

Non-Native Species ..................................................................................................................33

Agricultural Activities ...............................................................................................................33

Aquaculture ................................................................................................................................36

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Streamflow ..............................................................................36

Immediately Downstream from Punaluu Ditch Diversion (210-Feet Altitude) ..........................36

Altitudes of 140 to 10 Feet..................................................................................................................36

Methods.......................................................................................................................................37

Flow Characteristics for Diverted Conditions .......................................................................38

Flow Characteristics for Natural Conditions.........................................................................38

Altitudes 140, 100, and 40 Feet........................................................................................38

Altitude 10 Feet..................................................................................................................48

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat .....................................................................................49

Stream Habitat Data Collection........................................................................................................49

Study Reaches ...........................................................................................................................49

Cross Sections............................................................................................................................50

Quantification of Suitable Habitat....................................................................................................51
iv

Habitat-Duration Characteristics.....................................................................................................53

Neritina granosa (hihiwai)........................................................................................................58

Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea)...........................................................................................64

Limitations............................................................................................................................................64

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Stream Temperatures ............................................................66

Daily Mean Temperatures .................................................................................................................66

Diurnal Temperature Variations........................................................................................................66

Ground-Water-Flow System.......................................................................................................................69

Water in the Sedimentary Deposits.................................................................................................69

Dike-Impounded Water......................................................................................................................69

Freshwater Lens .................................................................................................................................69

Perched Systems................................................................................................................................73

Withdrawals.........................................................................................................................................73

Water Levels........................................................................................................................................73

Salinity ..................................................................................................................................................76

Effects of Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow ...........................................................................82

Potentially Affected Stream Areas ..................................................................................................82

Water-Level Variations Caused by Withdrawal.............................................................................84

Hydrologic Effect of Dikes.................................................................................................................85

Approaches to Quantify Streamflow Reduction............................................................................86

Summary and Conclusions.........................................................................................................................86

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................89

Appendix A. .................................................................................................................................................94

Table 1. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and 

Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, sorted by date. ...................................95

Table 2. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and 

Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, sorted by site....................................100

Figures

1. Punaluu study area and mean annual rainfall, Island of Oahu, Hawaii ..............................3

2. Topographic map of Punaluu study area and selected stream- and rain-gaging

stations, Oahu, Hawaii .................................................................................................................4

3. Geologic features and wells in the Punaluu area, Oahu, Hawaii.........................................5

4. Mean monthly rainfall at selected rain-gaging stations near Punaluu, Oahu, Hawaii.....7

5. Water-level drawdown in well 3553-01 caused by withdrawal from well 3553-03 at a

rate of 2,100 gallons per minute, Punaluu, Oahu, Hawaii.......................................................9

6. Geologic cross sections, Punaluu, Oahu, Hawaii .................................................................10

7. Flow-duration curves for Punaluu Stream (gaging stations 16299000 and 16301000)

for water years 1916 and 1917, Oahu, Hawaii ........................................................................12

8. Annual mean discharge in Punaluu Stream (gaging stations 16303003 and

16303000) and Punaluu Ditch (gaging station 16302000), Oahu, Hawaii ............................13

9. Mean monthly discharge in Punaluu Stream (gaging stations 16303003 and

16303000) and Punaluu Ditch (gaging station 16302000) during water years

1955­–2004, Oahu, Hawaii ...........................................................................................................14
v

10. Flow-duration curves for Punaluu Stream total flow, base flow, and direct runoff

(gaging station 16303003), water years 1955–2004, Oahu, Hawaii......................................15

11. Discharge in Punaluu Ditch (gaging station 16302000), Punaluu Stream (gaging

station 16303000), and combined discharge from stations 16302000 and 16303000

(gaging station 16303003), August 2004, Oahu, Hawaii.........................................................16

12. Probability of peak discharge being equaled or exceeded during any given year

at Punaluu Stream (gaging station 16303000), Oahu, Hawaii ..............................................17

13. Discharge at selected altitudes, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii ......................................19

14. Sites of discharge measurements on Punaluu Stream and tributaries and Punaluu

Ditch, Oahu, Hawaii, 2004 and 2005 .........................................................................................20

15. Streamflow variation with stream-channel altitude below 210 feet, Punaluu Stream,

Oahu, Hawaii ...............................................................................................................................21

16. Streamflow variation (excluding measured tributary inflows and ditch return flows

downstream from an altitude of 210 ft) with stream-channel altitude, Punaluu

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii ................................................................................................................23

17. Flow-duration curves for Punaluu Ditch (gaging station 16302000), Punaluu Stream

(gaging station 16303000), and combined discharge from stations 16302000 and

16303000 (gaging station 16303003), water years 1995–2004, Oahu, Hawaii.....................25

18. Photographs of the Punaluu Ditch intake near a stream altitude of about 210 feet on

August 5, 2005, (A) prior to clearing the intake grate of debris and (B) after clearing

the intake grate of debris ..........................................................................................................26

19. Native species observed in Punaluu Stream during 2004 and 2005, 

Oahu, Hawaii ...............................................................................................................................30

20. Non-native species observed in Punaluu Stream during 2004 and 2005, 

Oahu, Hawaii ...............................................................................................................................34

21. Flow-duration curves for Punaluu Stream (gaging station 16303003) for water years

1955–2004 and 1995–2004, Oahu, Hawaii ................................................................................37

22. Flow-duration curves for low-flow partial-record stations at altitudes of 10, 40, 100,

and 140 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.........................................................................47

23. Ratios of diverted-to-natural discharges (Q50 and Q95) at stream-channel altitudes

of 10 to 200 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii...................................................................48

24. Habitat-suitability curves (Froude number) for selected native species, Hawaii ...........52

25. Relation between habitat (weighted usable area) for selected native species and

discharge at an altitude of 10 feet (reach 1), Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii..................54

26. Relation between habitat (weighted usable area) for selected native species and

discharge at an altitude of 40 feet (reach 2), Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii..................55

27. Relation between habitat (weighted usable area) for selected native species and

discharge at an altitude of 100 feet (reach 2b), Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii .............56

28. Relation between habitat (weighted usable area) for selected native species and

discharge at an altitude of 200 feet (reach 3), Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii................57

29. Habitat-duration curves for study reaches at altitudes of 10, 40, and 100 feet,

Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.................................................................................................59

30. Habitat-duration curves for the study reach at an altitude of 200 feet, Punaluu

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii ................................................................................................................60

31. Relation for Neritina granosa (hihiwai) between diversion condition and habitat (in

terms of change in weighted usable area relative to natural conditions), Punaluu

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii ................................................................................................................61

32. Relation for Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) between diversion condition and

habitat (in terms of change in weighted usable area relative to natural conditions),

Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.................................................................................................62
vi

33. Relation for Neritina granosa (hihiwai) between diversion condition and average

number of days per year that habitat is less than 50 or 75 percent of the habitat at

median natural discharge, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.................................................63

34. Relation for Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) between diversion condition and

average number of days per year that habitat is less than 50 or 75 percent of the

habitat at median natural discharge, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii...............................65

35. Daily mean discharge at stream-gaging station 16303003, daily mean stream

temperatures at altitudes of 10 to 210 feet above mean sea level, and daily mean

temperature difference between stream altitudes of 210 and 10 feet, Punaluu

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii ................................................................................................................67

36. Discharge at stream-gaging station 16303003, stream temperatures at altitudes of

10 and 210 feet above mean sea level, and difference between daily maximum and

minimum stream temperatures, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii........................................68

37. Schematic cross section showing freshwater-lens system and dike-impounded

ground water, Punaluu, Oahu, Hawaii.....................................................................................70

38. Schematic cross sections of (A) gaining stream with sedimentary deposits hydraulically 

connected to the volcanic rocks, (B) losing stream with sedimentary deposits hydraulically 

connected to the volcanic rocks, and (C) losing stream with saturated sedimentary 

deposits separated from the volcanic rocks by a zone of unsaturated rock..........................71

39. Fluid specific-conductance profiles from Punaluu deep monitor well 3553-05, Oahu,

Hawaii...........................................................................................................................................72

40. Ground-water withdrawal from Punaluu well fields I, II, and III, Oahu, Hawaii ..............74

41. Measured ground-water levels on April 12, 2005 and May 19, 2005 in the Punaluu

area, Oahu, Hawaii .....................................................................................................................75

42. Ground-water levels in Punaluu wells VA (3454-01) and VB (3453-10) during May 15

through July 31, 2005, Oahu, Hawaii........................................................................................76

43. Ground-water levels in Punaluu deep monitor well 3553-05, Punaluu, 

Oahu, Hawaii ...............................................................................................................................77

44. Discharge at Punaluu Stream gaging station 16303003 and water levels in Punaluu

well VB (3453-10) and Makalii well 3 (3453-13), Oahu, Hawaii, April 15, 2005 through

May 15, 2005 ................................................................................................................................77

45. Water levels in Sproat well (3453-05), water levels with tidal variations removed,

and pump timing at selected wells in the Punaluu area (shaded areas represent

periods when pumps were in operation), Oahu, Hawaii, during June 2005 .....................78

46. Water levels in Makalii 1 (3452-02), water levels with tidal variations removed, and

pump timing at selected wells in the Punaluu area (shaded areas represent periods

when pumps were in operation), Oahu, Hawaii, during June 2005....................................79

47. Water levels in Makalii 3 (3453-13), water levels with tidal variations removed, and

pump timing at selected wells in the Punaluu area (shaded areas represent periods

when pumps were in operation), Oahu, Hawaii, during June 2005....................................80

48. Water levels in Punaluu VA (3454-01), water levels with tidal variations removed,

and pump timing at selected wells in the Punaluu area (shaded areas represent

periods when pumps were in operation), Oahu, Hawaii, during June 2005 .....................81

49. Chloride concentration of pumped water from Punaluu well fields I, II, and III,

Oahu, Hawaii ...............................................................................................................................83

50. Stage-discharge relation for Punaluu Stream near an altitude of 10 feet, Oahu,

Hawaii, 2004–2005.......................................................................................................................85

51. Double-mass curves of cumulative base flows in Punaluu Stream (gaging station

16303003) and (A) Kalihi Stream (gaging station 16229000), (B) North Fork

Kaukonahua Stream (gaging station 16200000), Oahu, Hawaii...........................................87
vii

Tables

1. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu 

Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, sorted by date .........................................................95

2. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu 

Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, sorted by site.........................................................100

3. Rainfall during the 24- and 72-hour periods prior to 8:00 a.m. on the days of

seepage-run measurements, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii............................................19

4. Native aquatic species observed in Punaluu Stream, 1969–2004, Oahu, Hawaii............29

5. The distributions and abundances of native aquatic species observed in Punaluu

Stream in 2004 .............................................................................................................................31

6. Non-native aquatic species observed in Punaluu Stream from surveys during 1984

to 2004...........................................................................................................................................32

7. The distributions and abundances of non-native aquatic species observed in

Punaluu Stream in 2004 .............................................................................................................35

8. Concurrent discharge values at the low-flow partial-record station at a stream

altitude of 10 feet and at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003, Punaluu Stream,

Oahu, Hawaii ...............................................................................................................................39

9. Concurrent discharge values at the low-flow partial-record station at a stream

altitude of 40 feet and at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003, Punaluu Stream,

Oahu, Hawaii ...............................................................................................................................40

10. Concurrent discharge values at the low-flow partial-record station at a stream

altitude of 100 feet and at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003, Punaluu Stream, 

Oahu, Hawaii ...............................................................................................................................41

11. Concurrent discharge values at the low-flow partial-record station at a stream

altitude of 140 feet and at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003, Punaluu Stream, 

Oahu, Hawaii ...............................................................................................................................42

12. Estimated flow-duration characteristics for natural and recent diverted conditions

for the low-flow partial-record station at a stream altitude of 10 feet, Punaluu

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii ................................................................................................................43

13. Estimated flow-duration characteristics for natural and recent diverted conditions

for the low-flow partial-record station at a stream altitude of 40 feet, Punaluu

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii ................................................................................................................44

14. Estimated flow-duration characteristics for natural and recent diverted conditions

for the low-flow partial-record station at a stream altitude of 100 feet, Punaluu

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii ................................................................................................................45

15. Estimated flow-duration characteristics for natural and recent diverted conditions

for the low-flow partial-record station at a stream altitude of 140 feet, Punaluu

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii ................................................................................................................46

16. Percentage of riffle, run, and pool habitat within selected study reaches, Punaluu

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii ................................................................................................................50

17. Substrate size categories and dominant substrate suitability values for selected

native species .............................................................................................................................51
viii

Conversion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Area

square foot (ft2) 0.09290 square meter (m2)

square mile (mi2) 259.0 hectare (ha)

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) 

Volume

gallon (gal) 3.785 liter (L) 

gallon (gal) 0.003785 cubic meter (m3) 

million gallons (Mgal) 3,785 cubic meter (m3)

cubic foot (ft3) 0.02832 cubic meter (m3) 

Flow rate

foot per second (ft/s) 0.3048 meter per second (m/s)

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s)

million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.04381 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

Mass

ounce, avoirdupois (oz) 28.35 gram (g) 

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

°C=(°F-32)/1.8

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to mean sea level.

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (μS/cm at 

25°C).

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given in milligrams per liter (mg/L).
Abstract 

The surface- and ground-water resources of the Punaluu 

area of northeast Oahu, Hawaii, have been and continue to be 

important for cultural, domestic, agricultural, recreational, and 

aesthetic purposes. Punaluu Stream flows perennially because 

rain falls frequently in the area and ground water discharges 

to the stream. Flow in Punaluu Stream is reduced by the direct 

diversion of water for off-stream uses and possibly from the 

withdrawal of ground water near the stream. Punaluu Ditch 

diverts water from Punaluu Stream near an altitude of 210 feet.

During the recent period 1995–2004, discharge in 

Punaluu Stream that was equaled or exceeded 50 percent of 

the time (median or Q50 discharge) and discharge that was 

equaled or exceeded 95 percent of the time (Q95 discharge) 

measured immediately upstream from the Punaluu Ditch 

diversion intake, respectively, were 18 and 13 cubic feet per 

second, whereas the Q50 and Q95 discharges measured immediately downstream from the diversion intake, respectively, 

were 7.0 and 1.3 cubic feet per second. Thus, near an altitude 

of 210 feet, diversion of surface water by the Punaluu Ditch 

caused the Q50 discharge in Punaluu Stream to be reduced to 

39 percent of the natural Q50 discharge, and the Q95 discharge 

was reduced to 10 percent of the natural value. The relative 

effects of the Punaluu Ditch diversion on flow in Punaluu 

Stream decreased in a downstream direction, mainly because 

of the compensating effects of tributary inflows and ditch 

return flows. At an altitude of 10 feet, the Q50 discharge in 

Punaluu Stream was 82 percent of the natural Q50 discharge, 

and the Q95 discharge was 69 percent of the natural value.

Changes in streamflow affect the quantity and quality of 

physical habitat used by native stream fauna. The Physical 

Habitat Simulation System (PHABSIM) approach was used to 

evaluate the effects of different diversion scenarios on physical habitat for selected native species in Punaluu Stream. 

Habitat-suitability criteria developed for streams in northeast 

Maui, Hawaii, were used to determine the effects of incremental changes in streamflow on physical habitat, in terms of 

weighted usable area (WUA) in Punaluu Stream. 

The effects of different diversion conditions on WUA for 

Neritina granosa and Awaous guamensis were evaluated by 

determining the average number of days per year for which 

WUA values are less than a specified reference value (during 

periods when discharge is less than or equal to the median 

natural discharge). For recent diverted conditions (1995–

2004), the average number of days per year that WUA values 

are less than 50 or 75 percent of the WUA value at median 

natural discharge generally (1) decreases in a downstream 

direction, reflecting the effects of tributary inflows and ditch 

return flows, (2) is less than the corresponding number of days 

for constant diversion rates greater than about 4–5 cubic feet 

per second at a stream altitude of 10 feet, and (3) is greater 

than the corresponding number of days for a constant diversion rate of 10 cubic feet per second at stream altitudes of 

40, 100, and 140 feet. The number of days that WUA values 

are less than 75 percent of the WUA value at median natural discharge generally increases substantially for constant 

diversion rates exceeding about 4–5 cubic feet per second. At 

stream altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 200 feet and for constant 

diversion rates of up to 4 cubic feet per second, WUA values 

are less than 75 percent of the WUA value at median natural 

discharge for fewer than 13 days per year. At stream altitudes 

above 40 feet and for a constant diversion rate of 10 cubic feet 

per second, WUA values are less than 75 percent of the WUA 

value at median natural discharge for 131 to 183 days per year.

Stream temperature is a factor that potentially could 

affect the abundance and distribution of native aquatic species. 

Measured stream temperatures immediately upstream and 

downstream from the diversion intake did not indicate a significant change in temperature caused by a reduction in flow. 

Measured daily maximum temperatures did not exceed 25°C 

and daily minimum temperatures did not drop below 17.5°C at 

any of the six sites between altitudes of 10 and 210 feet where 

temperatures were measured. At all six sites, daily maximum 

temperatures remained below the upper-lethal-temperature 

limits for native aquatic species. 

On the basis of (1) measured water levels in wells, relative to stream-channel altitudes and (2) discharge measurements indicating where the stream commonly gains water, 

Punaluu Stream is likely connected to the main ground-water 

body below an altitude of about 25 feet. Measured water 

levels in monitoring wells in the volcanic rocks indicate that 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water 

Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream, 

Oahu, Hawaii

By Delwyn S. Oki, Reuben H. Wolff, and Jeff A. Perreault
ground-water withdrawals west of Punaluu Stream cause 

ground-water-level declines east of the stream. Thus, water 

levels in the volcanic-rock aquifer beneath and adjacent to 

Punaluu Stream are affected by withdrawals from existing well 

fields. If a continuous zone of saturation exists between the 

stream and the underlying volcanic rocks, long-term waterlevel declines caused by withdrawals from existing wells in 

the volcanic rocks will ultimately extend to the stream and 

cause a reduction of ground-water discharge to the stream. The 

magnitude of streamflow reduction is unknown, but may be 

immeasurable, depending on the rate of withdrawal, because 

of the presence of low-permeability sedimentary deposits 

separating the stream and underlying volcanic rocks. The 

effects of ground-water withdrawal on streamflow may be best 

evaluated using a numerical ground-water model that accounts 

for the hydraulic characteristics of the rocks between sites of 

ground-water withdrawal and the stream.

Introduction

The surface- and ground-water resources of the Punaluu 

area of northeast Oahu, Hawaii, (fig. 1) have been and 

continue to be important for cultural, domestic, agricultural, 

recreational, and aesthetic purposes. Punaluu Stream provides 

water for traditional and customary Hawaiian practices, irrigation of agricultural crops and ornamental plants, livestock, and 

aquaculture operations. In addition, Punaluu Stream provides 

habitat for native aquatic species. The ground-water system 

near Punaluu Stream is hydraulically connected to the stream 

in some areas and is a source of drinking water. 

Surface water historically was diverted from Punaluu 

Stream for taro and sugarcane cultivation (R.M. Towill Corporation, 1978; Dorrance and Morgan, 2000). In the Punaluu 

area, surface-water diversion systems for taro cultivation 

existed prior to the 1900s, and diversion systems for sugarcane cultivation were constructed in the early 1900s (Wilcox, 

1996). Punaluu Ditch (fig. 2), which was constructed in the 

1920s for sugarcane irrigation (Takasaki and others, 1969), 

continues to divert water from Punaluu Stream in 2005 for 

other uses. Punaluu Ditch consists of 12 tunnels connected by 

open ditches or flumes and extends 1.8 mi from the intake at 

an altitude of about 210 ft to its terminus in Kaluanui Stream 

Valley at an altitude of about 50 ft (fig. 2). The tunnels range 

from about 50 to more than 800 ft in length (John Primacio, 

Jr., Kamehameha Schools contractor, written commun., 2004). 

In recent years, a partial collapse within one of the tunnels 

(tunnel 11) has restricted flow within the ditch system to some 

users (The Honolulu Advertiser, June 13, 1993, p. A9). Currently (2005) water from Punaluu Ditch mainly is used for taro 

cultivation, vegetable crops, ornamental plants, livestock, and 

aquaculture operations. Punaluu Stream flows perennially, 

although diversion of water from the stream may result in periods of zero flow immediately downstream from the Punaluu 

Ditch intake.

The first reported well in the Punaluu area was drilled in 

1925 and mainly was for domestic use. Since 1925, additional 

wells in the Punaluu area were drilled for domestic, agricultural, or municipal supply (fig. 3). Currently (2005), the main 

use of ground water in the area is for municipal purposes. 

During 2000–2002, reported ground-water withdrawal from 

the two main well fields in the Punaluu area averaged about 

6.5 million gallons per day (Mgal/d), and was reduced to 

2.4 Mgal/d during 2004 (unpub. digital data, Hawaii State 

Commission on Water Resource Management, 2005).

Flow in Punaluu Stream is reduced by the direct diversion 

of water for off-stream uses and possibly from the withdrawal 

of ground water near the stream. Reductions in streamflow 

may affect the quantity and quality of habitat for native species 

as well as stream temperatures. The State Water Code mandates that the Hawaii State Commission on Water Resource 

Management (CWRM) establish a statewide instream-use 

protection program (State Water Code, section 174C-71). The 

principal mechanism that CWRM has for the protection of 

instream uses is to establish instream flow standards. Beneficial instream uses recognized by CWRM include: (1) maintenance of fish and wildlife habitat, (2) outdoor recreational 

activities, (3) maintenance of ecosystems such as estuaries, 

wetlands, and stream vegetation in riparian areas, (4) aesthetic 

values such as waterfalls and scenic waterways, (5) maintenance of water quality, (6) the conveyance of irrigation and 

domestic water supplies to downstream points of diversion, 

and (7) the protection of traditional and customary Hawaiian rights. Scientific information generated by this study will 

help CWRM to fulfill its obligation to determine a technically 

defensible instream flow standard for Punaluu Stream. 

Objectives

In cooperation with the City and County of Honolulu 

Board of Water Supply (BWS), the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) undertook an investigation to evaluate the effects of 

surface-water diversion from Punaluu Stream on streamflow 

characteristics and habitat availability for native fauna. The 

objectives of this study were to: (1) assess the effects of the 

existing surface-water diversion on flow characteristics in 

Punaluu Stream, (2) estimate the effects of surface-water 

diversion on habitat availability for selected native stream 

fauna in Punaluu Stream, (3) characterize the effects of surface-water diversion on instream temperatures, and (4) assess 

the potential for existing ground-water withdrawals to affect 

streamflow. 

Purpose and Scope

This report provides information necessary for establishing instream flow standards for Punaluu Stream. The purpose 

of this report is to assess effects of surface-water diversion and 

ground-water withdrawal on streamflow characteristics and 

habitat in Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii. Available discharge 

2 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 1. Punaluu study area and mean annual rainfall, Island of Oahu, Hawaii. Rainfall isohyets modified from Giambelluca and others (1986), and boundary of study 

area modified from State of Hawaii (2005).

158o10'

157o50'

157o40'

21o40'

21o30'

21o20'

158o

00

4 MILES 2

2 4 KILOMETERS 

22o20o

158o 156o 160o

Kauai

Niihau

Oahu

Maui

Molokai

Lanai

Kahoolawe

Hawaii

HAWAII 

LOCATION MAP 

PACIFIC

OCEAN

EXPLANATION 

LINE OF EQUAL MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL--  Interval, in inches, is variable. Number in  parentheses is value in millimeters TOPOGRAPHIC DIVIDE STREAM-GAGING STATION AND NUMBERTOPOGRAPHIC PEAK 

16303003

31.5

(800)

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

HONOLULU

Waikiki 

Kailua

Kaneohe

Makaha

Waianae 

Maili

Nanakuli

Ewa Beach

Ewa 

Waialua 

Haleiwa 

Sunset

Beach Kahuku

Laie

Kaaawa 

Waimanalo 

Hawaii Kai

AinaHaina

!

!

Waipio 

Mililani

Schofield 

Barracks

Wahiawa 

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey National Hydrography Dataset, Albers equal area projection,standard parallels 21o19'40" and 21o38'20", centralmeridian 157o58', datum NAD83. Relief from U.S.Geological Survey digital elevation models, 1:24,000 

Kahuku Point 

Makapuu

Point

Barbers

Point

Diamond

Head

Kaena

Point

Waimanalo 

Bay

KANEOHE

BAY 

Kahana

Bay

Pearl 

 Harbor 

MAMALA BAY 

Maunalua Bay 

W

A

I A

N A E

R A

N G E

K O O L A U

R A N G E

59 (1,500)

59

(1,500)

39

(1,000)

31

(800)

24

(600)

59

(1,500)

79

(2,000)

118

(3,000)

157

197

(4,000)

(5,000)

236 (6,000)

276

(7,000)

39

(1,000)

31

(800)

24

(600)

24

(600)

39

(1,000)

157

(4,000)

79

(2,000)

31

(800)

31

(800)

Manini Gl

Waimea Gl

Huliwai Gl

Honouliuli Gl

Kaunala Gl

Kamananui Str

eal a M hak na a Str

aul aK nui S rt

M nua wa S ili rt

Ka il hi Str

Moana ul a Str

N

Ha al wa Str Wa mi a ul Str

Na an uk li Str

Mailiilii Str

Makua Str

Kaukonahua Str

Poamoho Str

Opaeula Str

Anahulu River

M ka ha a Str

Kaupu i n t S r

Waikele

Str

rt S oi O

Helemano Str

S

Ha al wa Str

Wa hi ee Str

Nuuanu St

Kaneohe Str 

r

Kahaluu

 Str 

Wa mi ano Str

Pun l a uu S rt

Kahana t S r

16303003

STUDY-AREA BOUNDARY 

16200000

16229000

Introduction 3
Study

area

boundary

16300000

16301000

16303000

16302000

16299000

905

886

884

884.4

883.9

883.1

883.12

157°56' 157°55' 157°54' 157°53' 157°52'

21°31'

21°32'

21°33'

21°34'

21°35'

21°36'

OAHU 

PACIFIC 

OCEAN

Area of

Map

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey National 0 0.25 0.5 1 Miles

Hydrography Dataset, 1:24,000, Universal Transverse 

Mercator projection, zone 4, NAD83 datum.

P A C I F I C

O C E A N

Kahana Bay 

Kaluanui Str

Punaluu Str

Kahana Str

Punaluu Ditch

Makalii Point 

EXPLANATION 

STREAM-GAGING STATION 

 AND NUMBER 

RAIN-GAGING STATION 

 AND NUMBER 

884.4

16303000

Waihoi 

Springs

Figure 2. Topographic map of Punaluu study area and selected stream- and rain-gaging stations, Oahu, Hawaii. 

4 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Marginal dike zone boundary

Dike

complex boundary

Duke complex

boundary

A

B

C

C‘

A‘ B‘

3654-04

3654-03

3554-06

3554-05

3554-04 3554-03

3554-01,-02

3553-08

3553-07

3553-06

3553-05

3553-04

3553-03

3553-02

3553-01

3454-01

3453-16 3453-13

3453-12

3453-11

3453-10

3453-09

3453-15

3453-08

3453-07

3453-06

3453-02

3453-04,-05

3453-03

3453-01

3452-02

3452-01

3353-04

3353-03

3353-02

3353-01

3352-02

3352-01

3154-01

PUNALUU III 

WELL FIELD 

PUNALUU II 

WELL FIELD 

PUNALUU I 

157°56' 157°55' 157°54' 157°53' 157°52'

21°31'

21°32'

21°33'

21°34'

21°35'

21°36'

OAHU 

PACIFIC 

OCEAN

Area of

Map

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey National 0 0.25 0.5 1 Miles

Hydrography Dataset, 1:24,000, Universal Transverse 

Mercator projection, zone 4, NAD83 datum.

P A C I F I C

O C E A N

Kahana Bay 

Punaluu Str

Punaluu Ditch

Makalii Point 

Study

area

boundary

Kaluanui Str

Kahana Str

EXPLANATION 

DIKE-COMPLEX AREA 

DIKES

LINE OF CROSS SECTION 

WELL AND STATE NUMBER 

A A‘

Beach deposits 

Recent alluvium 

Older alluvium 

Beach deposits 

Recent alluvium 

Older alluvium 

Volcanic rocks 

3454-01

Figure 3. Geologic features and wells in the Punaluu area, Oahu, Hawaii. Modified from Stearns (1939) and Takasaki 

and Mink (1985).

Introduction 5
data from USGS stream-gaging stations at unregulated stream 

sites, historical seepage-run data, and additional discharge 

measurements made for this study are used to estimate undiverted streamflow characteristics and the effects of diversion 

on streamflow characteristics. Relations between streamflow 

and habitat for native stream macrofauna are used to estimate 

the effects of streamflow diversion on habitat for native stream 

macrofauna. This study is not designed to address the effects 

of flow diversion on native species abundance (which would 

require considerably more time and control over diversion 

rates than was available), water requirements for taro cultivation and aesthetic or recreational uses, algae and invertebrate 

food sources for native macrofauna, and reproduction and 

recruitment of native species. Information from ground-waterlevel monitoring and seepage runs will be used to evaluate the 

potential for ground-water withdrawals to affect streamflow. 

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the members of the Punaluu 

Watershed Alliance (Punaluu Community Association, 

Honolulu Board of Water Supply, Kamehameha Schools, and 

Hawaii State Commission on Water Resource Management) 

for their support throughout this study. Creighton and Cathleen Mattoon, G. Mahealani “Mahi” Trevenen, Kapua SproatFonoimoana, Samuel Rowland, and Katy Darlington were 

among the members of the Punaluu Community Association 

that shared their knowledge and provided historical perspectives of conditions in the Punaluu area. Kapua Sproat Fonoimoana also kindly allowed us to monitor water levels in a well 

on her property. Special thanks go out to John Primacio, Jr. 

(“Junior”) and Darrel Tachibana (Kamehameha Schools contractors), who manage the Punaluu-Ditch system in Punaluu 

(among their many duties), for sharing their knowledge, 

enabling us to gain access to monitoring wells, and for always 

ensuring our safety while working in the area. 

This study could not have been completed without the 

assistance of the following USGS personnel. Benjamin H. 

Shimizu and Heather A. Jeppesen expertly maintained USGS 

gaging stations in the Punaluu area, helped with seepage-run 

measurements, and kindly accommodated our use of field 

vehicles and equipment. Moani M.L. Hibbard helped establish 

the temperature-monitoring network for this study and she, 

along with Kenneth N. Natividad and Tracy J. Ibarra, spent 

many long days in Punaluu assisting with data-collection 

activities (collecting habitat information, making discharge 

measurements, measuring ground-water levels, and surveying). Leigh Marcello assisted with snorkeling surveys and 

collection of non-native fish species for gut-content analysis. 

Chiu W. Yeung, Chien-Hwa (Max) Chen, and Bret Hayhurst 

helped with seepage-run measurements. Todd K. Presley 

provided assistance installing temperature probes and shared 

his expertise on surveying stream cross sections. Richard A. 

Fontaine provided technical assistance and insightful comments throughout the study.

Setting

The study area (6.7 mi2) is located in the wet, northeastern part of Oahu and is mainly defined by the drainage 

basin of Punaluu Stream (fig. 3). The study area is bounded 

by the ridge between Punaluu and Kahana Stream Valleys on 

the southeast, the topographic crest of the Koolau Range (the 

eroded remnant of the Koolau Volcano) on the southwest, the 

ridge between Punaluu and Kaluanui Stream Valleys on the 

northwest, and the coast on the northeast. Punaluu Stream 

originates near the topographic crest of the Koolau Range at 

an altitude of about 2,600 ft and terminates near sea level at 

the coast. 

Land Use

Prior to 1900, the coastal plain within the Punaluu area, 

which is below an altitude of about 20 ft, was an extensive 

swampy area that was used for taro cultivation (Territorial 

Planning Board, 1939; Handy and others, 1991). In addition to flatland areas, hillsides in the Punaluu area also were 

terraced for taro (Handy and others, 1991). By 1937, most 

of the area previously used for taro cultivation was planted in 

sugarcane (Territorial Planning Board, 1939). Sugarcane was 

cultivated within about 1.2 mi from the coast below altitudes 

of 200 ft. Sugarcane cultivation was the dominant agricultural 

land use in the Punaluu area from the early 1900s to 1971, 

when Kahuku Plantation Company ceased operations (Dorrance and Morgan, 2000). Land mainly was forested inland 

of sugarcane-cultivation areas, although some areas may have 

been used for grazing (Territorial Planning Board, 1939). 

Areas on the coastal plain adjacent to the existing highway 

are developed for residential use. Agricultural land uses in 

the Punaluu area during 1998 included banana and guava 

orchards; fruit, vegetable, and wetland row crops; and horticulture, aquaculture, and grazing (Klasner and Mikami, 2003). 

Climate

Climate within the study area is characterized by mild 

temperatures and cool and persistent northeasterly winds, 

known locally in Hawaii as trade winds (Blumenstock and 

Price, 1967; Sanderson, 1993). In general, mild temperatures 

in Hawaii are attributed to the large heat capacity of the surrounding ocean. Near the coast in the Punaluu area, estimated 

mean annual air temperature is between about 73.5oF and 

75oF, and the estimated average lapse rate, or decline of temperature with altitude, is about 3.6oF per 1,000 ft (Nullet and 

Sanderson, 1993). 

Topography and the direction of the trade winds control 

rainfall in the study area. Moisture-laden northeasterly trade 

winds rise orographically along the windward slopes, and as 

the air mass rises and cools, moisture condenses and commonly precipitates on the mountain slopes. Mean annual rain6 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
fall in the Punaluu area is about 280 in. near the mountainous 

interior and greater than 60 in. near the coast (fig. 1).

Within the study area, the pattern of seasonal rainfall differs between coastal areas and interior areas. Near the coast, a 

pronounced rainy season occurs during October through April 

and a dry season occurs during May through September (fig. 

4). Near the mountainous interior areas, rainfall is less variable, although rainfall generally is lowest during the months of 

June and September (fig. 4). 

During storms, rainfall totals in the study area may be 

significant. Estimated 2-yr, 24-hour rainfall ranges from about 

6 in. near the coast to more than 9 in. near interior areas; estimated 100-yr, 24-hour rainfall ranges from about 15 in. near 

the coast to more than 20 in. near interior areas (Giambelluca 

and others, 1984). 

Geologic Setting

Punaluu Stream Valley is wider and more deeply eroded 

than stream valleys farther north, which are in a more recent 

stage of dissection. Erosion of Punaluu Stream Valley likely 

was enhanced by high rainfall on the northeastern side of 

Oahu. Within the study area, the geologic setting mainly 

consists of volcanic rocks overlain by sedimentary deposits 

that form the valley floor at altitudes below about 650 ft above 

mean sea level (fig. 3) (Stearns, 1939). The volcanic rocks 

are composed of shield-stage lavas from the Koolau Volcano, 

which forms the eastern part of Oahu. A coastal plain formed 

by sedimentary deposits is about one-half mile wide near the 

mouth of Punaluu Stream. The coastal plain is continuous to 

the north, although it is truncated to the south by a volcanic 

ridge that extends to the coast between Punaluu and Kahana 

Stream Valleys. The geologic setting of Punaluu Stream Valley controls the occurrence of and interaction between surface 

water and ground water in the area. In some places, the presence of low-permeability rocks that impede ground-water flow 

may create high ground-water levels and result in discharge of 

ground water to Punaluu Stream and perennial streamflow. 

Volcanic Rocks

Exposed volcanic rocks within Punaluu Stream Valley 

are classified as Koolau Basalt, consisting of shield-stage 

tholeiitic basalt (Langenheim and Clague, 1987). PotassiumFigure 4. Mean monthly rainfall at selected rain-gaging stations near Punaluu, Oahu, Hawaii (data are 1916–1983 

adjusted mean values from Giambelluca and others, 1986).

884 (75) 

905 (73) 

883.1 (321) 

886 (255) 

883.9 (207) 

STATE KEY NUMBER (Value in parentheses 

 is mean annual rainfall, in inches) 

high rainfall, inland sites

MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL, IN PERCENT OF MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL 

low rainfall, coastal sites

FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY 

MONTH

JAN AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

0

2

4

6

10

12

14

8

Setting 7
argon determinations of Koolau Basalt indicate an age of 1.8 

to 2.6 million years (Doell and Dalrymple, 1973). Lava flows 

from the shield-stage Koolau Basalt typically are thin-bedded, 

with an average flow thickness of about 10 ft, and have dips 

of 3 to 10 degrees (Stearns and Vaksvik, 1935). Within the 

study area, lava flows have been intruded by dikes, which are 

thin, near-vertical sheets of massive rock that are created by 

intrusion of magma. In the central part of a rift zone, known 

as the dike complex, dikes may number as many as 1,000 per 

mile of horizontal distance and compose 10 percent or more of 

the total rock volume (Takasaki and Mink, 1985). The number 

of dikes decreases toward the outer edges of a rift zone. At the 

outer part of the rift zone, within the marginal dike zone, dikes 

usually constitute less than 5 percent of the total rock volume (Takasaki and Mink, 1985). Takasaki and Mink (1985) 

indicate that the dike complex in Punaluu Stream Valley exists 

above a stream altitude of about 560 ft, and the marginal 

dike zone between stream altitudes of about 10 and 560 ft 

(fig. 3). The dike complex and marginal dike zone defined by 

Takasaki and Mink (1985) are generalized and approximate. 

Dikes commonly are exposed by erosion within rift zones of 

volcanoes, although few dikes have been mapped in the study 

area because of the steep terrain and dense vegetation cover 

(Takasaki and others, 1969). In Punaluu Stream Valley, dikes 

have been mapped near stream altitudes of about 70 and 620 ft 

(fig. 3) (Takasaki and others, 1969; Takasaki and Mink, 1985). 

Permeability describes the ease with which fluid can 

move through rock. The permeability of volcanic rocks is 

variable and depends on many factors including the mode of 

emplacement and amount of weathering. Weathered volcanic 

rocks generally have a much lower permeability than unweathered volcanic rocks. Lava chemistry and topography also can 

affect permeability. In the Punaluu area, dike-free volcanic 

rocks are much more permeable than intrusive dikes and older 

sedimentary deposits, and are limited to the coastal area seaward of the marginal dike zone. 

Within the rift zone, intrusive dikes reduce overall permeability of the volcanic rocks and impede flow of ground 

water. Although the thickness of individual dikes generally is 

less than 10 ft, dikes are hydrologically significant because 

of their impounding effect on ground water. In general, the 

overall permeability of a rift zone decreases as the number of 

dike intrusions within the rift zone increases. Thus, the overall 

permeability of the dike-complex area is expected to be lower 

than that of the marginal dike zone. 

The effects of dikes on ground-water flow in the Punaluu 

area were indicated in an aquifer test in which well 3553-03 

was pumped at a rate of about 2,100 gallons per minute 

(gal/min) and water levels were monitored in well 3553-01 

located about 2,100 ft from the pumped well (fig. 3). The relation between water-level drawdown (arithmetic scale) and time 

(logarithmic scale) shows increases in slope that commonly 

are associated with dike barriers (fig. 5). Williams and Soroos 

(1973) estimated the distance between well 3553-01 and the 

nearest dike barrier to be between about 6,850 and 8,950 ft, 

although the location of the barrier could not be determined.

Sedimentary Deposits

Within Punaluu Stream Valley, the sedimentary deposits 

generally are thickest near the coast and thinnest near steeper 

inland areas. In the central part of the valley near the coast, 

sedimentary deposits are greater than 200 ft thick (fig. 6) and 

consist of recent marine and terrestrial material underlain 

by older alluvium. In inland areas, the sedimentary deposits 

consist mainly of alluvium and colluvium. 

Older alluvium consists of terrestrial sediments, varying in size from fine-grain particles to boulders, which have 

been weathered and compacted into a soft coherent mass, 

and is exposed at various places in the stream channel. Older 

alluvium forms deposits in Punaluu Stream Valley and beneath 

the coastal plain and is hydrologically significant because of 

its low permeability. The low permeability of older alluvium is 

caused by a reduction of pore space from the volume increase 

associated with weathering as well as mechanical compaction 

(Wentworth, 1951). Sedimentary deposits and underlying 

weathered volcanic rocks of the coastal plain form a low-permeability confining unit (caprock) that overlies higher-permeability volcanic rocks and impedes the seaward discharge of 

freshwater from the volcanic-rock aquifer. Weathered volcanic 

rocks probably extend below the sedimentary deposits that fill 

Punaluu Stream Valley, although the depth to which weathering extends is poorly known. 

In the Honolulu area of southern Oahu, valley-filling 

sedimentary deposits and underlying weathered volcanic 

rocks extend hundreds of feet below sea level, form barriers to 

ground-water flow, and cause distinct water-level differences 

on opposite sides of the valley (see for example Palmer, 1946). 

The effects of valley-filling deposits and underlying weathered volcanic rocks in the Punaluu area are poorly known, but 

data collected for this study and described later (see section 

“Effects of Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow”) provide insight into the hydrologic effectiveness of the valley-filling deposits.

 Surface-Water Resources

Punaluu Stream is a perennial stream that receives flow 

from numerous tributaries, many of which also are perennial. 

Punaluu Stream flows perennially because rain falls frequently 

in the area and ground water discharges to the stream. Punaluu 

Stream flows perennially during periods of no rainfall because 

of ground-water discharge to the stream (base flow). During water years 1955–2004, the lowest daily mean discharge 

recorded in Punaluu Stream just upstream from the Punaluu 

Ditch intake was 8.0 ft3/s on October 5, 1968. The Punaluu 

Ditch and tunnel system was constructed in the 1920s (Takasaki and others, 1969) to divert water from the stream for 

irrigation of sugarcane fields at lower altitudes. Although 

sugarcane is no longer cultivated on Oahu, Punaluu Ditch 

continues to be maintained and operated by the current land 

owner, Kamehameha Schools. 

8 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Punaluu Stream

Streamflow consists of (1) direct runoff of rainfall, in the 

forms of overland flow and interflow, (2) ground-water discharge to the stream (base flow), (3) water returned from bank 

storage, (4) rain that falls directly on the stream, and (5) any 

additional water, including excess irrigation water, discharged 

to the stream by humans (Oki, 2003). The amount of direct 

runoff and base flow that contributes to total streamflow is 

dependent on factors including rainfall amount and intensity, 

drainage-basin attributes (geology, morphology, and size), 

soils, and land cover. Evapotranspiration from riparian vegetation potentially can result in loss of ground water that otherwise may have discharged to the stream. Streamflow characteristics also can be affected by humans through diversions, 

channel modifications, land-use changes, and other factors.

Direct runoff occurs during and immediately following a 

period of rainfall and may be produced by several processes. 

Direct runoff may contribute to streamflow for several days 

following a period of rainfall. When the capacity of soil to 

accept water and the capacity of land-surface depressions to 

store water are exceeded, water begins to run off in a sheet as 

overland flow. Rain that falls on saturated soils, where the 

ground-water table is at the land surface or rises to the land 

surface during a storm, runs off as saturation overland flow. 

During a storm, overland flow may be generated over only 

parts of a basin. 

Rainfall that infiltrates the ground surface may move 

laterally in near-surface soils and rocks and contribute to 

Figure 5. Water-level drawdown in well 3553-01 caused by withdrawal from well 3553-03 at a rate of 2,100 gallons 

per minute, Punaluu, Oahu, Hawaii. Wells 3553-01 and 3553-03 are about 2,100 feet apart. Modified from Williams and 

Soroos (1973).

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

1 10 100

TIME SINCE START OF PUMPING, IN MINUTES 

WATER-LEVEL DRAWDOWN, IN FEET 

1,000 10,0000

 Surface-Water Resources 9
Figure 6. Geologic cross sections, Punaluu, Oahu, Hawaii. Section locations shown in figure 3. 3553-04 3553-04 3453-113453-07 3453-06 3453-15 3453-12 3453-16 3452-02 3453-13 3553-02 3453-03 3453-01 3453-02 3453-05 3452-01 Punaluu Stream Punaluu Stream 3452-02

SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS (MAY INCLUDE WEATHERED VOLCANIC ROCKS) 

VOLCANIC ROCKS 

WELL AND STATE NUMBER 

 (well locations shown in figure 3) 

600

400

200

Sea level 

-200

-400

-600

-800

600

400

200

Sea level 

-200

-400

-600

-800

A

B B‘

A‘

Feet

Feet

10 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
streamflow as interflow (also known as subsurface runoff, subsurface storm flow, or storm seepage). A significant amount 

of interflow may occur during and following a storm where 

permeable surface soils and rocks overlie less permeable soil 

or rock layers. Water movement associated with interflow 

generally is slower than that associated with overland flow, 

and may continue for days following a period of rainfall. In 

some places, interflow may move quickly to streams through 

preferential pathways.

Rainfall that infiltrates the ground surface also may 

recharge a ground-water body that discharges to a stream. 

Such ground-water discharge, known as base flow, originates 

where streams intersect the ground-water table and where 

the water level in the adjacent ground-water body is above 

the water level in the stream. Base flow may occur during 

extended dry periods as well as during periods of rainfall. 

Because ground-water levels vary with time, base flow also 

varies with time; base flow is high during periods when the 

ground-water level is high, relative to the water level in the 

stream; low during periods when the ground-water level is 

low; and may cease if the ground-water level falls below the 

water level in the stream. Variations in base flow, however, are 

much smaller than variations in direct runoff.

During a period of heavy rainfall, stream stage (water 

level) rises and water is absorbed into the banks of the stream 

as bank storage. This water may return to the stream and contribute to streamflow when the stream stage recedes.

Prior to 1953, the flow characteristics of Punaluu Stream 

could be determined only from a limited number of discharge 

measurements (Martin and Pierce, 1913; Kunesh, 1929) and 

short-term records at a few stream-gaging stations (Martin and 

Pierce 1913; Fontaine, 1996). The USGS maintained gaging 

stations on Punaluu Stream at an altitude of 539 ft (station 

16299000) during 1915–1918, and at an altitude of 250 ft (station 16301000) during 1914–1918 (fig. 2). Data from these 

two gaging stations indicate perennial flow. During water 

years 1916–1917, complete data were available at both gaging 

stations 16299000 and 16301000. Flow-duration curves based 

on these data (fig. 7) indicate that median daily discharges in 

Punaluu Stream at altitudes of 539 and 250 ft, respectively, 

were 6.5 and 25 ft3/s. 

During 1915–1917, the USGS also maintained a gaging station on Waihoi Stream (station 16300000), which is a 

tributary to Punaluu Stream, although only weekly staff-gage 

readings were made after November 9, 1915 (Grover and Larrison, 1917). Minimum observed discharge in Waihoi Stream 

during the 1915–1917 period of record generally was between 

about 4 and 7 ft3/s. 

Since 1953, the USGS has maintained two continuous-record gaging stations in the Punaluu study area, one 

on Punaluu Stream at an altitude of about 210 ft (station 

16303000) and the other on Punaluu Ditch (station 16302000) 

about 900 ft from the intake on Punaluu Stream (fig. 2). 

Records indicate that flow in Punaluu Ditch for water year 

1954 may have been affected by unmeasured flow through 

a wasteway gate (Takasaki and others, 1969). Gaging station 16303000 on Punaluu Stream measures the discharge 

downstream from the diversion intake, whereas gaging station 

16302000 measures the discharge that is diverted from the 

stream. Thus, the combined discharge measured by gaging 

stations 16302000 and 16303000 represents the total flow 

in Punaluu Stream before water is diverted. The combined 

discharge from stations 16302000 and 16303000 is assigned 

to station 16303003. During water years 1955–2004, mean 

discharges measured at gaging stations 16303000 and 

16303003, respectively, were 16.4 and 24.9 ft3/s. Minimum 

daily mean discharges measured at gaging stations 16303000 

and 16303003, respectively, were 0.0 and 8.0 ft3/s, whereas 

maximum daily mean discharges, respectively, were 1,010 

and 1,020 ft3/s. During 1955–2004, daily mean discharge at 

gaging station 16303000 was zero on about 0.5 percent of the 

days. 

Streamflow variability is inversely related to the time 

scale used to characterize flow. That is, streamflow variability 

increases as the time scale used to characterize flow decreases. 

During water years 1955–2004, annual mean discharges in 

Punaluu Stream at station 16303003 ranged from 14.3 ft3/s 

in 1984 to 39.3 ft3/s in 1965 (fig. 8). Daily mean discharges 

at station 16303003 are more variable, ranging from 8.0 ft3/s 

(October 5, 1968) to 1,020 ft3/s (April 15, 1963) during the 

same 50-yr period. 

During water years 1955–2004, mean monthly discharge 

in Punaluu Stream (station 16303003) was highest during 

April (29.6 ft3/s) toward the end of the wet season and lowest 

during September (20.2 ft3/s) toward the end of the dry season 

(fig. 9). The pattern of mean monthly streamflow generally is 

consistent with the pattern of mean monthly rainfall measured 

by rain gages near the wetter, mountainous interior parts of the 

Punaluu area (fig. 4). 

A flow-duration curve for daily mean discharges is a 

cumulative-frequency curve that shows the percentage of days 

specified discharges were equaled or exceeded during a given 

time period (fig. 10). Although a flow-duration curve does 

not account for the actual sequence of flows being characterized, it does provide insight into the availability and variability 

of flows at a site. The median, or Q50, discharge during a 

specified period is the discharge that is equaled or exceeded 

50 percent of the time. Similarly, the Q95 discharge during a 

specified period is the discharge that is equaled or exceeded 

95 percent of the time and, therefore, represents a lower discharge than the Q50 discharge. The flow-duration curve (based 

on daily mean discharges) for station 16303003 for water 

years 1955–2004 indicates that the long-term median discharge was 20 ft3

/s and the Q95 discharge was 11 ft3/s (fig. 10). 

Base-Flow Characteristics

For this study, the base-flow component of daily streamflow in Punaluu Stream was estimated using a computerized 

base-flow separation model (Wahl and Wahl, 1995). Two 

parameters, f (turning-point test factor) and N (number of days 

in window), are assigned in the model. A value of 0.9 was 

 Surface-Water Resources 11
Figure 7. Flow-duration curves for Punaluu Stream (gaging stations 16299000 and 16301000) for water years 1916 

and 1917, Oahu, Hawaii.

0.01 0.05 0.2 1 2 5 10 25

PERCENTAGE OF TIME INDICATED DISCHARGE WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED 

DAILY MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

50

(median)

75 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.95 99.99

1,000

100

10

1

16301000

16299000

used for the turning-point test factor, f. The model divides the 

daily streamflow record into non-overlapping N-day periods 

and determines the minimum flow within each N-day window. 

If the minimum flow within a given N-day window is less than 

f (0.9) times the adjacent minimums, then the central window 

becomes a turning point on the base-flow hydrograph. The 

length of the N-day window for a stream is an indicator of the 

time over which direct runoff occurs following a storm. For 

Punaluu Stream, N was assigned a value of 4 days. 

For water years 1955–2004, the flow-duration curve for 

base flow in Punaluu Stream at station 16303003 is nearly the 

same as the flow-duration curve for total flow at flows less 

than the median (fig. 10). This indicates that flow in Punaluu 

Stream is dominated by ground-water discharge about 50 

percent of the time. At flows higher than the median, the total 

and base-flow curves show greater separation (fig. 10). During water years 1955–2004, mean base flow was 18.2 ft3

/s, 

compared to mean total flow of 24.9 ft3/s. Thus, during water 

years 1955–2004, estimated base flow was 73 percent of the 

total flow in Punaluu Stream, and the remaining 27 percent of 

total flow was direct runoff. During water years 1955–2004, 

median base flow was 17.7 ft3/s (fig. 10). The mean and 

median base-flow values correspond, respectively, to Q56 and 

Q63 values on the total streamflow flow-duration curve.

The steepness of a flow-duration curve provides an 

indication of flow variability. Steep flow-duration curves 

indicate high flow variability. The flow-duration curve for 

base flow at station 16303003 is flatter and indicates much 

less flow variability than the curve for direct runoff (difference 

between total streamflow and base flow) (fig. 10). Flow-duration curves that are relatively flat for flow-duration percentiles 

greater than 50 percent (flows less than median discharge) 

12 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 8. Annual mean discharge in Punaluu Stream (gaging stations 16303003 and 16303000) and Punaluu Ditch 

(gaging station 16302000), Oahu, Hawaii.

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

20

18

16

ANNUAL MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

PUNALUU STREAM AT GAGING STATION 16303000 

PUNALUU STREAM AT GAGING STATION 16303003 (COMBINED FLOW FROM STATIONS 16302000 AND 16303000) 

PUNALUU DITCH AT GAGING STATION 16302000 

 Surface-Water Resources 13
Figure 9. Mean monthly discharge in Punaluu Stream (gaging stations 16303003 and 16303000) and Punaluu Ditch 

(gaging station 16302000) during water years 1955­–2004, Oahu, Hawaii.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

0

5

10

15

MEAN MONTHLY DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC

PUNALUU STREAM AT GAGING STATION 16303000 

PUNALUU STREAM AT GAGING STATION 16303003 (COMBINED FLOW FROM STATIONS 16302000 AND 16303000) 

PUNALUU DITCH AT GAGING STATION 16302000 

14 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
indicate low variability for low-flow conditions. The ratio of 

Q95 to Q50 is an indicator of low-flow variability; a Q95-to-Q50

ratio that is close to 1 indicates low variability, which is indicative of a stream that receives steady ground-water discharge, 

whereas a ratio that is close to zero indicates high variability. 

During water years 1955–2004, the ratio of Q95 to Q50 for total 

streamflow at station 16303003 was 0.6, which is indicative of 

low variability. 

Peak-Flow Characteristics

Hawaiian streams are extremely flashy in nature because 

rainfall is commonly intense, drainage basins are small, basins 

and streams are steep, and channel storage is limited. A 

stream’s stage can rise several feet in less than an hour during 

periods of intense rainfall, and discharge can increase by over 

an order of magnitude (fig. 11). High flows or floods are commonly characterized by their magnitude and recurrence interval on the basis of the largest instantaneous peak discharge 

for each year of record (annual instantaneous peak flow). The 

recurrence interval is the expected (average) time between 

occurrences of annual instantaneous peak flows that exceed a 

given value. The recurrence interval, in years, is equal to the 

inverse of the exceedance probability for annual instantaneous 

peak flows. Thus, a flood with a 100-yr recurrence interval 

(100-yr flood) has an annual exceedance probability of 0.01 

(1 percent). Because a 1-percent chance exists for a 100-

yr flood in any given year, it is possible that more than one 

100-yr flood may occur during a given 100-yr period or even 

during a single year. On the basis of data from water years 

1954–2004, the estimated 100-yr flood for Punaluu Stream 

at gaging station 16303000 is about 6,640 ft3/s (fig. 12). The 

100-yr flood farther downstream is expected to be volumetrically larger because the drainage-basin area and total rainfall 

volume increase downstream. 

Figure 10. Flow-duration curves for Punaluu Stream total flow, base flow, and direct runoff (gaging station 

16303003), water years 1955–2004, Oahu, Hawaii. 

0.01 0.05 0.2 1 2 5 10 25

PERCENTAGE OF TIME INDICATED DISCHARGE WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED 

DAILY MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

50

(median)

75 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.95 99.99

1,000

100

10

24.9

18.2

6.69

1

0.1

0.01

Direct runoff 

Base flow 

Total flow (gaging station 16303003) 

mean streamflow

mean base flow

mean direct runoff

 Surface-Water Resources 15
Figure 11. Discharge in Punaluu Ditch (gaging station 16302000), Punaluu Stream (gaging station 16303000), and combined discharge from stations 

16302000 and 16303000 (gaging station 16303003), August 2004, Oahu, Hawaii.

August 2004 

1

10

100

2,0001,000

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

PUNALUU STREAM (GAGING STATION 16303003) PUNALUU STREAM (GAGING STATION 16303000) PUNALUU DITCH (GAGING STATION 16302000) 

2 1 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 14 13 12 11 10 8 7 6 5 4 3

Declining flow inDitch caused byintake being blocked by debris during a storm 

Ditch intake cleared 

Ditch intake cleared 

Gradual decline in Ditch flow following clearing of intake 

163030031630300016302000

16 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Interaction Between Ground Water and Surface 

Water

The rate and direction of water movement between 

streams and ground-water bodies depends on local geohydrologic conditions. Where the streambed is above the water 

table, the stream can lose water. Where the stream intersects 

the ground-water table, the stream can either gain or lose 

water, depending on whether the water level in the adjacent 

ground-water body is, respectively, greater than or less than 

the water level in the stream. Hydraulic properties of rocks 

near the stream affect the rate of flow between the stream and 

ground-water body. 

Rainfall, ground-water withdrawals, and ocean tides, are 

factors that affect water levels in streams and ground-water 

bodies and the interaction between surface water and ground 

water. Prolonged periods of rainfall lead to increased groundwater recharge over a region and a rise in ground-water levels. 

Rising ground-water levels may lead to increased groundwater discharge to streams or reduced surface-water discharge to the ground-water body. Irrigation return flow, like 

rainfall, may contribute to increased ground-water recharge 

and affect the interaction between surface water and ground 

water. Ground-water withdrawals from wells cause a decline 

in ground-water levels that may extend to nearby streams. 

Where the stream and ground-water body are hydraulically 

connected, ground-water withdrawals may reduce groundwater discharge to streams (mainly base flow) or induce flow 

Figure 12. Probability of peak discharge being equaled or exceeded during any given year at Punaluu Stream 

(gaging station 16303000), Oahu, Hawaii. Annual exceedance probabilities determined from data during water 

years 1954–2004.

ANNUAL EXCEEDANCE PROBABILITY, IN PERCENT

RECURRENCE INTERVAL, IN YEARS 

ANNUAL PEAK DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

100

1,000

10,000

99 98 95 90 75 50 25 10 5 2 1

1.01 1.02 1.05 1.11 1.33 2 4 10 20 50 100

 Surface-Water Resources 17
from the stream to the aquifer. The possible effects of groundwater withdrawal on flow in Punaluu Stream are discussed 

in a later section (“Effects of Ground-Water Withdrawal on 

Streamflow”) of this report. At low altitudes, where water levels in streams and ground-water bodies are affected by ocean 

tides, streams may either gain or lose water during the day, 

depending on the relative effects of the ocean tide on streams 

and ground-water levels.

The upper reaches of Punaluu Stream are within or 

near the area where volcanic dikes impound ground water 

to high levels. The upper reaches of Punaluu Stream are 

perennial because the stream intersects the water table of the 

dike-impounded ground-water body and gains water from 

that ground-water body. (A description of the ground-waterflow system in the Punaluu area is provided in the “GroundWater-Flow System” section of this report.) Punaluu Stream 

flows perennially downstream from where dikes have been 

mapped because (1) tributaries that may originate near the 

dike-impounded ground-water body contribute to flow, (2) the 

stream may gain water from local ground water in the alluvium, and (3) permeability of the streambed is low enough to 

prevent major losses, thereby allowing water to flow continuously to the coast. 

In general, flow in Punaluu Stream increases in a downstream direction, although localized decreases in flow are 

caused by diversions or infiltration to the underlying sediments. Discharge measurements (Kunesh, 1929; Takasaki and 

others, 1969) indicate that flow in Punaluu Stream increases 

between altitudes of about 650 ft and 210 ft (fig. 13). Flow in 

Punaluu Stream decreases near an altitude of 210 ft because 

water is diverted from the stream by the Punaluu Ditch at that 

altitude (fig. 13). Above an altitude of 210 ft, downstream 

increases in flow in Punaluu Stream either are from ground 

water that discharges directly to the main stream or from tributaries that may receive ground-water discharge. 

Gains and Losses Below an Altitude of 210 Feet

For this study, same-day discharge measurements (fig. 

14; tables 1–2) were made along selected reaches of Punaluu 

Stream to determine the magnitude of streamflow gains and 

losses. These same-day measurements form what is commonly called a seepage run and are described in detail in the 

following section “Seepage Runs and Additional Discharge 

Measurements.” Seepage-run measurements were made on 

days when flow generally was stable and direct runoff was 

considered to be negligible. Because of frequent rainfall 

within the drainage basin of Punaluu Stream, particularly near 

the mountainous interior areas, scheduling seepage-run measurements for periods of zero antecedent rainfall was not possible. Thus, the seepage-run measurements may be affected 

by unquantifiable, but likely small, amounts of direct runoff. 

On the basis of the seepage-run measurements, Punaluu 

Stream (1) generally gains water between altitudes of 210 and 

140 ft; (2) either gains or loses water, within about a 1-ft3/s 

range, between altitudes of 140 and 60 ft; (3) may lose a few 

tenths of a cubic foot per second between altitudes of 60 and 

40 ft; (4) generally loses water (as much as 0.5 ft3/s) between 

altitudes of 40 and 30 ft; (5) generally gains water (several 

tenths of a cubic foot per second) between altitudes of 30 

and 10 ft; and (6) generally gains water (as much as 1 ft3/s) 

between altitudes of 10 and 5 ft. The general gain of water 

in Punaluu Stream below an altitude of 30 ft is consistent 

with the head, as measured by water level, in the underlying 

ground-water body. (The hydraulic head at a point in an aquifer can be measured by the water level in a well, or piezometer, that is open to the aquifer only at that point.) Water-level 

measurements in wells in the area generally are between 5 and 

25 ft above mean sea level. Thus, it is plausible that ground 

water is discharging to Punaluu Stream below a stream-channel altitude of about 25 ft. Below an altitude of 25 ft, some of 

the flow increase in Punaluu Stream may be from irrigationreturn water and leakage from nearby aquaculture ponds that 

flow in the subsurface within the sedimentary deposits toward 

the stream. The variability of gains and losses (not associated 

with tributary inflows) within some stream reaches may reflect 

the transient nature of the interaction between the shallow 

ground water in the sedimentary deposits and flow in Punaluu 

Stream. 

Seepage Runs and Additional Discharge 

Measurements

Seepage-run measurements on different reaches of 

Punaluu Stream below an altitude of 210 ft were made on September 10, 2004; September 24, 2004; October 1, 2004; June 

9, 2005; and August 5, 2005. During the 72-hr periods prior 

to the seepage runs, recorded rainfall at rain-gaging station 

883.12 (Poamoho rain gage no. 1 near Wahiawa, Oahu) (fig. 2) 

varied from 0.19 to 2.07 in. During the 24-hr periods prior 

to the seepage runs, recorded rainfall at rain-gaging station 

883.12 varied from zero to 0.57 in. On the basis of recorded 

rainfall at rain-gaging station 883.12 (table 3), the seepage 

runs of September 24 and October 1, 2004 are the most likely 

to have been affected by direct runoff. Interpretation of the 

seepage run from October 1, 2004 is further confounded by 

the variable diversion of flow into Punaluu Ditch during the 

day. Thus, the measurements from October 1, 2004 are not 

used to interpret the distribution of flow in Punaluu Stream.

In general, flow in Punaluu Stream below an altitude of 

210 ft increases in a downstream direction, although flow in 

some reaches remains nearly constant or decreases slightly 

(fig. 15). Flow in Punaluu Stream increases because of inflow 

from tributaries, return flows from Punaluu Ditch, or discharge of ground water to the stream. The general increase of 

flow in a downstream direction also is indicated by discharge 

measurements taken during 1960–1962 (Takasaki and others, 

1969) (fig. 15), although hydrologic conditions on the days of 

those measurements are not entirely known. 

To better estimate the magnitude of gains from groundwater bodies and losses to infiltration in the main Punaluu 

18 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
 Discharge at 250 feet altitude, 

 Date in cubic feet per second 

10/03/1927–10/04/1927 23.1 

11/07/1927–11/08/1927 26.1 

12/28/1927 31.9 

01/30/1928 24.4 

02/27/1928 22.0 

03/28/1928 18.6 

04/21/1928 22.7 

06/14/1928 19.0 

02/05/1962–02/07/1962 13-14* 

*Discharge is at an altitude about 210 feet (near gaging station 16303000). Discharge

respectively was 14, 13, and 14 cubic feet per second on 02/05/1962, 02/06/1962, and

02/07/1962.

DISCHARGE, IN PERCENTAGE OF DISCHARGE AT 250-FEET ALTITUDE 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

400 300 200 100

ALTITUDE, IN FEET ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL 

700 600 500 0

Figure 13. Discharge at selected altitudes, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii. Data are from Kunesh (1929) and 

Takasaki and others (1969).

Table 3. Rainfall during the 24- and 72-hour periods prior to 8:00 a.m. on the days of seepage-run measurements, Punaluu 

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

Rainfall, in inches

09/10/2004 09/24/2004 10/01/2004 06/09/2005 08/04/2005

Rain-gaging station 883.12

24-hour antecedent period 0.38 0.57 0.38 0.00 0.00

72-hour antecedent period 0.75 1.69 2.07 0.57 0.19

Rain-gaging station 884.4

24-hour antecedent period 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0

72-hour antecedent period 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.1

 Surface-Water Resources 19
Figure 14. Sites of discharge measurements on Punaluu Stream and tributaries and Punaluu Ditch, Oahu, Hawaii, 2004 

and 2005.

d1

d2

d3

d4

d5

d6

d7

d8

d9

d10

d11

d12

d13

d14

Tunnel 3 

Tunnel 2 

Tunnel 1 

Tunnel 7 

Tunnel 6 

Tunnel 5 

Tunnel 4 

Tunnel 8 

Tunnel 9 

Tunnel 10 

Tunnel 11 

Tunnel 12 

i1

i2

i3

i4

i5

i6

i7

i8

i9

i10 i11

i12

s1

s2

s3

s4 s5 s6

s7

s8

s9

s10

EXPLANATION 

STREAM-MEASUREMENT SITE 

 AND DESIGNATION 

TRIBUTARY-MEASUREMENT SITE 

 AND DESIGNATION 

DITCH-MEASUREMENT SITE 

 AND DESIGNATION 

TEMPERATURE-MEASUREMENT 

 SITE 

s1

d1

i1

0 0.25 0.5 Miles

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey Digital 

Raster Graphics topographic maps, 1:24,000,

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 4, 

NAD83 datum.

157°54' 157°53'

21°34'

21°35'

20 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
 Surface-Water Resources 21

Figure 15. Streamflow variation with stream-channel altitude below 210 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, 

Hawaii. Stream discharge measurements may include upstream inflows from tributaries or ditch 

return flows.

09/24/2004

06/09/2005

10/01/2004

08/04/2005

09/10/2004

2004 and 2005 

1960 and 1962 

07/05/1960

02/07/1962

06/07/1960

0

5

10

15

20

25

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

0

5

10

15

20

25

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

250 200 150 100 50 0

STREAM-CHANNEL ALTITUDE, IN FEET 
22 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream

Stream channel, tributary inflows and ditch-return flows were 

subtracted from all measured streamflow values downstream 

from the inflows (fig. 16). Thus, for a discharge of 10 ft3/s at 

hypothetical upstream site A, a discharge of 11 ft3/s at hypothetical downstream site B, and a tributary inflow of 1 ft3

/s 

between sites A and B, the 1 ft3/s inflow was subtracted from 

the 11 ft3/s discharge at site B. This would result in discharges 

of 10 ft3/s at both sites A and B, which would indicate no net 

gain or loss of water in the main stream channel between the 

sites.

Results of seepage runs (and additional same-day 

discharge measurements made at multiple sites), after excluding tributary inflows and ditch-return flows between streammeasurement sites, indicate variable gains and losses in some 

reaches of Punaluu Stream below an altitude of 210 ft (fig. 

16). This variability may reflect real differences in gains and 

losses along a reach from day to day or the accuracy with 

which discharge measurements could be made.

Between stream-channel altitudes of 210 ft (gaging station 16303000) and 140 ft, Punaluu Stream commonly gains 

water. On the basis of seven discharge measurements at an 

altitude of 140 ft and the corresponding discharges from the 

gaging station at 210 ft (16303000) during the 3-hr periods 

(representative of concurrent flow conditions) prior to the 

start of the measurements, Punaluu Stream gained from 0.2 

to 1.5 ft3/s. (Measurements on November 2, 2004, March 3, 

2005, and May 25, 2005 were not considered in the analysis 

because of changing flow conditions at the gaging station.) 

The average difference in discharge between altitudes of 210 

and 140 ft is a gain of 0.8 ft3/s. Because possible tributary 

inflows between the sites were not measured, gains in the 

main stream channel may be slightly overestimated. However, 

tributary inflows between altitudes of 210 and 140 ft typically 

are small or zero during low-flow conditions. 

Between stream-channel altitudes of 140 and 100 ft, 

Punaluu Stream may gain or lose water, depending on prevailing local conditions. Flows in Punaluu Stream at altitudes of 

140 and 100 ft and two left-bank (viewed in a downstream 

direction) tributary inflows between these altitudes were 

measured on 7 different days in 2004 and 2005. However, 

on 2 days (October 1, 2004, and May 25, 2005), comparisons 

of flows along Punaluu Stream are questionable because of 

changing flow conditions in the stream, as indicated by data 

from gaging station (16303000). On November 2, 2004, 

discharge measurements indicate that Punaluu Stream gained 

1.5 ft3/s between altitudes of 140 and 100 ft, although the measurements were made during a recession period that may have 

been affected by interflow. Between altitudes of 140 and 100 

ft, Punaluu Stream lost 1.0 ft3/s on June 9, 2005, and gained 

3.2, 0.5, and 0.2 ft3/s, respectively, on September 24, 2004, 

March 22, 2005, and April 14, 2005. The 3.2 ft3/s gain on 

September 24, 2004, may reflect an overestimate of flow at an 

altitude of 100 ft because of possible measurement errors associated with using a vertical-axis current meter in that setting. 

Between stream-channel altitudes of 100 and 60 ft, 

Punaluu Stream may gain or lose water, depending on prevailing local conditions. Flows in Punaluu Stream at altitudes 

of 100 and 60 ft were measured during four seepage runs, 

although measurements on October 1, 2004 are not considered in this analysis. Punaluu Stream lost 1.9 ft3

/s on September 24, 2004, flow remained constant on June 9, 2005, 

and Punaluu Stream gained 0.4 ft3/s on August 4, 2005. The 

1.9 ft3/s loss on September 24, 2004 may reflect an overestimate of flow at an altitude of 100 ft because of possible 

measurement errors associated with using a vertical-axis current meter in that setting. Between altitudes of 140 and 60 ft, 

Punaluu Stream gained 1.3 ft3/s on September 24, 2004 and 

lost 1.0 ft3/s on June 9, 2005. 

Between stream-channel altitudes of 60 and 40 ft, 

Punaluu Stream may lose up to a few tenths of a cubic foot per 

second. On September 10, 2004, measured flows in Punaluu 

Stream at altitudes of 60 and 40 ft, respectively, were 17.5 

and 17.4 ft3/s. About 0.2 ft3/s discharge, possibly from nearby 

aquaculture ponds, entered the stream between altitudes of 60 

and 55 ft and, thus, Punaluu Stream lost about 0.3 ft3/s (= 17.4 

– 0.2 – 17.5) between altitudes of 60 and 40 ft. On August 4, 

2005, available discharge measurements indicate that Punaluu 

Stream lost at least 0.14 ft3/s between altitudes of 60 and 40 ft.

Between stream-channel altitudes of 40 and 30 ft, 

Punaluu Stream commonly loses water (as much as 0.5 ft3/s). 

Flows in Punaluu Stream at altitudes of 40 and 30 ft and 

ditch-return flows between these altitudes were measured on 

4 different days in 2004 and 2005. Return flow (typically 

between 1 and 6 ft3/s) from Punaluu Ditch enters Punaluu 

Stream from the left bank of the stream near an altitude of 

about 35 ft. Between altitudes of 40 and 30 ft, Punaluu Stream 

gained 0.2 ft3/s on September 10, 2004, and lost 0.5, 0.4, and 

0.02 ft3/s, respectively, on August 20, 2004, June 22, 2005, and 

August 4, 2005. 

Between stream-channel altitudes of 30 and 10 ft, 

Punaluu Stream gains a few to several tenths of a cubic foot 

per second. Flows in Punaluu Stream at altitudes of 30 and 

10 ft and inflows between these altitudes were measured during the seepage runs of September 10, 2004 and August 4, 

2005. Return flows from taro fields that receive water from 

Punaluu Ditch enter Punaluu Stream from the right bank of the 

stream near an altitude of about 15 ft, and potential tributary 

inflows may enter from either the left or right banks. Between 

altitudes of 30 and 10 ft, Punaluu Stream gained 0.7 and 

0.2 ft3/s, respectively, on September 10, 2004 and August 4, 

2005 (fig. 16).

Between altitudes of 10 and 5 ft, Punaluu Stream mainly 

gains water (as much as 1 ft3/s). Flows in Punaluu Stream at 

altitudes of 10 and 5 ft were measured concurrently on 4 days 

in 2005. Between altitudes of 10 and 5 ft, Punaluu Stream 

lost 0.6 ft3/s on June 22, 2005, and gained 0.9, 0.7, and 1.0 

ft3/s, respectively, on May 26, 2005, June 9, 2005, and August 

4, 2005. The loss measured on June 22, 2005 may reflect 

variations in ground-water levels and ground-water discharge 

to the stream caused by ocean tides during a period of large 

tidal variation, although data are not available to verify this 

possibility. 
Punaluu Ditch

The Punaluu Ditch system consists of an intake near an 

altitude of about 210 ft and 12 tunnels connected by sections 

of open channel (fig. 14). Most of the water in Punaluu Ditch 

is from the main intake on Punaluu Stream, although surface 

runoff also may enter the open-channel sections of the ditch 

system during periods of heavy rainfall. In addition, water 

may enter the ditch system during dry-weather conditions 

from at least two known locations: (1) from an opening in tunnel 2, and (2) between tunnels 4 and 5. 

Water diverted from a small tributary that passes over 

tunnel 2 is channeled directly into an opening in tunnel 2, 

about 50 ft downstream from the tunnel entrance. The volume 

of water that enters the ditch system at this site is dependent 

on the flow in the tributary and the condition of the tunnel 2 

intake screen, which may become blocked by debris. When 

the intake screen is effectively blocked by debris, water entering the ditch system from the tunnel 2 intake may be reduced 

to less than 0.01 ft3/s. When the tunnel 2 intake screen is clear 

of debris, inflow to the ditch system at this site probably can 

exceed 1 ft3/s, although the highest of three discharge measurements made during 2005 at the intake was 0.76 ft3

/s.

The left wall (viewed in a downstream direction) of the 

ditch between tunnels 4 and 5 has an opening (about 6 in. 

wide) that can divert water from a small tributary that runs 

along the left wall of the ditch. Inflow at this site probably 

does not exceed a few tenths of a cubic foot per second, and 

may be considerably less if the opening becomes blocked by 

debris. 

Water also may enter the ditch system from other 

engineered intakes, including a side tunnel that was observed 

within tunnel 3, about 10 ft from the tunnel 3 exit. The tunnels were not explored as part of this study because of the 

danger associated with potential tunnel collapse. Water also 

may enter the ditch system from seepage in the tunnels or the 

open-channel sections. 

Water may be released from the ditch system through 

a series of removable gates near the tunnel portals and also 

through diversion pipes. A pipe intake that has been blocked 

originates near the entrance of tunnel 4, and an unused, broken pipeline originates near the exit of tunnel 4. A pipeline 

Figure 16. Streamflow variation (excluding measured tributary inflows and ditch return flows downstream 

from an altitude of 210 ft) with stream-channel altitude, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii. Lines are dashed 

for cases in which tributary inflows between stream sites may not have been completely measured.

06/09/2005

08/04/2005

02/07/1962

09/24/2004

09/10/2004

07/05/1960

06/07/1960

0

5

10

15

20

25

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

250 200 150 100 50 0

STREAM-CHANNEL ALTITUDE, IN FEET 

 Surface-Water Resources 23
originating between tunnels 5 and 6 serves a property near an 

altitude of about 90 ft. Two pipelines, one originating between 

tunnels 7 and 8 and a second between tunnels 9 and 10, supply water to aquaculture ponds above an altitude of 40 ft. A 

16-in. pipeline originating between tunnels 9 and 10 provides 

water to users on Kamehameha Schools property lower in the 

valley, mainly south of Punaluu Stream. A pipeline originating downstream from tunnel 12 serves several users north of 

Punaluu Stream. Unused water at the end of the system enters 

a tributary and returns to Punaluu Stream about 1,300 ft from 

the coast. 

Punaluu Ditch Flow Characteristics

Mean discharge in Punaluu Ditch measured at gaging 

station 16302000 between tunnels 1 and 2 during water years 

1955–2004 was 8.43 ft3/s, which represents about 34 percent 

of the mean discharge available in Punaluu Stream measured 

by gaging station 16303003. During 1955–2004, zero flow 

in Punaluu Ditch occurred on about 3 percent of the days and 

daily mean discharge exceeded 20 ft3/s on about 2 percent of 

the days. During the recent period 1995–2004, mean discharge in Punaluu Ditch was 10.8 ft3

/s, representing about 

49 percent of the mean discharge available in Punaluu Stream 

measured by gaging station 16303003 during the period 

(22.0 ft3/s).

The median discharge in Punaluu Ditch during 1995–

2004 was 11 ft3/s, whereas the Q95 discharge was 5.5 ft3/s 

(fig. 17). The ratio of the Q95-to-Q50 discharges in Punaluu 

Ditch is 0.5, reflecting fairly low variability in flow. During 1995–2004, daily mean discharge in the Ditch was less 

than 2 ft3/s about 0.3 percent of the time. Flow in the Ditch 

varies partly in response to the water level in the stream at the 

intake. However, flow in the Ditch also is affected by conditions at the intake, which consists of a vertical grate with 13 

bars separated by 1.9-inch open gaps. Leaves, small branches, 

and other debris carried by the stream commonly are trapped 

by and partially block the vertical grate, which reduces flow 

into the ditch system (fig. 18). The intake grate must be 

cleaned manually on a regular basis to maintain flow in the 

ditch system. After the intake grate is cleared of debris, flow 

in the Punaluu Ditch, as measured at gaging station 16302000, 

initially increases, but later decreases as the intake becomes 

partially blocked again (fig. 11). During periods of little or 

no rainfall, debris on the intake may cause flow in the Ditch 

to decrease at the rate of up to a few cubic feet per second per 

day. During periods of heavy rainfall, streamflow rises rapidly 

and flow in the ditch also may increase initially. However, 

because the amount of debris in the stream increases during 

periods of heavy rainfall, the intake grate for the Ditch traps 

a large amount of debris in a short period of time, and discharge in the Ditch may be reduced to 2 ft3

/s or less in an hour 

(fig. 11). 

Ditch Discharge Measurements

Same-day discharge measurements were made in Punaluu 

Ditch to determine the general distribution of flow along the 

length of the ditch between tunnels 1 and 11 (fig. 14). Flow in 

the Ditch varies during the day in response to debris collecting 

at the main intake, controlled releases of water from the ditch 

system to water users in the valley, and changing conditions 

in Punaluu Stream. Thus, same-day discharge measurements 

may not always provide an accurate indication of the magnitude of increases and decreases of water along the ditch 

system because of variability of flow during the period of the 

measurements. For example, clearing the intake of trapped 

debris causes flow in the ditch system to increase near tunnel 

2 within 15 minutes, but the increase in flow near tunnel 10 

occurs more than 1 hour later. Nevertheless, the discharge 

measurements provide a general indication of flow conditions 

in the ditch on the days of the measurements. 

In addition to the discharge obtained from the existing 

gaging station (16302000) between tunnels 1 and 2, discharge 

in the ditch system was measured at selected sites on 6 separate days in 2004 and 2005. Although measurements sometimes were made between tunnels 2 and 5, these measurements 

generally are considered of poor quality (possibly less than 

8 percent accuracy) because of root growth in the ditch system 

at the time of the measurements or bends in the channel that 

affected the velocity distribution at the few available measuring sections. Thus, discharge measurements made between 

tunnels 2 and 5 were not used to characterize the distribution 

of flow in the ditch system, although the measured values are 

available (tables 1 and 2). 

Between the gaging station (16302000) and the exit 

of tunnel 6, flow in Punaluu Ditch may either increase or 

decrease, depending on the magnitudes of inflows to the ditch 

system and outflows from release gates, overflowing sections, 

or diversions. Downstream from tunnel 6, flow in Punaluu 

Ditch generally decreases because of diversions, releases of 

water, or overflowing sections. Between the downstream 

ends of tunnels 6 and 9, discharge in Punaluu Ditch decreased 

by 1.17, 1.30, and 0.42 ft3/s, respectively, on June 23, 2004, 

February 15, 2005, and March 15, 2005. Between tunnels 9 

and 11, discharge in Punaluu Ditch decreased by 6.86, 5.51, 

and 6.00 ft3/s, respectively, on February 8, 2005, February 15, 

2005, and March 15, 2005. The large decrease in flow between 

tunnels 9 and 11 is caused by controlled diversion of water 

from the ditch system by water users in the valley and by overflowing water at release gates. Overflowing water between 

tunnels 9 and 11 returns to Punaluu Stream near an altitude 

of about 35 ft. On the basis of discharge measurements in the 

ditch system, the amount of water diverted between tunnels 6 

and 10 for uses in the valley is estimated to range from about 

2 to 4 ft3/s. Water flowing into tunnel 11 was measured on 

February 8, 2005, February 15, 2005, and March 15, 2005, 

and averaged 1.31 ft3/s, representing less than 15 percent of 

the discharge measured at gaging station 16302000 during 

the periods of the measurements. During the periods when 

24 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
discharge measurements were made in the ditch system, tunnel 

11 was partly obstructed by debris associated with a collapse 

within the tunnel. 

 Stream Fauna

Both native and non-native aquatic species can be found 

in Punaluu Stream. The isolation of the Hawaiian Islands 

resulted in the evolution of a unique native stream community. Recent human activities have resulted in the introduction 

of a number of non-native species into Punaluu Stream, and 

these non-native species may compete with native species 

for available resources. Native stream fauna utilize a variety of macro- and micro-habitats within stream ecosystems. 

The availability of suitable habitat for native fish, snails, and 

shrimp species found in Punaluu Stream is examined in a later 

section (“Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat”) of 

this report. 

In Hawaii, native invertebrate (molluscs and crustaceans) 

species include the endemic (found only in Hawaii) freshwater 

snail, Neritina granosa Sowerby 1825, commonly referred to 

as hihiwai; the endemic brackish-water snail, Neritina vespertinus (Sowerby 1849), referred to as hapawai; the endemic 

prawn Macrobrachium grandimanus (Randall 1840), referred 

to as opae oehaa; and the endemic mountain shrimp, Atyoida

bisulcata (Randall 1840), referred to as opae kalaole or mountain opae. Native vertebrate species include fish, collectively 

referred to as oopu. The five oopu include an endemic eleotrid 

(family: Eleotridae) Eleotris sandwicensis (Vaillant and Sauvage 1875), referred to as oopu akupa, and fishes in the family 

Gobiidae, collectively referred to as gobies, including the 

endemic gobies Lentipes concolor (Gill 1860), known as oopu 

Figure 17. Flow-duration curves for Punaluu Ditch (gaging station 16302000), Punaluu Stream (gaging station 

16303000), and combined discharge from stations 16302000 and 16303000 (gaging station 16303003), water years 

1995–2004, Oahu, Hawaii.

22.0

11.2

10.8

0.01 0.05 0.2 1 2 5 10 25

DAILY MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

50

(median)

75 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.95 99.99

1,000

100

10

1

0.1

0.01

Punaluu Ditch 

(16302000)

Punaluu Stream 

(16303000)

Punaluu Stream (16303003) 

combined flow from 16302000 and 16303000 

mean discharge (16303003) 

mean discharge (16303000) 

mean discharge (16302000) 

PERCENTAGE OF TIME INDICATED DISCHARGE WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED 

 Stream Fauna 25
Figure 18. Photographs of the Punaluu Ditch intake near a stream altitude of about 210 feet on 

August 5, 2005, (A) prior to clearing the intake grate of debris and (B) after clearing the intake 

grate of debris. (Photographs by Delwyn S. Oki, U.S. Geological Survey.)

(A)

(B)

26 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
alamoo (or hiukole); Sicyopterus stimpsoni (Gill 1860) known 

as oopu nopili; Stenogobius hawaiiensis, the teardrop goby 

also known as oopu naniha (Watson 1991); and the indigenous 

(native to Hawaii and elsewhere) goby Awaous guamensis 

(Valenciennes 1837), also known as oopu nakea. The juveniles 

of an endemic near-shore marine fish species, Kuhlia xenura

(Jordan and Gilbert, 1882), also known as the Hawaiian flagtail or aholehole, are commonly found in lower stream reaches 

and estuaries.

Life History Characteristics of Native Species

A number of life-history characteristics factor into the 

habitat selection of native stream fauna in Hawaii. First, 

having evolved from marine ancestors, the species of interest 

for this study are all amphidromous, retaining a marine larval 

stage (McDowall, 1993; McDowall, 2003). Amphidromy is 

a type of diadromy that requires fauna to migrate between the 

freshwater stream and the ocean. Females deposit their eggs 

in streams, the eggs hatch and the larvae are carried downstream to the ocean where they live as zooplankton until they 

develop into post-larvae. The post-larvae then make their way 

back to freshwater streams where they eventually mature into 

adults and live the remainder of their lives (Ego, 1956; Tomihama, 1972; Ford and Kinzie, 1982; Kinzie and Ford, 1982; 

Kinzie, 1988; McDowall, 1988). The amphidromous life 

cycle requires unimpeded access to and from the ocean.

Another relevant life-history characteristic is the 

upstream migratory ability of the different species. Four of 

the five oopu, Stenogobius hawaiiensis, Awaous guamensis, 

Sicyopterus stimpsoni, and Lentipes concolor are true gobies 

and have fused pelvic fins. The fused pelvic fin forms a 

suction disk that enables these fishes to attach themselves to 

stream substrate and climb cascades and waterfalls (Kinzie 

and Ford, 1982). Differences in climbing abilities have 

allowed the native fish species to migrate upstream and inhabit 

stream reaches according to their relative abilities to cling 

to the stream substrate. Eleotris sandwicensis is not a true 

goby and lacks the fused pelvic fin and, therefore, is restricted 

to the lowest stream reaches, stream mouths, and estuaries. S. hawaiiensis has the weakest climbing ability and also 

is confined to the lower stream reaches, stream mouths, and 

estuaries. A. guamensis, the largest of the fish species, is a 

moderate climber and commonly is found in lower and middle 

stream reaches. S. stimpsoni often inhabits the middle stream 

reaches, whereas L. concolor, the best climber, typically is 

found in middle and upper stream reaches (Nishimoto and 

Fitzsimons, 1986; Fitzsimons and Nishimoto, 1990a; Kinzie, 

1990). The mountain opae Atyoida bisulcata have exceptional climbing ability and most often inhabit the upper stream 

reaches (Couret, 1976; Kinzie, 1990). Neritina granosa commonly are found in lower stream reaches but can be found in 

reaches up until the first large waterfall (Ford, 1979; Kinzie, 

1990). Neritina vespertinus and Macrobrachium grandimanus

are restricted to the lower stream reaches and estuaries. Segregation along elevation and longitudinal gradients reduces the 

amount of competition among species for resources.

Another factor in habitat selection involves territoriality. 

Mature Lentipes concolor males have been observed to aggressively defend territories against male conspecifics (males of 

the same species), whereas females tend to move freely about 

the stream (Lau, 1973; Maciolek, 1977; Nishimoto and Fitzsimons, 1986; Fitzsimons and Nishimoto, 1990b). Similarly, 

male Sicyopterus stimpsoni aggressively defend territories, 

with larger fish defending larger territories (Fitzsimons and 

Nishimoto, 1990a; Fitzsimons and others, 1993). The normally docile Awaous guamensis exhibits aggressive territoriality toward conspecifics as well as other species during the fall 

spawning season (Fitzsimons and Nishimoto, 1990a). 

Dietary preferences of the stream fauna also can influence habitat selection. The heterogeneous nature of streams 

may make it possible for species to occupy the same stream 

macrohabitats because microhabitats commonly have different dietary resources. Morphological adaptations of the fishes 

may have functionally served to reduce interspecific competition for resources and allow the fish species to coexist (Kido, 

1996a; Kido, 1997a; Kido, 1997b). Heterogeneous algal and 

invertebrate assemblages in Hawaiian streams provide a diversity of dietary resources for fish species of various age classes 

to utilize.

Native Species in Punaluu Stream

In a statewide inventory of streams conducted in Hawaii 

in the 1970s (Timbol and Maciolek, 1978) Punaluu Stream 

was rated as “Limited Consumptive,” defined as having 

moderate to high-quality water, with controlled use to prevent 

excessive modification. Punaluu Stream was listed as having 

eight diversions and six road crossings. A survey of stream 

fauna was not conducted at the time.

The Hawaii Stream Assessment (HSA), a cooperative project that attempted to identify streams and rivers in 

Hawaii with significant natural and cultural qualities, rated 

Punaluu Stream as having “Outstanding” aquatic resources 

and “Excellent” native diversity based on the presence of 

native species (Hawaii Cooperative Park Service Unit, 1990). 

The HSA classified 11 native stream species into two groups. 

Native Group 1 (NG1) consisted of “indicator species” 

considered representative of potentially high-quality stream 

ecosystems. Native Group 2 (NG2) consisted of native stream 

species considered more common and typical of a healthy 

native stream ecosystem. The HSA surveys of Punaluu Stream 

included three NG1 species: Neritina granosa, Sicyopterus 

stimpsoni, and Awaous guamensis, and five NG2 species: Eleotris sandwicensis, Atyoida bisulcata, Macrobrachium grandimanus, Stenogobius hawaiiensis, and Kuhlia xenura (revised 

species name from sandvicensis) (table 4). 

As part of the USGS National Water Quality Assessment 

program (NAWQA), habitat, fish, and invertebrate data were 

collected at two sites on Punaluu Stream near gaging station 

16303000 in 1999 (Brasher and others, 2004; U.S. Geologi-

 Stream Fauna 27
cal Survey, 2005). The lower site (PUNB) was located at an 

altitude of about 200 ft, immediately downstream from the 

diversion intake for Punaluu Ditch near an altitude of 210 ft. 

The upper site (PUNA) was located immediately upstream 

from the diversion intake. Atyoida bisulcata and Awaous

guamensis were observed upstream from the diversion, 

whereas A. guamensis was the only native species observed at 

the lower site (table 4). Larvae of four native species, Eleotris 

sandwicensis, Stenogobius hawaiiensis, A. guamensis, and

Macrobrachium grandimanus were identified in larval-drift 

samples collected near the coast at the highway bridge in 1999 

and 2000 as part of the NAWQA program (Luton and others, 

2005) (table 4). 

Data from Hawaii’s Division of Aquatic Resources 

(DAR) Freshwater Database recorded observations of Neritina

granosa, Atyoida bisulcata, Macrobrachium grandimanus, 

Eleotris sandwicensis, Stenogobius hawaiiensis, Awaous

guamensis, Lentipes concolor, and Kuhlia xenura in Punaluu 

Stream during point-quadrat count surveys conducted in 2002 

and 2003 (table 4) (State of Hawaii, 2004). 

As part of this study, abundances of species were determined using snorkel surveys at selected reaches on Punaluu 

Stream during 2004 (fig. 19). Snorkelers entered the stream 

below the downstream end of the study reach and slowly 

moved upstream and recorded all of the observed fish and 

shrimp species and their abundances for the entire stream 

reach (table 5). The abundances of Neritina granosa (hihiwai) 

were determined by sight and by overturning and inspecting selected rocks while snorkeling and, therefore, observed 

counts may underestimate actual abundances. Additional 

snorkel surveys were conducted in 2004 and 2005 at various locations along the stream to an altitude of about 400 ft 

to provide supplemental information on the distributions of 

aquatic species (fig. 19), although species abundances were 

not recorded during these additional surveys. Survey results 

indicate that Awaous guamensis were found upstream from 

the Punaluu Ditch diversion intake near an altitude of 210 ft, 

whereas Eleotris sandwicensis and Stenogobius hawaiiensis

were not found above an altitude of 50 ft. 

The HSA reported that Awaous guamensis were very 

abundant in Punaluu Stream in 1989. However, during the 

NAWQA electrofishing survey A. guamensis were not very 

abundant. In the 1999 NAWQA survey, only four A. guamensis

were observed downstream from the Punaluu Ditch diversion 

intake and only six were observed upstream from the diversion intake. The number of A. guamensis appears to have 

increased since the 1999 NAWQA survey. In the 2004 snorkel 

surveys, 17 A. guamensis were observed downstream from 

the diversion intake and 33 were observed upstream from the 

intake (table 5). More than half of the observed A. guamensis

were 3 in. long (total length) or smaller. This suggests that 

recruitment of A. guamensis to an altitude of 200 ft in Punaluu 

Stream has been more successful since the time of NAWQA 

surveys during 1999. 

The DAR Freshwater Database had one record from a 

2002 survey for Lentipes concolor in Punaluu Stream at an 

altitude of 235 ft, upstream from the diversion intake. L. concolor was not observed during the NAWQA surveys or during 

the current USGS study. Timbol and others (1980) considered 

L. concolor to be “functionally extinct” on Oahu because 

it had not been observed in Oahu streams during a number 

of surveys dating as far back as the 1930s. Although later 

surveys recorded sightings of L. concolor in Oahu streams, 

it is still rarely observed and is considerably less abundant 

than in streams on the other main Hawaiian islands (Higashi 

and Yamamoto, 1993; Brasher, 2003). The HSA reported 

that Sicyopterus stimpsoni was present in Punaluu Stream in 

1989. However, S. stimpsoni was not observed in the 1999 

NAWQA surveys, the 2002–2003 DAR surveys, or the surveys from this study. Timbol and others (1980) reported that 

S. stimpsoni was rarely found on Oahu. Kinzie (1990) also 

noted that S. stimpsoni had become rare on Oahu, with only a 

few observations recorded from the few remaining unaltered 

Oahu streams. 

Non-Native Species

Over the years, many non-native species have been introduced into Hawaiian streams. More than 50 aquatic animal 

species, excluding insects, have become established in Hawaii 

(Devick, 1991). The list of non-native species observed in 

Punaluu Stream include: aquatic snails such as Melanoides 

tuberculata (Müller 1774), and Tarebia granifera (Lamarck 

1822); the Tahitian prawn, Macrobrachium lar (Fabricius 

1798); the Louisiana crayfish, Procambarus clarkii (Girard 

1852); fish from the family Poeciliidae including the western mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard 1853), 

guppies, Poecilia reticulata Peters 1859, and green swordtails, 

Xiphophorus helleri Heckel 1848; the convict cichlid, Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum (Günther 1867); the banded jewel cichlid, Hemichromis elongatus (Guichenot 1858); a number of 

tilapia species including Oreochromis cf. mossambicus (Peters 

1852); the Chinese catfish, Clarius fuscus (Lacepède 1803); 

and carp (table 6). Some of these species, such as G. affinis, 

were intentionally released for mosquito control, whereas others, such as carp species and H. elongatus, may be accidental 

escapees from aquaculture or have been released from home 

aquaria, respectively, (Van Dine, 1907; Devick, 1991; Yamamoto and Tagawa, 2000).

The HSA classified non-native species into two groups 

based on their potential to threaten native species (Hawaii 

Cooperative Park Service Unit, 1990). Non-native species 

group 1 (IG1) included non-native species that threaten native 

species by predation or competition. Non-native species group 

2 (IG2) included non-native species that are not harmful to 

native species. HSA surveys of Punaluu Stream during the 

1980s included records of IG1 species: Xiphophorus helleri, 

Clarius fuscus, Poecilia spp., and Tilapia spp., and IG2 species: Melanoides tuberculata and Macrobrachium lar (table 6). 

28 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 4. Native aquatic species observed in Punaluu Stream, 1969–2004, Oahu, Hawaii.

 [HSA; Hawaii Stream Assessment (Hawaii Cooperative Park Service Unit, 1990); NAWQA, National Water Quality Assessment program (Brasher and others, 2004; U.S. Geological Survey, 2005); DAR, Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, Division of Aquatic Resources (State of Hawaii, 2004); End, endemic; Ind, indigenous; p, present; c, common; a, abundant; va, very abundant; — , no data] 

Year of Observation

Class Family Species Hawaiian name Status HSA NAWQA1 NAWQA larval drift DAR This study

Gastropoda Neritidae Neritina vespertinus Hapawai End — — — — 2004Gastropoda Neritidae Neritina granosa Hihiwai End 1969 (p) — — 2002 2004Crustacea Atyidae Atyoida bisulcata Opae kalaole End 1984 (va) 1999 — 2002, 2003 2004Crustacea Palaemonidae Macrobrachium grandimanus Opae oehaa Ind 1984 (va) — 1999, 2000 2002 2004Osteichthyes Eleotridae Eleotris sandwicensis Oopu akupa End 1984 (c) — 1999, 2000 2002 2004Osteichthyes Gobiidae Stenogobius hawaiiensis Oopu naniha End 1989 (a) — 1999, 2000 2002 2004Osteichthyes Gobiidae Awaous guamensis Oopu nakea Ind 1989 (va) 1999 1999, 2000 2002, 2003 2004Osteichthyes Gobiidae Sicyopterus stimpsoni Oopu nopili End 1989 (p) — — — —Osteichthyes Gobiidae Lentipes concolor Oopu alamoo End — — — 2002 —Osteichthyes Kuhliidae Kuhlia xenura2 Aholehole End 1989 (a) — — 2002 2004

1NAWQA study sites limited to immediately upstream and downstream from the intake for Punaluu Ditch. 2Revised name for species previously identified as K. sandvicensis.

 Stream Fauna 29
Figure 19. Native species observed in Punaluu Stream during 2004 and 2005, Oahu, Hawaii.

157°54' 157°53'

21°33'

21°34'

21°35'

0 1,000 2,000 Feet

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey Digital 

Raster Graphics topographic maps, 1:24,000,

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 4, 

NAD83 datum.

SPECIES NOT OBSERVED 

SPECIES ABUNDANCE RECORDED 

SPECIES ABUNDANCE NOT RECORDED 

1ABUNDANCE NOT RECORDED 

EXPLANATION 

NATIVE STREAM FAUNA 

Neritina vespertinus1

 Kuhlia xenura 

 Macrobrachium grandimanus 

 Eleotris sandwicensis 

 Awaous guamensis 

 Atyoida bisulcata 

 Neritina granosa 

Stenogobius hawaiiensis 

30 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 5. The distributions and abundances of native aquatic species observed in Punaluu Stream in 2004.

[--, not observed; ft, feet]

Number observed at indicated stream altitude

Class Family Species Status 10 ft1 30 ft2 40 ft2 50 ft2 200 ft3 220 ft3

Gastropoda Neritidae Neritina granosa Endemic -- -- 7 -- 4 3Crustacea Atyidae Atyoida bisulcata Endemic -- -- 14 -- -- 12Crustacea Palaemonidae Macrobrachium grandimanus Indigenous -- -- 1 -- -- --Osteichthyes Eleotridae Eleotris sandwicensis Endemic 15 -- -- 15 -- --Osteichthyes Gobiidae Awaous guamensis Indigenous -- -- 1 -- 17 33Osteichthyes Gobiidae Stenogobius hawaiiensis Endemic -- 30 1 26 -- --Osteichthyes Kuhliidae Kuhlia xenura Endemic 15 15 8 4 -- --

1Surveyed 8/10/2004. 2Surveyed 9/3/2004.3Surveyed 9/24/2004.4Single individual caught and released on 05/17/2004.5Single individual caught and released on 06/22/2004.

 Stream Fauna 31
Table 6. Non-native aquatic species observed in Punaluu Stream from surveys during 1984 to 2004.

 [HSA; Hawaii Stream Assessment (Hawaii Cooperative Park Service Unit, 1990); NAWQA, National Water Quality Assessment program (Brasher and others, 2004; U.S. Geological Survey, 2005); DAR, Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, Division of Aquatic Resources (State of Hawaii, 2004); sp., species place holder for determinations to generic level only; cf., refers to a species that closely matches the species following the designation but differs morphologically in some minor way to be certain; u, few/unknown; p, present; va, very abundant; —, no data]

Year of observation

Class Family Species Common name HSA NAWQA1 DAR This study

Gastropoda Thiaridae Melanoides tuberculata Red rimmed melania 1984 (u)

— 2002 2004

Gastropoda Thiaridae Tarebia granifera Quilted melania

—

— 2002 2004

Crustacea Cambaridae Procambarus clarkii Louisiana crayfish

—

—

— 2004

Crustacea Palaemonidae Macrobrachium lar Tahitian prawn 1984 (va) 1999 2002, 2003 2004Osteichthyes Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis Western mosquitofish

—

— 2002 2004

Osteichthyes Poeciliidae Poecilia reticulata Guppy

—

— 2002 2004

Osteichthyes Poeciliidae Xiphophorus helleri Green swordtail 1984 (u)

— 2002 2004

Osteichthyes Poeciliidae Poecilia sp. Molly 1989 (p)

— 2002 2004

Osteichthyes Cyprinidae Undetermined Carp

—

—

— 2004

Osteichthyes Cichlidae Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum Convict cichlid

—

— 2002

—

Osteichthyes Cichlidae Hemichromis elongatus Banded jewel cichlid

—

— 20022 2004

Osteichthyes Cichlidae Tilapia sp. Tilapia 1989 (p)

— 2002 2004

Osteichthyes Cichlidae Oreochromis cf. mossambicus Tilapia

—

—

— 2004

Osteichthyes Clariidae Clarius fuscus Chinese catfish 1984 (u)

—

— 2004

1NAWQA study sites limited to immediately upstream and downstream from the intake for Punaluu Ditch. 2Possibly 

H. fasciatus.

32 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
The only non-native species observed immediately upstream 

and downstream from the Punaluu Ditch diversion intake 

during the 1999 NAWQA surveys was M. lar. The DAR 

Freshwater Database listed 10 non-native species observed in 

Punaluu Stream in 2002 and 2003 (table 6).

Except for Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum, all of the nonnative species listed in table 6 were observed in Punaluu 

Stream during this study in 2004 and 2005 (fig. 20). Hemichromis elongatus, which had not been observed until the 

2002 DAR survey, has now been observed immediately 

downstream from the Punaluu Ditch diversion intake (table 7). 

Poeciliids were not observed immediately upstream or downstream from the diversion intake during the extensive 1999 

NAWQA surveys, but now have been observed well upstream 

from the intake (table 7). 

Potential Factors Affecting Abundance of Native 

Species

The availability of physical habitat and water temperature may affect the abundance of native species in Punaluu 

Stream. The relation between streamflow and physical habitat 

for selected native species and measured stream temperatures 

along Punaluu Stream are described in later sections of this 

report. In addition to physical habitat and temperature, other 

factors that may affect the abundance of native species in 

Punaluu Stream include the presence of non-native species and 

land-use activities in areas adjacent to the stream.

Non-Native Species

Non-native species may have an effect on the abundances 

of native stream species in Punaluu Stream. Predaceous fishes 

such as Hemichromis elongatus and Clarius fuscus opportunistically prey upon stream fauna that likely include native 

species. The small-sized native juvenile recruits are especially 

vulnerable to predation during their upstream migration. Nonnative fish species also may prey upon eggs and tiny larvae 

of native amphidromous species as they drift downstream 

(Timbol and others, 1980). The population of H. elongatus

is relatively new to Punaluu Stream and has apparently been 

spreading upstream where it had not been observed in the 

1999 NAWQA surveys. The long-term effect of this predator 

on the native community is unknown.

To investigate whether non-native fish were preying 

upon native fauna, the stomach contents of eight Hemichromis 

elongatus, one Clarius fuscus, and three tilapia were examined under a microscope. H. elongatus and C. fuscus are both 

highly predacious, feeding on small fishes, crustaceans, and 

insects (Yamamoto and Tagawa, 2000). The H. elongatus

ranged from 5 to 7 in. in total length and from 30 to 120 grams 

in weight. The majority of the H. elongatus had faunal remains 

in their stomachs, including remnants of isopods, amphipods, 

shrimp, chironomids (insect larvae), small fish, and terrestrial 

arthropods such as grasshoppers as well. The C. fuscus (12 in. 

total length, 234 grams in weight) had remains of a prawn 

(most probably Macrobrachium lar) in its stomach. Although 

no remains of native species definitively could be identified in 

the stomach contents, the presence of faunal remains indicates that predation by the non-native fish species C. fuscus

and H. elongatus has the potential to affect native fish and 

shrimp populations in Punaluu Stream. The tilapia were 

approximately 1 ft long (total length) and weighed between 

400 to more than 600 grams. None of the three tilapia had any 

discernable faunal remains in their stomachs. Their diet was 

comprised of vegetative matter. 

Additionally, three of the eight H. elongatus were 

infected with the intestinal parasite Camallanus cotti, a nematode of the family Camallanidae. C. cotti is a roundworm 

that was accidentally introduced to Hawaii with the introduction of infected poeciliid fishes such as Gambusia affinis

(Font, 1997a). This widespread parasite has been found in the 

intestines of native fish in streams that also have introduced 

poeciliids (Font, 1997b). This parasite poses a threat to native 

Hawaiian stream fishes (Font, 1997b) and can detrimentally 

affect the health of the infected fishes causing reduced fecundity, reduced ability to avoid predators, and fatal secondary 

infections (Post, 1987).

Non-native species may directly or indirectly affect the 

native species by competing for resources (Vitousek and others, 1987). A number of resilient, non-native species such 

as the poeciliid fishes and tilapia are prolific breeders with 

extended breeding seasons and can rapidly increase in population, putting a strain on available resources. These non-native 

species can compete with native species for space or food 

resources. Non-native species also can directly alter habitat 

for native species. For example, the crayfish Procambarus 

clarkii is known to burrow into stream banks causing increased 

erosion and sedimentation that can affect the native fishes.

Agricultural Activities

Agricultural land-use has been associated with increases 

in sediments, nutrients, and contaminants in streams (Pajak 

and others, 1994; Cuffney and others, 1997; Allan, 2004). 

These changes in water quality can directly or indirectly affect 

stream fauna. Increases in deposited sediment can reduce or 

eliminate suitable habitats utilized by native species (Ryan, 

1991; Wood and Armitage, 1997). The reproductive success 

of some fish species may be impeded by increased suspended 

or deposited sediments (Wood and Armitage, 1997; Burkhead 

and Jelks, 2001). Increased turbidity and siltation can reduce 

sunlight available to photosynthetic algae, an important component of the diet of some native species (Couret, 1976; Kido 

and others, 1993; Kido, 1996b, 1997a, 1997b), and thereby 

inhibit the ability of some algae to colonize or grow (Wood 

and Armitage, 1997). Increased nutrient concentrations can 

lead to a change in the algal-community species (Allan, 2004).

Pesticide residues attached to agricultural sediments may 

be transported into adjacent surface waters (Nowell and others, 

1999). These contaminants can enter the food web and bioac-

 Stream Fauna 33
Figure 20. Non-native species observed in Punaluu Stream during 2004 and 2005, Oahu, Hawaii.

157°54' 157°53'

21°33'

21°34'

21°35'

0 1,000 2,000 Feet

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey Digital 

Raster Graphics topographic maps, 1:24,000,

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 4, 

NAD83 datum.

Melanoides tuberculata1

 Tarebia granifera1

 Procambarus clarkii1

 Macrobrachium lar 

 Gambusia affinis 

 Poecilia reticulata 

 Clarius fuscus 

 Oreochromis cf. mossambicus

 Hemichromis elongatus 

 Carp 

 Poecilia sp.

Xiphophorus helleri 

SPECIES NOT OBSERVED 

SPECIES ABUNDANCE RECORDED 

SPECIES ABUNDANCE NOT RECORDED 

1ABUNDANCE NOT RECORDED 

EXPLANATION 

NON-NATIVE STREAM FAUNA 

1

34 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 7. The distributions and abundances of non-native aquatic species observed in Punaluu Stream in 2004.

[sp., species place holder for determinations to generic level only; cf., refers to a species that closely matches the species following the designation but differs morphologically in some minor way to be certain; +, observed but not counted; –, not observed]

Number observed at indicated stream altitude

Class Family Species 10 feet1 30 feet2 40 feet2 50 feet2 200 feet3 220 feet3

Crustacea Palaemonidae Macrobrachium lar – + 7 + 25 22Osteichthyes Cyprinidae Undetermined – 2 – – – –Osteichthyes Poeciliidae Poecilia sp. – 300 175 4 – –Osteichthyes Poeciliidae Xiphophorus helleri – + + + 111 34Osteichthyes Cichlidae Hemichromis elongatus 12 40 20 6 7 –Osteichthyes Cichlidae Oreochromis cf. mossambicus 3 20 9 8 – –

1Surveyed 8/10/2004. 2Surveyed 9/3/2004.3Surveyed 9/24/2004.

 Stream Fauna 35
cumulate in the tissue of stream organisms (Chapman and 

others, 1998; Nowell and others, 1999; Brasher and Anthony, 

2000; Wong and others, 2001; Brasher and Wolff, 2004) and 

possibly have deleterious effects on the fishes (Murty, 1986; 

Colborn and Thayer, 2000).

Aquaculture

Aquaculture can affect the water quality of adjacent 

streams by discharging effluent into the aquatic ecosystem 

(Kreeger, 2000). Non-native species may escape from aquaculture systems and enter surrounding stream systems. For 

example, the blackchin tilapia Sarotherodon melanotheron

accidentally escaped from an aquaculture facility into a nearby 

surface-water body on Oahu during the 1960s (Randall, 1987; 

Devick, 1991; Nico, 2006). S. melanotheron was then transported to other streams and estuaries by humans and is now 

extremely abundant around Oahu (Devick, 1991; Yamamoto 

and Tagawa, 2000). Furthermore, the introduction of nonnative fishes for aquaculture has the potential to inadvertently 

introduce unwanted parasites that may infect native stream 

fauna (Font, 1997a, 1997b).

Additional studies designed to investigate water quality 

and contaminants in bed sediment and fish tissue may shed 

some light on the distribution and abundance of native species 

in Punaluu Stream. Further study of conditions in the estuary 

of Punaluu Stream also would help to identify factors that may 

affect populations of native species. Recruitment studies near 

the mouth of Punaluu Stream and at locations farther upstream 

would be useful to identify possible limiting reaches of the 

stream that control upstream migration of native species. 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on 

Streamflow

Water in Punaluu Stream is currently being diverted by 

Punaluu Ditch for off-stream uses. The main diversion intake 

of Punaluu Ditch is on the left bank of Punaluu Stream at an 

altitude of about 210 ft. Diversion of surface water near an 

altitude of 210 ft reduces streamflow downstream from the 

intake, although the reduction is somewhat offset by tributary 

inflows, return flows from Punaluu Ditch, and ground-water 

discharge to the stream at lower altitudes.

Immediately Downstream from Punaluu Ditch 

Diversion (210-Feet Altitude)

The effects of surface-water diversion on Punaluu Stream 

near an altitude of 210 ft can be determined from the longterm records of stream-gaging stations 16303000 (which 

measures discharge in Punaluu Stream downstream from the 

diversion intake) and 16303003 (which measures discharge 

in Punaluu Stream upstream from the intake). During water 

years 1995–2004, mean discharges measured at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003, respectively, were 11.2 and 

22.0 ft3/s. During water years 1995–2004, the Q50, Q90, and 

Q95 discharges measured at gaging station 16303003, respectively, were 18, 14, and 13 ft3

/s, whereas the Q50, Q90, and 

Q95 discharges measured at gaging station 16303000, respectively, were 7.0, 2.1, and 1.3 ft3

/s (fig. 17). Lower flows in 

Punaluu Stream are affected by the diversion of surface water 

to a relatively greater extent than higher flows. For example, 

the median discharge (Q50) in Punaluu Stream is reduced to 

39 percent of the natural median discharge, whereas the Q90

and Q95 discharges, respectively, are reduced to 15 and 10 

percent of their natural values. During water years 1995–2004, 

daily mean discharge at gaging station 16303000 was never 

zero, although flow in Punaluu Stream immediately downstream from the diversion intake may have been zero during 

parts of days for which the daily mean discharge was greater 

than zero. During water years 1995–2004, the minimum daily 

mean discharge measured at gaging station 16303000 was 

0.04 ft3/s. During the same period, the minimum daily mean 

discharge measured at gaging station 16303003 was 8.8 ft3/s.

For this study, data from water years 1995–2004 (the 

base period) were used to characterize recent-flow conditions. This period was selected because: (1) it excludes the 

period prior to the 1970s when diversion practices for sugarcane irrigation may have differed from recent practices; (2) it 

excludes the period from about 1971–1986 when the volume 

of water diverted from Punaluu Stream was considerably less 

than during the more recent period from 1995–2004 (fig. 8); 

and (3) it excludes the period from 1991–1994 when the dam 

control structure immediately downstream from the diversion 

intake was partly destroyed by a flood. During the period 

1995–2004, low flows from Q95 to Q50 discharges measured at 

stream-gaging station 16303003 were within about 10 percent 

of the corresponding long-term low flows during 1955–2004 

(fig. 21). 

Altitudes of 140 to 10 Feet

Long-term continuous streamflow data are not available 

from multiple sites to determine the spatial effects of diversion 

on flow in Punaluu Stream; however, low-flow partial-record 

(LFPR) stations can be used to estimate streamflow characteristics at sites without a long-term stream-gaging station. For 

example, Fontaine and others (1992) used data from LFPR stations on windward Oahu perennial streams to estimate median 

discharges at ungaged, regulated sites. Fontaine (2003) also 

used LFPR stations to estimate discharges, within the Q50 to 

Q95 range, in Honokohau Stream, Island of Maui, Hawaii. For 

this study, LFPR stations at altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 140 ft 

were used to estimate flow characteristics at sites on Punaluu 

Stream without long-term gaging stations.

36 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Methods

At LFPR stations, a minimum of about 10 discharge 

measurements generally are made during periods of low flow. 

These measurements are best made during independent recessions following periods of direct runoff, and cover a range of 

low-flow conditions. The measured discharges at each LFPR 

station are correlated with the concurrent discharges at a longterm index station with hydrologically similar characteristics. 

For this study, the index stations used were both from Punaluu 

Stream (16303000 and 16303003). Measured discharges at a 

LFPR station commonly are correlated with daily mean discharges at the index station. However, daily mean discharges 

recorded at gaging station 16303000 may reflect decreases in 

flow associated with cleaning of the Ditch intake following a 

discharge measurement at the LFPR station. In addition, daily 

mean discharges recorded at stations 16303000 and 16303003 

may reflect increases in flow associated with periods of rainfall following a discharge measurement at the LFPR station. 

Because of the oftentimes variable nature of flow at the index 

stations on the same day as, but following, measurements of 

discharge at a LFPR station, discharges at the LFPR station 

were correlated with mean discharges at stations 16303000 

and 16303003 during the 3-hr period prior to the start of the 

discharge measurement at the LFPR station. 

A graphical-correlation method (Searcy, 1959) or the 

maintenance of variance extension, type 1 (MOVE.1) method 

(Hirsch, 1982) may be used to determine the relation between 

concurrent discharges at the LFPR and index stations. The 

graphical-correlation method is used for cases in which 

curvature is detected in the relation between the concurrent 

discharges, whereas the MOVE.1 method is used for cases in 

which little or no curvature exists in the relation between the 

concurrent discharges (see for example Ries, 1993). For this 

Figure 21. Flow-duration curves for Punaluu Stream (gaging station 16303003) for water years 1955–2004 and 

1995–2004, Oahu, Hawaii.

0.01 0.05 0.2 1 2 5 10 25

PERCENTAGE OF TIME INDICATED DISCHARGE WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED 

DAILY MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

50

(median)

75 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.95 99.99

1,000

100

10

1

1995–2004 1955–2004

PLUS OR MINUS 10 PERCENT 

OF 1955–2004 DISCHARGE 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Streamflow 37
study, the mathematical MOVE.1 method was used because 

the relations between discharges at the LFPR stations and 

index stations showed little or no curvature. 

In the MOVE.1 method, the base-10 logarithms of the 

discharges at the LFPR station and the concurrent discharges 

at the index station are first computed. The means and 

standard deviations of the base-10 logarithm-transformed 

discharges are then determined. The base-10 logarithms of 

selected flow statistics (for example the Q50 or Q90 flow-duration discharges for a desired base period) at the index station 

also are determined. The corresponding flow statistics at the 

LFPR station are determined using the MOVE.1 equation:

Yi = my + (sy/sx)(Xi-mx) (1)

where:

Yi is the base-10 logarithm of the estimated flowduration discharge at the LFPR station,

Xi is the base-10 logarithm of the flow-duration 

discharge at the index station,

mx is the mean of the base-10 logarithms of the 

discharge values at the index station,

my is the mean of the base-10 logarithms of the 

discharge values at the LFPR station,

sx is the standard deviation of the base-10 

logarithms of the discharge values at the 

index station, and

sy is the standard deviation of the base-10 

logarithms of the discharge values at the 

LFPR station.

For this study, 10 to 18 discharge measurements were 

made at each of the four LFPR stations on Punaluu Stream 

(tables 8–11). However, not all discharge measurements 

were used in the MOVE.1 method because (1) some measurements were made during periods when direct runoff may have 

contributed to total flow, and (2) clearing of the ditch-system 

intake made it difficult to correlate some stream-discharge 

measurements with recorded discharges at the existing gages. 

For LFPR stations at altitudes of 10, 40, and 100 ft, 11 or 12 

discharge measurements were used in the MOVE.1 equation 

(tables 8–10). For the LFPR station at 140 ft, however, only 

seven discharge measurements were used (table 11). 

For altitudes greater than 10 ft, LFPR-station discharges had high correlation with discharges at gaging station 16303000, which measures the discharge remaining in 

Punaluu Stream downstream from the diversion intake. For 

the LFPR station at an altitude of 10 ft, the LFPR-station 

discharges were correlated with discharges at gaging station 

16303003, which measures total discharge in Punaluu Stream 

upstream from the diversion intake. Near an altitude of 10 ft, 

discharges in Punaluu Stream show greater correlation with 

discharges at gaging station 16303003 than 16303000 because 

of ditch-return flows to the stream above an altitude of 10 ft. 

The other LFPR stations are upstream from sites where large 

ditch-return flows enter the stream. The flow-duration discharges for recent water years 1995–2004 at gaging stations 

16303000 and 16303003 were used to estimate corresponding 

flow-duration discharges at the LFPR stations. For this study, 

natural flows were estimated by multiplying the flow-duration 

discharges from stream-gaging station 16303003 by a constant 

factor that accounts for the increase in discharge between station 16303003 and the downstream LFPR station.

Flow Characteristics for Diverted Conditions

The 1995–2004 flow characteristics from gaging station 

16303000, near an altitude of 210 ft, reflect flows in Punaluu 

Stream for recent diverted conditions near that altitude. During 1995–2004, the median discharge from gaging station 

16303000 was 7.0 ft3/s. In comparison, the estimated median 

discharges at altitudes of 140, 100, 40, and 10 ft, respectively, 

are 7.7, 8.8, 10, and 18 ft3/s (tables 12–15; fig. 22). During 

1995–2004, the Q95 discharge from gaging station 16303000 

was 1.3 ft3/s. In comparison, the estimated Q95 discharges at 

altitudes of 140, 100, 40, and 10 ft, respectively, are 1.5, 2.3, 

2.6, and 11 ft3/s (tables 12–15; fig. 22). The relatively large 

increases in estimated discharges between altitudes of 40 

and 10 ft mainly reflect ditch-return flows that enter Punaluu 

Stream between altitudes of about 35 and 15 ft. Estimated 

flow characteristics for LFPR stations at altitudes of 140, 100, 

40, and 10 ft reflect recent diversion and return-flow practices 

for Punaluu Ditch.

Flow Characteristics for Natural Conditions

Flow characteristics for natural, undiverted conditions at 

the LFPR stations were estimated to determine the effects of 

the Punaluu Ditch diversion on streamflow at altitudes of 140 

to 10 ft. Different methods were used to estimate natural-flow 

characteristics at the LFPR stations upstream and downstream 

from an altitude of 35 ft because significant return flows from 

Punaluu Ditch enter the stream near an altitude of about 35 

ft. Furthermore, ground water likely discharges to the main 

stream below an altitude of about 25 ft. 

Altitudes 140, 100, and 40 Feet

For the LFPR station at an altitude of 140 ft, naturalflow characteristics were estimated from discharges measured 

at gaging station 16303003. For the MOVE.1 analysis, the 

differences in seven concurrent discharges (table 11) at an 

altitude of 140 ft and at gaging station 16303000 range from 

1 to 8 percent of the concurrent discharges at gaging station 

16303003, and average 4.2 percent. To estimate natural flowduration discharges at 140 ft, corresponding flow-duration 

discharges at gaging station 16303003 were multiplied by a 

constant factor of 1.042. 

For the LFPR station at 100 ft, the average increase in 

discharge (from 11 concurrent measurements) between gaging station 16303000 and the LFPR station was 8.8 percent 

of the discharge at gaging station 16303003. The increase 

in discharge between altitudes of 140 ft (where discharge 

38 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 8. Concurrent discharge values at the low-flow partial-record station at a stream altitude of 10 feet and at gaging stations 

16303000 and 16303003, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

[LFPR, low flow partial record; ft, feet; MOVE.1, maintenance of variance extension, type 1; --, not applicable]

Discharge, in cubic feet per second

Date Time1 LFPR station, 

altitude 10 ft

Gaging station 

163030002

Gaging station 

163030032 Remarks

07/09/2004 1037 29.2 16 28 Flow receding

07/12/2004 1000 25.1 11 24 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

08/05/2004 1433 52.8 25 41 Flow receding

08/06/2004 1219 39.0 19 33 Flow receding

08/20/2004 1045 25.5 14 22 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

09/10/2004 1034 22.6 13 20 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

10/07/2004 0926 22.5 14 21 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

10/29/2004 1145 31.7 19 29 Flow receding

11/26/2004 1205 56.9 44 46 Flow receding

12/21/2004 1121 22.2 12 20 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

12/28/2004 1107 41.6 32 35 Flow receding

12/30/2004 0946 31.2 15 27 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

01/03/2005 1219 33.9 27 29 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

01/11/2005 1141 25.0 11 21 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

05/26/2005 1555 19.7 7.0 18 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

06/09/2005 1651 16.5 11 17 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

06/22/2005 1117 21.0 8.6 20 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

08/04/2005 1550 15.3 10 18 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

Mean3 -- 1.358 1.083 1.325 From logarithm of values

Standard

deviation3 -- 0.09962 0.1445 0.07003 From logarithm of values

1

Starting time of discharge measurement at the LFPR station. 

2

Discharges at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003 are means for the 3-hour period prior to the starting time of the discharge measurement at the 

LFPR station.

3

Mean and standard deviation of logarithm (base 10) of discharge values for dates used in MOVE.1 analysis.

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Streamflow 39
Table 9. Concurrent discharge values at the low-flow partial-record station at a stream altitude of 40 feet and at gaging stations 

16303000 and 16303003, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

[LFPR, low flow partial record; ft, feet; MOVE.1, maintenance of variance extension, type 1; --, not applicable]

Discharge, in cubic feet per second

Date Time1 LFPR station, 

altitude 40 ft

Gaging station 

163030002

Gaging station 

163030032 Remarks

07/30/2004 1324 13.1 7.1 21 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

08/06/2004 1553 31.3 18 31 Flow receding

08/20/2004 1527 19.9 14 22 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

09/10/2004 1006 17.4 13 20 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

09/23/2004 1440 18.0 16 21 Flow receding

10/07/2004 1217 17.8 14 21 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

10/29/2004 1413 23.2 19 28 Flow receding

11/26/2004 1603 42.7 32 44 Flow receding

12/29/2004 1016 32.1 28 31 Flow receding

12/30/2004 1432 23.2 16 27 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

01/04/2005 0943 29.4 26 27 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

01/20/2005 1003 21.4 21 24 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

03/22/2005 1614 14.9 8.1 20 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

03/24/2005 1410 14.3 9.1 19 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

06/09/2005 1437 12.4 11 17 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

06/22/2005 1415 10.7 8.6 20 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

08/04/2005 1338 10.3 10 18 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

Mean3 -- 1.211 1.087 1.325 From logarithm of values

Standard

deviation3 -- 0.1394 0.1708 0.06300 From logarithm of values

1

Starting time of discharge measurement at the LFPR station. 

2

Discharges at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003 are means for the 3-hour period prior to the starting time of the discharge measurement at the 

LFPR station with the exception of the measurements of 07/30/2004 and 08/06/2004. For the measurements of 07/30/2004 and 08/06/2004, discharges at 

gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003 are from the 2-hour period prior to the starting time of the discharge measurement at the LFPR station.

3

Mean and standard deviation of logarithm (base 10) of discharge values for dates used in MOVE.1 analysis.

40 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 10. Concurrent discharge values at the low-flow partial-record station at a stream altitude of 100 feet and at gaging stations 

16303000 and 16303003, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

 [LFPR, low flow partial record; ft, feet; MOVE.1, maintenance of variance extension, type 1; --, not applicable]

Discharge, in cubic feet per second

Date Time1 LFPR station, 

altitude 100 ft

Gaging station 

163030002

Gaging station 

163030032 Remarks

09/24/2004 1415 19.9 15 19 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

10/01/2004 1020 11.7 9.1 19 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

11/02/2004 0938 20.4 19 29 Flow receding

03/22/2005 1431 11.0 8.0 20 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

04/14/2005 1735 11.8 8.6 21 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

04/26/2005 1154 10.7 8.8 20 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

05/03/2005 1616 9.97 7.8 18 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

05/25/2005 1213 14.3 10 18 Ditch intake manipulated

06/09/2005 1050 12.1 11 17 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

06/16/2005 1042 7.09 6.1 18 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

07/05/2005 1155 18.0 21 21 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

08/01/2005 1540 4.58 3.0 16 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

08/04/2005 0955 9.56 10 18 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

Mean3 -- 1.031 0.9487 1.273 From logarithm of values

Standard

deviation3 -- 0.1735 0.2138 0.03739 From logarithm of values

1

Starting time of discharge measurement at the LFPR station. 

2

Discharges at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003 are from the 3-hour period prior to the starting time of the discharge measurement at the LFPR 

station with the exception of the measurement of 08/01/2005. For the measurement of 08/01/2005, discharges at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003 

are from the 1-hour period prior to the starting time of the discharge measurement at the LFPR station.

3

Mean and standard deviation of logarithm (base 10) of discharge values for dates used in MOVE.1 analysis.

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Streamflow 41
Table 11. Concurrent discharge values at the low-flow partial-record station at a stream altitude of 140 feet and at gaging stations 

16303000 and 16303003, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

[LFPR, low flow partial record; ft, feet; MOVE.1, maintenance of variance extension, type 1; --, not applicable]

 Discharge, in cubic feet per second

Date Time1 LFPR station, 

altitude 140 ft

Gaging station 

163030002

Gaging station 

163030032 Remarks

09/24/2004 1118 15.2 15 20 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

10/01/2004 1352 11.4 9.9 19 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

11/02/2004 1431 17.0 19 28 Flow receding

03/03/2005 1313 6.61 9.7 21 Ditch intake cleared 

03/22/2005 1037 8.62 7.5 20 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

04/14/2005 1510 9.67 8.5 21 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

05/17/2005 1330 4.12 3.8 17 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

05/25/2005 1209 12.6 10 18 Ditch intake manipulated 

06/09/2005 1100 11.9 11 17 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

08/01/2005 1554 3.46 3.1 16 Included in MOVE.1 analysis

Mean3 -- 0.9127 0.8698 1.267 From logarithm of values

Standard

deviation3 -- 0.2428 0.2483 0.04496 From logarithm of values

1

Starting time of discharge measurement at the LFPR station. 

2

Discharges at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003 are from the 3-hour period prior to the starting time of the discharge measurement at the LFPR 

station with the exception of the measurement of 08/01/2005. For the measurement of 08/01/2005, discharges at gaging stations 16303000 and 16303003 

are from the 1-hour period prior to the starting time of the discharge measurement at the LFPR station.

3

Mean and standard deviation of logarithm (base 10) of discharge values for dates used in MOVE.1 analysis.

42 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 12. Estimated flow-duration characteristics for natural and recent diverted conditions for the low-flow partial-record 

station at a stream altitude of 10 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

[LFPR, low flow partial record; ft, feet; ft3/s, cubic feet per second]

Diverted conditions Natural conditions

Percentage 

of time flow 

equaled or 

exceeded1

Discharge at gaging 

station 16303000, 

in ft3/s

Discharge at gaging 

station 16303003, 

in ft3/s

Discharge at LFPR 

station (altitude 10 

ft), in ft3/s

Standard 

error, in 

percent

Discharge at LFPR 

station (altitude 10 

ft), in ft3/s

95 1.3 13 11 10 16

90 2.1 14 13 9 17

85 2.7 14 13 9 17

80 3.4 15 14 7 18

75 4.0 15 14 7 18

70 4.5 16 15 6 19

65 5.2 16 15 6 19

60 5.7 17 17 5 21

55 6.4 17 17 5 21

50 7.0 18 18 4 22

45 7.8 19 20 3 23

40 8.6 19 20 3 23

35 9.4 20 21 3 24

30 11 21 23 3 25

25 12 22 24 3 27

20 13 24 27 5 29

1

Discharge values computed for the base period 1995–2004.

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Streamflow 43
Table 13. Estimated flow-duration characteristics for natural and recent diverted conditions for the low-flow partial-record 

station at a stream altitude of 40 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

[LFPR, low flow partial record; ft, feet; ft3/s, cubic feet per second]

Diverted conditions Natural conditions

Percentage 

of time flow 

equaled or 

exceeded1

Discharge at gaging 

station 16303000, 

in ft3/s

Discharge at gaging 

station 16303003, 

in ft3/s

Discharge at LFPR 

station (altitude 40 

ft), in ft3/s

Standard 

error, in 

percent

Discharge at LFPR 

station (altitude 40 

ft), in ft3/s

95 1.3 13 2.6 23 15

90 2.1 14 3.9 18 17

85 2.7 14 4.7 15 17

80 3.4 15 5.7 12 18

75 4.0 15 6.5 11 18

70 4.5 16 7.2 9 19

65 5.2 16 8.1 8 19

60 5.7 17 8.7 7 20

55 6.4 17 9.6 6 20

50 7.0 18 10 6 21

45 7.8 19 11 5 22

40 8.6 19 12 5 22

35 9.4 20 13 5 24

30 11 21 15 6 25

25 12 22 16 7 26

20 13 24 17 7 28

1

Discharge values computed for the base period 1995–2004.

44 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 14. Estimated flow-duration characteristics for natural and recent diverted conditions for the low-flow partial-record 

station at a stream altitude of 100 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

[LFPR, low flow partial record; ft, feet; ft3/s, cubic feet per second]

Diverted conditions Natural conditions

Percentage 

of time flow 

equaled or 

exceeded1

Discharge at gaging 

station 16303000, 

in ft3/s

Discharge at gaging 

station 16303003, 

in ft3/s

Discharge at LFPR 

station (altitude 100 

ft), in ft3/s

Standard 

error, in 

percent

Discharge at LFPR 

station (altitude 100 

ft), in ft3/s

95 1.3 13 2.3 13 14

90 2.1 14 3.3 10 15

85 2.7 14 4.1 8 15

80 3.4 15 4.9 7 16

75 4.0 15 5.6 6 16

70 4.5 16 6.2 5 17

65 5.2 16 6.9 5 17

60 5.7 17 7.5 5 18

55 6.4 17 8.2 4 18

50 7.0 18 8.8 4 20

45 7.8 19 9.7 4 21

40 8.6 19 10 5 21

35 9.4 20 11 5 22

30 11 21 13 5 23

25 12 22 14 6 24

20 13 24 15 6 26

1

Discharge values computed for the base period 1995–2004.

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Streamflow 45
Table 15. Estimated flow-duration characteristics for natural and recent diverted conditions for the low-flow partial-record 

station at a stream altitude of 140 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

[LFPR, low flow partial record; ft, feet; ft3/s, cubic feet per second]

Diverted conditions Natural conditions

Percentage 

of time flow 

equaled or 

exceeded1

Discharge at gaging 

station 16303000, 

in ft3/s

Discharge at gaging 

station 16303003, 

in ft3/s

Discharge at LFPR 

station (altitude 140 

ft), in ft3/s

Standard 

error, in 

percent

Discharge at LFPR 

station (altitude 140 

ft), in ft3/s

95 1.3 13 1.5 7 14

90 2.1 14 2.4 5 15

85 2.7 14 3.0 4 15

80 3.4 15 3.8 4 16

75 4.0 15 4.5 3 16

70 4.5 16 5.0 3 17

65 5.2 16 5.8 3 17

60 5.7 17 6.3 2 18

55 6.4 17 7.1 2 18

50 7.0 18 7.7 2 19

45 7.8 19 8.6 2 20

40 8.6 19 9.5 3 20

35 9.4 20 10 3 21

30 11 21 12 3 22

25 12 22 13 3 23

20 13 24 14 4 25

1

Discharge values computed for the base period 1995–2004.

46 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 22. Flow-duration curves for low-flow partial-record stations at altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 140 feet, Punaluu 

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

1 2 5 10 25 50 75 90 95 98 99 1 2 5 10 25 50 75 90 95 98 99

PERCENTAGE OF TIME INDICATED DISCHARGE WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED 

1

10

100

1

10

100

1

10

100

1

10

100

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

Altitude 10 feet 

Altitude 100 feet 

Altitude 40 feet 

Altitude 140 feet 

NATURAL CONDITIONS 

CURRENT DIVERTED CONDITIONS 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Streamflow 47
is 4.2 percent higher than at gaging station 16303003) and 

100 ft (where discharge is 8.8 percent higher than at gaging 

station 16303003) reflects inflows from tributaries that enter 

the main stream between altitudes of 140 ft and 100 ft. To 

estimate natural discharges at 100 ft, discharges at gaging station 16303003 were multiplied by a constant factor of 1.088. 

Similarly, for the LFPR station at 40 ft, the average increase in 

discharge (from 12 concurrent measurements) between gaging 

station 16303000 and the LFPR station was 18.2 percent of the 

discharge at gaging station 16303003. To estimate natural discharges at 40 ft, discharges at gaging station 16303003 were 

multiplied by a constant factor of 1.182. 

Estimated median natural discharge at an altitude of 

140 ft is 19 ft3/s (fig. 22). In comparison, the estimated 

median discharge for recent diverted conditions at that altitude 

is 7.7 ft3/s, or 41 percent of the median discharge for natural 

conditions (fig. 23). Estimated Q95 natural discharge at an 

altitude of 140 ft is 14 ft3/s (fig. 22). In comparison, the estimated Q95 flow for recent diverted conditions at that altitude 

is 1.5 ft3/s, which is about 11 percent of the estimated Q95

natural discharge (fig. 23). Because the differences in concurrent discharges at an altitude of 140 ft and at gaging station 

16303000 were determined for periods when discharges at 

gaging station 16303003 were nearly equal to the 1995–2004 

median discharge (18 ft3/s), the estimated natural flow-duration discharges at the LFPR station are most reliable for 

median-discharge conditions. 

Estimated median natural discharge at an altitude of 

100 ft is 20 ft3/s (fig. 22). In comparison, the estimated 

median discharge for recent diverted conditions at that altitude 

is 8.8 ft3/s, or 44 percent of the median discharge for natural 

conditions (fig. 23). Estimated Q95 natural discharge at an altitude of 100 ft is 14 ft3

/s (fig. 22). In comparison, the estimated 

Q95 discharge for recent diverted conditions at that altitude is 

2.3 ft3/s, or 16 percent of the estimated Q95 natural discharge 

(fig. 23). 

Estimated median natural discharge at an altitude of 40 ft 

is 21 ft3/s (fig. 22). In comparison, the estimated median discharge for recent diverted conditions at that altitude is 10 ft3

/s, 

or 48 percent of the median discharge for natural conditions 

(fig. 23). Estimated Q95 natural discharge at an altitude of 

40 ft is 15 ft3/s (fig. 22). In comparison, the estimated Q95 discharge for recent diverted conditions at that altitude is 2.6 ft3

/s, 

or 17 percent of the estimated Q95 natural discharge (fig. 23). 

Altitude 10 Feet

For the LFPR station at an altitude of 10 ft, natural 

flow-duration discharges were estimated as being equal to 

natural flow-duration discharges at the upstream LFPR station 

(altitude of 40 ft) plus gain estimated as a constant percentage of discharge at gaging station 16303003. On the basis 

of seepage-run measurements from September 10, 2004 and 

August 4, 2005, Punaluu Stream, respectively, gained 0.85 

Figure 23. Ratios of diverted-to-natural discharges (Q50 and Q95) at stream-channel 

altitudes of 10 to 200 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii. The Q50 discharge is the 

median discharge, and the Q95 discharge is the discharge that is equaled or exceed 

95 percent of the time. 

200 150 100

STREAM-CHANNEL ALTITUDE, IN FEET 

50 0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

RATIO OF DIVERTED-TO-NATURAL DISCHARGE, IN PERCENT 

Q50 discharge (median discharge) 

Q95 discharge (discharge that is equaled or exceeded 95 percent of the time) 

48 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
and 0.14 ft3

/s between the LFPR stations at altitudes of 40 and 

10 ft (fig. 16). Gains of 0.85 and 0.14 ft3/s represent, respectively, 4.2 and 0.8 percent of the discharge at gaging station 

16303003 on these 2 days. The average gain between the 

LFPR stations is 2.5 percent of the discharge at gaging station 

16303003. The seepage-run measurements were made during 

periods corresponding to median- to Q35-discharge conditions 

at gaging station 16303003. 

Estimated median natural discharge at an altitude of 10 ft 

is 22 ft3/s (fig. 22). In comparison, the estimated median discharge for recent diverted conditions at that altitude is 18 ft3

/s, 

or 82 percent of the median discharge for natural conditions 

(fig. 23). Estimated Q95 natural discharge at an altitude of 

10 ft is 16 ft3/s (fig. 22). In comparison, the estimated Q95 discharge for recent diverted conditions at that altitude is 11 ft3

/s, 

or 69 percent of the estimated Q95 natural discharge (fig. 23).

On the basis of estimated flow characteristics for recent 

diverted conditions and natural conditions, the effects of diversion on streamflow characteristics (for example Q50 and Q95) 

are largest immediately downstream from the diversion intake 

near an altitude of 210 ft and decrease in a downstream direction (fig. 23). The effects of diversion are somewhat offset in 

a downstream direction by streamflow increases from tributaries, ditch return flows, and ground-water discharge. Diversion 

of water from Punaluu Stream will have an effect on habitat 

availability, although the effects are not expected to be as great 

as in streams from which all of the base flow is diverted and 

reaches are dry. 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on 

Habitat 

Changes in streamflow may affect the quantity and quality of physical habitat used by native stream fauna (Gingerich 

and Wolff, 2005). This section addresses the effects that 

streamflow reduction, caused by diverting water at the main 

Punaluu Ditch intake, will have on physical habitat in Punaluu 

Stream. Ground-water withdrawals that affect streamflow also 

can affect physical habitat used by the native fauna, although 

the spatial distributions of effects on physical habitat caused 

by the Punaluu Ditch diversion and ground-water withdrawals 

may differ. However, determination of the effects of groundwater withdrawal on physical habitat used by the native fauna 

was beyond the scope of this study.

The Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM) is 

a tool used to quantify the effects of incremental changes in 

streamflow, and was developed to assess instream flow issues 

and assist in water-management decisions (Bovee, 1982). 

The development of many small hydropower projects and 

expanding urban development encroaching on river and stream 

systems in the United States during the 1970s and 1980s led to 

the design and refinement of tools that evaluate instream-habitat quality and predict how the populations and communities 

of fish inhabiting the streams and rivers would be affected.

A number of these tools are referred to as habitat-selection models, preference models, or habitat-index models. The 

Physical Habitat Simulation System (PHABSIM) (Bovee, 

1986; Bovee, 1997; Bovee and others, 1998) is an example 

of a habitat-selection model for stream organisms and has 

been used in many studies to assist in management decisions 

(Railsback and others, 2003). In Hawaii, Gingerich and Wolff 

(2005) used PHABSIM to evaluate the effects of surface-water 

diversions on streams in northeast Maui. 

Habitat-selection modeling combines biological and 

hydrological components that may be related to the population 

of an aquatic species. Elements of the biological component 

usually include quantifying the frequency of microhabitat 

utilization of a target species. This is often compared with a 

measurement of microhabitat availability to define preference 

or habitat-suitability criteria. The preferred microhabitat is 

assumed to be the most advantageous for a specific activity 

and life stage of the target species. The hydrological component includes determination of streamflow characteristics and 

stream geomorphology. Computer models like PHABSIM 

are used to merge these components to estimate the quantity 

of preferred microhabitat area available for the target species 

with incremental changes in streamflow. 

For this study, the effects of changes in streamflow on 

physical habitat in Punaluu Stream were evaluated using the 

PHABSIM approach. Measurements of microhabitat under 

different flow conditions in Punaluu Stream were combined 

with habitat-suitability criteria developed for streams in northeast Maui (Gingerich and Wolff, 2005). Habitat-suitability criteria developed for northeast Maui streams are transferable, in 

some cases, to other areas of the State (Gingerich and Wolff, 

2005). Habitat-suitability criteria specific to Punaluu Stream 

were not developed for this study because existing populations 

of native species within the study reaches were considered too 

small for development of site-specific criteria. 

Stream Habitat Data Collection

Habitat data were collected at four study reaches in 

Punaluu Stream. Study reaches, each about 300 ft in length, 

were located at stream altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 200 ft. 

In each reach, measurements of microhabitat characteristics 

(depth, velocity, and substrate) were made at 10 cross sections 

for 3 different flow conditions. 

Study Reaches

Study reaches were selected on the basis of hydrologic, 

ecologic, access, and safety considerations. The boundaries of each 300-ft study reach were selected so that the reach 

was representative of the larger stream segment, in terms 

of flow regimes (riffles, runs, and pools) and substrate, and 

did not include any tributaries or diversions. All reaches are 

downstream from the Punaluu Ditch diversion intake near an 

altitude of 210 ft. Reaches upstream from the diversion intake 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat 49
were not studied because these reaches are in a natural condition unaffected by the diversion. Average stream-channel 

gradients in the selected reaches range from 0.3 to 4 percent, 

and increase in an upstream direction. 

The lowermost reach, at an altitude of 10 ft, is located 

in an area that was straightened for flood control in 1988 by 

Koolau Agricultural Co., Ltd. (State of Hawaii, 1988). The 

stream subsequently was modified in 1991 in an attempt to 

restore the stream to its original meandering configuration. 

The lowermost reach is downstream from sites where water is 

returned to the stream from overflowing release gates along 

Punaluu Ditch (upstream from tunnel 12) and from irrigation-return water associated with taro cultivation. The average 

channel gradient is about 0.3 percent. Median discharge for 

recent diverted conditions in the reach is estimated to be about 

18 ft3/s, whereas median natural discharge is estimated to be 

22 ft3/s. 

The reach at an altitude of 40 ft is about midway between 

the Punaluu Ditch diversion intake and the coast, and is 

upstream from the main return flows to Punaluu Stream. This 

reach has an average channel gradient of about 0.9 percent. 

Median discharge for recent diverted conditions in the reach is 

estimated to be about 10 ft3/s, whereas median natural discharge is estimated to be 21 ft3

/s. 

The reach at an altitude of 100 ft is about midway 

between the Punaluu Ditch diversion intake and the reach at an 

altitude of 40 ft. This reach has an average channel gradient of 

about 3 percent. Recent median discharge in the reach is estimated to be about 8.8 ft3

/s, whereas median natural discharge 

is estimated to be 20 ft3/s. 

The reach at an altitude of 200 ft begins about 400 ft 

downstream from the diversion intake. This reach has an 

average channel gradient of about 4 percent. Median diverted 

discharge in the reach is 7.0 ft3/s based on data from gaging 

station 16303000 for water years 1995–2004. Median natural 

discharge in the reach is 18 ft3/s, based on data from gaging 

station 16303003 for water years 1995–2004.

Cross Sections

Cross-section locations within each reach were determined using a stratified-random design. Study reaches were 

stratified at the level of three habitat types: riffle, run, and 

pool (table 16). Riffles were defined as stream sections with 

high gradient, and shallow, fast-moving turbulent water. Runs 

were defined as stream sections with moderate- to fast-flowing water with minimal turbulence. Pools were defined as 

low gradient, deeper stream sections with low water velocity. Within the reach, the length and location of each discrete 

riffle, run, and pool were determined. The individual lengths 

were summed by habitat type and the proportion of each habitat type within the reach was calculated. Ten cross sections 

were located within each reach. The number of cross sections per habitat type was calculated based on the proportion 

of the habitat type within the reach. Once it was determined 

how many cross sections per habitat type were to be established, the location of each cross section was determined using 

random numbers from a computer-generated random numbers table. Brightly colored vinyl flagging tape was labeled 

and placed on the stream bank to mark the location of each 

cross section. At each cross-section location, semi-permanent 

boundary markers also were established on each stream bank. 

These semi-permanent markers made it possible to reestablish 

the cross-sections at later times.

For the reach at an altitude of 200 ft, 10 cross sections 

originally were defined, but one of the markers for the uppermost pool section was lost during a large storm. Data from 

the remaining nine cross sections were used in the habitat 

modeling. For this reach, 20 percent of the total length was 

characterized as pool habitat. Because one of the two pool 

sections was not available on all microhabitat measurement 

dates, habitat from the remaining pool section was weighted 

by a factor of two to reflect the percentage of pool habitat in 

the reach and to account for the missing tenth cross section. 

Information on microhabitat availability was recorded 

at each cross section. Each cross section was subdivided into 

rectangular cells 1 ft wide and extending 1 ft downstream and 

1 ft upstream from a line connecting the ends of the section. 

Thus, each 1-ft-wide cell represents an area of 2 ft2. The 

habitat variables (depth, velocity, and substrate) were measured at each individual cell. Water depth was determined 

from the water surface to the stream bottom at the center of 

the cell. Measured water depths ranged from 0 to about 4 ft. 

In general, velocity was determined at the center of the cell at 

a depth (as measured from the water surface) of 0.6 times the 

total water-column depth, although in some cells where depths 

exceeded 1.5 ft, velocity was measured at 0.2 and 0.8 depths. 

Table 16. Percentage of riffle, run, and pool habitat within selected study reaches, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, 

Hawaii.

Percentage of habitat

Altitude of stream reach, in feet Riffle Run Pool Total

10 20 80 0 100

40 40 60 0 100

100 50 50 0 100

200 50 30 20 100

50 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 17. Substrate size categories and dominant substrate suitability values for selected native species (Gingerich and Wolff, 

2005).

[--. Not applicable; >, greater than; in., inches]

Dominant substrate suitability value

Species

Silt and 

organic 

detritus

Sand

(>0.002 to 

0.08 in.)

Gravel

(>0.08 to 0.8 

in.)

Cobble

(>0.8 to 4 in.)

Small

boulder

(>4 to 12 in.)

Large

boulder

(>12 in.)

Bedrock or 

compact 

alluvium

Neritina granosa

(hihiwai)

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.5 1 0.2

Atyoida bisulcata

(opae kalaole)

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 1 0.2

Awaous guamensis 

(oopu nakea), adult

0.2 0.2 0.5 1 1 1 0.2

Sicyopterus stimpsoni 

(oopu nopili), adult

0.2 0.2 0.2 1 1 1 0.2

Sicyopterus stimpsoni 

(oopu nopili), 

juvenile

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 1 1 0.2

The measurement depths were selected because they provide 

a representation of the mean velocity in the vertical at a site 

(Rantz and others, 1982). All velocities were measured with 

acoustic-Doppler velocity (ADV) meters. Measured water 

velocities ranged from zero in pool areas or near stream edges 

to more than 3 ft/s in fast-moving shallow areas. Substrate 

was determined as the percent bottom cover of each substrate 

category (table 17) within the cell. The percent of each cell 

that was not completely submerged was recorded where applicable.

Quantification of Suitable Habitat

For this study, suitable physical habitat at four reaches in 

Punaluu Stream was quantified using the PHABSIM approach 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2001). Habitat-suitability criteria 

from Gingerich and Wolff (2005) were used to determine 

the effects of incremental changes in streamflow on physical 

habitat for selected native species. Species that potentially 

could be found at a stream altitude of 200 ft include Neritina 

granosa (hihiwai), Atyoida bisulcata (opae kalaole), Awaous 

guamensis (oopu nakea), and Sicyopterus stimpsoni (oopu 

nopili). Species that potentially could be found at stream 

altitudes of 100 ft and lower include N. granosa (hihiwai) 

and A. guamensis (oopu nakea). Eleotris sandwicensis (oopu 

akupa) and Stenogobius hawaiiensis (oopu naniha) have been 

observed in Punaluu Stream below an altitude of 50 ft, but 

physical habitat for these species was not modeled because 

habitat-suitability criteria were neither available nor developed 

in this study. Habitat-suitability criteria for N. granosa (hihiwai) developed by Gingerich and Wolff (2005) were based on 

observations during daytime hours, although hihiwai apparently are more active during nighttime hours (Brasher, 1997). 

Gingerich and Wolff (2005) determined suitable habitat 

with the PHABSIM model (U.S. Geological Survey, 2001), 

which does not accept suitability curves with step functions. 

For this study, suitable habitat was computed external to the 

PHABSIM model (using a digital spreadsheet), and the suitability curves (Gingerich and Wolff, 2005) were treated as step 

functions, which is consistent with the method used to develop 

the curves. 

The habitat-suitability curves define weights, which 

may range in value from 0 (unusable habitat) to 1 (preferred 

habitat), for selected microhabitat parameters. For this study, 

the dominant substrate category (table 17) and dimensionless Froude number (fig. 24) were used to define microhabitat 

characteristics within each 1-ft-wide cell of each cross section. 

The Froude number represents the ratio of inertia force to 

gravity force and is defined as:

F = v/(dg)1/2 (2)

where:

F is the dimensionless Froude number,

v is the water velocity [L/T],

d is the water depth [L], 

g is the acceleration due to gravity [L/T2],

L represents units of length, and

T represents units of time.

If the Froude number is less than 1, flow is characterized as 

subcritical or tranquil, whereas if the Froude number is greater 

than 1, flow is supercritical, rapid, or shooting. A Froude 

number of 1 indicates critical flow (flow at minimum specific 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat 51
Figure 24. Habitat-suitability curves (Froude number) for selected native species, Hawaii (modified from Gingerich and Wolff, 

2005).

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50

HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX 

FROUDE NUMBER FROUDE NUMBER 

Atyoida bisulcata (opae kalaole) 

Neritina granosa (hihiwai) Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) 

Sicyopterus stimpsoni (oopu nopili), adult Sicyopterus stimpsoni (oopu nopili), juvenile 

52 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
energy) (see for example Olson, 1980). Froude numbers 

computed from velocity and depth measurements in Punaluu 

Stream ranged from 0 in areas with standing water to about 1.5 

in rapidly flowing riffle sections. 

For each 1-ft-wide cell, a composite suitability was determined as:

Ci = Fi×Si (3)

where:

Ci is the composite suitability of cell i,

Fi is the suitability associated with the Froude 

number in cell i, and

Si is the suitability associated with the dominant 

substrate category in cell i.

The composite-suitability value may range from 0 (unusable 

habitat) to 1 (preferred habitat). The weighted usable area for 

a cell (wua), which is a measure of suitable physical habitat, is 

then computed from:

wuai = Ai×Ci×Ei (4)

where:

wuai is the weighted usable area of cell i [L2],

Ai is the area of cell i [L2], 

Ci is the composite suitability of cell i, and

Ei is the fraction of cell i that is submerged. 

For this study, each cell had a total area of 2 ft2. The 

weighted usable area for each cross section was determined 

by adding the weighted-usable-area values for each cell in 

that cross section. Total weighted usable area (WUA) for the 

reach was then determined by summing the weighted-usablearea values for the 10 cross sections, which are representative 

of the reach. Because each 1-ft-wide cell in a cross section is 

2 ft long, the computed WUA value for a reach with 10 cross 

sections is expressed in terms of square feet per 20 ft of stream 

length. By multiplying the WUA for the reach by a factor of 

50, the WUA also can be expressed in terms of square feet 

per 1,000 ft of stream. Because a stratified-random design 

was used to select cross sections, riffles, runs, and pools were 

appropriately weighted according to availability in determining the WUA for each reach.

WUA was computed for each of the study reaches at each 

of three different measured discharge rates (figs. 25–28). For 

the reach at an altitude of 10 ft, microhabitat information was 

collected at discharge rates that were slightly greater than the 

estimated natural (undiverted) median discharge. For the reach 

at an altitude of 100 ft, microhabitat information was collected 

at discharge rates that were slightly less than the estimated 

natural (undiverted) median discharge. For the reaches at altitudes of 10 and 100 ft, WUA at the median natural discharge 

for the reach was estimated by linear extrapolation of the 

relation between WUA and discharge. For each study reach, 

estimates of WUA were needed for discharge rates lower than 

those measured to determine the shape of the relational curve 

between WUA and discharge. Linear interpolation of WUA 

between discharge rates of zero and the lowest measured 

discharge from the microhabitat surveys for a reach generally will result in an underestimation of WUA. Thus, for 

this study, WUA at low flows was estimated using elevation 

surveys of each cross section, measured stage-discharge relations for each cross section, and velocities that were estimated 

as a function of depth using Manning’s formula and that were 

adjusted by a constant factor to produce the desired discharge 

(U.S. Geological Survey, 2001). Gingerich and Wolff (2005) 

used this approach to model WUA as a function of discharge 

in northeast Maui streams, where a wide range of discharges 

was not available. For this study, simulated WUA values at 

low discharge rates for a reach were scaled by the ratio of the 

measured-to-simulated WUA values at the lowest measured 

discharge rate. This scaling ensures that the simulated WUA 

will equal the measured value at the lowest measured discharge rate from the habitat surveys for a reach. 

In general, the relations between WUA and discharge 

increase monotonically from a discharge of zero to the median 

natural discharge (figs. 25–28), although the relations for 

Awaous guamensis for the reaches at altitudes of 10 and 

40 ft indicate a maximum WUA value at a discharge below 

the median natural discharge (figs. 25 and 26). At a stream 

altitude of 200 ft, the relations between WUA and discharge 

for all species generally are similar (fig. 28). The relations 

between WUA and discharge are steepest between discharge 

rates of zero and a few cubic feet per second, which indicates 

that the rate of increase in WUA is greatest as discharge 

increases from zero to a few cubic feet per second (and the 

rate of decrease in WUA is greatest as discharge decreases 

from a few cubic feet per second to zero). WUA values range 

from zero at no flow to more than 10,000 ft2 per 1,000 ft of 

stream for some species at flows below the median natural 

discharge. 

Habitat-Duration Characteristics

A habitat-duration curve is similar to a flow-duration 

curve, but characterizes the percentage of time an indicated 

measure of habitat (rather than flow) is equaled or exceeded. 

For this study, the measure of habitat considered is WUA, 

expressed as a percentage of WUA at median natural discharge 

at the site. Because the relation between WUA and discharge 

generally was not characterized for discharges much higher 

than the natural median discharge, habitat-duration curves 

were developed for periods limited to when streamflow was 

less than or equal to the median discharge at the site. Thus, 

habitat-duration curves developed for this study reflect the 

percentage of time a specified weighted-usable-area value is 

equaled or exceeded during periods when streamflow at a site 

is less than or equal to the median discharge at the site (for the 

flow condition represented by the habitat-duration curve). The 

habitat-duration curves were developed for low-flow conditions (less than median discharge), representing 50 percent of 

the total time. Habitat-duration percentiles were adjusted, by 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat 53
Figure 25. Relation between habitat (weighted usable area) for selected native species and discharge at an altitude 

of 10 feet (reach 1), Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

Neritina granosa (hihiwai) 

Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) 

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA, IN SQUARE FEET PER 1,000 FEET 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA, IN PERCENTAGE OF 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

median discharge for natural conditions 

Symbols represent measured values.

Lines dashed where velocities estimated. 

54 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 26. Relation between habitat (weighted usable area) for selected native species and discharge at an altitude 

of 40 feet (reach 2), Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

Neritina granosa (hihiwai) 

Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA, IN SQUARE FEET PER 1,000 FEET 

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA, IN PERCENTAGE OF 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 median discharge for natural conditions 

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Symbols represent measured values.

Lines dashed where velocities estimated. 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat 55
Figure 27. Relation between habitat (weighted usable area) for selected native species and discharge at an altitude 

of 100 feet (reach 2b), Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

Neritina granosa (hihiwai) 

Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA, IN SQUARE FEET PER 1,000 FEET 

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA, IN PERCENTAGE OF 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

median discharge for natural conditions 

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

0 5 10 15 20 25

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Symbols represent measured values.

Lines dashed where velocities estimated. 

56 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 28. Relation between habitat (weighted usable area) for selected native species and discharge at an altitude 

of 200 feet (reach 3), Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA, IN SQUARE FEET PER 1,000 FEET 

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA, IN PERCENTAGE OF 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

median discharge for natural conditions 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Neritina granosa (hihiwai) 

Atyoida bisulcata (opae kalaole) 

Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) 

Sicyopterus stimpsoni (oopu nopili), adult 

Sicyopterus stimpsoni (oopu nopili), juvenile 

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Symbols represent measured values.

Lines dashed where velocities estimated. 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat 57
doubling all values, to reflect 100 percent of the time during 

low-flow conditions.

Habitat-duration curves were developed for Neritina 

granosa (hihiwai) and Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) at 

all four study reaches (altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 200 ft) 

(figs. 29 and 30). For the study reach at an altitude of 200 ft, 

habitat-duration curves developed for Atyoida bisulcata (opae 

kalaole) and Sicyopterus stimpsoni (oopu nopili) (fig. 30) 

are similar to those for N. granosa and A. guamensis. Habitat-duration curves for N. granosa and A. guamensis were 

developed for four flow scenarios: (1) natural-flow conditions, 

(2) recent diverted-flow conditions, (3) constant diversion of 

5 ft3/s, and (4) constant diversion of 10 ft3/s (figs. 29 and 30). 

During water years 1995–2004, the mean diverted discharge at 

the Punaluu Ditch intake was 10.8 ft3/s, although the diversion 

rate was not constant. Comparisons of habitat-duration curves 

for the different flow scenarios indicate the effects of diversion on physical habitat for selected native species in Punaluu 

Stream.

Similar to flow-duration curves, flat habitat-duration 

curves indicate less variable habitat conditions than steeper 

habitat-duration curves. At stream altitudes of 40 ft and 

higher, the habitat-duration curves (for a particular species) 

for recent diverted-flow conditions generally are steeper than 

the habitat-duration curves for the other three flow conditions, 

indicating greatest habitat variability for recent diverted-flow 

conditions (figs. 29 and 30). Because a substantial amount 

(several cubic feet per second) of diverted water is returned to 

Punaluu Stream between altitudes of about 15 and 35 ft, the 

habitat-duration curve for recent diverted-flow conditions at 

an altitude of 10 ft is flatter than it would be if no water were 

returned to the stream above 10 ft.

To evaluate the effects of different rates of diversion on 

habitat, WUA values equaled or exceeded 50 percent of the 

time (H50) and 90 percent of the time (H90) (during periods 

when discharge is less than or equal to median discharge for 

the diversion condition) were determined for constant rates 

of diversion between 1 and 10 ft3/s. Habitat conditions that 

are equaled or exceeded 50 percent of the time (H50) represent median-habitat conditions, and are analogous to median 

discharges (Q50). For the 1 to 10 ft3/s diversion scenarios, 

diversion of water from Punaluu Stream was assumed to be 

at the intake to Punaluu Ditch at an altitude of about 210 ft, 

with no return of diverted water to the stream. The relations 

between habitat and diversion rate were determined for stream 

altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 200 ft for both Neritina granosa

(hihiwai) and Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) (fig. 31 and 

32). Because adult Atyoida bisulcata (opae kalaole) and 

Sicyopterus stimpsoni (oopu nopili) are not expected to populate the lower stream reaches, comparisons of the relations 

between habitat and diversion rate at different stream altitudes 

for these species were not made. On the basis of habitat-duration curves at a stream altitude of 200 ft (fig. 30), the relations between habitat and diversion rate for A. bisulcata (opae 

kalaole) and S. stimpsoni (oopu nopili) are likely to be similar 

to those for N. granosa (hihiwai) and A. guamensis (oopu 

nakea) at that altitude.

Neritina granosa (hihiwai)

At stream altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 200 ft, H50 and H90

values for Neritina granosa decrease with increasing diversion 

rates within the range of 1 to 10 ft3/s (fig. 31). Results indicate 

that H90 values generally are affected to a relatively greater 

extent than H50 values by diversion of water from Punaluu 

Stream, particularly for higher diversion rates (fig. 31). At 

stream altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 200 ft, (1) H50 values are 

reduced by less than 14 percent, relative to the corresponding 

values for natural conditions, for constant diversion rates of 1 

to 5 ft3/s; (2) H50 values are reduced by 7 to 40 percent for a 

constant diversion rate of 10 ft3/s; (3) H90 values are reduced 

by less than 16 percent, relative to the corresponding values 

for natural conditions, for constant diversion rates of 1 to 

5 ft3/s; and (4) H90 values are reduced by 12 to 50 percent for 

a constant diversion rate of 10 ft3/s. At stream altitudes of 10, 

100, and 200 ft and for a constant diversion rate of 10 ft3/s, 

H50 values are reduced by 30 to 40 percent and H90 values 

are reduced by 36 to 50 percent relative to the corresponding 

values for natural conditions. For recent (1995–2004) diverted 

conditions, H50 and H90 values increase in a downstream direction, mainly in response to tributary inflows and ditch return 

flows. 

The effects of different diversion conditions on WUA 

for Neritina granosa also may be described by the average 

number of days per year for which WUA values are less than 

a specified reference value (during periods when discharge is 

less than or equal to the median natural discharge) (fig. 33). 

For natural-flow conditions, WUA values are less than 75 percent of the WUA values at median natural discharge at stream 

altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 200 ft for fewer than 3 days per 

year (on average). For recent diverted conditions, the average 

number of days per year that WUA values are less than 50 or 

75 percent of the WUA value at median natural discharge generally (1) decreases in a downstream direction, reflecting the 

effects of tributary inflows and ditch return flows, (2) is less 

than the corresponding number of days for constant diversion 

rates greater than about 4–5 ft3/s at a stream altitude of 10 ft, 

and (3) is greater than the corresponding number of days for 

a constant diversion rate of 10 ft3/s at stream altitudes of 40, 

100, and 140 ft. 

At stream altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 200 ft and for constant diversion rates of up to 8 ft3

/s, WUA values are less than 

50 percent of the WUA value at median natural discharge for 

fewer than 4 days per year. At a stream altitude of 200 ft and 

for a constant diversion rate of 10 ft3/s, WUA values are less 

than 50 percent of the WUA value at median natural discharge 

for about 30 days per year. At stream altitudes of 10, 40, 100, 

and 200 ft, WUA values are less than 75 percent of the WUA 

value at median natural discharge for fewer than 13 days per 

year for constant diversion rates of up to 4 ft3/s. At stream 

altitudes of 10, 100, and 200 ft, (1) the average number of days 

58 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 29. Habitat-duration curves for study reaches at altitudes of 10, 40, and 100 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii. 

1 2 5 10 25 50 75 90 95 98 99 1 2 5 10 25 50 75 90 95 98 99

Neritina granosa (hihiwai) Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) 

NATURAL-FLOW CONDITIONS 

CONSTANT DIVERSION-- 

 5 CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

CONSTANT DIVERSION-- 

 10 CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

RECENT DIVERTED CONDITIONS 

EXPLANATION 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA, IN PERCENTAGE OF WEIGHTED USABLE AREA AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

PERCENTAGE OF TIME (DURING PERIODS WHEN DISCHARGE WAS LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO THE MEDIAN DISCHARGE) 

INDICATED WEIGHTED-USABLE-AREA VALUE WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED 

Altitude 10 feet 

Altitude 40 feet 

Altitude 100 feet 

Altitude 10 feet 

Altitude 40 feet 

Altitude 100 feet 

0

25

50

75

100

125

0

25

50

75

100

125

25

50

75

100

125

0

0

25

50

75

100

125

25

50

75

100

125

0

25

50

75

100

125

0

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat 59
Figure 30. Habitat-duration curves for the study reach at an altitude of 200 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii. 

1 2 5 10 25 50 75 90 95 98 99 1 2 5 10 25 50 75 90 95 98 99

PERCENTAGE OF TIME (DURING PERIODS WHEN DISCHARGE WAS LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO THE MEDIAN DISCHARGE) 

INDICATED WEIGHTED-USABLE-AREA VALUE WAS EQUALED OR EXCEEDED 

NATURAL-FLOW CONDITIONS 

CONSTANT DIVERSION-- 

 5 CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

CONSTANT DIVERSION-- 

 10 CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

RECENT DIVERTED CONDITIONS 

EXPLANATION 

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100

0

20

40

60

80

100 Neritina granosa (hihiwai) 

Atyoida bisulcata (opae kalaole) 

Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) 

Sicyopterus stimpsoni (oopu nopili), adult Sicyopterus stimpsoni (oopu nopili), juvenile 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA, IN PERCENTAGE OF WEIGHTED USABLE AREA AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

60 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 31. Relation for Neritina granosa (hihiwai) between diversion condition and habitat (in terms of change 

in weighted usable area relative to natural conditions), Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii. 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA EQUALED OR 

 EXCEEDED 90 PERCENT OF THE TIME (H90)

 DURING PERIODS WHEN DISCHARGE IS

 LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO MEDIAN 

 DISCHARGE

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA EQUALED OR 

 EXCEEDED 50 PERCENT OF THE TIME (H50)

 DURING PERIODS WHEN DISCHARGE IS

 LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO MEDIAN 

 DISCHARGE

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

CONSTANT DIVERSION RATE, 

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

CONSTANT DIVERSION RATE, 

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

NATURAL 

CONDITIONS

RECENT DIVERTED 

CONDITIONS

NATURAL 

CONDITIONS

RECENT DIVERTED 

CONDITIONS

CHANGE IN HABITAT (WEIGHTED USABLE AREA) RELATIVE TO NATURAL CONDITIONS, IN PERCENT 

Altitude 10 feet Altitude 40 feet 

Altitude 100 feet Altitude 200 feet 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat 61
Figure 32. Relation for Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) between diversion condition and habitat (in terms of 

change in weighted usable area relative to natural conditions), Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii. 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA EQUALED OR 

 EXCEEDED 90 PERCENT OF THE TIME (H90)

 DURING PERIODS WHEN DISCHARGE IS

 LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO MEDIAN 

 DISCHARGE

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA EQUALED OR 

 EXCEEDED 50 PERCENT OF THE TIME (H50)

 DURING PERIODS WHEN DISCHARGE IS

 LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO MEDIAN 

 DISCHARGE

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

0

-20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

60

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

CONSTANT DIVERSION RATE, 

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

CONSTANT DIVERSION RATE, 

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

NATURAL 

CONDITIONS

RECENT DIVERTED 

CONDITIONS

NATURAL 

CONDITIONS

RECENT DIVERTED 

CONDITIONS

Altitude 10 feet Altitude 40 feet 

Altitude 100 feet Altitude 200 feet 

CHANGE IN HABITAT (WEIGHTED USABLE AREA) RELATIVE TO NATURAL CONDITIONS, IN PERCENT 

62 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 33. Relation for Neritina granosa (hihiwai) between diversion condition and average number of days per 

year that habitat is less than 50 or 75 percent of the habitat at median natural discharge, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, 

Hawaii. The number of days was determined for periods when the discharge was less than or equal to the median 

natural discharge.

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA HABITAT 

 LESS THAN 75 PERCENT OF THE HABITAT 

 AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA HABITAT 

 LESS THAN 50 PERCENT OF THE HABITAT 

 AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

CONSTANT DIVERSION RATE, 

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

CONSTANT DIVERSION RATE, 

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

NATURAL 

CONDITIONS

RECENT DIVERTED 

CONDITIONS

NATURAL 

CONDITIONS

RECENT DIVERTED 

CONDITIONS

AVERAGE NUMBER OF DAYS PER YEAR THAT HABITAT IS LESS THAN 50 OR 75 PERCENT OF THE HABITAT AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

Altitude 10 feet Altitude 40 feet 

Altitude 100 feet Altitude 200 feet 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat 63
per year that WUA values are less than 75 percent of the WUA 

value at median natural discharge increases substantially for 

constant diversion rates above about 4–5 ft3/s, and (2) WUA 

values are less than 75 percent of the WUA value at median 

natural discharge for 138 to 183 days per year for a constant 

diversion rate of 10 ft3/s. 

Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea)

At stream altitudes of 10, 100, and 200 ft, H50 and H90

values for Awaous guamensis decrease with increasing diversion rates within the range of 1 to 10 ft3

/s (fig. 32). At stream 

altitudes of 10, 100, and 200 ft, (1) H50 values are reduced by 

less than 10 percent, relative to the corresponding values for 

natural conditions, for constant diversion rates of 1 to 5 ft3/s; 

(2) H50 values are reduced by 23 to 37 percent for a constant 

diversion rate of 10 ft3/s; (3) H90 values are reduced by less 

than 16 percent, relative to the corresponding values for natural conditions, for constant diversion rates of 1 to 5 ft3

/s; and 

(4) H90 values are reduced by 27 to 53 percent for a constant 

diversion rate of 10 ft3/s. 

At stream altitudes of 10, 100, and 200 ft, the relations 

between WUA and discharge for Awaous guamensis (figs. 

25, 27, and 28) indicate maximum WUA values at or near 

the median natural discharge. In contrast, at a stream altitude 

of 40 ft, the relation between WUA and discharge (fig. 26) 

indicates a maximum WUA value at a discharge rate that is 

significantly lower than the median natural discharge. The 

shape of the relation between WUA and discharge at a stream 

altitude of 40 ft indicates that WUA values greater than the 

WUA value at natural median discharge can be attained for 

discharge rates between about 3 ft3/s to the natural median 

discharge (21 ft3/s). If the shape of the relation between WUA 

and discharge is accurate, reducing streamflow by diverting 

water from Punaluu Stream may result in a predicted increase 

in WUA, relative to natural-habitat conditions at a stream 

altitude of 40 ft, although total habitat will decrease with 

decreasing streamflow. At a stream altitude of 40 ft, H50 and 

H90 values for A. guamensis increase with increasing diversion rates within the range of 1 to 10 ft3

/s (fig. 32). Although 

this result is consistent with the shape of the relation between 

WUA and discharge at a stream altitude of 40 ft, it may reflect 

a limitation associated with transferring suitability curves from 

northeast Maui streams (Gingerich and Wolff, 2005) to some 

reaches in Punaluu Stream. The reaches at 100 and 200 ft in 

Punaluu Stream are most similar to northeast Maui streams for 

which habitat-suitability criteria were developed.

For natural-flow conditions, WUA values are less than 

75 percent of the WUA values at median natural discharge 

at stream altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 200 ft for fewer than 

3 days per year (on average). For recent diverted conditions, 

the average number of days per year that WUA values are less 

than 50 or 75 percent of the WUA value at median natural 

discharge generally (1) decreases in a downstream direction, 

reflecting the effects of tributary inflows and ditch return 

flows, (2) is less than the corresponding number of days 

for constant diversion rates greater than about 4–5 ft3/s at a 

stream altitude of 10 ft, and (3) is greater than the corresponding number of days for a constant diversion rate of 10 ft3

/s at 

stream altitudes of 40, 100, and 140 ft (fig. 34). At stream 

altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 200 ft and for constant diversion 

rates of up to 8 ft3/s, WUA values are less than 50 percent of 

the WUA value at median natural discharge for fewer than 4 

days per year (fig. 34). At a stream altitude of 200 ft and for 

a constant diversion rate of 10 ft3/s, WUA values are less than 

50 percent of the WUA value at median natural discharge for 

about 30 days per year. At stream altitudes of 10, 40, 100, and 

200 ft and for constant diversion rates of up to 4 ft3/s, WUA 

values are less than 75 percent of the WUA value at median 

natural discharge for fewer than 7 days per year. At stream 

altitudes of 10, 100, and 200 ft, (1) the average number of days 

per year that WUA values are less than 75 percent of the WUA 

value at median natural discharge increases substantially for 

constant diversion rates above about 5 ft3/s, and (2) WUA 

values are less than 75 percent of the WUA value at median 

natural discharge for 131 to 170 days per year for a constant 

diversion rate of 10 ft3/s. 

Limitations

One of the main limitations of the analysis to evaluate 

the effects of different diversion scenarios on physical habitat 

is that habitat-suitability criteria specific to Punaluu Stream 

were not developed in this study. Habitat-suitability criteria 

from northeast Maui streams were assumed to be transferable 

to Punaluu Stream. Although the accuracy of this assumption could not be rigorously tested, results from Gingerich and 

Wolff (2005) indicate that habitat-suitability criteria developed for northeast Maui streams in some cases are transferable to other areas of the State. Habitat-suitability curves 

specific to Punaluu Stream were not developed for this study 

because existing populations of native species in the study 

reaches were considered too small. Furthermore, suitable 

habitat for Eleotris sandwicensis (oopu akupa) and Stenogobius hawaiiensis (oopu naniha), which were both observed in 

Punaluu Stream, was not modeled in this study because habitat-suitability criteria were not available. Establishing habitat-suitability criteria specifically for Punaluu Stream would 

lead to an improved understanding of the effects of diverting 

water from the stream on suitable habitat. In addition, direct 

measurement of WUA over a broader range of flows would 

preclude the need to use modeling techniques to extrapolate 

measured velocities, depths, and habitat. This study does not 

address the effects of flow diversion on native species abundance, algae and invertebrate food sources for native macrofauna, and flows necessary for reproduction and recruitment of 

native species.

64 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 34. Relation for Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) between diversion condition and average number 

of days per year that habitat is less than 50 or 75 percent of the habitat at median natural discharge, Punaluu 

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii. The number of days was determined for periods when the discharge was less than or 

equal to the median natural discharge. 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA HABITAT 

 LESS THAN 75 PERCENT OF THE HABITAT 

 AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

WEIGHTED USABLE AREA HABITAT 

 LESS THAN 50 PERCENT OF THE HABITAT 

 AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

CONSTANT DIVERSION RATE, 

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

CONSTANT DIVERSION RATE, 

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

NATURAL 

CONDITIONS

RECENT DIVERTED 

CONDITIONS

NATURAL 

CONDITIONS

RECENT DIVERTED 

CONDITIONS

AVERAGE NUMBER OF DAYS PER YEAR THAT HABITAT IS LESS THAN 50 OR 75 PERCENT OF THE HABITAT AT MEDIAN NATURAL DISCHARGE 

Altitude 10 feet Altitude 40 feet 

Altitude 100 feet Altitude 200 feet 

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Habitat 65
Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on 

Stream Temperatures

Diversion of water from Punaluu Stream near an altitude 

of 210 ft results in decreased flow and possibly increased 

stream temperatures. Reduced streamflow will lead to lower 

water velocities and longer travel times for water to flow to the 

ocean. Because of the longer travel times, water is exposed to 

potential heating from the sun for longer periods. Stream temperature is a factor that could potentially affect the abundance 

and distribution of native aquatic species. Hathaway (1978) 

indicated that the upper-lethal-temperature limits for native 

aquatic species generally range from about 35°C to 40°C. 

To evaluate the effects of diversion of water on stream 

temperatures, temperature-recording sensors (thermistors) 

were placed immediately upstream and about 100 ft downstream from the Punaluu Ditch diversion intake near an 

altitude of 210 ft. In addition, temperature-recording sensors 

were placed at stream altitudes of 100, 45, 30, and 10 ft. The 

sensors generally were placed near the stream thalweg (low 

point in the stream) to ensure that they remained submerged 

for all flow conditions that occurred during the study period 

and that water continuously flowed past the sensors. Temperature measurements during low-flow conditions at the selected 

sites indicated that temperatures generally were uniform 

throughout each stream cross section, except in shallow areas 

near the stream edges where water velocities were low. All 

temperature-recording sensors were programmed to measure 

temperature at 15-minute intervals during the 13-month period 

between June 2004 and July 2005.

Daily Mean Temperatures

During June 2004 to July 2005, daily mean temperatures 

in Punaluu Stream for recent (diverted) conditions ranged 

from 18.6°C to 23.0°C (fig. 35). For comparison, groundwater temperatures measured by BWS in well 3553-05 (fig. 3), 

located near the coast, generally range from about 21°C to 

24°C. Daily mean temperatures were highest (ranging from 

20.7°C to 23.0°C) during the months of June through September, which are part of the dry season, and lowest (ranging from 

18.7°C to 21.4°C) during the months of December through 

March, which are part of the wet season (fig. 35). 

Stream temperatures measured immediately upstream 

and downstream from the Punaluu Ditch intake do not indicate 

a significant change in temperature caused by a reduction in 

flow (fig. 35), probably because of the short distance between 

measurement sites and also because sufficient flow remained 

in the stream downstream from the Ditch intake during the 

period of study. However, stream temperatures generally 

increased farther downstream. The increase in temperature 

in a downstream direction is caused partly by exposure of 

the water to solar radiation and frictional heating, and also 

is related to inflows of warmer water from natural tributaries, ditch-return flows, irrigation water that is returned to the 

stream, and possibly the shallow ground-water body. 

The longitudinal-temperature gradient, as measured by 

the differences in daily mean temperatures at altitudes of 210 

and 10 ft, was greatest during the months of June through September, and lowest during the months of December through 

March (fig. 35). During the months of June through September, the temperature at an altitude of 10 ft was about 1°C to 

1.8°C warmer than at an altitude of 210 ft, whereas during 

the months of December through March, the temperature at 

an altitude of 10 ft was about 0.5°C to 1°C warmer than at an 

altitude of 210 ft. The longitudinal-temperature gradient also 

was reduced during periods of heavy rainfall, as indicated by 

periods of high streamflow (fig. 35). The reduced longitudinal-temperature gradient during rainy periods may be related 

to factors including: (1) direct runoff of uniform temperature 

entering along the length of the stream; (2) a smaller altitudinal air-temperature gradient during rainy periods; (3) a 

reduced effect of ditch-return flows and irrigation water entering the stream; and (4) increased water velocities and shorter 

travel times that reduce the possibility for warming of water. 

The downstream increase in temperature potentially could be 

reduced if no water were diverted from the stream, although 

the reduction likely would be small over the range of flows 

that would be restored. 

Diurnal Temperature Variations

Because exposure to lethal temperatures for short durations, in some cases less than 30 minutes (Hathaway, 1978), 

can cause death in native aquatic species, maximum and 

minimum daily temperatures were measured. Temperatures 

in Punaluu Stream vary on a diurnal basis because of diurnal variations in energy (in the form of solar radiation and 

longwave radiation) received in the valley. During daytime 

hours, solar radiation received in the valley causes stream 

temperatures to increase, whereas during the nighttime, loss 

of infrared energy from the surface causes stream temperatures to decrease. During the period when temperatures were 

measured for this study, daily maximum temperatures did not 

exceed 25°C and daily minimum temperatures did not drop 

below 17.5°C at any of the study sites. At all of the study sites, 

daily maximum temperatures remained below the upperlethal-temperature limits for native aquatic species (Hathaway, 

1978). 

In general, maximum temperatures occurred during the 

afternoon hours (between about 13:30 and 16:30 hours) and 

minimum temperatures occurred near dawn (between about 

05:00 and 08:00 hours). Differences between daily maximum 

and minimum temperatures generally (1) ranged from about 

1°C to 3°C, (2) were greatest at the lowest site (10 ft altitude) 

and least at the highest site (210 ft altitude), and (3) were 

enhanced during warm, dry periods and reduced during cool, 

wet periods (fig. 36). 

66 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 35. Daily mean discharge at stream-gaging station 16303003, daily mean stream temperatures at 

altitudes of 10 to 210 feet above mean sea level, and daily mean temperature difference between stream 

altitudes of 210 and 10 feet, Punaluu Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

2004 2005

JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY 

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

19

18

20

21

22

23

24

10

100

1,000

DAILY MEAN WATER TEMPERATURE, 

IN DEGREES CELSIUS 

DAILY MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 

ALTITUDES OF 10 AND 210 FEET, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 

DAILY MEAN DISCHARGE AT STREAM-GAGING 

STATION 16303003, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

Note: a positive temperature difference indicates stream temperature at an altitude of 10 feet is greater than stream temperature at an altitude of 210 feet 

Note: numbers indicate approximate stream altitude, in feet above mean sea level 

30

45 100

210 (downstream from diversion) 

200 (upstream from diversion) 

10

Effects of Surface-Water Diversion on Stream Temperatures 67
Figure 36. Discharge at stream-gaging station 16303003, stream temperatures at altitudes of 10 and 210 feet 

above mean sea level, and difference between daily maximum and minimum stream temperatures, Punaluu 

Stream, Oahu, Hawaii.

WATER TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM 

STREAM TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES CELSIUS 

DISCHARGE AT STREAM-GAGING STATION 16303003, 

IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

10 FEET ALTITUDE 

210 FEET ALTITUDE 

20

21

22

23

24

25

10

100

1,000

5,000

0

1

2

3

4

July 2004 August 2004 September 2004 

68 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Ground-Water-Flow System

Ground water currently is the source of almost all 

domestic water in the study area. The hydraulic properties of 

the rocks control the modes of ground-water occurrence in 

the study area. In general, dike-free volcanic rocks are highly 

permeable. However, low-permeability intrusive dikes, marine 

and terrestrial coastal sediments, valley-filling older alluvium, 

and weathered volcanic rocks can have a significant effect on 

the ground-water system by impeding flow. Within the study 

area, the main ground-water-flow system consists of dikeimpounded water inland from the coast that may transition 

to a freshwater lens in dike-free volcanic rocks near the coast 

(fig. 37) (Gingerich and Oki, 2000). Ground water generally flows from inland areas toward the coast, although local 

variations from the regional flow directions may be caused by 

pumped wells or discharge to Punaluu Stream.

Water in the Sedimentary Deposits

In general, the older valley-filling sedimentary deposits 

have lower permeability than the dike-free volcanic rocks. 

Water that infiltrates into the sedimentary deposits may form 

a saturated ground-water body that is either hydraulically connected to the underlying volcanic rocks or separated from the 

volcanic rocks by a zone of unsaturated rock (fig. 38). Where 

ground water in sedimentary deposits is hydraulically connected to ground water in the adjacent volcanic rocks, water 

may move into or out of the sedimentary deposits, depending 

on the hydraulic-head distribution. Water moves out of the 

sedimentary deposits if the hydraulic head in the sedimentary 

deposits is greater than the head in the underlying volcanic 

rocks, whereas water moves into the sedimentary deposits 

if the head in the sedimentary deposits is less than the head 

in the underlying volcanic rocks. Water in the sedimentary 

deposits may discharge to underlying volcanic rocks, Punaluu 

Stream, or the ocean. 

Dike-Impounded Water

Dike-impounded water is found in the rift zones of a volcano where low-permeability dikes have intruded other rocks. 

A dike-impounded-flow system includes the freshwater body 

and, where it exists, underlying brackish water and saltwater 

(fig. 37). Near-vertical dikes tend to compartmentalize areas 

of permeable volcanic rocks. Dikes impound freshwater to 

heights of hundreds of feet above sea level in the study area. 

Near the coast in the Punaluu area, where few dikes 

intrude permeable volcanic rocks, the water table generally 

is only a few feet to a few tens of feet above sea level and 

brackish water exists below the freshwater. The depth to which 

freshwater extends below sea level within the dike-impounded 

system is not known where the water table is high, although 

freshwater probably extends far below sea level. Sedimentary 

deposits may confine the dike-impounded ground water in 

places, although the dike-impounded ground water is mainly 

unconfined in inland areas. 

The dike-impounded system is recharged mainly by 

direct infiltration of precipitation. Where erosion has exposed 

dike compartments and the ground-water table extends to 

the surface, ground water may discharge directly to Punaluu 

Stream. Many of the perennial tributaries of Punaluu Stream 

are likely fed by discharge of dike-impounded ground water at 

high altitudes. The source of Waihoi Springs (fig. 2), which 

discharges from surface breccia on the west valley wall at 

an altitude of about 600 ft, likely is dike-impounded ground 

water. Where sedimentary deposits exist in or near the stream 

channel, they may impede the discharge of freshwater from 

the dike-impounded system to Punaluu Stream. Fresh ground 

water in the dike-impounded system also discharges to the 

downgradient freshwater-lens system. 

Freshwater Lens 

A freshwater-lens system includes a lens-shaped freshwater body, an intermediate transition zone of brackish water, 

and underlying saltwater (fig. 37). Within a freshwater-lens 

system, fresh ground water generally moves from inland areas 

to the coast. A saltwater circulation system exists beneath 

the freshwater lens. Saltwater flows landward in the deeper 

parts of the aquifer, rises and mixes with seaward flowing 

freshwater forming a brackish-water transition zone, and then 

discharges to the ocean. The thicknesses of freshwater and the 

brackish-water transition zone are controlled by factors including recharge rate, ground-water withdrawal rate, and extent of 

mixing between freshwater and underlying saltwater. 

In the study area, a freshwater-lens system exists in the 

dike-free volcanic rocks and sedimentary deposits near the 

coast. Water levels in the freshwater-lens system generally 

range from a few feet to tens of feet above sea level. The 

thicknesses of the freshwater and transition zones are monitored by collecting vertical profiles of fluid electrical conductivity, which is an indicator of salinity, from a deep well that 

is open to the aquifer in the freshwater and transition zones. 

In the Punaluu area, the BWS has collected vertical salinity 

profiles from well 3553-05 since 1968. These salinity profiles 

indicate a brackish-water transition zone that is a few hundred 

feet thick near well 3553-05 (fig. 39). The freshwater thickness in well 3553-05 has decreased since 1968. This decrease 

probably is related to increased ground-water withdrawal in 

the area. Temperature profiles measured by BWS in well 

3553-05 indicate ground-water temperatures that range from 

about 21°C to 24°C. 

The freshwater-lens system is recharged mainly by inflow 

from the upgradient dike-impounded system and also by direct 

infiltration of precipitation and irrigation water. Discharge 

from the freshwater-lens system is by diffuse seepage near 

the coast, to springs, to Punaluu Stream, to the atmosphere by 

evapotranspiration, and to withdrawal wells. 

Ground-Water-Flow System 69
Figure 37. Schematic cross section showing freshwater-lens system and dike-impounded ground water, Punaluu, Oahu, Hawaii. 

Section location shown in figure 3.

SHORELINE

SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS DIKESGENERALIZED DIRECTION OF GROUND-WATER FLOW  FRESHWATER  SALTWATER 

EXPLANATION

C C‘

DIKE-IMPOUNDED GROUND WATER FRESHWATER-LENS SYSTEM 

LAND

SURFACE

FRESHWATER SALTWATER 

BRACKISH

WATER

-2,000

-500

-1,000-1,500

Sea level 

500

3,0002,5002,0001,5001,000

Feet

70 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 38. Schematic cross sections of (A) gaining stream with sedimentary deposits hydraulically connected to the volcanic rocks, (B) losing stream with sedimentary 

deposits hydraulically connected to the volcanic rocks, and (C) losing stream with saturated sedimentary deposits separated from the volcanic rocks by a zone of unsaturated rock.

Water table 

Water table 

Water table 

RECENT SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS

OLDER ALLUVIUM

VOLCANIC ROCK 

RECENT SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS OLDER ALLUVIUM VOLCANIC ROCK 

SATURATED ROCK WATER TABLE GENERALIZED FLOW DIRECTION 

EXPLANATION 

Perched ground water 

A B C

Stream Stream

Stream

Ground-Water-Flow System 71
Figure 39. Fluid specific-conductance profiles from Punaluu deep monitor well 3553-05, Oahu, Hawaii (data 

provided by Honolulu Board of Water Supply).

08/29/1968 03/18/1980 03/07/1989

02/14/2002

FLUID SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER 

0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000

-1,100

-1,000

-900

-800

-700

-600

-500

-400

-300

-200

-100

0

ALTITUDE, IN FEET RELATIVE TO MEAN SEA LEVEL 

72 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
The coastal caprock impedes discharge of freshwater 

from the volcanic rocks, and causes the freshwater lens to be 

thicker than it would be without confinement. Ground-water 

levels in the coastal sedimentary deposits generally are less 

than a few feet above sea level. Salinity of ground water in the 

caprock is likely variable and this water is considered part of 

the freshwater-lens system.

Perched Systems

Perched water is found in areas where low-permeability 

rocks impede downward movement of ground water sufficiently to allow a saturated water body to develop within 

otherwise unsaturated rocks (fig. 38). Low-permeability 

rocks that may lead to perched water include massive, thickbedded lava flows, buried soil and weathered ash layers, and 

sedimentary deposits. Within the study area, perched systems 

may exist in valley-filling deposits, but they are not developed 

as a resource. The size of a perched system depends on the 

areal extent of the low-permeability rocks. The height of the 

water table above sea level in a perched system depends on the 

altitude of the low-permeability rocks and the rate and duration of recharge. Discharge from a perched system responds 

to variations in recharge and can be to Punaluu Stream, to 

springs, downward to a lower water table, or to the atmosphere 

by evapotranspiration. In some areas, perched water may exist 

following periods of heavy rainfall, but the rocks may later 

become unsaturated during an extended dry period.

Withdrawals

Complete records of ground-water withdrawal from the 

Punaluu area generally are unavailable prior to 1960 when 

withdrawals mainly were limited to privately owned domestic and irrigation wells. Many of the early wells were drilled 

at low altitudes near the coast and penetrated through sedimentary deposits into volcanic rock. Because sedimentary 

deposits act as a confining unit near the coast, the wells are 

classified as artesian. In some cases, water pressure in the 

volcanic-rock aquifer was sufficient to raise the water above 

the land surface and create free-flowing artesian wells. 

Three main production well fields currently are in the 

Punaluu area (fig. 3). Punaluu I (3553-02) was drilled in 

1958. A total of six wells (3553-03, -04, -06 to -08, 3554-

03) drilled between 1965 and 1967 form the Punaluu II well 

field. The Punaluu III well field, consisting of two production wells (3453-06, -07), was drilled in 1974. Ground-water 

withdrawal from Punaluu I generally was between 0.2 and 

0.6 Mgal/d from 1965 to the end of 1999, when withdrawal 

ceased (fig. 40). Ground-water withdrawal from Punaluu II 

ranged from about 2 to 8 Mgal/d between 1970 and 2002, 

and withdrawal from Punaluu III ranged from about 1 to 1.5 

Mgal/d between 1978 and 2002 (fig. 40). During 2000–2002, 

combined withdrawal from the Punaluu II and III well fields 

averaged about 6.5 Mgal/d. Withdrawals from Punaluu II 

and III were reduced toward the end of 2003. During 2004, 

combined withdrawal from the Punaluu II and III well fields 

averaged about 2.4 Mgal/d. 

Several privately owned wells in the Punaluu area withdraw small amounts of water for domestic or agricultural uses. 

Total reported withdrawals from two privately owned wells 

(3453-03 and 3553-01) in the Punaluu area prior to 1997 were 

less than 0.5 Mgal/d.

Water Levels

In the Punaluu area, ground-water levels generally are 

highest near the inland, high recharge areas and lowest near 

coastal discharge areas. The presence of springs and perennially flowing tributaries indicate that water levels in the dikeimpounded ground-water system probably exceed 600 ft above 

mean sea level in inland areas. Water levels measured in wells 

drilled in the mapped marginal dike zone (Takasaki and Mink, 

1985) generally are less than 25 ft above mean sea level (fig. 

41). Water levels in wells southeast of Punaluu Stream and 

within about 1,500 ft of the coast generally are less than 10 ft 

above mean sea level.

The water level in Punaluu well VA (3454-01), which is 

within the mapped marginal dike zone (Takasaki and Mink, 

1985) about 6,300 ft inland from the coast and which currently 

is the well located farthest inland in the Punaluu area, was 

19.50 ft above mean sea level on May 19, 2005. The water 

level in Punaluu well VB (3453-10), also located within the 

mapped marginal dike zone but about 4,300 ft inland from the 

coast, was 26.38 ft above mean sea level on May 19, 2005. 

The water level in Punaluu VB was higher than the water level 

in Punaluu VA, although Punaluu VB is located closer to the 

coast than Punaluu VA. Possible reasons for the higher water 

level in the well located closer to the coast include: (1) the 

wells may be drilled in material with different hydraulic characteristics such that water levels respond differently to changes 

in recharge or withdrawal; (2) the wells may be drilled in separate dike compartments with different water levels; or (3) the 

wells may be separated by a relatively low-permeability valley-fill barrier composed of valley-filling sedimentary deposits 

and underlying weathered basalt associated with Punaluu 

Stream. Concurrent water-level data collected at 15-minute 

intervals from Punaluu wells VA and VB from May 19 to July 

26, 2005 indicate different short-term responses to natural 

and human-induced factors (fig. 42). Water levels in Punaluu 

VA show short-term changes in response to ocean tides and 

ground-water withdrawals, whereas short-term water-level 

changes in Punaluu VB are much more subdued. The waterlevel variations measured in Punaluu VB indicate that the well 

is likely drilled in low-permeability material. 

Makalii well 2 (3453-12) and Makalii well 2A (3453-16) 

are located about 600 ft apart and just seaward of the marginal 

dike zone defined by Takasaki and Mink (1985). On May 

19, 2005, water levels measured in Makalii wells 2 and 2A, 

respectively, were 12.96 and 8.25 ft above mean sea level. 

Ground-Water-Flow System 73
Figure 40. Ground-water withdrawal from Punaluu well fields I, II, and III, Oahu, Hawaii. Data from 

unpublished records in USGS Pacific Islands Water Science Center well files and digital database from Hawaii 

State Commission on Water Resource Management.

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

0

2

4

6

8

10

0.0

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

0.2

0

5

10

15

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

WITHDRAWAL, IN MILLION GALLONS PER DAY 

Punaluu III (3453-06, -07) 

Punaluu I, II, and III combined 

Punaluu II (3553-03, -04, -06 to -08, 3554-03) 

Punaluu I (3553-02)

74 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 41. Measured ground-water levels on April 12, 2005 and May 19, 2005 in the Punaluu area, Oahu, Hawaii. 

20.58

19.50

(3454-01)

27.65

26.38

(3453-10)

15.44

12.96

(3453-12)

9.06

8.25

(3453-16)

8.67

7.92

(3452-02)

8.41

7.66

(3452-01)

6.56 (measured 04/14/2005) 

6.12 (measured 05/05/2005) 

(3453-05)

14.46

13.52

(3453-13)

3453-15

3453-08

3453-11

3453-03

3453-01

3453-02

3453-07

3453-09

3453-06

0 1500 3000 FEET

WELL AND MEASURED WATER LEVELS, 

 IN FEET ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL-- 

 Measured 04/12/2005 

 Measured 05/19/2005 

 State well number 

OTHER WELL (NOT MEASURED) AND 

 STATE WELL NUMBER 

EXPLANATION 

27.65

26.38

(3453-10)

3453-06

21°35'

157°54'

21°34'30"

157°53'30" 157°53'

21°34'

21°33'30"

Tunnel 1 

Tunnel 2 

Tunnel 3 

Tunnel 4 

Tunnel 5 

Tunnel 6 

Tunnel 7 

Tunnel 8 

Tunnel 9 

Tunnel 10 

Tunnel 11 

Tunnel 12 

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey Digital 

Raster Graphics topographic maps, 1:24,000,

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 4, 

NAD83 datum.

Ground-Water-Flow System 75
Figure 42. Ground-water levels in Punaluu wells VA (3454-01) and VB (3453-10) 

during May 15 through July 31, 2005, Oahu, Hawaii.

Punaluu well VA (3454-01)

Punaluu well VB (3453-10)

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL

MAY 2005 JUNE 2005

15 1 15 1 15

JULY 2005

The difference in water levels between Makalii wells 2 and 2A 

may indicate that the wells were drilled in separate dike compartments with different water levels, although they are shown 

outside of the marginal dike zone from Takasaki and Mink 

(1985). The wells also may be drilled in rocks with different 

hydraulic characteristics or separated by rocks (unrelated to 

dikes) of low permeability. 

Within the Punaluu area, water levels may vary temporally in response to changes in recharge and ground-water 

withdrawal, ocean tides, and barometric pressure. Water levels 

measured in Punaluu deep monitor well 3553-05 declined 

after about 1968 when withdrawal from the Punaluu II well 

field began (fig. 43). Water levels in well 3553-05 declined 

further during the late 1990s, most likely in response to 

reduced recharge during an extended period of low rainfall. 

Shorter-term periods of low rainfall also can affect water levels in the Punaluu area. From April 15 through May 15, 2005, 

daily mean water levels in selected wells in the Punaluu area 

dropped by about 1 ft and daily mean discharge in Punaluu 

Stream decreased by about 4 ft3/s partly because of low rainfall during this period (fig. 44). During the period from April 

15 through May 15, 2005, only 3.93 in. of rain fell at rain gage 

883.12 near the topographic crest of the Koolau Range, and 

this total represents about 15 percent of the mean rainfall for 

this period (Giambelluca and others, 1986). 

Water levels in the Punaluu area vary daily in response 

to natural factors such as ocean tides and barometric pressure. 

Water levels affected mainly by ocean tides commonly show 

two maximum and two minimum values in a day, and the 

times of day at which the maxima and minima occur generally shift over time during a month because ocean tides are 

composed of numerous tidal components of different phase 

and frequency (including diurnal, semidiurnal, terdiurnal, and 

other components). Water levels affected mainly by semidiurnal variations in barometric pressure show two maximum and 

two minimum values in a day, and the times of day at which 

the maxima and minima occur generally do not vary much 

unless a low- or high-pressure weather system approaches the 

island. 

In general, wells located close to the coast are affected 

by ocean tides to a greater extent than wells located farther 

inland (figs. 45–48). For example, water levels measured in 

well 3453-05 (fig. 45), about 600 ft inland from the coast, are 

affected by ocean tides to a greater extent than water levels 

measured in Punaluu VA (3454-01) (fig. 48), which is about 

6,300 ft from the coast. Because Punaluu VB (3453-10), 

which is located about 4,300 ft from the coast, is likely drilled 

in low-permeability material, water levels do not appear to 

be affected by ocean tides, although water levels may be 

affected slightly by semidiurnal barometric-pressure variations 

(fig. 42). 

Salinity

As described previously (see section on “Freshwater 

Lens”), ground-water salinity in the Punaluu area increases 

with depth. At a particular depth relative to sea level, salinity 

generally is expected to increase with proximity to the coast 

76 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 43. Ground-water levels in Punaluu deep monitor well 3553-05, Punaluu, 

Oahu, Hawaii. Data from unpublished records in USGS Pacific Islands Water 

Science Center well files and from Honolulu Board of Water Supply.

1968 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003

10

15

20

25

WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL

Figure 44. Discharge at Punaluu Stream gaging station 16303003 and water levels 

in Punaluu well VB (3453-10) and Makalii well 3 (3453-13), Oahu, Hawaii, April 15, 

2005 through May 15, 2005.

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

APRIL 2005 MAY 2005

10

15

20

25

30

10

15

20

25

30

DAILY MEAN DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

DAILY MEAN WATER LEVEL, IN FEET ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL

Punaluu well VB (3453-10) water level

Punaluu Stream discharge at gaging station 16303003

Makalii well 3 (3453-13) water level

Ground-Water-Flow System 77
Figure 45. Water levels in Sproat well (3453-05), water levels with tidal variations removed, and pump timing 

at selected wells in the Punaluu area (shaded areas represent periods when pumps were in operation), Oahu, 

Hawaii, during June 2005. Information on pump timing from Honolulu Board of Water Supply.

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

JUNE 2005 

1 2 3 4 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

5.0

5.5

6.0

5.0

5.5

6.0

5.0

5.5

6.0

5.0

5.5

6.0

5.0

5.5

6.0

WATER LEVEL IN SPROAT WELL (3453-05), IN FEET RELATIVE TO MEAN SEA LEVEL

PUMP IN OPERATION 

MEASURED WATER LEVEL 

WATER LEVEL WITH TIDAL 

 VARIATIONS REMOVED 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 1 (3553-07) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 3 (3553-04) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 6 (3554-03) 

Pump timing at Punaluu III, pump 1 (3453-06) and pump 2 (3453-07) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 2 (3553-06) 

78 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 46. Water levels in Makalii 1 (3452-02), water levels with tidal variations removed, and pump timing at 

selected wells in the Punaluu area (shaded areas represent periods when pumps were in operation), Oahu, 

Hawaii, during June 2005. Information on pump timing from Honolulu Board of Water Supply.

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

JUNE 2005 

1 2 3 4 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

7.0

7.5

8.0

7.0

7.5

8.0

7.0

7.5

8.0

7.0

7.5

8.0

7.0

7.5

8.0

WATER LEVEL IN MAKALII 1 (3452-02), IN FEET RELATIVE TO MEAN SEA LEVEL

PUMP IN OPERATION 

MEASURED WATER LEVEL 

WATER LEVEL WITH TIDAL 

 VARIATIONS REMOVED 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 1 (3553-07) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 3 (3553-04) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 6 (3554-03) 

Pump timing at Punaluu III, pump 1 (3453-06) and pump 2 (3453-07) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 2 (3553-06) 

Ground-Water-Flow System 79
Figure 47. Water levels in Makalii 3 (3453-13), water levels with tidal variations removed, and pump timing at 

selected wells in the Punaluu area (shaded areas represent periods when pumps were in operation), Oahu, 

Hawaii, during June 2005. Information on pump timing from Honolulu Board of Water Supply.

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

JUNE 2005 

1 2 3 4 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

12.5

13.0

13.5

12.5

13.0

13.5

12.5

13.0

13.5

12.5

13.0

13.5

12.5

13.0

13.5

WATER LEVEL IN MAKALII 3 (3453-13), IN FEET RELATIVE TO MEAN SEA LEVEL

PUMP IN OPERATION 

MEASURED WATER LEVEL 

WATER LEVEL WITH TIDAL 

 VARIATIONS REMOVED 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 1 (3553-07) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 3 (3553-04) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 6 (3554-03) 

Pump timing at Punaluu III, pump 1 (3453-06) and pump 2 (3453-07) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 2 (3553-06) 

80 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 48. Water levels in Punaluu VA (3454-01), water levels with tidal variations removed, and pump timing 

at selected wells in the Punaluu area (shaded areas represent periods when pumps were in operation), Oahu, 

Hawaii, during June 2005. Information on pump timing from Honolulu Board of Water Supply.

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

JUNE 2005 

1 2 3 4 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

18.5

19.0

19.5

18.5

19.0

19.5

18.5

19.0

19.5

18.5

19.0

19.5

18.5

19.0

19.5

WATER LEVEL IN PUNALUU VA (3454-01), IN FEET RELATIVE TO MEAN SEA LEVEL

PUMP IN OPERATION 

MEASURED WATER LEVEL 

WATER LEVEL WITH TIDAL 

 VARIATIONS REMOVED 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 1 (3553-07) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 3 (3553-04) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 6 (3554-03) 

Pump timing at Punaluu III, pump 1 (3453-06) and pump 2 (3453-07) 

Pump timing at Punaluu II, pump 2 (3553-06) 

Ground-Water-Flow System 81
because the main source of saltwater in the ground-water system is the ocean. The salinity of ground water in Hawaii commonly is measured by chloride concentration, which also is an 

indicator of saltwater intrusion into the ground-water system. 

In general, the chloride concentrations of pumped water are 

expected to increase with depth, proximity to the coast, and 

pumping rate of the well. Exceptions to this generalization, 

however, are known to exist in Hawaii. Since the late 1990s, 

chloride concentrations of pumped water from production 

wells in the Punaluu area commonly exceeded 100 milligrams 

per liter (mg/L), and in some cases chloride concentrations 

exceeded 250 mg/L (fig. 49). For comparison, the chloride 

concentration of rainfall on Oahu generally is a few to a few 

tens of mg/L (Stearns and Vaksvik, 1935; Visher and Mink, 

1964; Dugan and Ekern, 1984), and the chloride concentration of seawater is about 19,500 mg/L (Wentworth, 1939). On 

Oahu, fresh ground water used for domestic purposes generally has a chloride concentration less than 150–200 mg/L and 

commonly less than 50 mg/L. 

Since the mid-1990s, chloride concentrations of pumped 

water from several production wells in the study area have 

increased over time. The increase in chloride concentrations 

of pumped water along with the thinning of the freshwater 

zone over time in the Punaluu area (fig. 39) are consistent with 

saltwater intrusion, which is characterized by landward and 

upward movement of brackish water or saltwater into parts of 

the aquifer that formerly contained freshwater. 

Effects of Ground-Water Withdrawal 

on Streamflow

Because of the hydraulic connection between Punaluu 

Stream and the adjacent ground-water body, withdrawals 

from production wells in the Punaluu area can potentially 

reduce streamflow. Seepage-run measurements and groundwater-level data collected for this study indicate the potential 

for interaction between ground water and Punaluu Stream, 

although quantification of the effects of ground-water withdrawal on streamflow was beyond the scope of this study. 

When withdrawal from a well begins, water is initially 

removed from aquifer storage, and water levels in the vicinity of the well begin to decline. If withdrawal is stopped and 

ground-water recharge remains steady, water lost from storage 

eventually will be regained and water levels will recover as 

the system returns to pre-withdrawal conditions. If withdrawal from the well continues at a steady rate, the zone over 

which water levels decline expands outward from the well as 

additional water is removed from storage. Water-level decline 

is greatest at the withdrawal site and decreases outward from 

the well, forming what is known as a cone of depression. The 

cone of depression eventually reaches areas where water is 

discharging to the ocean or streams, or where recharge to 

the ground-water body can occur. The shape of the cone of 

depression generally is not symmetrical because of the presence of low-permeability features or recharge and discharge 

boundaries. As water levels decline near a discharge area, 

the rate of discharge decreases; as water levels decline near a 

potential recharge area, the rate of recharge may increase. 

Long-term steady withdrawal of ground water by a well 

is eventually balanced by enhanced recharge or loss of natural 

discharge (provided the withdrawal is not greater than the 

possible balancing sources of water) and water levels cease to 

decline further. Long-term withdrawal may enhance recharge 

of water that may otherwise have been (1) lost to evapotranspiration in areas where plants extract ground water from below 

the water table, or (2) discharged to springs or streams (see for 

example Lohman, 1979). Long-term withdrawal may lower 

the water table below the roots of plants or below the level of 

spring-discharge sites, creating a condition that could lead to 

enhanced recharge. In areas where long-term steady withdrawal by a well does not result in enhanced recharge, natural 

discharge is reduced by an amount equal to the withdrawal. 

In Hawaii, long-term withdrawal of ground water generally 

results in a reduction of ground-water discharge to the ocean 

and, in some settings, streams. 

Ground-water withdrawal may reduce ground-water discharge to a stream where the stream channel is lower than the 

water table in the adjacent aquifer. In Hawaii, streams commonly gain water from dike-impounded ground-water bodies 

in inland areas or from freshwater-lens systems near the coast. 

In addition, streams may gain shallow ground water from 

sedimentary deposits that may or may not be hydraulically 

connected to the main aquifer in underlying volcanic rocks. 

Potentially Affected Stream Areas

Ground-water withdrawals may affect streamflow in 

reaches where the ground-water body is hydraulically connected to the stream or downstream from these reaches. If 

the stream and underlying ground-water body are everywhere 

separated by a zone of unsaturated rock, ground-water withdrawals will not affect streamflow. On the basis of (1) measured water levels in wells relative to stream-channel altitudes 

(fig. 41) and (2) discharge measurements indicating where 

the stream commonly gains water, Punaluu Stream is likely 

connected to the main ground-water body below an altitude 

of about 25 ft and in inland areas (above altitudes of at least 

210 ft) where the stream gains water from the dike-impounded 

ground-water body. 

Below an altitude of 25 ft, sedimentary deposits in the 

stream channel are likely saturated above sea level because 

ground water discharges into Punaluu Stream. Punaluu 

Stream can gain water from volcanic rocks where the hydraulic head in the volcanic rocks is greater than the stream-channel altitude. If the maximum hydraulic head in the volcanic 

rocks is 25 ft, then the channel altitude where the stream can 

gain water from the volcanic rocks must be less than 25 ft 

because of frictional head losses associated with ground-water 

flow through the sedimentary deposits. 

82 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 49. Chloride concentration of pumped water from Punaluu well fields I, II, and III, Oahu, Hawaii. 

Consecutive data points separated by more than one year are connected by a dashed line. Data from Honolulu 

Board of Water Supply.

60

65

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CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION OF PUMPED WATER, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER 

Punaluu Well I, 3553-02 

Punaluu Well II, 3553-03 Punaluu Well II, 3553-04 

Punaluu Well II, 3553-06 Punaluu Well II, 3553-07 

Punaluu Well II, 3553-08 Punaluu Well II, 3554-03 

Punaluu Well III, 3453-06 Punaluu Well III, 3453-07 

Effects of Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow 83
Above a stream-channel altitude of 25 ft and below the 

area where dike-impounded water discharges directly to the 

stream, Punaluu Stream may be hydraulically connected to 

shallow ground water in the sedimentary deposits. Whether 

a continuous zone of saturation exists between the ground 

water in the sedimentary deposits (above an altitude of 25 ft) 

and underlying volcanic rocks is unknown. If a continuous 

zone of saturation does exist, ground-water withdrawal from 

the volcanic rocks could potentially reduce streamflow in this 

area by enhancing recharge from the stream to the sedimentary 

deposits. The likelihood that a continuous zone of saturation 

exists probably decreases with increasing altitude. 

Water-Level Variations Caused by Withdrawal

Two main production well fields currently are operated in 

the Punaluu area (Punaluu II and III well fields) (fig. 3). During 2000–2002, combined withdrawal from the Punaluu II and 

III well fields averaged about 6.5 Mgal/d, although withdrawals were later reduced and averaged about 2.4 Mgal/d in 2004 

(fig. 40). Reduced withdrawals from the well fields will tend 

to reduce the magnitude of possible reductions in streamflow 

caused by withdrawal. On the basis of measured water-level 

variations in monitoring wells, withdrawals west of Punaluu 

Stream can cause ground-water-level declines to the east of the 

stream and, therefore, also beneath the stream. 

During 2005, water levels in several monitoring wells 

were measured to determine the extent of water-level declines 

associated with withdrawal from Punaluu well fields II and III. 

A qualitative assessment of the effects of withdrawal on water 

levels can be made by comparing water-level variations to the 

timing of when production wells were turned on or off. Water 

levels in wells in the Punaluu area commonly are affected by 

ocean tides. Because the magnitude of water-level variations 

associated with ocean tides is similar in magnitude to the 

water-level declines associated with withdrawals, the waterlevel declines are obscured by tidal variations (figs. 45–48). 

Water-level variations associated with ocean tides were 

removed from the water-level records by least-squared-error 

fits of six main tidal components (K1, O1, Q1, M2, N2, and S2) 

to the water-level records. The resulting water-level records 

with tidal variations removed reveal the presence of waterlevel declines associated with withdrawal (figs. 45–48). 

Withdrawals from Punaluu III cause short-term (less 

than 1 day) water-level variations of a few tenths of a foot 

in Punaluu VA (3454-01) (fig. 48), which is about 2,800 ft 

from the Punaluu III wells. Withdrawals from Punaluu II also 

appear to cause short-term water-level variations up to about 

0.2 ft in Punaluu VA. Wells in the Punaluu II well field are 

6,000–7,600 ft away from Punaluu VA.

Withdrawals from Punaluu III cause short-term waterlevel variations of up to 0.2 ft in well 3453-05 (fig. 45), which 

is about 3,300–3,500 ft from the Punaluu III wells. Withdrawals from Punaluu II also appear to cause short-term waterlevel variations, about 0.1 ft in magnitude, in well 3453-05. 

Wells in the Punaluu II well field are 4,200–6,700 ft away 

from well 3453-05. Water-level variations in well 3453-05 

caused by withdrawals from Punaluu II and III are slightly 

smaller in magnitude than water-level variations in Punaluu 

VA. Wells 3453-05 and Punaluu VA are about the same distance from the production wells. Thus, the greater water-level 

declines measured in Punaluu VA may reflect (1) a low-permeability valley-fill barrier that partially penetrates the aquifer 

and that separates the production wells and well 3453-05, or 

(2) anisotropy or differences in the permeability of the rocks 

between the monitoring and production wells. 

Withdrawals from Punaluu II and III also appear to affect 

water levels in Makalii well 3 (3453-13) (fig. 47), although 

to a slightly smaller extent than in well 3453-05. Punaluu 

II wells are 4,900–7,400 ft away from Makalii well 3, and 

Punaluu III wells are about 2,100–2,400 ft from Makalii well 

3. Both Makalii well 3 and well 3453-05 are on the opposite 

side of Punaluu Stream, relative to the Punaluu II and III 

wells. 

Of the monitoring wells used in this study, Makalii well 

1 (3452-02) is farthest from the Punaluu II and III wells. 

Punaluu II wells are 6,500–9,000 ft away from Makalii well 1, 

and Punaluu III wells are about 4,600–4,800 ft from Makalii 

well 1. Withdrawals from these production wells may affect 

long-term water levels in Makalii well 1, although shortterm effects, if they exist, appear to be small (less than 0.1 ft) 

(fig. 46). 

Water levels in the volcanic-rock aquifer beneath and 

adjacent to Punaluu Stream are affected by withdrawals from 

the Punaluu II and III wells. On a short-term basis, flow in 

Punaluu Stream may not be affected measurably by withdrawals from the Punaluu II and III wells because the low-permeability sedimentary deposits separating the stream and the 

underlying volcanic rocks impede the spread of water-level 

declines to the stream. However, if a continuous zone of saturation exists between the stream and the underlying volcanic 

rocks, long-term water-level declines caused by withdrawals 

from the Punaluu II and III wells will ultimately extend to the 

stream and cause a reduction of ground-water discharge to the 

stream. The magnitude of streamflow reduction is unknown, 

but may be immeasurable, depending on the rate of withdrawal, because of the presence of low-permeability sedimentary deposits separating the stream and underlying volcanic 

rocks. The spread of the cone of depression from the west 

side of Punaluu Stream to the east side indicates that groundwater discharge in areas east of Punaluu Stream are affected 

by withdrawals from Punaluu II and III. Thus, long-term 

ground-water withdrawal from the existing well fields will 

have a regional effect on ground-water-discharge reduction 

that is not limited to Punaluu Stream. 

Near a stream altitude of about 10 ft in Punaluu Stream, 

discharge and stream-stage measurements indicate that a 

decline in stage of about 0.01 ft corresponds to about a 0.6 ft3/s 

decline in streamflow within a discharge range of 15 to 57 ft3/s 

(fig. 50). Thus, if ground-water withdrawal causes a 0.01-ft 

decline in stream stage near an altitude of 10 ft, streamflow 

84 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 50. Stage-discharge relation for Punaluu Stream near an altitude of 10 feet, Oahu, Hawaii, 2004–2005.

Q = 65.257S - 55.693 (r2=0.9917)

where,

Q = discharge, in cubic feet per second, and 

S = stream stage, in feet above arbitrary datum. 

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

STREAM STAGE, IN FEET ABOVE ARBITRARY DATUM 

would be reduced by about 0.6 ft3/s (0.39 Mgal/d). Although 

ground-water withdrawals may reduce ground-water levels 

in the volcanic-rock aquifer by a few tenths of a foot near 

Punaluu Stream, the magnitudes of the water-level declines 

in the sedimentary deposits and in Punaluu Stream caused by 

withdrawals are uncertain. 

Hydrologic Effect of Dikes

The presence of high water levels and streamflow gains 

in the mountainous interior areas are indicative of the presence 

of low-permeability dikes that impede the inland spreading 

of effects associated with coastal ground-water withdrawals. In the mountainous interior area, Punaluu Stream gains 

water directly in the main stream channel where the water 

level in the dike-impounded water body is greater than the 

stream-channel altitude. Punaluu Stream also receives water 

from tributaries that gain ground-water discharge from the 

dike-impounded water body. Ground-water withdrawals near 

the coastal area will cause ground-water levels to decline. In 

the Punaluu area, low-permeability dikes will impede inland 

spreading of the zone in which water levels decline. For 

example, simulation results from a numerical ground-waterflow model of the Island of Molokai, Hawaii, indicated that 

water-level declines caused by withdrawing ground water from 

central Molokai do not spread to perennial streams in northeast Molokai because of the presence of low-permeability 

dikes between the well and perennial streams (Oki, 1997). 

The potential long-term effects of ground-water withdrawal on ground-water discharge to Punaluu Stream at high 

altitudes is dependent on the permeability of the dikes and 

other volcanic rocks that exist between the withdrawal wells 

and sites of discharge to Punaluu Stream or tributaries. If the 

permeability of the dikes and rocks between the withdrawal 

wells and sites of discharge to the stream is low (relative to 

the permeability of the coastal sediments or the sedimentary deposits separating the volcanic rocks and the stream 

at altitudes below 25 ft), then the reduction in ground-water 

discharge from the dike-impounded water body to Punaluu 

Stream will likely be small. However, if the effect on dikeimpounded water is small, then the effect on streamflow below 

an altitude of 25 ft or coastal discharge to the ocean will tend 

to be larger. 

Effects of Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow 85
Double-mass curves (Searcy and Hardison, 1960) of 

cumulative flow at two gaging stations can sometimes provide 

an indication of changes in flow conditions at one of the gaging stations relative to the other, although double-mass curves 

for Punaluu Stream (station 16303003) and nearby index 

stations do not indicate an unequivocal or marked change in 

base-flow conditions after 1968, when ground-water withdrawals in the Punaluu area increased. A change in slope of 

the double-mass curve between base flow at gaging station 

16303003 and other index stations on Oahu, where base flow 

was not affected by ground-water withdrawal in the Punaluu 

area, could reflect a change in base flow at station 16303003 

in response to ground-water withdrawal in the area. Doublemass curves of base flow at gaging station 16303003 and 

index gaging stations on Kalihi Stream (16229000) and North 

Fork Kaukonahua Stream (16200000), however, do not appear 

to reflect any consistent long-term changes associated with 

increased withdrawals in the Punaluu area during the late 

1960s (fig. 51). On the basis of a least-squared-error fit of 

two line segments to the data, with a break point in 1968 when 

ground-water withdrawal in the Punaluu area increased (fig. 

40), the slope of the double-mass curve increases after 1968 

using station 16200000 as an index station and decreases using 

station 16229000 as an index station. These slope changes 

indicate that base flow at station 16303003 decreased, relative to station 16200000, after 1968 and base flow at station 

16303003 increased, relative to station 16229000, after 1968. 

Thus, use of double-mass curves to evaluate changes in baseflow conditions at station 16303003 is inconclusive.

Approaches to Quantify Streamflow Reduction

The data collected for this study indicate the potential for 

ground-water withdrawal from existing wells to reduce flow 

in Punaluu Stream. Proper management and protection of 

instream uses may require a better understanding of the effects 

of ground-water withdrawal on streamflow, which can be 

quantified using numerical or analytical ground-water models. 

Numerical ground-water-flow models represent the best available tools for evaluating the effects of ground-water withdrawal on flow in Punaluu Stream and discharge of ground 

water to the nearshore environment. A properly constructed 

numerical ground-water-flow model can account for the geometry and boundaries of the flow system and the spatial distributions of recharge, withdrawals, and hydraulic characteristics 

of the rocks. Development of a numerical ground-water-flow 

model for the Punaluu area was beyond the scope of this study, 

but could be useful for the management and protection of the 

water resources in the Punaluu area.

In general, analytical models do not account for complex 

boundary conditions and aquifer heterogeneities that control the interaction between ground water and surface water. 

Commonly used analytical solutions (see for example Jenkins, 

1970; Spalding and Khaleel, 1991; Sophocleous and others, 

1995) assume that the stream forms a straight-line boundary 

that represents the only steady-state source of water to a well. 

Some analytical solutions (Sophocleous and others, 1995) 

attempt to account for a low-permeability streambed layer 

and can be used to estimate streamflow reduction in a finite 

reach of an infinitely long stream. The main limitation of this 

approach is that an infinitely long stream reach is needed to 

account for 100 percent of the water withdrawn by a production well, and an unrealistically long stream reach may be 

needed to account for even 50 percent of the water withdrawn 

by the well. 

Summary and Conclusions

The surface- and ground-water resources of Punaluu 

Stream Valley of northeast Oahu, Hawaii, have been and 

continue to be important for cultural, domestic, agricultural, 

recreational, and aesthetic purposes. Punaluu Stream provides 

water for traditional and customary Hawaiian practices, irrigation of agricultural crops and ornamental plants, livestock, and 

aquaculture operations. In addition, Punaluu Stream provides 

habitat for native aquatic species. Flow in Punaluu Stream is 

reduced by the direct diversion of water for off-stream uses 

and possibly by the withdrawal of ground water near the 

stream.

Punaluu Stream flows perennially, receiving flow from 

numerous tributaries, many of which also are perennial. 

Punaluu Stream flows perennially because rain falls frequently 

in the area and ground water discharges to the stream. Punaluu 

Stream flows perennially during periods of no rainfall because 

of ground-water discharge to the stream (base flow). During water years 1955–2004, the minimum daily mean flow 

recorded in Punaluu Stream at an altitude of about 210 ft 

(gaging station 16303003) upstream from all diversions was 

8.0 ft3/s. 

Punaluu Ditch was constructed in the 1920s and diverts 

water from Punaluu Stream at an altitude of about 210 ft. 

During the period 1995–2004, mean discharge in Punaluu 

Ditch measured at gaging station 16302000 was 10.8 ft3/s, representing about 49 percent of the mean discharge available in 

Punaluu Stream measured by gaging station 16303003 during 

the period. During 1995–2004, daily mean discharge in the 

Ditch was less than 2 ft3/s about 0.3 percent of the time. The 

median discharge in Punaluu Ditch during 1995–2004 was 

11 ft3/s, whereas the Q95 discharge was 5.5 ft3/s. 

During the recent period 1995–2004, the Q50 and Q95

discharges measured immediately upstream from the Punaluu 

Ditch diversion intake (gaging station 16303003), respectively, were 18 and 13 ft3

/s, whereas the Q50 and Q95 discharges 

measured immediately downstream from the diversion intake 

(gaging station 16303000), respectively, were 7.0 and 1.3 ft3/s. 

Thus, near an altitude of 210 ft, diversion of surface water by 

the Punaluu Ditch caused the Q50 discharge in Punaluu Stream 

to be reduced to 39 percent of the natural Q50 discharge, and 

the Q95 discharge was reduced to 10 percent of the natural 

86 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Figure 51. Double-mass curves of cumulative base flows in Punaluu Stream (gaging station 16303003) and (A) Kalihi 

Stream (gaging station 16229000), (B) North Fork Kaukonahua Stream (gaging station 16200000), Oahu, Hawaii. Base 

flows were estimated using the base-flow separation model of Wahl and Wahl (1995) and N-values of 4, 4 and 5 

respectively for gaging stations 16303003, 16200000, and 16229000.

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000

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CUMULATIVE BASE FLOW IN PUNALUU STREAM (GAGING STATION 16303003), OAHU, HAWAII, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

CUMULATIVE BASE FLOW IN NORTH FORK KAUKONAHUA STREAM 

(GAGING STATION 16200000), OAHU, HAWAII, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

CUMULATIVE BASE FLOW IN KALIHI STREAM 

(GAGING STATION 16229000), OAHU, HAWAII, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND 

Least-squared-error fit of two line segments to the

data; line segments share a common point (1968). 

Note: numbers next to symbol indicate year 

A

B

Summary and Conclusions 87
value. The effects of the Punaluu Ditch diversion on flow in 

Punaluu Stream decrease in a downstream direction, mainly 

because of the compensating effects of tributary inflows and 

ditch return flows. For recent diverted conditions, the Q50

discharges in Punaluu Stream at altitudes of 140, 100, 40, 

and 10 ft, respectively, were 41, 44, 48, and 82 percent of the 

natural Q50 discharges at these altitudes, and the Q95 discharges 

in Punaluu Stream at altitudes of 140, 100, 40, and 10 ft, 

respectively, were 11, 16, 17, and 69 percent of the natural Q95

discharges at these altitudes. Lower flows in Punaluu Stream 

are affected by the diversion of surface water to a relatively 

greater extent than higher flows. 

Changes in streamflow will affect the quantity and quality 

of physical habitat used by native stream fauna. The Instream 

Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM) was used in this study 

to quantify the effects of incremental changes in streamflow 

on physical habitat. The Physical Habitat Simulation System 

(PHABSIM) approach was used to evaluate the effects of 

different diversion scenarios on physical habitat in Punaluu 

Stream. Habitat data were collected at four study reaches, 

each about 300 ft in length, located at stream altitudes of 10, 

40, 100, and 200 ft in Punaluu Stream.

Habitat-suitability criteria developed for streams in 

northeast Maui were used to determine the effects of incremental changes in streamflow on physical habitat, in terms 

of weighted usable area (WUA), for selected native species 

in Punaluu Stream. For this study, the dominant substrate 

category and dimensionless Froude number were used to characterize habitat suitability. In general, the relations between 

the quantity of suitable physical habitat and discharge increase 

monotonically from a discharge of zero to the median natural 

discharge, although the relation for Awaous guamensis (oopu 

nakea) for the reach at an altitude of 40 ft indicates a maximum habitat at a discharge significantly below the median natural discharge. The relations between WUA and discharge are 

steepest between discharge rates of zero and a few cubic feet 

per second, which indicates that the rate of increase in WUA 

is greatest as discharge increases from zero to a few cubic feet 

per second (and the rate of decrease in WUA is greatest as 

discharge decreases from a few cubic feet per second to zero).

Habitat-duration curves were developed for Neritina 

granosa (hihiwai) and Awaous guamensis (oopu nakea) at the 

four study reaches for low-flow conditions (less than median 

discharge). At stream altitudes of 40 ft and higher, habitatduration curves for recent diverted-flow conditions generally are steeper than habitat-duration curves for natural-flow 

conditions and for constant diversion rates of up to 10 ft3/s, 

indicating greatest habitat variability for recent diverted-flow 

conditions. Because a substantial amount (several cubic feet 

per second) of diverted water is returned to Punaluu Stream 

between altitudes of about 15 and 35 ft, the habitat-duration 

curve for recent diverted-flow conditions at an altitude of 10 ft 

is flatter than it would be if no water were returned to the 

stream above 10 ft.

The effects of different diversion conditions on WUA for 

Neritina granosa and Awaous guamensis were evaluated by 

determining the average number of days per year for which 

WUA values are less than a specified reference value (during 

periods when discharge is less than or equal to the median 

natural discharge). For recent diverted conditions (1995–

2004), the average number of days per year that WUA values 

are less than 50 or 75 percent of the WUA value at median 

natural discharge generally (1) decreases in a downstream 

direction, reflecting the effects of tributary inflows and ditch 

return flows, (2) is less than the corresponding number of days 

for constant diversion rates greater than about 4–5 ft3/s at a 

stream altitude of 10 ft, and (3) is greater than the corresponding number of days for a constant diversion rate of 10 ft3

/s at 

stream altitudes of 40, 100, and 140 ft. The number of days 

that WUA values are less than 75 percent of the WUA value at 

median natural discharge generally increases substantially for 

constant diversion rates exceeding about 4–5 ft3/s. 

Stream temperature is a factor that potentially could 

affect the abundance and distribution of native aquatic species. During June 2004 to July 2005, daily mean temperatures 

in Punaluu Stream ranged from 18.6°C to 23.0°C. Stream 

temperatures immediately upstream and downstream from 

the diversion intake do not indicate a significant change in 

temperature caused by a reduction in flow. However, stream 

temperatures generally increase in a downstream direction. During the months of June through September, the 

daily mean temperature at an altitude of 10 ft is about 1°C to 

1.75°C warmer than at an altitude of 210 ft, whereas during 

the months of December through March, the temperature 

at an altitude of 10 ft is about 0.5°C to 1°C warmer than at 

an altitude of 210 ft. Temperatures in Punaluu Stream vary 

because of diurnal variations in energy received in the valley. 

Measured daily maximum temperatures did not exceed 25°C 

and daily minimum temperatures did not drop below 17.5°C at 

any of the study sites. At all of the study sites, daily maximum 

temperatures remained below the upper-lethal-temperature 

limits for native aquatic species. 

Fresh ground water in the study area is found mainly as 

dike-impounded water and as a freshwater lens, with smaller 

amounts possibly occurring in perched systems. Within the 

study area, the main ground-water-flow system consists of 

dike-impounded water inland from the coast that may transition to a freshwater lens in dike-free volcanic rocks near 

the coast. The presence of springs and perennially flowing 

tributaries indicate that water levels in the dike-impounded 

ground-water system probably exceed 600 ft above mean sea 

level in inland areas. Water levels measured in wells generally 

are less than 25 ft above mean sea level and are less than 10 ft 

above mean sea level in wells within about 1,500 ft from the 

coast and southeast of Punaluu Stream. 

Two main well fields currently are in operation in the 

Punaluu area. During 2000–2002, combined withdrawal 

from these well fields averaged about 6.5 Mgal/d. Withdrawals from these well fields were reduced toward the end of 

2003, and during 2004, combined withdrawal averaged about 

2.4 Mgal/d. 

88 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Ground-water withdrawals may affect streamflow in 

reaches where the ground-water body is hydraulically connected to the stream or downstream from these reaches. On 

the basis of (1) measured water levels in wells, relative to 

stream-channel altitudes, and (2) discharge measurements 

indicating where the stream commonly gains water, Punaluu 

Stream is likely connected to the main ground-water body 

below an altitude of about 25 ft and in inland areas (above 

altitudes of at least 210 ft) where the stream gains water from 

the dike-impounded ground-water body. Below an altitude 

of 25 ft, the sedimentary deposits in the stream channel likely 

are saturated above sea level because ground water discharges 

into Punaluu Stream. Punaluu Stream can gain water from 

the volcanic rocks where the hydraulic head, as measured by 

water level, in the volcanic rocks is greater than the streamchannel altitude. 

During 2005, water levels in several monitoring wells 

were measured to determine the extent of the water-level 

declines associated with withdrawal from the main Punaluu 

well fields. On the basis of the measured water-level variations in monitoring wells, withdrawals (at 2005 rates) west 

of Punaluu Stream can cause ground-water-level declines of 

a few tenths of a foot to the east of the stream. Thus, water 

levels in the volcanic-rock aquifer beneath and adjacent to 

Punaluu Stream are affected by withdrawals from the main 

Punaluu well fields. On a short-term basis, flow in Punaluu 

Stream may not be affected measurably by withdrawals from 

the Punaluu II and III wells because the low-permeability 

sedimentary deposits separating the stream and the underlying volcanic rocks impede the spread of water-level declines 

to the stream. However, if a continuous zone of saturation 

exists between the stream and the underlying volcanic rocks, 

long-term water-level declines caused by withdrawals from the 

Punaluu II and III wells will ultimately extend to the stream 

and cause a reduction of ground-water discharge to the stream. 

The magnitude of streamflow reduction is unknown, but 

may be immeasurable, depending on the rate of withdrawal, 

because of the presence of low-permeability sedimentary 

deposits separating the stream and underlying volcanic rocks.

Additional studies that would lead to a better understanding of the distribution and abundance of native species in 

Punaluu Stream include studies related to (1) water quality and 

contaminants in bed sediment and fish tissue, (2) conditions in 

the estuary, and (3) recruitment. Establishing habitat-suitability criteria specifically for Punaluu Stream would lead to an 

improved understanding of the effects of diverting water from 

the stream on suitable habitat. In addition, direct measurement of WUA over a broader range of flows would preclude 

the need to use modeling techniques to extrapolate measured 

velocities, depths, and habitat. Development of a numerical 

ground-water-flow model would provide a tool to quantify 

the effects of ground-water withdrawal on flow in Punaluu 

Stream.

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Appendix A. 

Table 1. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu 

Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, sorted by date.

Table 2. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu 

Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, sorted by site.

94 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 1. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by date—Continued.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft, feet]

Date Time

Map

designation 

(figure 14)

USGS site number Description Discharge, in 

ft3/s

06/01/2004 1018 s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 13.3

06/01/2004 1410 d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 14.7

06/23/2004 1026 d5 213344157540201 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 exit 11.2

06/23/2004 1040 d7 213356157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 60 ft downstream from tunnel 6 exit 10.3

06/23/2004 1119 d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 9.20

06/23/2004 1130 d4 213339157540301 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 entrance 10.5

06/23/2004 1141 d8 213357157535801 Punaluu Ditch, 200 ft downstream from tunnel 6 exit 9.47

06/23/2004 1246 d9 213406157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 50 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 8.30

06/23/2004 1308 d12 213411157540001 Punaluu Ditch, 500 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 6.11

06/23/2004 1323 d13 213414157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 10 exit 4.23

07/09/2004 1037 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 29.2

07/12/2004 1000 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 25.1

07/30/2004 1022 s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 11.9

07/30/2004 1110 s6 213358157533701 Punaluu Stream, 50 ft 16.0

07/30/2004 1324 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 13.1

08/05/2004 1433 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 52.8

08/06/2004 1219 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 39.0

08/06/2004 1553 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 31.3

08/20/2004 1045 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 25.5

08/20/2004 1415 s8 213409157533901 Punaluu Stream, 30 ft 22.8

08/20/2004 1527 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 19.9

08/20/2004 1713 i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 3.39

09/10/2004 1006 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 17.4

09/10/2004 1034 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 22.6

09/10/2004 1108 i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 4.03

09/10/2004 1142 i12 213416157532401 right bank tributary, 15 ft 0.01

09/10/2004 1150 i9 213413157532801 right bank return flow, 17 ft, upper pipe 0.13

09/10/2004 1155 i10 213413157533101 right bank return flow, 17 ft, lower pipe 0.09

09/10/2004 1200 i11 213415157533401 left bank tributary, 20 ft 0

09/10/2004 1200 s8 213409157533901 Punaluu Stream, 30 ft 21.6

09/10/2004 1452 s4 213356157534601 Punaluu Stream, 60 ft 17.5

09/10/2004 1514 s5 213357157534001 Punaluu Stream, 55 ft 17.7

09/23/2004 1440 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 18.0

09/24/2004 1118 s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 15.2

09/24/2004 1129 i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 1.38

09/24/2004 1230 i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 0.12

09/24/2004 1330 i6 213355157534701 left bank tributary, 65 ft 0

09/24/2004 1340 i7 213356157534701 left bank tributary, 60 ft 0

09/24/2004 1352 s4 213356157534601 Punaluu Stream, 60 ft 18.7

09/24/2004 1415 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 19.9

09/24/2004 1445 i3 213346157535501 left bank tributary, 95 ft 0.034

Table 1. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by date.

Appendix A. 95
Table 1. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by date—Continued.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft, feet]

Date Time

Map

designation 

(figure 14)

USGS site number Description Discharge, in 

ft3/s

09/24/2004 1450 i5 213352157534601 left bank tributary, 70 ft 0.69

09/24/2004 1515 i4 213348157534901 right bank tributary, 75 ft 0

10/01/2004 1020 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 11.7

10/01/2004 1037 s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 9.72

10/01/2004 1200 s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 10.0

10/01/2004 1230 i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 0.11

10/01/2004 1257 i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 1.33

10/01/2004 1320 d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 8.97

10/01/2004 1352 s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 11.4

10/01/2004 1600 i6 213355157534701 left bank tributary, 65 ft 0

10/01/2004 1600 i7 213356157534701 left bank tributary, 60 ft 0

10/01/2004 1610 s4 213356157534601 Punaluu Stream, 60 ft 13.8

10/01/2004 1655 i5 213352157534601 left bank tributary, 70 ft 0.72

10/01/2004 1725 i4 213348157534901 right bank tributary, 75 ft 0

10/01/2004 1737 i3 213346157535501 left bank tributary, 95 ft 0.028

10/07/2004 0926 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 22.5

10/07/2004 1217 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 17.8

10/29/2004 1145 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 31.7

10/29/2004 1413 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 23.2

11/02/2004 0938 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 20.4

11/02/2004 1140 i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 0.35

11/02/2004 1310 i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 1.58

11/02/2004 1431 s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 17.0

11/26/2004 1205 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 56.9

11/26/2004 1442 i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 5.22

11/26/2004 1603 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 42.7

12/16/2004 1045 s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 18.4

12/16/2004 1200 d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 5.09

12/21/2004 1121 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 22.2

12/28/2004 1107 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 41.6

12/29/2004 1016 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 32.1

12/30/2004 0946 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 31.2

12/30/2004 1432 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 23.2

12/30/2004 1445 i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 4.15

01/03/2005 1219 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 33.9

01/04/2005 0943 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 29.4

01/11/2005 1141 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 25.0

01/20/2005 1003 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 21.4

02/08/2005 1203 d9 213406157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 50 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 8.27

02/08/2005 1402 d10 213406157535902 Punaluu Ditch, 75 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 7.96

02/08/2005 1452 d12 213411157540001 Punaluu Ditch, 500 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 5.04

96 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 1. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by date—Continued.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft, feet]

Date Time

Map

designation 

(figure 14)

USGS site number Description Discharge, in 

ft3/s

02/08/2005 1453 d11 213410157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 400 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 7.54

02/08/2005 1620 d14 213415157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 11 entrance 1.41

02/08/2005 1627 d13 213414157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 10 exit 2.91

02/10/2005 1104 d2 213333157540301 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 2 inflow 0.76

02/10/2005 1337 d4 213339157540301 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 entrance 13.0

02/10/2005 1457 d5 213344157540201 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 exit 13.6

02/15/2005 1005 d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 10.9

02/15/2005 1023 d3 213337157540401 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 2 exit 11.6

02/15/2005 1035 d2 213333157540301 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 2 inflow 0.25

02/15/2005 1116 s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 16.5

02/15/2005 1144 d5 213344157540201 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 exit 11.3

02/15/2005 1326 d10 213406157535902 Punaluu Ditch, 75 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 6.99

02/15/2005 1330 d6 213355157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 6 exit 8.29

02/15/2005 1533 d12 213411157540001 Punaluu Ditch, 500 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 4.69

02/15/2005 1540 d11 213410157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 400 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 7.27

02/15/2005 1643 d14 213415157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 11 entrance 1.48

03/03/2005 1313 s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 6.61

03/03/2005 1515 d9 213406157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 50 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 7.86

03/03/2005 1604 d10 213406157535902 Punaluu Ditch, 75 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 6.66

03/15/2005 1046 d9 213406157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 50 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 7.03

03/15/2005 1047 d2 213333157540301 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 2 inflow 0.082

03/15/2005 1127 d3 213337157540401 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 2 exit 9.00

03/15/2005 1137 d10 213406157535902 Punaluu Ditch, 75 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 7.02

03/15/2005 1255 d5 213344157540201 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 exit 9.76

03/15/2005 1301 d12 213411157540001 Punaluu Ditch, 500 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 5.20

03/15/2005 1353 d14 213415157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 11 entrance 1.03

03/15/2005 1424 d6 213355157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 6 exit 7.45

03/22/2005 1037 s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 8.62

03/22/2005 1219 i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 1.46

03/22/2005 1300 i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 0.42

03/22/2005 1431 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 11.0

03/22/2005 1614 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 14.9

03/24/2005 1410 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 14.3

04/12/2005 0945 d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 8.38

04/12/2005 1040 s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 14.8

04/14/2005 1510 s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 9.67

04/14/2005 1617 i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 1.46

04/14/2005 1707 i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 0.42

04/14/2005 1735 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 11.8

04/26/2005 1154 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 10.7

05/03/2005 1616 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 9.97

Appendix A. 97
Table 1. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by date—Continued.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft, feet]

Date Time

Map

designation 

(figure 14)

USGS site number Description Discharge, in 

ft3/s

05/17/2005 1330 s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 4.12

05/25/2005 1209 s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 12.6

05/25/2005 1213 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 14.3

05/25/2005 1327 i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 1.54

05/25/2005 1350 i3 213346157535501 left bank tributary, 95 ft 0.19

05/25/2005 1412 i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 0.34

05/26/2005 1545 s10 213434157531001 Punaluu Stream, 5 ft 20.6

05/26/2005 1555 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 19.7

06/09/2005 1050 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 12.1

06/09/2005 1100 s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 11.9

06/09/2005 1205 i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 1.11

06/09/2005 1246 i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 0.12

06/09/2005 1255 i5 213352157534601 left bank tributary, 70 ft 0.022

06/09/2005 1300 i4 213348157534901 right bank tributary, 75 ft 0

06/09/2005 1319 i3 213346157535501 left bank tributary, 95 ft 0.018

06/09/2005 1400 i6 213355157534701 left bank tributary, 65 ft 0

06/09/2005 1412 i7 213356157534701 left bank tributary, 60 ft 0.33

06/09/2005 1437 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 12.4

06/09/2005 1512 s4 213356157534601 Punaluu Stream, 60 ft 12.5

06/09/2005 1551 i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 0.95

06/09/2005 1618 i9 213413157532801 right bank return flow, 17 ft, upper pipe 0.59

06/09/2005 1626 i10 213413157533101 right bank return flow, 17 ft, lower pipe 0.60

06/09/2005 1651 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 16.5

06/09/2005 1701 s10 213434157531001 Punaluu Stream, 5 ft 17.2

06/16/2005 1042 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 7.09

06/21/2005 1030 s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 13.0

06/21/2005 1310 d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 14.1

06/22/2005 1117 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 21.0

06/22/2005 1132 s10 213434157531001 Punaluu Stream, 5 ft 20.4

06/22/2005 1303 s8 213409157533901 Punaluu Stream, 30 ft 15.8

06/22/2005 1415 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 10.7

06/22/2005 1435 i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 5.53

06/22/2005 1600 i10 213413157533101 right bank return flow, 17 ft, lower pipe 1.34

06/22/2005 1600 i9 213413157532801 right bank return flow, 17 ft, upper pipe 0.66

07/05/2005 1155 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 18.0

08/01/2005 1540 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 4.58

08/01/2005 1554 s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 3.46

08/04/2005 0955 s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 9.56

08/04/2005 1016 i7 213356157534701 left bank tributary, 60 ft 0.24

08/04/2005 1054 i3 213346157535501 left bank tributary, 95 ft 0.014

08/04/2005 1100 s4 213356157534601 Punaluu Stream, 60 ft 10.2

98 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 1. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by date—Continued.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft, feet]

Date Time

Map

designation 

(figure 14)

USGS site number Description Discharge, in 

ft3/s

08/04/2005 1105 i4 213348157534901 right bank tributary, 75 ft 0

08/04/2005 1112 i5 213352157534601 left bank tributary, 70 ft 0.035

08/04/2005 1331 s8 213409157533901 Punaluu Stream, 30 ft 11.9

08/04/2005 1338 s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 10.3

08/04/2005 1430 i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 1.62

08/04/2005 1515 i9 213413157532801 right bank return flow, 17 ft, upper pipe 0.74

08/04/2005 1530 i10 213413157533101 right bank return flow, 17 ft, lower pipe 2-3

08/04/2005 1530 i11 213415157533401 left bank tributary, 20 ft 0

08/04/2005 1535 i12 213416157532401 right bank tributary, 15 ft 0

08/04/2005 1550 s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 15.3

08/04/2005 1558 s10 213434157531001 Punaluu Stream, 5 ft 16.3

08/11/2005 1148 s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 11.4

Appendix A. 99
Table 2. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by site—Continued.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft, feet]

Map

designation 

(figure 14)

USGS site number Description Date Time Discharge, in 

ft3/s

Punaluu Ditch sites

d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 06/01/2004 1410 14.7

d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 06/23/2004 1119 9.20

d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 10/01/2004 1320 8.97

d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 12/16/2004 1200 5.09

d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 02/15/2005 1005 10.9

d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 04/12/2005 0945 8.38

d1 16302000 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 1 exit 06/21/2005 1310 14.1

d2 213333157540301 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 2 inflow 02/10/2005 1104 0.76

d2 213333157540301 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 2 inflow 02/15/2005 1035 0.25

d2 213333157540301 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 2 inflow 03/15/2005 1047 0.082

d3 213337157540401 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 2 exit 02/15/2005 1023 11.6

d3 213337157540401 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 2 exit 03/15/2005 1127 9.00

d4 213339157540301 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 entrance 06/23/2004 1130 10.5

d4 213339157540301 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 entrance 02/10/2005 1337 13.0

d5 213344157540201 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 exit 06/23/2004 1026 11.2

d5 213344157540201 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 exit 02/10/2005 1457 13.6

d5 213344157540201 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 exit 02/15/2005 1144 11.3

d5 213344157540201 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 4 exit 03/15/2005 1255 9.76

d6 213355157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 6 exit 02/15/2005 1330 8.29

d6 213355157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 6 exit 03/15/2005 1424 7.45

d7 213356157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 60 ft downstream from tunnel 6 exit 06/23/2004 1040 10.3

d8 213357157535801 Punaluu Ditch, 200 ft downstream from tunnel 6 exit 06/23/2004 1141 9.47

d9 213406157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 50 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 06/23/2004 1246 8.30

d9 213406157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 50 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 02/08/2005 1203 8.27

d9 213406157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 50 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 03/03/2005 1515 7.86

d9 213406157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 50 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 03/15/2005 1046 7.03

d10 213406157535902 Punaluu Ditch, 75 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 02/08/2005 1402 7.96

d10 213406157535902 Punaluu Ditch, 75 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 02/15/2005 1326 6.99

d10 213406157535902 Punaluu Ditch, 75 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 03/03/2005 1604 6.66

d10 213406157535902 Punaluu Ditch, 75 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 03/15/2005 1137 7.02

d11 213410157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 400 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 02/08/2005 1453 7.54

d11 213410157535901 Punaluu Ditch, 400 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 02/15/2005 1540 7.27

d12 213411157540001 Punaluu Ditch, 500 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 06/23/2004 1308 6.11

d12 213411157540001 Punaluu Ditch, 500 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 02/08/2005 1452 5.04

d12 213411157540001 Punaluu Ditch, 500 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 02/15/2005 1533 4.69

d12 213411157540001 Punaluu Ditch, 500 ft downstream from tunnel 9 exit 03/15/2005 1301 5.20

d13 213414157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 10 exit 06/23/2004 1323 4.23

d13 213414157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 10 exit 02/08/2005 1627 2.91

d14 213415157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 11 entrance 02/08/2005 1620 1.41

Table 2. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by site.

100 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 2. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by site—Continued.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft, feet]

Map

designation 

(figure 14)

USGS site number Description Date Time Discharge, in 

ft3/s

d14 213415157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 11 entrance 02/15/2005 1643 1.48

d14 213415157535901 Punaluu Ditch, tunnel 11 entrance 03/15/2005 1353 1.03

Punaluu Stream sites

s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 06/01/2004 1018 13.3

s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 07/30/2004 1022 11.9

s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 10/01/2004 1037 9.72

s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 10/01/2004 1200 10.0

s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 12/16/2004 1045 18.4

s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 02/15/2005 1116 16.5

s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 04/12/2005 1040 14.8

s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 06/21/2005 1030 13.0

s1 16303000 Punaluu Stream, 210 ft 08/11/2005 1148 11.4

s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 09/24/2004 1118 15.2

s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 10/01/2004 1352 11.4

s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 11/02/2004 1431 17.0

s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 03/03/2005 1313 6.61

s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 03/22/2005 1037 8.62

s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 04/14/2005 1510 9.67

s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 05/17/2005 1330 4.12

s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 05/25/2005 1209 12.6

s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 06/09/2005 1100 11.9

s2 213332157535601 Punaluu Stream, 140 ft 08/01/2005 1554 3.46

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 09/24/2004 1415 19.9

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 10/01/2004 1020 11.7

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 11/02/2004 0938 20.4

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 03/22/2005 1431 11.0

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 04/14/2005 1735 11.8

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 04/26/2005 1154 10.7

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 05/03/2005 1616 9.97

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 05/25/2005 1213 14.3

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 06/09/2005 1050 12.1

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 06/16/2005 1042 7.09

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 07/05/2005 1155 18.0

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 08/01/2005 1540 4.58

s3 213344157535301 Punaluu Stream, 100 ft 08/04/2005 0955 9.56

s4 213356157534601 Punaluu Stream, 60 ft 09/10/2004 1452 17.5

s4 213356157534601 Punaluu Stream, 60 ft 09/24/2004 1352 18.7

s4 213356157534601 Punaluu Stream, 60 ft 10/01/2004 1610 13.8

s4 213356157534601 Punaluu Stream, 60 ft 06/09/2005 1512 12.5

s4 213356157534601 Punaluu Stream, 60 ft 08/04/2005 1100 10.2

Appendix A. 101
Table 2. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by site—Continued.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft, feet]

Map

designation 

(figure 14)

USGS site number Description Date Time Discharge, in 

ft3/s

s5 213357157534001 Punaluu Stream, 55 ft 09/10/2004 1514 17.7

s6 213358157533701 Punaluu Stream, 50 ft 07/30/2004 1110 16.0

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 07/30/2004 1324 13.1

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 08/06/2004 1553 31.3

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 08/20/2004 1527 19.9

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 09/10/2004 1006 17.4

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 09/23/2004 1440 18.0

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 10/07/2004 1217 17.8

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 10/29/2004 1413 23.2

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 11/26/2004 1603 42.7

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 12/29/2004 1016 32.1

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 12/30/2004 1432 23.2

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 01/04/2005 0943 29.4

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 01/20/2005 1003 21.4

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 03/22/2005 1614 14.9

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 03/24/2005 1410 14.3

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 06/09/2005 1437 12.4

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 06/22/2005 1415 10.7

s7 213402157533701 Punaluu Stream, 40 ft 08/04/2005 1338 10.3

s8 213409157533901 Punaluu Stream, 30 ft 08/20/2004 1415 22.8

s8 213409157533901 Punaluu Stream, 30 ft 09/10/2004 1200 21.6

s8 213409157533901 Punaluu Stream, 30 ft 06/22/2005 1303 15.8

s8 213409157533901 Punaluu Stream, 30 ft 08/04/2005 1331 11.9

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 07/09/2004 1037 29.2

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 07/12/2004 1000 25.1

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 08/05/2004 1433 52.8

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 08/06/2004 1219 39.0

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 08/20/2004 1045 25.5

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 09/10/2004 1034 22.6

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 10/07/2004 0926 22.5

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 10/29/2004 1145 31.7

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 11/26/2004 1205 56.9

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 12/21/2004 1121 22.2

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 12/28/2004 1107 41.6

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 12/30/2004 0946 31.2

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 01/03/2005 1219 33.9

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 01/11/2005 1141 25.0

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 05/26/2005 1555 19.7

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 06/09/2005 1651 16.5

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 06/22/2005 1117 21.0

s9 213425157531701 Punaluu Stream, 10 ft 08/04/2005 1550 15.3

102 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream
Table 2. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by site—Continued.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft, feet]

Map

designation 

(figure 14)

USGS site number Description Date Time Discharge, in 

ft3/s

s10 213434157531001 Punaluu Stream, 5 ft 05/26/2005 1545 20.6

s10 213434157531001 Punaluu Stream, 5 ft 06/09/2005 1701 17.2

s10 213434157531001 Punaluu Stream, 5 ft 06/22/2005 1132 20.4

s10 213434157531001 Punaluu Stream, 5 ft 08/04/2005 1558 16.3

Tributaries and Return Flows

i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 09/24/2004 1129 1.38

i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 10/01/2004 1257 1.33

i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 11/02/2004 1310 1.58

i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 03/22/2005 1219 1.46

i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 04/14/2005 1617 1.46

i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 05/25/2005 1327 1.54

i1 213333157540001 left bank tributary, 135 ft 06/09/2005 1205 1.11

i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 09/24/2004 1230 0.12

i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 10/01/2004 1230 0.11

i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 11/02/2004 1140 0.35

i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 03/22/2005 1300 0.42

i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 04/14/2005 1707 0.42

i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 05/25/2005 1412 0.34

i2 213336157535901 left bank tributary, 125 ft 06/09/2005 1246 0.12

i3 213346157535501 left bank tributary, 95 ft 09/24/2004 1445 0.034

i3 213346157535501 left bank tributary, 95 ft 10/01/2004 1737 0.028

i3 213346157535501 left bank tributary, 95 ft 05/25/2005 1350 0.19

i3 213346157535501 left bank tributary, 95 ft 06/09/2005 1319 0.018

i3 213346157535501 left bank tributary, 95 ft 08/04/2005 1054 0.014

i4 213348157534901 right bank tributary, 75 ft 09/24/2004 1515 0

i4 213348157534901 right bank tributary, 75 ft 10/01/2004 1725 0

i4 213348157534901 right bank tributary, 75 ft 06/09/2005 1300 0

i4 213348157534901 right bank tributary, 75 ft 08/04/2005 1105 0

i5 213352157534601 left bank tributary, 70 ft 09/24/2004 1450 0.69

i5 213352157534601 left bank tributary, 70 ft 10/01/2004 1655 0.72

i5 213352157534601 left bank tributary, 70 ft 06/09/2005 1255 0.022

i5 213352157534601 left bank tributary, 70 ft 08/04/2005 1112 0.035

i6 213355157534701 left bank tributary, 65 ft 09/24/2004 1330 0

i6 213355157534701 left bank tributary, 65 ft 10/01/2004 1600 0

i6 213355157534701 left bank tributary, 65 ft 06/09/2005 1400 0

i7 213356157534701 left bank tributary, 60 ft 09/24/2004 1340 0

i7 213356157534701 left bank tributary, 60 ft 10/01/2004 1600 0

i7 213356157534701 left bank tributary, 60 ft 06/09/2005 1412 0.33

i7 213356157534701 left bank tributary, 60 ft 08/04/2005 1016 0.24

i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 08/20/2004 1713 3.39

Appendix A. 103
Table 2. Discharge measurements made during 2004 and 2005 in Punaluu Ditch and Punaluu Stream and tributaries, Oahu, Hawaii, 

sorted by site—Continued.

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft, feet]

Map

designation 

(figure 14)

USGS site number Description Date Time Discharge, in 

ft3/s

i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 09/10/2004 1108 4.03

i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 11/26/2004 1442 5.22

i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 12/30/2004 1445 4.15

i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 06/09/2005 1551 0.95

i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 06/22/2005 1435 5.53

i8 213405157533801 left bank return flow, 35 ft 08/04/2005 1430 1.62

i9 213413157532801 right bank return flow, 17 ft, upper pipe 09/10/2004 1150 0.13

i9 213413157532801 right bank return flow, 17 ft, upper pipe 06/09/2005 1618 0.59

i9 213413157532801 right bank return flow, 17 ft, upper pipe 06/22/2005 1600 0.66

i9 213413157532801 right bank return flow, 17 ft, upper pipe 08/04/2005 1515 0.74

i10 213413157533101 right bank return flow, 17 ft, lower pipe 09/10/2004 1155 0.09

i10 213413157533101 right bank return flow, 17 ft, lower pipe 06/09/2005 1626 0.60

i10 213413157533101 right bank return flow, 17 ft, lower pipe 06/22/2005 1600 1.34

i10 213413157533101 right bank return flow, 17 ft, lower pipe 08/04/2005 1530 2-3

i11 213415157533401 left bank tributary, 20 ft 09/10/2004 1200 0

i11 213415157533401 left bank tributary, 20 ft 08/04/2005 1530 0

i12 213416157532401 right bank tributary, 15 ft 09/10/2004 1142 0.01

i12 213416157532401 right bank tributary, 15 ft 08/04/2005 1535 0

104 Effects of Surface-Water Diversion and Ground-Water Withdrawal on Streamflow and Habitat, Punaluu Stream