Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New

Ocean Frontier

July 1987

NTIS order #PB87-217725
Recommended Citation:

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New

Ocean Frontier, OTA-O-342 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, July

1987),

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 87-619837

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325

(order form on p. 349)
Foreword

Throughout history, man has been fascinated by the mysteries that lay hidden below

the ocean surface. Jules Verne, the 19th century novelist, author of 20,000 Leagues Under

the Sea, captured the imagination and curiosity of the public with his fictional-but

nonetheless farsighted—accounts of undersea exploration and adventure. Since his classic

portrayal of life beneath the ocean, technology has enabled us to bridge the gap between

Jules Verne’s fiction and the realities that are found in ocean space. Although the technological triumphs in ocean exploration are phenomenal, the extent of our current knowledge about the resources that lie in the seabed is very limited.

In 1983, the United States asserted control over the ocean resources within a 200-

nautical mile band off its coast, as did a large number of other maritime countries. Within

this so-called Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a vast area of seabed that might contain

significant amounts of minerals. It is truly the Nation’s ‘‘New Frontier.

This report on exploring the EEZ for its mineral potential is in response to a joint request

from the House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries and the House Committee

on Science, Space, and Technology. It examines the current knowledge about the hard

mineral resources within the EEZ, explores the economic and security potential of seabed

resources, assesses the technologies available to both explore for and mine those resources,

identifies issues that face the Congress and the executive branch, and finally presents options

to the Congress for dealing with these issues.

Substantial assistance was received from many organizations and individuals in the

course of this study. We would like to express special thanks to the OTA advisory panel;

the numerous participants in our workshops; the project’s contractors and consultants for

contributing their special expertise; the staffs of the executive agencies that gave selflessly

of their knowledge and counsel; the many reviewers who kept us intellectually honest and

factually accurate; and our sister congressional agency, the Congressional Research Service,

for making available its expertise in seabed minerals. OTA, however, remains solely responsible for the contents of this Report.

W JOHN H. GIBBON S

Director

. . .

///
OTA Ocean Frontier Advisory Panel

John V. Byrne, ChahPresidentj Oregon State University

Robert Bailey John La Brecque

Department of Land Conservation and Senior Research Scientist

Development Lamont-Doherty Geophysical Observatory

State of Oregon Donna Moffitt

James Broadus Office of Marine Affairs

Director, Ocean Policy Center State of North Carolina

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute J. Robert Moore

Frank Busby Department of Marine Studies

Busby Associates, Inc. University of Texas

Clifton Curtis W. Jason Morgan

President Department of Geological and Geophysical

Oceanic Society Sciences

Richard Greenwald

Princeton University

General Counsel Jack E. Thompson

Ocean Mining Associates President, Newmont

Robert R. Hessler

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Alex Krem

Vice President

Bank of America

Mining Company

NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the advisory panel

members. The panel does not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full

responsibility for the report and the accuracy of its contents.

iv
OTA Ocean Frontier Project Staff

John Andelin, Assistant Director, OTA

Science, Information, and Natural Resources Division

Robert W. Niblock, Oceans and Environment Program Manager

James W. Curlin, Project Director

Project Staff

Rosina M. Bierbaum, Analyst

James E. Mielke, Specialist in Marine and Earth

William E. Westermeyer, Analyst

Jonathan Chudnoff, Research Assistant

Sciences 1

Elizabeth Cheng, Stanford Summer Fellow

W. William

Edward E.

Consultant

Francois Lampietti

Contractors

Harvey, Arlington Technical Services

Horton, Deep Oil Technology, Inc.

Lynn M. Powers

Richard C. Vetter

Administrative Staff

Kathleen A. Beil,

Jim Brewer,

Brenda B.

Administrative Assistant

Jr., P.C. Specialist

Miller, Secretary

‘Congressional Research Service, Science Policy Division, Library of Congress.
Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the many individuals who shared their special knowledge, expertise, and information about marine minerals, oceanography, and mining systems with the OTA staff in the course of this

study. Others provided critical evaluation and review during the compilation of the report. These individuals are listed in Appendix F in this report.

Special thanks also go to the government organizations and academic institutions with whom these

experts are affiliated. These include:

U.S. Geological Survey:

Office of Energy and Marine Geology

Strategic and Critical Materials Program

Western Regional Office, Menlo Park, CA

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:

Ocean Assessment Division

Charting and Geodetic Services

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory

U.S. Bureau of Mines:

Division of Minerals Policy and Analysis

Division of Minerals Availability

Bureau of Mines Research Centers—

Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN

Salt Lake City, UT

Spokane, WA

Reno, NV

Avondale, MD

Minerals Management Service:

Office of Strategic and International Minerals

We are particularly indebted to the Marine Policy Center, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,

Woods Hole, MA, and the LaSells Stewart Center and Hatfield Marine Science Center of Oregon State

University, Corvallis, OR, who graciously hosted OTA workshops at their facilities.

vi
Contents

Chapter Page

l. Summary, Issues, and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2. Resource Assessments and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3. Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4. Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone . ..................115

5. Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........167

6. Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..215

7. Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data . ........249

Appendix Page

A. State Management of Seabed Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....282

B. The Exclusive Economic Zone and U.S. Insular Territories . ...............292

C. Mineral Laws of the United States . . . . . . . . . . ............................300

D. Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............307

E. Tables of Contents for OTA Contractor Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...319

F. OTA Workshop Participants and Other Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322

G. Acronyms and Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........330

H. Conversion Table and Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........332

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....339

vii
Chapter 1

Summary, Issues, and Options
CONTENTS

Page

Exclusive Economic Zone: The Nation’ s New Frontier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Mineral Resources of the EEZ in Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Mineral Occurrences in the U.S. EEL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Outlook for Development of Selected Offshore Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Phosphorite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Gold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Sand and Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Deep-Sea Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Technologies for Exploring the Seabed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Technologies for Mining and Processing Marine Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Environmental Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Summary and Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Issues and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Focusing the National Exploration Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Providing for Future Seabed Mining... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Improving the Use of the Nation’s EEZ Data and Information.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Providing for the Use of Classified Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Assisting the States in Preparing for Future Seabed Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Box

l-A.

l-B.

l-c .

Boxes

Page

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

A Source of Confusion: Geologic Continental Shelf; Jurisdictional

Continental Shelf; Exclusive Economic Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Prelease Prospecting for Marine Mining Minerals in the EEZ: Minerals

Management Service Proposed Rules ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Figures

Figure No. Page

l-1. The Ocean Zones, Including the Exclusive Economic Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1-2. U.S. Mineral Imports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

l-3. Potential Hard Mineral Resource in the EEZ of the Continental United

States, Alaska, and Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 1

Summary, Issues, and Options

EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE: THE NATION’S NEW FRONTIER

Ever since the research vessel H.M.S. Challenger

hoisted manganese nodules from the deep ocean

during its epic voyage in 1873, there has been persistent curiosity about seabed minerals. It was not

until after World War II, however, that the black,

potato-sized nodules like those recovered by the

Challenger became more than a scientific oddity.

The post-war economic boom fueled an increase

in metals prices, and as a result commercial interest

focused on the cobalt-, manganese-, nickel-, and

copper-rich nodules that litter the seafloor of the

Pacific Ocean and elsewhere. World War II also

left a legacy of unprecedented technological capability for ocean exploration. Oceanographers took

advantage of ocean sensors and shipboard equipment developed for the military to expand scientific ocean research and commercial exploration.

Over the last 30 years, much has been learned

about the secrets of the oceans. Several spectacular discoveries have been made. For instance, only

two decades ago, most scientists rejected the ideas

of continental drift and plate tectonics. Now, largely

due to research carried out on the oceanfloor, scientists know that the surface of the Earth is constructed

of ‘plates’ which are in exceedingly slow but constant motion relative to each other. Plates pull apart

along ‘‘spreading centers’ where new crustal material is added to the plates; plates collide along

‘‘subduction zones’ where old crust is thrust downward. While these plates move at rates of only a

few inches per year, crustal material moves as if

on a conveyor belt from spreading center to subduction zone. More recently, scientists have discovered that the seafloor spreading centers are zones

where mineral deposits of potential use to humanity are being created. These sites of active mineral

formation are often habitats for unique biological

communities.

Scientists are excited by the new discoveries that

have enabled them to better understand the Earth’s

structure and the processes of mineral formation,

among other things. Other experts are more interested in the implications of this new knowledge

for potential financial gain. Nonetheless, despite

the several decades of scientific research since World

War II and some limited commercially oriented exploration, only the sketchiest picture has been

formed about the type, quality, and distribution

of seabed minerals that someday may be exploitable. A large part of the ocean remains unexplored,

and this is almost as true of the coastal waters under the jurisdiction of sovereign states as it is of the

deep ocean.

During the past three decades, many coastal nations have established Exclusive Economic Zones

(so-called EEZs)–areas extending 200 nautical

milesl seaward from coastal state baselines wherein nations enjoy sovereign rights over all resources,

living and non-living (see figure l-l). The EEZ concept has given new impetus to acquiring knowledge

about the oceans and the inventory of mineral

deposits within coastal nation jurisdiction. More

than 70 coastal countries have now established Exclusive Economic Zones. When the United States

established its own EEZ by Presidential proclamation in March 1983, it became the 59th nation to

do so. Covering more than 2.3 million square nautical miles (nearly 2 billion acres, equivalent to more

than two-thirds of the land area of the entire United States), the U.S. EEZ is the largest under any

nation’s jurisdiction. 2 Its international legal standing is based on customary international law, which

has been codified in the Law of the Sea Convention

(see box l-A). Although the United States has thus

1A nautical mile is 6,076 feet. All uses of the term ‘‘m ilc in this

assessment refer to a nautical mile.

‘L. Alexander, “Regional Exclusive Economic Zone Management,

in Excfusive Economic Zone Papers, Oceans 1984 (Washington, DC:

Marine Technology Society, 1984), p. 7. Others hai’e estimated the

U.S. EEZ to be much larger—3.9 billion acres—but the larger estimate includes portions of the former Pacific Trust Territories that are

no longer considered U.S. possessions (See W.P. Pendley, ‘ ‘America’s

Exclusi\’e Economic Zone: The Whys and Wherefores, Excfusi$’e

Economic Zone Papers, Oceans 1984 [Washington, DC: Marine Technology Society, 1984], p. 43. )

3Law of the Sea Convention Article 55 et seq.

3
4 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 1-1 .—The Ocean Zones, Including the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extends 200 nautical miles from the coast. Within the EEZ, the coastal States have jurisdiction

over the resources in the 3-mile territorial sea*, and the Federal Government has jurisdiction over the resources in the remaining

197 miles.

● Except for Florida and Texas where State jurisdiction extends seaward 3 marine leagues (approximately 9 miles).

SOURCE: B. McGregor and M. Lockwood, Mapping and Research in the Exclusive Economic Zone (Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey and the National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, 1985), p. 3.

far declined to sign the agreement, the legal status

of the U.S. EEZ is not in question. Like the EEZs

of most other countries, the U.S. EEZ remains

largely unexplored. It is the Nation’s ocean frontier.

This assessment addresses the exploration and

development of the U.S. territorial sea, continental shelf, and new EEZ, focusing on the mineral

resource potential of these areas except for petroleum and sulfur. The known mineral deposits

within U.S. waters are described; the capabilities

to explore for and develop ocean mineral resources

are evaluated; the economics of resource exploitation are estimated; the environmental implications

related to seabed mining are studied; the contribution that seabed minerals may make to the Nation’s resource base are examined; and the importance of seabed minerals relative to worldwide

demand and to land-based sources of supply is

assessed.

Unlike the sovereign control that governments

have traditionally exercised over their territorial

possessions, control over the ocean and the utilization of its resources has been accommodated

through intricate rules of international maritime law

that have evolved since the 1600s. The Exclusive

Economic Zone is an outgrowth of the Law of the

Sea Convention—the most recent international effort to develop a more comprehensive law of the sea.

Within its EEZ, the United States claims “sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing natural resources,

both living and non-living, of the seabed and subsoil and the superjacent waters. Each of the U.S.

coastal States retains jurisdiction over similar resources within the U.S. territorial sea, a 3-nauticalmile band seaward of the coast, that was awarded

to the States by Congress in the Submerged Lands

Act of 1953.5 The interests of the coastal States in

the 3-mile territorial sea and the responsibilities of

the Federal Government in the administration of

‘Executive Proclamation No. 5030 (1983).

 Law 83-31; 67 Stat. 29 (1953); 43 U.S.C. 1301-1315.
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options ● 5

the EEZ make the management of offshore resources provisions of Executive Proclamation No. 5030, isa joint Federal-State problem. G

sued in 1983, which established the U.S. ExcluAs of July 1987, Congress had yet to enact im- sive Economic Zone except for reference in a few

plementing and conforming legislation to codify the specific laws. The legislative task of implementing

the EEZ Proclamation is not trivial. Reference to

national ocean boundaries is contained in numer6R. Bailey, “Marine Minerals in the Exclusive Economic Zone:

Implications for Coastal States and Territories, ” White Paper, Western ous statutes, and the impact on each must be conLegislative Conference, Pacific States/Territories Ocean Resource sidered carefully when amending laws to implement

Group, Feb. 28, 1987, p. 32. the new EEZ.
6 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

. the most important aspect of the

Reagan Proclamation is its ceremonial

declaration that the resources within the

EEZ, . . . are declared to be held in trust

by the U.S. Government for the American people.

Extension of U.S. control over the resources

within the 200-mile EEZ in 1983 actually added—

for practical purposes—little additional area to that

already under the control of the United States. The

U.S. and other coastal countries already had asserted control over fish within a 200-mile zone (under the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 19767 and over other resources

located on the continental shelves. This extended

control over resources can be traced to the Truman Proclamation of 1945, in which President

Harry Truman declared that the United States asserted exclusive control and jurisdiction over the

natural resources of the seabed and the subsoil of

the continental shelf.8 Many believe this proclamation was responsible for a flurry of new maritime

claims. Following the proclamation, for instance,

Chile, Peru, and Ecuador claimed sovereignty and

jurisdiction out to 200 miles9 and considered the

200-mile zone to be wholly under their national control for all ocean uses except innocent passage of

ships. Various other claims, but none quite so extensive, were asserted by other countries in the wake

of the Truman Proclamation.

The United States implemented the Truman

Proclamation by passage of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act in 1953. This act authorizes

leasing of minerals in the continental shelf beyond

—..

7Public Law 94-265 as amended. The Fishery Conservation and

Management Zone extends seaward from the 3-mile State-controlled

Territorial Sea and is contiguous with the EEZ. The seaward boundaries of Texas, Puerto Rico, and the gulf coast of Florida extend 9

nautical miles; all other States have a 3-mile seaward boundary.

8Executive Proclamation No. 2667; 59 Stat. 884 (1945).

‘L. Alexander, “The Ocean Enclosure Movement: Inventory and

Prospect, ” San Diego Law Review, vol. 20, No. 3, 1983, p. 564.

the State-controlled territorial sea.10 The unilateral

action of the United States in extending jurisdiction over the petroleum-rich continental shelf led

to an international agreement in 1958 (see box 1-

B). As a result, all coastal nations acquired the

rights to explore and exploit natural resources

within the continental shelves adjacent to their

coasts. 11

The area of the U.S. continental shelf is estimated to be approximately 1.6 million square nautical miles. Thus, a substantial proportion of the

area of the recently proclaimed EEZ has been under the jurisdiction of the United States since 1945;

mineral leasing on the Outer Continental Shelf has

been authorized since 1953; and fisheries have been

managed within the 200-mile Fishery Conservation

and Management Zone since 1976. Hence, only

mineral deposits in areas within 200 miles of the

coast but beyond the continental shelf edge—the

least accessible part of the EEZ—have been added

to the resource base of the United States with the

establishment of the new EEZ.

President Ronald Reagan’s establishment of an

Exclusive Economic Zone in 1983 kindled interest

in the exploration of the ‘‘newly acquired" offshore

province. Some likened the creation of the EEZ to

the Louisiana Purchase. Others called for an EEZ

exploratory venture akin to Lewis and Clark’s exploration of the Northwest or John Wesley Powell’s

geological reconnaissance of the western territories

in the 1800s. Perhaps the most important aspect

of the Reagan Proclamation is its ceremonial declaration that the resources within the EEZ, whether

on the seafloor or in the water column, whether living or non-living, whether hydrocarbons or hard

minerals, are declared to be held in trust by the

U.S. Government for the American people.

Iopub]ic Law 83-212, 67 Stat. 462 (1953), 43 U. S.C. 133 1-1356;

as amended Public Law 95-372, 92 Stat. 629 (1978), 43 U.S, C.

1801-1806.

L1 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf (UNCLOS 1), 15 UST

471 ; TIAS 5578.
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options ● 7
8 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

MINERAL RESOURCES OF

The economic potential for seabed mining at this time is not favorable when

compared to alternative sources of supply for most mineral commodities.

Knowledge about marine geology has steadily

accumulated in recent years. Such knowledge has

enabled scientists to revise their theories about the

formation of some types of mineral deposits and

to better predict where new deposits might be

found. For instance, many continental features and

mineral deposits were formed on or beneath the

seabed. By studying the formation of mineral deposits on the oceanfloor, earth scientists are better

able to understand geology on land. In the case of

the formation of polymetallic sulfide deposits at

seafloor spreading centers, mineral deposition can

be observed as it occurs.

At the same time, knowledge of mineral deposits on land—gained through years of geological observation and research—provides clues about the

nature and possible location of offshore minerals.

For example, beach sand deposits containing heavy

minerals (e. g., chromite or titanium) or phosphorites that were formed under the ocean before

ancient seas receded may help identify the likely

location and composition of similar deposits located

in nearshore areas. Polymetallic sulfide deposits,

now on shore but formed under the sea, have

yielded large commercial quantities of copper, zinc,

and lead ores. Knowledge about these onshore deposits may lead to better understanding of the evolution of polymetallic sulfide ores formed under the

ocean.

Aside from the scientific knowledge that comparative studies of undersea and onshore mineral

occurrences can provide, the potential for discovering sizable deposits of minerals on land or in the

ocean as a result of seabed exploration could be important in the future. The economic potential of

seabed mining at this time is not favorable when

THE EEZ IN PERSPECTIVE

compared to alternative sources of supply for most

mineral commodities. However, onshore mineral

deposits are finite, and, given sufficient economic

incentives, even the higher cost seabed mineral deposits may become commercially viable—and perhaps attractive later.

Investment in seabed exploration and ocean mining technology should be considered a long-term

venture. Its value cannot be gauged against either

current economic conditions or present mineral demand. In the past, even short-term demand projections for mineral and energy resources have

widely missed their marks. There is little reason

to believe that supply and demand relationships will

be any more predictable in the future. Today’s

overcapacity in many sectors of the minerals industry may give way to increased demand as populations expand and global economic growth resumes.

On the other hand, changes in technology can also

result in reduced demand for conventional mineral

commodities through substitution, recycling, introduction of new materials, and miniaturization.

Growth in minerals demand has been linked to

world economic growth, and it is likely that the

course of minerals consumption will continue to be

affected by economic trends in the future.

Until more is understood about the location, extent, and characteristics of offshore minerals within

U.S. jurisdiction, including their associated marine

environment, the economic future of seabed minerals is mere conjecture. Their market position will

be first determined by comparing their production

costs with those of their closest domestic and foreign onshore competitors and next with competing foreign offshore producers. Minerals markets,

as with most commodities, favor the least cost producers first, thus recognizing an economic pecking order among potential mineral sources. The determinants of minerals costs are dynamic and can

change dramatically with the development of costsaving technologies, discovery of exceptionally rich

ore bodies, or erratic jumps in market prices as a

result of increased demand or of supply disruptions.

However, if environmental impacts could result

from the mining or processing of seabed minerals,
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options ● 9

Even though the occurrence of some

minerals within the EEZ might have a

dim economic future . . ., an understanding of their location, extent, and

availability y could provide an important

cushion under emergency conditions.

then the cost of mitigating or avoiding damage to

the marine environment must also be considered

in determining economic feasibility of development.

The strategic importance of several minerals in

the seabed—e.g., cobalt, chromium, manganese,

and the platinum group metals—could make future economic considerations secondary to national

Figure 1-2.—U.S.

(Million dollars)

3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500

I I I I I I I

80 ~

security. Between 82 and 100 percent of these critical metals are imported (figure 1-2) from countries

with unstable political conditions or where other

supply disruptions could occur for geopolitical reasons, e.g., the Republic of South Africa, the Soviet Union, Zimbabwe, Zaire, Zambia, China,

Turkey, and Yugoslavia. Even though the occurrence of some minerals within the EEZ might have

a dim economic future during normal periods, an

understanding of their location, extent, and availability could provide an important cushion under

emergency conditions. For shorter, less significant

disruptions, the National Defense Stockpile could

supplant the loss of some of the imported critical

minerals on which the United States is dependent.

While the immediate challenge to the United

States is to gain a better understanding of the physiography and geology of the seafloor and its enviMineral Imports

(Percent)

20 40 60 80 100

J

Value of apparent consumption

and import reliance

Manganese

Yttrium

Platinum

Cobalt

Chromium

Nickel

Tin

Zinc

Silver

Thorium

Barium

Zirconium

Copper

Lead

Titanium

Phosphorus

I I I I I I

1 I

1

I 1

I

Net import reliance as a

percent of apparent consumption

The United States is reliant on imports of a number of critical minerals that are known to occur on the seafloor within the

200-mile U.S. EEZ.

SOURCE J.M Broadus and P. Hoagland, “Marine Minerals and World Resources,” paper presented at the Marine Policy Center, Alumni Symposium, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, Apr 5.7, 1987 (modified).
10 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

major commercial seabed mining ventures may not

At the current stage of preliminary re- be in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, but rather

in other countries’ waters (small mining operations

source assessment in the EEZ, little credence should be given to estimates of the

have already taken place). In this instance, U.S.

innovation and engineering know-how applied to

economic value or tonnages of seabed developing seabed mining technology could place

minerals . . . . the United States in a pivotal competitive position

to exploit a world market (probably modest in size)

for seabed mining equipment. Technological innoronment and to inventory minerals occurrences vation in seabed-mining systems could ‘also assist

within U.S. jurisdiction, the potential value of de- the U. S. industry in maintaining a national capaveloping and marketing technology for seabed min- bility to deploy such technology in U.S. waters or

ing and shipboard processing systems should not elsewhere in the world when economic opportunibe ignored. It is possible—perhaps likely—that the ties arise or if emergencies occur.

MINERAL OCCURRENCES IN THE U.S. EEZ

Only a miniscule portion of the U.S. EEZ has

been explored for minerals. However, several types

of mineral deposits are known to occur in various

regions of the U.S. EEZ (figure 1-3). These include:

● Placers—accumulations of sand and/or gravel

containing gold, platinum, chromite,

titanium, and/or other associated minerals.

● Po]ymetallic Sulfides —metal sulfides formed

on the seabed from minerals dissolved in superheated water near subsea volcanic areas.

They commonly contain copper, lead, zinc,

and other minerals.

● Ferromanganese Crusts-cobalt-rich manganese crusts formed as pavements on the seafloor on the flanks of seamounts, ridges, and

plateaus in the Pacific region. They may also

contain lesser amounts of other metals such

as copper, nickel, etc.

● Ferromanganese Nodules—similar in composition to ferromanganese crusts, but in the

form of small potato-like nodules scattered randomly on the surface of the seafloor. Those

found within the EEZ in the Atlantic Ocean

tend to be lower in cobalt content than deep

ocean manganese nodules in the Pacific

Ocean.

● Phosphorite Beds—seaward extensions of onshore phosphate rock deposits that were laid

down in ancient marine environments.

Since so little is known about the volume in place

and the mineral content (assay) of most seabed deposits, most deposits are properly termed “occurrences’ rather than resources. Not much more can

be said about a mineral occurrence other than that

a mineral has been identified, perhaps in as little

as one surficial grab sample. A few EEZ mineral

deposits have been investigated enough to be

termed ‘ ‘resources, deposits that occur in a form

and an amount that economic extraction is potentially feasible.

At the current stage of preliminary resource

assessment in the EEZ, little credence should be

given to estimates of the economic value or tonnages of seabed minerals that have been inferred

by some observers. Current information should be

interpreted cautiously to avoid implying a greater

degree of certainty than is justified by the sampling

density, sampling design, and analytical techniques

used. Misinterpretation of the results (i. e., by inferring that the results of a small number of surficial samples are representative of an extensive,

three-dimensional deposit) of preliminary assessments can lead to false expectations.

Close-grid, three-dimensional sampling is needed

to adequately delineate and quantify mineral deposits in the seafloor. Sand and gravel, phosphorite

beds, and placers vary in depth below the seabed
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options ● 11
12 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

T O be competitive, marine minerals

probably must either prove to exist in

large, high-quality deposits, and/or to

be cheaper to mine and process than

their onshore counterparts.

and must be sampled by taking cores through many

feet of sediment and sometimes down to bedrock.

Sampling polymetallic sulfides is considerably more

difficult than the other EEZ minerals. The thickness of polymetallic sulfide deposits is expected to

be much greater, sometimes extending into the

basement rocks of the seabed. Polymetallic sulfides

are generally found in deeper water, and prohibitively expensive hard-rock coring techniques are

required to adequately sample them. Resource assessments of cobalt-manganese crust deposits and manganese nodules are on somewhat firmer footing than

placers or polymetallic sulfides. Nodule and crust

distribution can be observed and visually mapped,

while grab samples and shallow coring devices can

assess the thickness of these deposits and obtain

samples for chemical analysis.

More is known about sand and gravel than other

hard mineral resources in the U.S. EEZ as a result of extensive sampling by the U.S. Army Corps

of Engineers. Although onshore sand and gravel

resources in most areas of the United States are ample to meet mainland needs for the near future, offshore deposits of high-quality sand may be locally

important in the future, especially in New York and

Massachusetts. Geologists have identified several

offshore areas that have potential for hosting heavy

mineral placer deposits, although data are still too

sparse for compiling resource assessments. Occurrences of shallow-water mineral placer deposits have

been identified in both State waters and the Federal EEZ.

One of the most promising areas for titanium

sands and associated minerals in the U.S. EEZ is

located between New Jersey and Florida. On the

west coast, the best prospects for chromite placers,

Only a miniscule portion of the U.S.

EEZ has been explored for minerals.

other associated minerals, and perhaps precious metals are offshore southern Oregon. In Alaska, gold

is being investigated off the Seward Peninsula near

Nome where some test mining has occurred, and

platinum has been recovered onshore near Goodnews Bay on the Bering Sea, providing some evidence that precious metal placers may also lie offshore; in the Gulf of Alaska, lower Cook Inlet may

be a promising area to prospect for gold.

Phosphorite beds located onshore in North Carolina and South Carolina extend seaward in the continental shelf. Extensive phosphorite deposits are

found near the surface of the seabed in the Blake

Plateau of the southeastern Atlantic coast, as well

as off southern California.

Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on the seabed

adjacent to the Pacific Islands have piqued the interest of an international mining consortium. Data

on the manganese crusts are insufficient to determine the resource potential, to identify a potential

mining site, or to design a mining system. Ferromanganese nodules are located in the Blake Plateau and have been recovered in experimental

quantities while testing deep seabed mining systems

that were intended for use in the Pacific Ocean.

The Blake Plateau nodules are in shallower water

than those in the Pacific and thus may be more easily mined, but they have lower mineral content.

Polymetallic sulfide deposits located in the volcanically active Gorda Ridge in the U.S. EEZ and

also located in the Juan de Fuca Ridge, that straddles the U.S.-Canadian EEZs off the Northwestern

United States, have attracted considerable scientific curiosity. Although these deposits are known

to contain large quantities of copper, lead, zinc,

and other metals, uncertainties about the quality,

composition, and extent of the deposits makes their

resource potential difficult to determine.
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options ● 13

MINERALS SUPPLY, DEMAND, AND FUTURE TRENDS

Commodities, materials, and mineral concentrates— the stuff made from minerals-are traded

in international markets. There is nothing special

or unique about marine minerals that makes them

different from those obtained domestically onshore

or from foreign sources. They must, nevertheless,

compete for price, quality, and supply reliability

with other foreign and domestic mineral suppliers.

To be competitive, marine minerals probably must

either prove to exist in large, high-quality deposits, and/or to be cheaper to mine and process than

their onshore counterparts. Major questions remain

as to where marine minerals may fit in the future

economic pecking order of producers.

The commercial potential of marine minerals

from the U.S. EEZ is uncertain because development, when it occurs (or if it occurs in the case of

some minerals), is likely to be in the distant future.

It is difficult to foresee the future of marine minerals

for several reasons:

●

●

●

●

●

Little is known about the extent and grade of

the mineral occurrences that have been identified in the EEZ.

Little actual experience and few pilot operations are available to evaluate seabed mining

costs and operational uncertainties.

Erratic performance of the domestic and global

economies adds uncertainty to forecasts of

minerals demand.

Changing technologies can cause unforeseen

shifts between demand and supply of minerals

and materials.

Past experience indicates that methods for projecting or forecasting minerals demand are not

dependable.

Materials are constantly competing with one

another for applications in goods and industrial

processes. Total consumption of a mineral commodity is determined by the amount (volume or

number) of goods consumed and by the amount

of a commodity used in manufacturing each unit.

The former is linked to the vitality of the economy

and customer preference, while the latter is related

to technological trends which also may be related

to economic factors. Substitution of new or different materials, conservation through more efficient

manufacturing, and recycling of used materials can

reduce the demand for virgin materials.

Major changes in domestic and world economies,

coupled with technological advancements and

changes in consumer attitudes, have significantly

altered consumption trends beginning in the late

1970s and continuing through the present. For most

of the commodities derived from marine minerals,

the amount used relative to the goods produced has

decreased for chromium, cobalt, manganese, tin,

zinc, lead, and nickel from 1972 to 1982. Only

platinum and titanium increased in use intensity.

Consumption of goods and consequently the demand for mineral commodities used to produce the

goods —with the exception of platinum and titanium—also decreased (but less abruptly than use intensity) during the same period,

Mining capacity increased—particularly in the

mineral-rich Third World—in the early 1970s when

mineral prices were high, consumption strong, and

the economic outlook bright. In the 1980s, demand

softened, prices dropped, and the world economy

slowed, causing significant excess world mining capacity for most of the minerals that occur in the

U.S. EEZ. It is unknown whether technological

trends toward miniaturization, substitution, and

lower intensity of use of the commodities derived

from marine minerals will continue in the future,

or whether domestic and world economic growth

will rebound to new heights or merely continue

sluggishly on the current course. These uncertainties will affect the utilization of existing capacity

and determine the need for new mineral development in the future, including minerals from the

seabed.

As a result of excess world capacity, the U.S.

minerals and mining industry has met with substantial foreign competition. Metals prices remain

low, and, until recently, production costs in the

United States and Canada have been well above

the world average for copper, zinc, lead, and other

metals used in large industrial quantities. Competition from low-cost foreign producers, with advantages of lower capital and operating costs and higher

grade ores, have resulted in a depressed domestic
14 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

mining industry, a trend that accelerated in the

early 1980s.

Foreign producers, including state-owned or

state-controlled companies, are likely to continue

to be the measure of competition that must be met

by both domestic onshore and offshore producers.

Only when seabed mine production is the least cost

source with respect to both domestic and foreign

onshore producers and even foreign offshore producers will it become commercially viable.

Manganese, chromium, and nickel are alloying

elements that are used to impart specific properties to steel and other metals. Their demand is

closely tied to the production of steel; they are usually added to molten metal as a ferroalloy or as an

intermediate product of iron enriched with the alloying element. There are no domestic reserves

(proven economic resources) of manganese or chromium; therefore, the United States must import

substantially all of these alloying metals.

A decade ago, concentrated ores were imported

for conversion to ferromanganese and ferrochromium by U.S. ferroalloy firms to supply a thenrobust domestic steel industry. Since 1981, the

United States has imported more finished ferrochromium than it has chromite ore, and a similar

pattern has developed with ferromanganese. Foreign producers now supply U.S. markets with about

90 percent of the ferrochromium consumed for the

domestic manufacture of chromium steel. Chromite-producing countries are now converting ore

to finished ferroalloy and gaining the value added

through the manufacturing process before exporting to consumers. There is currently no existing

domestic capacity to produce ferromanganese.

U.S. steel production has also declined in favor

of cheaper imports. With decreases in both U.S.

ferroalloy production and iron and steel production, demand for chromium and manganese ores

(manganese is also used to desulfurize steel) for domestic ferroalloys is likely to continue to diminish.

The United States is fast approaching total dependence on foreign processing capacity of ferroalloys.

Even if EEZ chromite heavy sands off southern

Oregon were to prove economically recoverable,

there are no ferroalloy furnaces in the Pacific Northwest to process the chromite produced. Any offshore

chromite recovered probably would be used for the

production of sodium bichromate, the major chemical derivative of chromium.

Titanium metal is used extensively in aerospace

applications, and its use in industrial applications

is expected to expand in the future. Heavy mineral

sands in the EEZ off the Southeastern Atlantic States

contain substantial concentrations of ilmenite, a

titanium-bearing mineral. Although ilmenite can

be converted to titanium metal through an intermediate process (alteration to synthetic rutile), the

added expense might make it uneconomical. The

most probable use for ilmenite recovered from the

Atlantic EEZ would be as titanium pigments, since

two major plants currently operate in northern

Florida using locally mined onshore minerals; over

30 percent of world’s titanium pigment production

is in the United States.

About 90 percent of the phosphate rock mined

in the United States goes for the production of agricultural fertilizers. Most of the remainder is used

to manufacture detergents and cleaners. Phosphate

is abundant throughout the world, but only a small

proportion is of commercial importance, Offshore

phosphorites are similar to those that are mined in

the coastal plain onshore. The United States historically has been the leading producer of phosphate

rock, but its preeminence is now challenged by

cheaper foreign producers.

Precious metals-gold, platinum-group—are in

a class of their own. By definition, they are less

abundant and more difficult to find and recover

than other minerals, hence their enhanced value.

Both are used to some extent in manufacturing, the

platinum-group metals are used most widely. Demand for the platinum-group is expected to increase

in the future as Europe, Australia, and Japan adopt

automobile emission controls that use platinum as

a catalyst. Gold remains a standard of wealth, and

is used for jewelry. Both platinum and gold are subject to the whims of speculators who respond to anticipated economic changes, market trends, world

political conditions, and other factors; therefore,

prices can change abruptly and unpredictably.
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options ● 15

OUTLOOK FOR DEVELOPMENT OF

SELECTED OFFSHORE MINERALS

OTA has assessed the potential for near-term development of selected minerals found within U.S.

coastal waters. Costs of offshore mining will determine its competitive position with regard to onshore

sources of the same minerals in the United States

and abroad. For most offshore minerals, the nearterm prospects for development do not appear

promising. Although only minor new developments

in technology will be required to mine offshore

placer deposits or phosphorite, costs for offshore

mining equipment are likely to be higher than capital costs for onshore operations. Some of the factors that will increase costs include the need for seaworthy mining vessels and possible requirements

for motion compensating devices and navigational

and positioning equipment.

In addition to greater capital costs, operating

costs for offshore mining typically will be higher

than for onshore operations. Occasional adverse

weather conditions will undoubtedly reduce the

number of days per year during which mining is

feasible. For most offshore settings, mining rates

of 300 days per year are considered optimistic. The

necessity of transporting to shore (possibly great

distances) either raw or beneficiated ore for final

processing is another factor that may increase operating costs relative to costs for onshore operations.

On the other hand, siting offshore mining equipment is easier and less expensive than for onshore

facilities.

Sufficient data are not available with which to

make detailed cost estimates of typical future offshore mining operations. However, first approximations of profitability can provide insights into

the competitiveness of offshore relative to onshore

mining. OTA has developed mining scenarios for

four types of hypothetical marine mineral deposits

in areas where concentrations of potentially valuable minerals are known to occur. The deposits

evaluated include titanium-rich sands off the Georgia coast, chromite-rich sands off the Oregon coast,

phosphorite off the North Carolina and Georgia

coasts, and gold off the Alaska coast near Nome.

Titanium

OTA’s analysis of offshore titanium sand mining indicates that it is not very promising in the

near term. Nevertheless, there has been some commercial interest shown in these deposits. The recovery of ilmenite alone from an offshore placer

does not appear economically feasible and will not

be feasible unless primary concentrate can be delivered to an onshore processing plant at costs comparable to those incurred in producing the equivalent titanium minerals from an onshore placer

deposit. To be competitive, the offshore deposit

would have to contain considerable amounts of

higher valued heavy minerals like rutile (valued at

$350 to $500 per ton) or other more valuable

minerals, e, g., zircon, monazite, or precious metals. Such deposits have not yet been identified.

Chromite

Mining and processing chromite-rich sands show

results similar to those obtained for titanium. For

chromite, revenues of about $125 per ton would

be required to realize a 3-year payback on investment. The average price of low-grade, nonrefractory chromite concentrate imported into the United

States during the first half of 1986 was $40 per ton,

exclusive of import duties, freight, insurance, and

other charges. Production of chromite alone, therefore, would not meet revenue requirements. The

presence of higher valued minerals, such as gold,

could improve the profitability of mining offshore

chromite sands if revenues from the sale of coproducts exceeded the costs of their separation.

With excess capacity in the world’s ferroalloy industry, it is unlikely that a viable U.S. ferrochromium installation could survive foreign competition. It is possible that the Oregon chromite sands

might be used for the manufacture of sodium dichromate, the major industrial chromium chemical. A west coast “green field” plant probably

would have to be built for this purpose to offset the

transportation costs of shipping to existing east coast

chemical plants.
16 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Phosphorite

The economic outlook for offshore phosphorite

mining is not especially promising either. In the

past, the United States led world phosphate rock

production with onshore mining in northern Florida

and North Carolina; now the United States is being challenged by Morocco, which has immense

high-grade reserves judged to be capable of satisfying world demand far into the future. The prospect that mining of U.S. offshore phosphorites

could successfully compete with low-cost Moroccan phosphate rock or other possible low-cost foreign producers is considered remote. However, domestic onshore producers have met considerable

opposition because of potential environmental disturbance and land use conflicts. The offshore marine deposits of North Carolina and other Southeastern States might become more competitive with

domestic onshore production in the future if environmental and land use problems become insurmountable.

Gold

Offshore gold placer mining near Nome, Alaska,

appears more promising. In fact, Inspiration Mines

has already undertaken pilot mining and is planning to begin full-scale gold mining with a converted tin dredge from southeast Asia. Some of the

data OTA used in estimating capital and operating costs for this project were provided by Inspiration Mines; thus, some of the assumptions used in

the gold offshore mining scenario are considered

more reliable.

Assuming the price of gold to be $400 per ounce

(a conservative assumption in July 1987, but the

price of gold is subject to wide swings), the projected pre-tax cash flow on the estimated production of 48,000 ounces of gold per year would be

approximately $19 million. This figure indicates

that the offshore gold mining project at Nome shows

good promise of profitability if the operators are

able to maintain production. Note, however, that

offshore mining will be possible only about 5 months

per year, because ice on Norton Sound prohibits

operations during the winter months. The duration of yearly ice cover (as well as the fluctuating

price of gold) will have a significant effect on the

profitability of this operation.

With the exceptions of sand and gravel

and precious metals, the commercial

prospects for developing marine minerals within the EEZ appear to be remote for the foreseeable future.

Sand and Gravel

The least valuable marine minerals by volume

are sand and gravel. However, these resources may

have the most immediate competitive position in

relation to onshore supplies. Although onshore sand

and gravel resources are immense, coarse sand is

sometimes hard to find and land use restrictions

increasingly prohibit access to suitable resources.

Some limited offshore mining of sand and gravel

is taking place. Sand and gravel is a high-volume,

low-value commodity where short-haul transportation is important. Around high-growth, highdensity areas in the Northeast and on the west coast,

marine sand and gravel might soon prove profitable to mine.

Deep-Sea Minerals

OTA did not estimate the potential for near-term

exploitation of ferromanganese nodules, cobalt-rich

ferromanganese crusts, or polymetallic sulfides. Recovery of ferromanganese nodules (which include

copper, nickel, and manganese) from the deep

seafloor beyond the U.S. EEZ has been studied by

the industry, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the Minerals

Management Service (MMS). Prototype technology

has been designed and tested, but plans to mine

nodule resources in the central Pacific Ocean have

been on hold pending favorable economic conditions.

Even less is known about the economic potential for recovery of cobalt-rich crusts (within the Hawaiian EEZ) or polymetallic sulfide deposits (within

the U.S. EEZ off Oregon and northern California)

than about the potential for recovery of nodule or

placer deposits. Technology has not yet been developed for mining these deposits nor does sufficient information about the nature of the deposits
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options 17

The job of exploring the U.S. EEZ is

immense, difficult, and expensive . . .

[it] is not an activity that is likely to be

undertaken by the private sector in response to market forces.

exist to permit meaningful estimates of future economic potential to be made, More data about the

physical characteristics of cobalt crusts and polymetallic sulfides are needed before mining concepts

can be refined and mining costs estimated. An international consortium is studying the potential for

mining cobalt-rich crusts in the Johnston Island

EEZ, but near-term incentives for mining crusts

and sulfides do not exist.

It is risky to attempt to rank the future potential

for development of marine minerals in the EEZ because of shortfalls in resource data. Nevertheless,

an assessment based on what is known of the nature and extent of the mineral occurrences, coupled with insights into mineral commodity markets

and trends, suggests the following rank ‘‘guestimate” for the probable order of development:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

sand and gravel

precious metal placers,

titanium and chromite placers and phosphorite,

ferromanganese nodules,

cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts, and

polymetallic sulfides.

TECHNOLOGIES FOR EXPLORING THE SEABED

The job of exploring the U.S. EEZ is immense,

difficult, and expensive. The job is not an activity

that is likely to be undertaken by the private sector

in response to market forces. In its initial reconnaissance stages, it is largely a government responsibility. As knowledge narrows the targets of opportunity to those of economic potential, commercial

interest may then motivate entrepreneurs to explore

in more detail. But without the first efforts by the

Federal Government, both the scientific community and industry will be unable or unwilling to

launch an effective, broad-scale exploration

program.

Technological capabilities for exploring the seabed in detail are currently available and in use.

These range from reconnaissance technologies that

provide relatively coarse, general information about

very large areas to site-specific technologies that

provide information about increasingly smaller

areas of the seafloor. A common strategy is to use

these technologies in the manner of a zoom lens,

that is, by focusing on progressively smaller areas

with increasing detail.

Among the reconnaissance technologies available

are echo-sounding instruments capable of accurately determining the depth of the seafloor and

producing computer-drawn bathymetric charts

showing the form and topography of the bottom.

Side-looking sonar devices produce photo-like images that can reveal interesting features and patterns on the seafloor. These technologies can be

combined in one piece of equipment or used simultaneously to survey broad swaths of the seafloor

while a vessel is underway, thus providing nearperfect registry between the sonar and bathymetric data. Broad-scale coverage of side-looking sonar imagery for most of the U.S. EEZ soon will

be available from the U.S. Geological Survey

(USGS). However, high-resolution, multi-beam

bathymetric data collected by NOAA will take

much longer to acquire. Moreover, the future of

NOAA’s bathymetric charting program is uncertain, since the Navy considers the data to be of sufficient quality to classify for national security reasons.

Seismic technologies, which are used extensively

by the offshore petroleum industry, can detect structural and stratigraphic features below the seabed

which can aid geological interpretation. New threedimensional seismic techniques, although very expensive, can enhance the usefulness of seismic information. Gravimeters can detect differences in

the density of rocks, leading to estimates of crustal

rock types and thicknesses. Magnetometers provide
18 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

The military value of some EEZ data

might require restrictions on access and

use of certain information for national

security reasons.

information about the magnetic field and may be

used offshore to map sediments and rocks containing magnetite and other iron-rich minerals. Both

of these technologies are also used for oil and gas

exploration. Data can be collected rapidly by moving vessels and stored in retrievable form.

Other technologies may also be used to explore

the EEZ. Some, like many electrical techniques,

are proven technologies for land-based exploration

which have been adapted for ocean use, but have

not been widely tested in the marine environment.

Induced polarization, for example, has potential for

locating titanium placer deposits and for performing rapid, real-time, shipboard analyses of core

samples. Nuclear techniques may also prove useful for identifying such minerals as phosphorite,

monazite, and zircon that emit radiation.

When the focus of attention narrows to prospective targets of interest on the seafloor, direct visual

observation is often useful. Manned submersibles

and/or remotely operated undersea vehicles (ROVs),

similar to those used for locating the Titanic in

1986, may come into play. Remotely operated

cameras capable of observing, transmitting, and

recording photographic images have proved valuable exploration tools.

Direct sampling of seabed minerals for assessment presents special problems. In some cases, it

is possible (as has been done with the research submersible Alvin to recover limited samples of seabed

minerals using manned submersibles or ROVs).

A number of devices have been developed to retrieve a sample of unconsolidated sediment, but few

are capable of extracting undisturbed samples that

reflect the mineral concentrations contained in the

seabed deposit. Many of the sediment coring devices were designed for scientific use, and few are

capable of economically and efficiently recovering

the large number of samples that are needed to accurately determine the commercial feasibility of a

refine mineral deposit and to delineate a mine site.,

Quantitative sampling of hard-rock deposits,

e.g., ferromanganese crusts and polymetallic sulfides, is economically infeasible with existing technology. While large drill ships (e. g., the Joides

Resolution) used in the Ocean Drilling Project or

those used by the offshore petroleum industry, are

capable of drilling and extracting cores from hard

basaltic rock, their cost is prohibitive for extensive,

high-density sampling of the kind needed to assess

a mineral deposit. It may prove easier to develop

a practical sampling device for thin ferromanganese

crusts than for the thicker, less regular, polymetallic

sulfides.
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options 19

TECHNOLOGIES FOR MINING AND PROCESSING

MARINE MINERALS

Existing or modified dredge mining systems could place many potential placer

deposits in the range of technical exploitability.

From table-flat, heavy mineral sand placers deposited in shallow water to mounds and chimneys

of rock-like polymetallic sulfides at depths of over

a mile, marine minerals present a variety of challenges to the design, development, and operation

of marine mining systems. Development and capital costs for vessels and marine systems can be high.

Profitability of offshore mining ventures will hinge

on whether safe and efficient mining systems can

be built and operated at reasonable costs. With the

exception of conversions of onshore dredge mining equipment for shallow, protected water offshore

and work done on deep seabed manganese nodule

mining systems, there has been little development

effort thus far.

Dredge mining technology is used extensively for

harbor and channel dredging in coastal waters and

for onshore mining of phosphate rock and heavy

mineral sands. It has also been used for mining tin

in coastal waters in Asia and is currently being used

in pilot mining of gold in State waters near Nome,

Alaska.

In deeper waters subject to winds, waves, swells,

and currents, specially designed mining dredges

must be developed. High endurance dredges for

deep waters must be self-powered, seaworthy platDREDGES WHICH OPERATE HYDRAULICALLY

forms with motion compensating systems and may

be equipped with onboard mineral processing plants

and storage capacity. Conceptual designs of such

equipment are being readied. The design of even

the most sophisticated dredge probably can be

achieved without major new technological breakthroughs. Cost will be the most important limiting factor.

The maximum practical operating depth for most

dredging systems is about 300 feet from the surface of the water to the bottom of the excavation

on the seafloor. Airlift systems can be used on suction dredges to lift unconsolidated material from

much greater depths. Existing or modified dredge

mining systems could place many potential placer

deposits in the range of technical exploitability.

Solution or borehole mining has been tested in

north Florida land-based phosphate rock deposits

as a means to reduce surface disturbance and environmental impacts. The technique involves sinking a shaft into the phosphorite deposit, jetting

water into the borehole, and pumping the resulting slurry to the surface. Although the technique

has not yet been tested under marine conditions,

some mining engineers speculate that it could have

potential for offshore phosphorite mining.

Several preliminary mining systems have been

sketched out for recovering ferromanganese crusts

as well as for mining polymetallic sulfide deposits,

but little if any development work has proceeded

in either area. Collection and airlift recovery systems developed for deep seabed manganese nodules may be adaptable to mining both crusts and

polymetallic sulfides. Too little is known about the

DREDGES WHICH OPERATE MECHANICALLY

Dredge Technologies

Dredge technologies are well developed and proven through years of experience. Adaptation of inshore dredge

mining systems for offshore use could make the technical exploitability of some heavy mineral placer deposits

possible if seabed mining is found to be economically competitive.

Source: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987
20 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

nature and extent of the deposits to allow the development of prototype mining systems at this time.

Mineral processing technology has evolved

through centuries of experience with onshore

minerals, although such techniques have not been

widely applied at sea. No major technological

breakthroughs are considered to be needed to adapt

onshore processing technologies to shipboard use,

but considerable uncertainty remains about the

costs and efficiency of operating a minerals processing plant at sea.

Shore-based v. at-sea minerals processing will be

a trade-off that a seabed mining enterprise must

consider. If shipboard processing is installed, it may

be cheaper to transport smaller amounts of highgrade processed ore (beneficiated) than to haul large

volumes of unprocessed ore containing as much as

85 to over 90 percent waste material to an onshore

processing plant. Economic conditions that would

influence such a decision could vary for each case.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Little direct experience exists with commercial offshore mining with which to

estimate the potential for environmental

harm.

Little direct experience exists with commercial

offshore mining with which to estimate the potential for environmental harm. Even channel and harbor dredging operations or recovery of sand for

beach nourishment, which have been studied in

some detail, are sporadic operations and do not reflect the impacts that could result from long-term

placer dredge mining operations that would move

considerably more material from a larger area of

the seafloor. Less is known about impacts to deep

water environments than shallow water environments.

Physical disturbance from dredge mining operations will consist of removing a layer of the

seafloor, conveying it to the surface, and reinjecting the unwanted material onto the seabed. The

mining operation will generate a transient ‘‘plume’

of sediment that will affect the surface, the water

column, and adjacent areas of the oceanfloor for

an uncertain period of time.

Experience with sand and gravel mining in Europe and with the dredging operations of the U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers suggests that as long as

sensitive areas (e. g., fish spawning and nursery

grounds) are avoided, surface and mid-water effects from either shallow or deep water mining

should be minimal and transient. Benthic communities assuredly will be destroyed if mined, and

some nearby areas may be adversely affected by

sediment returning to the seafloor, However, mining equipment can be designed to minimize such

damage, and, except where rare animals occur, entire benthic populations are eliminated, or the substrate is permanently altered, the seafloor should

recolonize. Recolonization is expected to take place

quickly in high-energy, shallow water communities, but very slowly in deep-sea areas. If any atsea processing of the mined material occurs —with

subsequent discharge of chemicals-negative impacts would possibly be more severe.

It is not scientifically or economically feasible to

research ecological baseline information on all of

the marine environments that may be affected by

seabed mining. Furthermore, the consequences of

the range of possible mining scenarios are unknown.

Anticipating and avoiding high-risk, sensitive areas

and mitigating damage through improved equipment design and operating procedures can reduce

the impacts from offshore mining. Environmental

monitoring during the mining process will provide

an additional margin of safety and add to the knowledge of what effects seabed mining might have on

the marine environment as well. Concurrent observations in undisturbed control areas similar to

those being mined could also provide an understanding of the processes at work.
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options 21

Anticipating and avoiding high-risk,

sensitive areas and mitigating damage

through improved equipment design

and operating procedures can reduce the

impacts from offshore mining.

What effects might extensive mining in shallow

waters have on the coastline? The removal of large

quantities of sand and gravel or placers in nearshore areas might alter the coastline and aggravate

coastal erosion by altering waves and tides. Experience with sand removal off Grand Isle, Louisiana,

for beach replenishment suggests that the mining

of even small areas to substantial depths may cause

serious damage to the shoreline. This potential

problem requires considerably more investigation.

More, too, should be learned about the structure and energetic of deep-sea communities. However, to do so requires expensive submersibles and

elaborate sampling equipment because of the difficulty of operating at great depths.

A considerable amount of environmental data

already has been collected by a number of Federal

agencies as part of their missions. Much of the information remains in the files of each agency, and

only a small part finds its way into the public literature. Some of this environmental information

could be useful in planning offshore mining operations. The public investment in such environmental information represents hundreds of millions

COLLECTING AND MANAGING OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA

Several Federal agencies share responsibility for

exploring various aspects of the U.S. EEZ. In addition, coastal States, oceanographic institutions, academic institutions, and private industry also contribute information and data about the Nation’s

offshore areas. All of these institutions, except the

private firms, are funded primarily with public

funds. The overall investment in collecting oceanographic data related to exploring the EEZ is not

trivial, nor are the problems of coordinating exploration efforts and archiving the results.

At a time when the Federal Government is struggling to reduce the Federal budget deficit, it is important to ensure that Federal agencies coordinate

their complementary and overlapping functions and

promote a spirit of cooperation among investigators that will encourage efficiency and responsibility, With regard to EEZ exploratory programs,

there have been notable and unprecedented achievements in cooperation and communication between

the Department of the Interior (DOI) and NOAA

during the last few years. USGS and NOAA have
22 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

agreed to a division of effort in EEZ exploration

and have taken steps to create a joint office to take

the lead in integrating information from government and private sources. However, the Minerals

Management Service, with responsibility for managing the Outer Continental Shelf mineral resources,

and the Bureau of Mines, with responsibility for

mining and minerals research and investigations,

are not formally linked to the USGS-NOAA cooperative agreement.

About a dozen Federal agencies administer programs related to the exploration and investigation

of the EEZ. The oceanographic and resource data

produced by the numerous Federal programs and

augmented by similar data collected by States, industry, and academic institutions make up an impressive body of information. The data sets are of

highly variable quality and were collected in different places over different time periods. Some of these

data are available to other researchers and the public through formal and informal exchanges among

the institutions; other data, however, are less

accessible.

As exploration of the EEZ increases in intensity,

data management problems will worsen. Modern

instruments, such as multi-beam echo-sounders,

satellites, and multi-channel seismic reflection recorders, produce streams of digital data at high rates

of speed. To succeed, a national exploration effort

in the EEZ must effectively deal with the problems

of compiling, archiving, manipulating, and disseminating a range of digital data and graphic information. Historically, Federal agencies have spent

proportionately more on collecting the data than

on archiving and managing databases compared

to their counterparts in the private sector. Industry managers consider data collected in the course

of investigations to be capital assets with future

value; in general, the Federal agencies seem to consider data more as an inventory of limited longterm value and hence have spent less on data management.

There is no governmentwide policy for archiving and disseminating oceanographic data to secondary users. The National Science Foundation’s

Ocean Sciences Division has taken steps to ensure

that data collected in the course of research it funds

are submitted to NOAA’s National Environmental

Modern multi-beam echo-sounding systems and computer

mapping technologies can produce accurate topographic

maps of the deep seabed, Mapping is the first step toward

a systematic program for exploring the EEZ.

SOURCE: Naval Research Laboratory

Satellite, Data, and Information System. There are

two national data centers that act as libraries for

oceanographic and geophysical data: 1) National

Oceanographic Data Center, and 2) National Geophysical Data Center. Both are managed by NOAA.

Data at the centers are acquired from Federal agencies under interagency agreements; some agencies

are more responsive and reliable in forwarding data

to the centers than are others.

Funds for the centers have never been adequate

to provide effective oceanographic data services to

secondary users in industry, academia, or State

governments. As a result of chronically inadequate

funding, the centers are neither able to acquire existing data sets that have intrinsic historical baseline value nor to preserve and store but a relatively

small proportion of the new data that are currently

being produced. Oceanographic data discarded for

lack of storage facilities is a government asset lost

forever.

Detailed charts of the seafloor, such as those

produced by multi-beam echo-sounding instruments

(e.g., Sea Beam), are considered to be invaluable

tools for geologists and geophysicists exploring the
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options ● 2 3

EEZ. Unfortunately, they are also considered to

be invaluable tools for navigating and positioning

potential hostile submarines within the EEZ. As a

consequence, the U.S. Navy has taken steps to classify and restrict the public dissemination of highresolution bathymetric charts produced by NOAA’s

National Ocean Services in the EEZ.

NOAA’s plans for exploring the EEZ include

broad-scale, atlas-like coverage of the EEZ with

high-resolution bathymetry. The plan is applauded

by the academic community, but the Navy, concerned about the national security implications of

public release of such data, opposes NOAA’s plan

unless security can be assured. Negotiations between NOAA and the Navy continue in an attempt

to resolve the classification issue. Suggestions by

the Navy that bathymetric data may be skewed or

altered in a random fashion to reduce its strategic

usefulness have been met by protests from the research community that claim its usefulness for research also would be reduced.

There is little doubt that the Navy’s strategic concern over the value of high-resolution bathymetry

to potentially hostile forces is well founded. However, critics of the Navy’s position cite mitigating

factors that they consider to undermine the Navy’s

security argument, such as the availability of multibeam technology in foreign vessels; the U.S. policy of open access for research in the EEZ, which

would allow foreign vessels to gather similar data;

and the stringent criteria for classification established by the Navy that could include existing

bathymetric charts that have been in the public domain for some time.

The importance of high-resolution bathymetry

to efficient exploration of the EEZ is apparent. Both

the Navy and the scientific community have failed

to effectively communicate their concerns to each

other. To ensure that the scientific community has

access to precise bathymetry to facilitate the exploration of the EEZ and at the same time to protect

the national security, a flexible policy must be

agreed to and supported by all parties. Undoubtedly, there will be appreciable financial costs connected to such a policy, but it should be considered a cost of doing the government’s business in

the modern, high-technology research environment.

Before the marine mining industry will invest

substantially in commercial prospecting in the EEZ,

it must have assurances that the Federal Government will encourage development and grant access

to the private sector to explore and develop seabed

minerals. While the Outer Continental Shelf Lands

Act authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to lease

non-energy minerals as well as oil and gas in the

Outer Continental Shelf, little guidance is provided

by the legislation for structuring a hard mineral

leasing program. There also is disagreement as to

whether the Secretary’s mineral leasing authority

can be extended to areas beyond the limits of the

continental shelf in the EEZ. Furthermore, the bidding requirements for hard mineral leases, which

require advance payment of money before a mine

site is delineated, may not be workable for EEZ

hard minerals. New marine mining legislation is

needed to ensure the seabed mining industry that

it will have a suitable Federal leasing program in

place when it is needed.

SUMMARY AND FINDINGS

With a few possible exceptions (e. g., sand and

gravel and precious metals), the commercial prospects for developing marine minerals within the Exclusive Economic Zone appear to be remote for the

foreseeable future. There is currently no operational

domestic seabed mining industry per se, although

some international mining consortia have a continuing interest in deep seabed manganese nodules

and perhaps cobalt-manganese crusts in the EEZ.

One land-based mining company is currently operating a gold mining dredge in Alaskan State waters,

and sand is being mined at the entrance to New

York Harbor. Commercial interest in some nearshore placer deposits and Blake Plateau manganese

nodules has occurred sporadically. Because of the

economic uncertainties and financial risks of EEZ

mining, it is doubtful that the private sector will

undertake substantial exploration in the EEZ until
24 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Advances in mapping technology have provided oceanographers with valuable detailed information about the depths

and topography of the seafloor. However, the accuracy and precision of multi-beam and echo-sounding also makes the

maps valuable for military navigation and positioning. (Old technology on this page; new technology opposite).

Source: National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA

more is known about marine minerals. Preliminary

reconnaissance and exploration by the Federal

agencies to determine mining opportunities, as well

as assurances from Congress that the Federal Government will provide an appropriate administrative framework and economic climate to conduct

business offshore, probably will be needed to interest the private sector in further prospecting and

possible development.

The possible strategic importance of some EEZ

minerals is additional justification for the United

States to maintain momentum in exploring its offshore public domain. We know too little about the

mineral resource potential of the EEZ to judge its

long-term commercial viability or its strategic value

in supplying critical minerals in times of emergency. A time may come, however, when it is

judged that it is vital to the Nation that the Federal Government indirectly or directly support the

offshore mining industry to maintain a competitive, strategic position in seabed mining relative to

European countries, Japan, and other industrial

nations.

The vastness of the U.S. EEZ requires that exploration proceed according to well-thought-out

plans and priorities. Federal agencies will have to

coordinate efforts, share equipment, and collaborate

in a collegial atmosphere. Academicians, State personnel, and scientists and engineers from private

industry also will be major participants in the Federal EEZ exploration program. To achieve this

extraordinary level of collaboration inside and outside the Federal Government, a broad-based coordinating mechanism is likely to be needed to tie

the various public, academic, and private sector

EEZ activities together.
ISSUES AND OPTIONS

Although EEZ exploration costs could be large

in the aggregate, there are several possible low-cost

actions that Congress might take along the way to

bolster the national effort by focusing the government exploration effort and improving Federal

agency performance through better communication, coordination, and planning. The major needs

of the fledgling U.S. ocean mining industry might

be best met through appropriate legislation aimed

at providing a suitable Federal administrative management framework.

Focusing the National Exploration Effort

Responsibility for various aspects of EEZ minerals exploration is shared by several Federal agencies: U.S. Geological Survey, National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration, Minerals Management Service, U.S. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Navy,

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Department of

Energy, Environmental Protection Agency, National Science Foundation, and several other contributing agencies. Moreover, the major academic

oceanographic institutions—Scripps Institution of

Oceanography, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory—

play a key role in the pursuit of scientific knowledge about the seafloor and the ocean environment,

as do a large number of marine scientists at many

universities and colleges throughout the country.

State agency efforts, though modest in comparison to the Federal programs, are focused on the

3-mile territorial sea under the coastal State’s con72-672 0 - 87 -- 2
26 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

. . . it is important to ensure that Federal agencies coordinate their complementary and overlapping functions. . . .

trol and provide an important adjunct to the Federal exploration efforts. The offshore mining industry’s stake in the outcome of the Federal EEZ

exploration program also necessitates that the industry be a major contributor to national EEZ

planning.

With the large number of actors involved in collecting EEZ information, it is important that their

efforts be focused and coordinated through a national exploration plan-yet no such planning process currently exists. In an effort to coordinate EEZ

activities in NOAA and USGS, these two agencies

recently established a joint EEZ office (Joint Office for Mapping and Research) to foster communication between them and to establish an EEZ

point of contact for the public. The joint EEZ office is a positive step towards coordination, but its

activities apply principally to the sponsoring agencies and there is no separate funding for this office.

MMS also has made efforts to improve communications and information transfer with the coastal

States regarding anticipated offshore mineral leasing in the EEZ. State-Federal working groups have

been organized for cobalt crusts off Hawaii; polymetallic sulfides and placers off Washington, Oregon, and California; phosphorites off North Carolina; heavy mineral sands off Georgia; and placers

in the Gulf of Mexico. Such efforts to coordinate

Federal EEZ activities are good as far as they go,

but they fall short of providing the comprehensive

focus needed to integrate the full range of government activities with those of the States, academic

institutions, and the seabed mining industry.

Faced with a similar planning and coordination

problem in Arctic research, Congress enacted the

Arctic Research and Policy Act (Public Law 98-

373) in 1984. The Act established an Interagency

Arctic Research Policy Committee composed of the

10 key agencies involved in Arctic research, A

parallel organization, the Arctic Research Commission, was concurrently established to represent the

academic community, State and private interests,

and residents of the Arctic and to advise the Federal Government. The Federal Interagency Arctic

Research Policy Committee and the Arctic Research Commission are charged with developing

5-year Arctic research plan which includes goals and

priorities. Budget requests for funding of Arctic research for each Federal agency under the plan are

to be considered by the Office of Management and

Budget (OMB) as a single “integrated, coherent,

and multi-agency request’ (Sec. 110). The Arctic

Research and Policy Act does not authorize additional funding for Arctic research. Each Federal

agency designates a portion of its proposed budget for “Arctic research” for the purpose of OMB

review.

Congress opted for a similar solution to coordinate multi-agency research activities in acid precipitation. Title VII of the Energy Security Act of

1980 (Public Law 96-294) established an Acid Precipitation Task Force, consisting of 12 Federal

agencies, 4 National Laboratories, and 4 presidential appointees from the public. The Task Force was

assigned responsibility for developing and managing a 10-year research plan. Funds ($5 million) were

authorized by the Act to underwrite the cost of developing the plan and to support the Task Force.

Research funds requested by the Federal agencies

(comprising each agency’s acid precipitation research budgets) are combined annually into a National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program budget that is submitted to OMB as a unit.

Both the Arctic Research and Policy Act and Title VII of the Energy Security Act may be considered prototypes for focusing, planning, budgeting,

and coordinating Federal exploration and research

activities in the EEZ. Neither Act has proved to

be expensive, nor has either unduly encroached on

the autonomy, jurisdiction, or missions of the individual agencies. Neither Act authorizes or earmarks special funds for its intended purposes (except to offset the cost of plans and administration),

but collective budgets are presented to OMB along

with plans and programs to justify the expenditure

of the requested funds. Both approaches build in

participation from the general public and the private sector in developing research plans.

Another approach to interagency planning and

coordination is used for marine pollution. The Na-
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options ● 2 7

tional Ocean Pollution Planning Act of 1978 (Public

Law 95-273) designates NOAA as the lead agency

for compiling a 5-year plan for Federal ocean pollution research and development (R&D), a plan

that is revised every 3 years. The National Marine

Pollution Program links the R&D activities of 11

Federal agencies, establishes priorities, and reviews

the budgets of the agencies with regard to the goals

of the program and screens them for unnecessary

duplication. Public participation in Federal planning is fostered through workshops at which marine pollution R&D progress is reviewed and future trends and priorities discussed. Each agency

submits its own budget request to OMB, but appropriations are authorized to cover NOAA’s expenses for preparing the plan and monitoring

progress. In 1986, the Act was amended to provide for an interagency board that will review individual agency budget requests in the context of

the current 5-year plan.

Congressional Options

Option 1: Establish an interagency planning

and coordinating committee within the

executive branch and a public advisory

commission similar to those created in

the Arctic Research and Policy Act, with

Federal agency budgets submitted separately to OMB.

Congressional Action: Enact authorizing legislation.

Option 2: Establish an interagency planning

and coordinating task force composed of

Federal agency representatives and public members similar to the task force established for acid precipitation R&D by

the National Energy Security Act, with

a budget request combining all agency

budgets in a single EEZ document.

Congressional Action: Enact authorizing legislation.

Option 3: Mandate interagency planning and

coordination and assign lead-agency responsibility to a single agency as Congress did in the National Ocean Pollution

Research and Development and Monitoring Act of 1978.

Congressional Action: Enact authorizing legislation.

Option 4: Allow ad hoc cooperation and coordination to continue at the discretion

of Federal agency administrators.

Congressional Action: No action required.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Congress has attempted in various ways to improve the planning and coordination of government

functions among Federal agencies with related missions. Informal agency coordination has largely

failed in the past, although the track record of interagency coordination groups has had mixed results. To be effective, interagency coordinating

mechanisms must have means to coordinate both

the programs and budgets of the agencies. The success of ad hoc agency coordination depends primarily on comity and cooperation among government

managers. Therefore, personnel changes, which

happen frequently at high levels of the Federal Government, can alter an otherwise amiable relationship among the agencies and destroy what may

have been an effective coordination effort.

Efforts by Congress to improve agency accountability, planning, coordination, and budgeting

through legislation have also met with mixed results. Some laws require elaborate plans that must

be updated periodically and transmitted concurrently to Congress and the President. Other statutes require that annual reports be similarly compiled and transmitted. Such information can be

useful to Congress in carrying out its oversight

responsibility for agency performance and may be

useful to the President in his capacity as ‘‘chief executive officer’ of the Federal Government.

The extent to which congressional committees

and the President effectively use these agency plans,

programs, and reports required by law varies considerably. In some cases, agency plans and programs receive little or no attention from Congress;

in other cases, such as the MMS 5-year leasing program required under the Outer Continental Shelf

Lands Act, the planning document often becomes

the focus of public debate.

Although Federal agencies often have closely

related functions, their budgets are generally for-
28 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

mulated with little or no mutual consultation. Furthermore, budget examiners at OMB who are responsible for the review of individual agencies

seldom collaborate with other OMB examiners who

are responsible for other agencies with similar programs (e. g., NOAA’s budget is reviewed by a different OMB budget examiner than is DOI). A similar situation exists within Congress among the

appropriations subcommittees that are responsible

for individual agency appropriations. To remedy

this problem, Congress has in several cases mandated that “cross-cutting” budget analyses be prepared for related multiple-agency activities so that

the entire range of funds directed toward a specific

effort can be easily seen. Cross-cutting budget analyses are required in the Arctic Research and Policy Act, Title VII of the Energy Security Act, and

the National Ocean Pollution Research and Development and Monitoring Act of 1978.

OMB exercises nearly omnipotent control over

the funding levels recommended in the President’s

budget that is submitted to Congress each year.

Program budgets that are presented to Congress

are arrived at through a byzantine negotiation process that involves OMB, Cabinet departments, agencies within the departments, programs within agencies, and finally, if appealed, the President. The

budget process is internal, and neither the public

nor Congress is privy to the negotiations.

Congress has attempted to open the executive

branch budget process to more public scrutiny by

directing the agencies by statute to submit recommended program budgets directly to Congress as

part of the interagency planning and coordination

process without prior review by OMB; the National

Ocean Pollution Research and Development and

Monitoring Act uses this mechanism. Although the

approach appears reasonable in theory, it seldom—

if ever—works in reality. OMB continues to maintain its authority over all budget recommendations

transmitted to Congress from within the executive

branch.

Unified budget submissions to OMB accompanied by cross-cutting budget analyses and program

plans that justify the funding levels, such as provided in both the Arctic Research and Policy Act

and Title VII of the Energy Security Act, seem to

work reasonably well for developing rational interagency budgets within the normal budget process.

As currently implemented under the Energy Security Act, unified budget submissions from several

agencies in a single document covering acid precipitation have the advantage of earmarking funds

specifically for research in each agency as if it were

a line item in the budget; on the other hand, the

Arctic Research and Policy Act merely requires that

Arctic R&D be “designated” in the normal agency

budget submissions to OMB. The budget procedures under the Energy Security Act focus more

directly on the multi-agency budget related to acid

precipitation rather than on the single budget of

each agency. The National Ocean Pollution Research and Development and Monitoring Act provides little advantage over the normal agency budgeting process.

Providing for Future Seabed Mining

The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA)

authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to lease

minerals in the Outer Continental Shelf. Although

the main thrust of OCSLA is directed toward oil

and gas, provisions are also included for leasing sulfur (Sec. 8[i] and [j]), and other minerals (Sec.

8[k]). Sulfur has been mined in the Gulf of Mexico since 1960 using borehole solution mining techniques. Because of the similarities between sulfur

mining and oil and gas extraction, DOI applies to

sulfur the same general regulations that govern petroleum operations. 13 When OCSLA was enacted

in 1953, little was known about hard minerals in

the continental shelf. Scientists were aware of their

existence, but technology was then not generally

available for either exploring or mining the seabed

for hard mineral deposits.

DOI claims jurisdiction under OCSLA to all offshore areas seaward of the territorial sea over which

the United States asserts jurisdiction and control.

Since the United States is not a party to the Law

of the Sea Convention, the only applicable treaty

recognized by DOI as affecting offshore jurisdiction is the 1958 Convention on the Continental

Shelf. 14 The 1958 Convention authorizes coastal

Izpub]jc Law 83-212; 67 stat. 462, Aug. 7, 1953; 43 U. S.C. 1331-

1356; as amended by Public Law 93-627; 88 Stat. 2126, Jan. 3, 1975;

and 95-372; 92 Stat. 629, Sept. 18, 1978.

1330 ~:ode of Feder~ Regulations, ch. II, part 250.

I+ Convention on the continental Shelf, in force June 10, 1964, 15

UST 471, TIAS No. 5578, 499 U. N,T. S. 311.
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options . 29

Before the marine mining industry will

invest substantially in commercial prospecting in the EEZ, it must have assurances that the Federal Government will

encourage development and grant access

to the private sector to explore and develop seabed minerals.

State control over the seabed to a depth of 200

meters or beyond ‘‘where the depth of the superjacent water admits of the exploitation of the natural resources. DOI concludes that the concept

of ‘exploitability y ‘‘ in the 1958 Convention further

supports the department’s opinion that the legal

continental shelf includes the breadth of the 200-

mile Exclusive Economic Zone, regardless of the

physical attributes of the submarine area.

DOI’s Minerals Management Service most recently attempted to lease hard minerals in March

1983, when plans were announced to prepare an

environmental impact statement for a proposed

lease sale of polymetallic sulfide minerals associated with the Gorda Ridge geological complex. 15

Authority for the proposed lease sale was based on

Section 8(k) of OCSLA.l6 The site of the mineral

deposits of the Gorda Ridge is a tectonic spreading center and, therefore, is not part of the geological continental shelf. DOI based its authority

to lease the area on the definition of the ‘‘legal’

continental shelf implied in Section 2(a) of OCSLA.17

The Gorda Ridge lease sale is yet to be held, but,

in March 1987, MMS published proposed rules for

prelease prospecting for non-energy marine minerals. 18 The prelease prospecting rules are the first

of a three-tier regulatory program proposed by

MMS; future rules would cover leasing and postleasing operations.

‘5’ ‘Scoping Notice to Prepare an Environmental Impact Statement,

Federal Register, vol. 48, Mar. 28, 1983, p. 12840,

ICSCC. 8(k): “The secretary, is authorized to grant to the qualified

persons offering the highest bonuses on a basis of competitive bidding leases of any mineral other than oil, gas, and sulfur in any area

of the Outer Continental Shelf not then under lease for such mineral

upon such royalty, rental, and other terms and conditions as the Secretary may prcscribc at the time of offering the area for lease.

‘ ‘Frank K. Richardson, ‘ ‘Opinion of the Solicitor, ’ L:. S. Department of the Interior, May 30, 1985.

1 nF&eral Rcqjs[er, vol. 52, Mar, 26, 1987, p. 9753.

Environmental groups and industry representatives have questioned DOI’s leasing authority under OCSLA, claiming that DOI is misinterpreting

the 1958 Convention by delineating the breadth of

the continental shelf to include the 200-mile EEZ

by using the “exploitability” definition in OCSLA.

These groups have asserted that no U.S. agency

has statutory authority to grant leases or licenses

to recover hard minerals from the seafloor beyond

the Outer Continental Shelf, except for NOAA

which has authority to license commercial manganese nodule mining only. There is no disagreement that DOI has authority to lease hard minerals

in the Outer Continental Shelf. The controversy

extends only to how far that authority extends seaward beyond the geological continental shelf,

Notwithstanding the legal question of whether

DOI has legislative authority to lease in the 200-

mile EEZ beyond the geographical limits of the continental shelf, questions remain about the adequacy

of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act for administering an EEZ hard minerals leasing program.

Several shortcomings limit OCSLA’s suitability

for managing hard minerals in either the Outer

Continental Shelf or the EEZ:

●

●

●

●

DOI is given little congressional guidance for

planning, environmental guidelines, intergovernmental coordination, and other administrative details needed for structuring a hard

mineral leasing regime under Section 8(k) of

OCSLA.

Section 8(k) of the Act is discretionary with

the Secretary of the Interior; thus, there are

no assurances to the industry that a stable, predictable leasing program will be continued by

subsequent administrations,

Bonus bid competitive leasing requirements

(money paid to the government before exploration or development begins) set forth in Section 7(k) of OCSLA are not well suited for

stimulating exploration and development of

seabed hard minerals by the private sector.

The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act does

not apply to the territories; therefore, the

Minerals Management Service may not have

authority to lease in a large area of the EEZ

adjacent to the U.S. Territories. 19

1 gThe narroW defin ltion of the term ‘‘State as used in the SUb-

(con finud on nrxt page)
30 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

An ad hoc working group consisting of representatives of the marine minerals industry, environmental groups, coastal States, and academicians

was formed in 1986 to develop a conceptual framework for managing marine minerals in the EEZ.

After several meetings, the members reached a consensus that the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act

was unsuitable for administering a seabed hard

minerals exploration and development program,

and that new ‘‘stand-alone’ legislation is needed

to replace the oil- and gas-oriented OCSLA.20 The

working group recommended that the authorizing

legislation should:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

use the Deep Seabed Hard Minerals Resources Act (Public Law 96-283) mining provisions and its regime for public participation

and multiple-use conflict resolution as a model

for new EEZ seabed mining legislation;

provide for a comprehensive and systematic

research plan including bathymetric charting,

mineral reconnaissance, and environmental

baseline studies;

require wide public dissemination of data but

protect confidential information;

provide incentives for private industry to collect and contribute to the resource information base;

apply legislation to all areas within the U.S.

EEZ and the territories consistent with U.S.

authority and obligations; and

provide for effective Federal/State/local consultation.

Legislation was introduced in both the 99th and

100th Congresses to establish a regime for exploring and developing hard minerals in the EEZ.21

H.R. 1260, The National Seabed Hard Minerals

merged Lands Act and incorporated into the Outer Continental Shelf

Land Act (Sec. 6[e]) limits the applicability of OCSLA to the waters

off ‘‘any State of the Union. This definition contrasts with other

laws that specify Congress’ intent to extend their effect to the territories as well.

ZoC[ifton Cufl is, President, Oceanic Society, Memorandum, Apr.

1, 1986, to Ann Dore McLaughlin, Under Secretary of the Interior.

21 H. R. 1260, National Seabed Hard Minetals Act, 10oth Cong.,

1st sess., Feb. 25, 1987; H.R. 5464, 99th Cong., Sponsor: Lowry

et al. Another bill would impose a temporary moratorium on seabed

mining in the Gorda Ridge, H. R. 787, Ocean Mineral Resources

Development Act, IOOth Cong., 1st sess., Jan. 28, 1987, Sponsor:

Bosco.

Act of 1987, includes many of the suggestions by

the ad hoc working group.

According to DOI, MMS’s proposed rules for

prelease prospecting of marine minerals is a first

step toward providing access for private industry

to obtain geologic and geophysical information

about the EEZ (box 1-C). With the likelihood that

development of EEZ minerals will not take place

any time soon, the promulgation of acceptable prelease prospecting rules under OCSLA maybe sufficient to allow preliminary prospecting by the industry while Congress formulates and enacts EEZ

seabed mining legislation that overcomes the deficiencies of OCSLA.

Congressional Options

Option 1: Enact “stand-alone’ legislation for

exploring and developing minerals in the

U.S. EEZ patterned after the Deep

Seabed Hard Minerals Resources Act.

Congressional Action: Enact new legislation.

Option 2: Amend the Outer Continental Shelf

Lands Act by adding a new title to apply exclusively to marine hard minerals

in the EEZ.

Congressional Action: Amend the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act.

Option 3: Amend the Outer Continental Shelf

Lands Act to extend its application to

U.S. territories and possessions. Section

8(k) could either be amended to provide

guidelines for marine hard mineral leasing or be allowed to remain in its present

form. The Outer Continental Shelf also

might be redefined so as to be identical

to the Exclusive Economic Zone.

Congressional Action: Amend the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act.

Option 4: Permit the Minerals Management

Service to continue to develop a regulatory system based on its authority under

the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act,

but amend Section 8(k) to provide more

specific guidance for administration,

planning, and coordination.
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options 31

●

●

●

●

●

●

Congressional Action: Amend the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act.

Option 5: Allow the Minerals Management

Service to continue to develop a regulatory system for preleasing, leasing, and

postlease management of Outer Continental Shelf hard minerals under the existing provisions of Section 8(k).

Congressional Action: No action required.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Whether new EEZ mining legislation is incorporated as a separate title to the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act or is enacted as a ‘‘stand-alone”

law would make little difference so far as the effect

of the statute is concerned. However, stand-alone

legislation might relieve the concerns of oil and gas

interests that fear opening the Outer Continental

Shelf Lands Act up to amendment of Section 8(k)

or adding a new EEZ seabed mining title might

make the Act vulnerable to amendments affecting

the offshore oil and gas resource leasing program.

Should Congress decide not to enact separate

EEZ seabed mining legislation through a standalone law, or a separate title in the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, or amendments to Section 8(k)

of OCSLA, the Minerals Management Service

could continue to promulgate seabed mining legislation under the current authority of Section 8(k)

of OCSLA. However, leasing authority under Section 8(k) pertains only to the continental shelf adjacent to “States of the Union, ” and, therefore,

the Minerals Management Service probably lacks

authority to lease seabed minerals in the EEZ off

Johnston Island and adjacent to the other Pacific

trust territories and possessions.
32 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

U.S. innovation and engineering knowhow applied to developing seabed mining technology could place the United

States in a pivotal competitive position

to exploit a world market. . . for seabed

mining equipment.

Congress also has the option of merely broadening the geographical coverage of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act to include the U.S. territories and possessions. Such action, if it applied to

the Act in general, would also open these areas to

potential oil and gas leasing in the future, although

the EEZs of most of the territories and possessions

are not known to have oil and gas potential. If Congress chose to redefine the Outer Continental Shelf

and make it identical to the EEZ, the status of the

oil and gas leasing program might be clarified in

some areas of legal uncertainty beyond the continental shelf but within the 200-nautical mile zone.

Improving the Use of the Nation’s

EEZ Data and Information

Oceanographic data collected in the course of exploring the EEZ are a national asset. Because of

the immense size of the U.S. EEZ, exploration

activities are likely to continue for decades. Information and data may take many forms, may differ in quality, may come from many geographical

areas, and may be collected by many agencies and

entities. It is important that such data be evaluated,

archived, processed, and made available to a wide

range of potential users in the future.

As the pace of EEZ exploration increases, the existing Federal oceanographic data systems—which

are currently taxed near their capacity based on

available funding and resources—probably will be

unable to adequately manage the load. Even today,

in some cases, data must be discarded for lack of

storage and handling facilities, and user services

are limited. In other cases, Federal agencies sometimes do not submit data acquired at public expense

to the National Oceanographic Data Center or the

National Geophysical Data Center in a timely and

systematic manner.

Limitations on the national data centers are primarily institutional, budgetary, and service-connected. Funding for data archiving and dissemination generally has been considered a lower priority

by the Federal agencies than data collection. The

historical usefulness of oceanographic, environmental, and resource information is often overlooked by Federal managers with mission-oriented

responsibilities.

Consistent policies for transmittal of EEZ-related

information to the national data centers are lacking in many Federal agencies. However, inventories of data collected by the academic community

under the auspices of the National Science Foundation’s Division of Ocean Sciences are required

to be transmitted to the national data centers in a

timely manner as a condition of its research grants.

The Ocean Science Division’s ocean data policy is

an excellent example that other Federal agencies

might emulate.

But even with more effective policies to ensure

transmittal of EEZ information to the national data

centers, little improvement in efficiency can be expected unless resources—both equipment and personnel-- are upgraded and expanded commensurate with the expected increase in the workload. The

mere ‘‘storage’ of data does not fulfill the national

need; such information must be retrievable and

made available to a wide range of potential users,

including Federal agencies, State agencies, academia, industry, and the general public.

Improved data services will require additional

funds to raise the level of capability and performance of the existing national data centers. Eventually, regional data centers may be required to adequately service the public needs; but for the time

being the major Federal effort aimed at improving

data services probably should be directed at upgrading the performance of the existing centers.

Congressional Options

Option 1: Direct each Federal agency to establish an EEZ data policy that will ensure

the timely and systematic transmittal of

oceanographic data to either the National

Oceanographic Data Center or the National Geophysical Data Center, whichever is appropriate.
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options ● 3 3

Congressional Action:

a. Amend authorizing legislation for each appropriate program and/or Federal agency.

b. Direct action through the annual appropriations process.

c. Enact general legislation that would apply

to all Federal agencies collecting EEZ data

and information.

Option 2: Provide additional funds and directives to the National Oceanographic Data

Center and the National Geophysical Data

Center to upgrade EEZ data services according to a plan, to be developed by the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, for

meeting the future needs of archiving and disseminating EEZ data and information.

Congressional Action: Issue directive through

the annual appropriations process.

Option 3: Continue at the current level of

funding and continue to permit the Federal

agencies to transmit EEZ-related information

to the National Oceanographic Data Center and

the National Geophysical Data Center at each

agency’s discretion.

Congressional Action: No action required.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Incentives for the agencies and the academic

community to place more emphasis on data services could take several forms. Since improvements

in data services are tied to adequate funding, the

most expedient approach for Congress would be

to direct appropriate agency actions through the

annual appropriations process. This option, however, would only be effective for one budget cycle

and would have to be repeated annually if an effective long-term data services program were to

continue.

Amendments to individual agency authorizing

legislation, or alternative “umbrella” legislation

applicable to all agencies collecting EEZ data and

information, would establish continuing programs

to improve data services. Long-term plans for meeting the expanding EEZ data needs of the future

should provide guidelines for improving overall

government data services.

Providing for the Use of Classified Data

National security may require that public dissemination and use of certain EEZ-related data continue to be restricted. This restriction may result

in some hardship and perhaps additional expense

to the scientific community as well as the marine

minerals industry, but it need not totally lock up

that information. There are responsible ways in

which classified data can be made available to those

needing to use such data for further EEZ exploration.

Federal personnel, contractors, and academicians

in many technical and engineering fields have access to and routinely use classified information on

a daily basis. While maintaining security installations is sometimes unwieldy and expensive, it may

be possible to achieve a compromise between the

national need for security and the national need for

timely and efficient exploration of the EEZ by establishing secure data centers to manage classified EEZ

data.

Other aspects of EEZ data classification may

prove to be more troublesome. The ocean science

community may be restricted from publishing some

EEZ data or information that would, if unclassified, be freely available in the scientific literature.

There are also inconsistencies in U.S. policy regarding scientific access of foreign investigators to the

U.S. EEZ and the Navy’s access to foreign EEZs

to gather hydrographic information that seem at

odds with current EEZ data classification policies.

Diplomatic questions may arise from these inconsistencies that could result in access restriction

for U.S. scientists working in the EEZs of other

countries.

Congressional Options

Option 1: Establish regional classified data

centers at major oceanographic institutions or at colleges and universities, with

access assured for certified scientists and

with guidelines established for the use

and publication of data sets and bathymetric information.

Congressional Action: Direct the Department

of Defense in collaboration with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
34 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

tration to establish regional classified centers

under contract with academic institutions

for the operation and administration of the

centers, or consider Federal operation of

such centers.

Option 2: Review the current EEZ data classification policies and assess their possible effects on academic research and their

possible international impacts on access

to other countries’ EEZs by U.S. scientists.

Congressional Action: Hold oversight hearing on Navy’s classification policies and procedures.

Option 3: Continue to allow the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the Navy to seek a solution to

the EEZ data classification problem.

Congressional Action: No legislative action required.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The cost of establishing and operating regional

classified data centers either at academic institutions or at Federal centers is likely to be significant.

There also may be policies at some of the academic

institutions that prohibit the location of classified

data centers at their facilities.

Congress may choose to learn more about the

details of the need for classification of EEZ data

and the impact that classification restrictions might

have on scientific activities and commercial exploration before it takes further action. Classified hearings may be needed to fully evaluate the security

implications of EEZ data.

Without either legislative or oversight activities

by Congress, the uncertainties regarding the future

availability of classified data may continue for some

time until mutual agreement is reached between

the Navy and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Assisting the States in Preparing for

Future Seabed Mining

The first major U.S. efforts to commercially exploit marine minerals are likely to occur in State

waters. Most coastal States do not currently have

statutes suitable for administering a marine minerals exploration and development program. Many

States do not separate onshore from offshore development, providing only a single administrative

process for all mineral resources. Four of the States

—California, Oregon, Texas, and Washington—

separate the leasing of oil and gas from other minerals, but most do not.

Oregon has completed surveys of its coastal

waters, and Florida, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland,

New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Virginia are

among the States where offshore surveys are continuing. These survey programs are often cooperative efforts between the States, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the Minerals Management Service.

State-Federal task forces formed through the initiatives of the Department of the Interior are assisting the coastal States in coordinating their efforts with marine minerals exploration currently

taking place in the EEZ. State-Federal task forces

have been formed in Hawaii (cobalt-manganese

crusts), Oregon and California (polymetallic sulfides in the Gorda Ridge), North Carolina (phosphorites), Georgia (heavy mineral sands), and the

Gulf States (sand, gravel, and heavy minerals off

Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas),

The Federal Government could provide valuable

technical assistance to the States in preparing for

possible exploration and development of marine

minerals in nearshore State waters. The FederalState task forces are currently coordinating the

States’ and DOI’s activities in the EEZ, but further assistance may be needed in formulating State

legislation for leasing, permitting, or licensing marine minerals activities in the States’ territorial seas.

Such legislative initiatives must originate with

the individual States, but the Federal Government

could provide assistance through existing programs
Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options ● 3 5

such as those authorized by the Coastal Zone Management Act. Private organizations, such as the

Coastal States Organization or the National Governors Association, could also serve as a catalyst and

guide to States for developing legislative concepts

or model seabed mining legislation.

Congressional Options

Option 1: Direct the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration’s Office of

Ocean and Coastal Resource Management to provide technical assistance and

financial support to coastal States’ coastal

zone management programs to formulate

State marine minerals management legislation through the Coastal Zone Management Act, Section 309 grants program.

Congressional Action: Issue directive through

the annual appropriations process,

Option 2: Direct the Minerals Management

Service to provide technical assistance to

the States to aid in formulating marine

minerals legislation that could provide an

interface between marine minerals activities in the EEZ adjacent to the States’

territorial seas.

Congressional Action: Issue directive through

the annual appropriations process.

Option 3: Provide technical assistance and

funds to the coastal States to aid in formulating marine minerals legislation

through seabed miring legislation enacted

as a ‘‘stand-alone’ statute, amendments

to Section 8(k) of the Outer Continental

Shelf Lands Act, or through a new title

in the Outer Continental Shelf Lands

Act.

Congressional Action: Enact stand-alone legislation or amend the Outer Continental

Shelf Lands Act.

Option 4: Rely on the individual initiative of

the coastal States to undertake a legislative effort to formulate marine minerals

legislation.

Congressional Action: No action required.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Directives to agencies through the annual appropriations process are often followed to the

minimal extent possible and only apply to the

expenditure of funds during the specific fiscal

year. Authorizing legislation is probably

needed to ensure a continuing, long-term

effort.
Chapter 2

Resource Assessments and Expectations
CONTENTS

Page

World Outlook for Seabed Minerals ., . . . . . 39

General Geologic Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Atlantic Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Sand and Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Placer Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Phosphorite Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Manganese Nodules and Pavements . . . . . 53

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands . . . 54

Sand and Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Placer Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Gulf of Mexico Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Sand and Gravel . .’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Placer Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Phosphorite Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Pacific Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Sand and Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Precious Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Black Sand—Chromite Deposits .. 58

Other Heavy Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Phosphorite Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Polymetallic Sulfide Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Alaska Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Sand and Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Precious Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Other Heavy Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Hawaii Region and U.S. Trust

Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Cobalt-Ferromanganese Crusts . . . . . . . . . 70

Manganese Nodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Box

Box Page

2-A. Mineral Resources and Reserves . . . . . 40

Figure

2-1.

2-2.

2-3.

2-4.

2-5.

2-6.

2-7.

Figures

No. Page

Idealized Physiography of a

Continental Margin and Some

Common Margin Types . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Sedimentary Basins in the EEZ . . . . . . 44

Sand and Gravel Deposits Along the

Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts ..., 46

Plan and Section Views of Shoals Off

Ocean City, Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Atlantic EEZ Heavy Minerals . . . . . . . 51

Potential Hard Mineral Resources

of the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific

EEZs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Formation of Marine Polymetallic

Sulfide Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Figure

2-8.

2-9.

2-1o.

2-11.

2-12.

2-13.

2-14.

No. Page

Locations of Mineral Deposits

Relative to Physiographic Features . . . 66

Potential Hard Mineral Resources of

the Alaskan EEZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Potential Hard Mineral Resources of

the Hawaiian EEZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts

on the Flanks of Seamounts and

Volcanic Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

EEZs of U.S. Insular and Trust

Territories in the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Potential Hard Mineral Resources of

U.S. Insular Territories South of

Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Potential Hard Mineral Resources of

U.S. Insular Territories West of

Hawaii ..,..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Tables

Table No. Page

2-1.

2-2.

2-3.

2-4.

2-5.

2-6.

2-7.

2-8,

Association of Potential Mineral

Resources With Types of Plate

Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Areas Surveyed and Estimated

Offshore Sand Resources of the United

States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Criteria Used in the Assessment of

Placer Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Estimates of Sand and Gravel

Resources Within the U.S. Exclusive

Economic Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Estimates of Typical Grades of

Contained Metals for Seafloor Massive

Sulfide Deposits, Compared With

Typical Ore From Ophiolite Massive

Sulfide Deposits and Deep-Sea

Manganese Nodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Average Chemical Composition for

Various Elements of Crusts From

<8,200 Feet Water Depth From the

EEZ of the United States and Other

Pacific Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Resource Potential of Cobalt, Nickel,

Manganese, and Platinum in Crusts of

U.S. Trust and Affiliated Territories . .

Estimated Resource Potential of Crusts

Within the EEZ of Hawaii and U.S.

Trust and Affiliated Territories . . . . . . .

43

48

50

56

63

72

74

75
Chapter 2

Resource Assessments and Expectations

WORLD OUTLOOK FOR SEABED MINERALS

Ever since the recovery of rock-like nodules from

the deep ocean by the research vessel H.M.S.

Challenger during its epic voyage in 1873, there

has been persistent curiosity about seabed minerals.

It was not until after World War II that the black,

potato-sized nodules like those found by the

Challenger became more than a scientific oddity.

As metals prices climbed in response to increased

demand during the post-war economic boom, commercial attention turned to the cobalt-, manganese-,

nickel-, and copper-rich nodules that litter the

seafloor of the Pacific Ocean and elsewhere. Also,

as the Nation’s interest in science peaked in the

1960s, oceanographers, profiting from technological

achievements in ocean sensors and shipboard equipment developed for the military, expanded ocean

research and exploration. The secrets of the seabed

began to be unlocked.

Even before the Challenger discovery of manganese nodules, beach sands at the surf’s edge were

mined for gold and precious metals at some locations in the world (box 2-A). There are reports that

lead and zinc were mined from nearshore subsea

areas in ancient Greece at Laurium and that tin

and copper were mined in Cornwall. 1 Coal and amber were mined in or under the sea in Europe as

early as 1860. Since then, sand, gravel, shells, lime,

precious coral, and marine placer minerals (e.g.

titanium sands, tin sands, zirconium, monazite,

staurolite, gold, platinum, gemstones, and magnetite) have been recovered commercially. Barite has

been recovered by subsea quarrying. Ironically,

deep-sea manganese nodules, the seabed resource

that has drawn the most present-day commercial

interest and considerable private research and development investment, have not yet been recovered

commercially. Rich metalliferous muds in the Red

Sea have been mined experimentally and are considered to be ripe for commercial development

should favorable economic conditions develop.

IM.J. Cruickshank and W. Siapno, “Marine Minerals—An Update and Introduction, ,$ farinc Technology SocictjJournal, vol. 19,

1985, pp. 3-5.

Recent discoveries of massive polymetallic sulfides formed at seafloor spreading zones where superheated, mineral-rich saltwater escapes from the

Earth’s crust have attracted scientific interest and

some speculation about their future commercial potential. These deposits contain copper, zinc, iron,

lead, and trace amounts of numerous minerals.

Similar deposits of ancient origin occur in Cyprus,

Turkey, and Canada, suggesting that more knowledge about seabed mineralization processes could

contribute to a better understanding of massive sulfide deposits onshore. Cobalt-rich ferromanganese

crusts, found on the slopes of seamounts, have also

begun to receive attention.

Beach placers and similar onshore deposits are

important sources of several mineral commodities

elsewhere in the world, Marine placer deposits of

similar composition often lay immediately offshore.

Among the most valuable marine placers, based on

the value of material recovered thus far, are the cassiterite (source of tin) deposits off Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The so-called “light

heavy minerals” —titanium minerals, monazite,

and zircon—are found extensively along the coasts

of Brazil, Mauritania, Senegal, Sierra Leone,

Kenya, Mozambique, Madagascar, India, Sri

Lanka, Bangladesh, China, and the southwestern

and eastern coasts of Australia.

Although Australia has extensively mined

“black” titaneous beach sands along its coasts, offshore mining of these sands has not proven economical. 2 Titaniferous magnetite, an iron-rich

titanium mineral, has been mined off the southern coast of Japan’s Kyushu Island. 3 Similar magnetite deposits exist off New Zealand and the Gulf

of St. Lawrence. Chromite placers are extensive

on beaches and in the near offshore of Indonesia,

the Philippines, and New Caledonia. Chromite21

. Morley, Black Sands: A History of the Mineral Sand Afining

Industry in Eastern Australia (St. Lucia: University of Queensland

Press, 1981 ), p. 278.

3

J. Mere, The Mineral Resources of the Sea (New York, NY: Elsevier Publishing Co., 1965), p. 16.

39
40 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

bearing beach sands were mined along the south- minable gold are located in several nearshore

ern coast of Oregon during World War 11 with gov- Alaskan areas in the Bering Sea, Gulf of Alaska,

ernment support. and adjacent to southeastern Alaska. A commercial gold dredge mining operation was begun by

Gold has been mined from many beach placers Inspiration Resources near Nome in 1986, but a

along the west coast of the United States and else- number of nearshore gold operations in the Nome

where in the world. Marine placers of potentially area have been attempted and abandoned in the
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations . 41

past. Diamonds have been recovered from near- gravel recovery is primarily limited to State waters,

shore areas in Namibia, Republic of South Africa, mostly in New Jersey, New York, Florida, Misand Brazil. sissippi, and California. Japan and the European

The recovery of sand and gravel from offshore countries have depended more on marine sand and

far exceeds the extent of mining of other marine gravel than has the United States because of limited

land resources. Special uses can be made of ma- minerals. 4 In the United States, offshore sand and

———-

rine sand and gravel deposits in the Alaskan and

4

J. M. Broadus, “Seabed Materials, ” Science, vol. 235, Feb. 20, Canadian Beaufort Sea—the offshore oil and gas

1987, pp. 853-860. Also see M. Baram, D. Rice, and W. Lee, Ma- industry uses such material for gravel islands and

rine Mininc of the Continental Shelf (Cambridge. MA: Ballinger.

1978), p. 301

The potential

mineral deposits

<, “. gravel pads for drilling.

GENERAL GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK

for the formation of economic

within the Exclusive Economic

Zone (EEZ) of the United States is determined by

the geologic history, geomorphology, and environment of its continental margins and insular areas.

Continental margins are a relatively small portion

of the Earth’s total surface area, yet they are of great

geological importance and of tremendous linear extent. In broad relief, the Earth’s surface consists

of two great topographic surfaces: one essentially

at sea level—the continental masses of the world,

including the submerged shelf areas—and the other

at nearly 16,000 feet below sea level—representing

the deep ocean basins. The boundaries between

these two surfaces are the continental margins.

Continental margins can be divided into separate

provinces: the continental shelf, continental slope,

and continental rise (see figure 2-1 ).

Continental margins represent active zones

where geologic conditions change. These changes

are driven by tectonic activity within the Earth’s

crust and by chemical and physical activity on the

surface of the Earth. Tectonic processes such as volcanism and faulting dynamically alter the seafloor,

geochemical processes occur as seawater interacts

with the rocks and sediments on the seafloor, and

sedimentary processes control the material deposited on or eroded from the seafloor. All of these

processes contribute to the formation of offshore

mineral deposits.

Advanced marine research technologies developed since World War II and the refinement and

acceptance of the plate-tectonics theory have created a greater understanding of the dynamics of

continental margins and mineral formation. According to the plate-tectonics model, the Earth’s

outer shell is made up of gigantic plates of continental lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) and/or

oceanic lithosphere. These plates are in slow but

constant motion relative to each other. Plates collide, override, slide past each other along transform

faults, or pull apart along rift zones where new material from the Earth’s mantle upwells and is added

to the crust above.

Seafloor spreading centers are divergent plate

boundaries where new oceanic crust is forming. As

plates move apart, the leading edge moves against

another plate forming either a convergent plate

boundary or slipping along it in a transform plate

boundary. Depending on whether the leading edge

is oceanic or continental lithosphere, this process

may result in the building of a mountain range

(e.g., the Cascade Mountains) or an oceanic island

arc (e. g., the Aleutian Islands) or, if the plates are

slipping past one another, a transform fault zone

(e.g., the San Andreas fault zone).

Four types of continental margins border the

United States: active collision, trailing edge, extensional transform, and continental sea. Where

collisions occur between oceanic plates and plates

containing continental land masses, the thinner

oceanic plate will be overridden by the thicker, less

dense continental plate. The zone along which one

plate overrides another is called a subduction zone

and frequently is manifested by an oceanic trench.

Coastal volcanic mountain ranges, volcanic island arcs, and frequent earthquake activity are related to subduction zones. This type of active continental margin borders most of the Pacific Ocean

and the U.S. EEZ adjacent to the Aleutian chain
42 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 2-1 .—Idealized Physiography of a

Continental Margin and Some Common Margin Types

I Continental margin rise plain I

r I

Atlantic: (trailing edge)

I 1

North Pacific Margin: (collision)

I 1

South Pacific: (volcanic arcs, trenches, and carbonate reefs)

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; R.W. Rowland, M.R. Goud,

and B.A. McGregor, “The U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone—A Summary

of its Geology, Exploration, and Resource Potential,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 912, 1983.

and the west coast (figure 2-1 ). These regions have

relatively narrow continental shelves and their onshore geology is dominated by igneous intrusive

and volcanic rocks. These rocks supply the thin veneer of sediment overlying the continental crust of

the shelf. Further offshore, the Pacific coast EEZ

extends beyond the shelf, slope, and rise to the

depths underlain by oceanic crust. In the Pacific

northwest, these depths encompass a region of

seafloor spreading where new oceanic crust is forming. This region includes the Gorda Ridge and possibly part of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, which are

located within the U.S. EEZ off California, Oregon, and Washington.

The trailing edge of a continent has a passive

margin because it lacks significant volcanic and seismic activity. Passive margins are located within

crustal plates at the transition between oceanic and

continental crust. These margins formed at divergent plate boundaries in the past. Over millions of

years, subsidence in these margin areas has allowed

thick deposits of sediment to accumulate. The Atlantic coast of the United States is an example of

a trailing edge passive margin. This type of coast

is typified by broad continental shelves that extend

into deep water without a bordering trench. Coastal

plains are wide and low-lying with major drainage

systems. The greatest potential for the formation

of recoverable ore deposits on passive margins results from sedimentary processes rather than recent

magmatic or hydrothermal activity.

The Gulf of Mexico represents another type of

coast that develops along the shores of a continental sea. These passive margins also typically have

a wide continental shelf and thick sedimentary deposits. Deltas commonly develop off major rivers

because the sea is relatively shallow, is smaller than

the major oceans, and has lower wave energy than

the open oceans.

Plate edges are not the only regions of volcanic

activity. Mid-plate volcanoes form in regions overlying “hot spots” or areas of high thermal activity. As plates move relative to mantle ‘‘hot spots,

chains of volcanic islands and seamounts are formed
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 43

Table 2-1 .—Association of Potential Mineral

Resources With Types of Plate Boundaries

Type of plate boundary/Potential mineral resources

Divergent:

● Oceanic ridges

—Metalliferous sediments (copper, iron, manganese,

lead, zinc, barium, cobalt, silver, gold; e.g., Atlantis II

Deep of Red Sea)

—Stratiform manganese and iron ixodes and

hydroxides and iron silicates (e.g., sites on MidAtlantic Ridge and Galapagos Spreading Center)

—Polymetallic massive sulfides (copper, iron, zinc,

silver, gold, e.g., sites on East-Pacific Rise and

Galapagos Spreading Center)

—Polymetallic stockwork sulfides (copper, iron, zinc,

silver, gold; e.g., sites on Mid-Atlantic Ridge,

Carlsberg Ridge, Costa Rica Rift)

—Other polymetallic sulfides in disseminated or

segregated form (copper, nickel, platinum group

metals)

—Asbestos

—Chromite

Convergent:

● Offshore

—Upthrust sections of oceanic crust containing types

of mineral resources formed at divergent plate

boundaries (see above)

—Tin, uranium, porphyry copper and possible gold

mineralization in granitic rocks

Convergent:

● Onshore

—Porphyry deposits (copper, iron, molybdenum, tin,

zinc, silver, gold; e.g., deposits at sites in Andes

mountains)

—Polymetallic massive sulfides (copper, iron, lead,

zinc, silver, gold, barium; e.g., Kuroko deposits of

Japan)

Transform:

. Offshore

—Mineral resources similar to those formed at

divergent plate boundaries (oceanic ridges) may

occur at offshore transform plate boundaries; e.g.,

sites on Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Carlsberg Ridge)

such as the Hawaiian Islands. These sites may also

have significant potential for future recovery of

mineral deposits.

The theory of plate tectonics has led to the recognition that many economically important types

of mineral deposits are associated with either present or former plate boundaries. Each type of plate

boundary—divergent, convergent, or transform—

is not only characterized by a distinct kind of interaction, but each is also associated with distinct

types of mineral resources (table 2-1). Knowledge

of the origin and evolution of a margin can serve

as a general guide to evaluating the potential for

locating certain types of mineral deposits.

SOURCE: Peter A. Rona, “Potential Mineral and Energy Resources at Submerged

Plate Boundaries,” MTS ~oumal, vol. 19, No, 4, 19S5, pp. 18-25.

ATLANTIC

When the Atlantic Ocean began to form between

Africa and North America around 200 million years

ago, it was a narrow, shallow sea with much evaporation. The continental basement rock which

formed the edge of the rift zone was block-faulted

and the down-dropped blocks were covered with

layers of salt and, as the ocean basin widened, with

thick deposits of sediment. A number of sedimentary basins were formed in the Atlantic region along

the U.S. east coast (figure 2-2). Very deep sediREGION

ments are reported to have accumulated in the Baltimore Canyon Trough. In addition, a great wedge

of sediment is found on the continental slope and

rise. In places, due to the weight of the overlying

sediment and density differential, salt has flowed

upward to form diapirs or salt domes and is available as a mineral resource. In addition, sulfur is

commonly associated with salt domes in the cap

rock on the top and flanks of the domes. Both salt

and sulfur are mined from salt domes (often by so-
44 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 2-2.–Sedimentary Basins in the EEZ

Southeast

Atlantic

Sedimentary ‘1\ Basins

Several basins formed in the EEZ in which great amounts of sediment have accumulated. While

of primary interest for their potential to contain hydrocarbons, salt and sulfur are also potentially

recoverable from sedimentary basins in the Atlantic and Gulf regions.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; U.S. Department of the Interior, “Symposium Proceedings—A National Program for the Assessment and Development of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,”

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 929, 1983.
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 45

lution mining) and, thus, represent potentially recoverable mineral commodities from offshore deposits, although at present they would not be likely

prospects in the Atlantic region.

While they have potential for oil and gas formation and entrapment, the bulk of these sedimentary rocks are not likely to be good prospects for

hard minerals recovery because of their depth of

burial. Exceptions could occur in very favorable circumstances where a sufficiently high-grade deposit

might be found near the surface in less than 300

feet of water or where it could be dissolved and extracted through a borehole. Better prospects, particularly for locating potentially economic and

mineable placer deposits, would be in the overlying Pleistocene and surficial sand and gravel.

The igneous and metamorphic basement rocks

of the continental shelf, although possible sites of

mineral deposits, would be extremely unlikely prospects for economic recovery because of their depth

of burial. The oceanic crust that formed under what

is now the slope and rise also probably contains accumulations of potential ore minerals, but these too

would not be accessible. The best possibility for locating metallic minerals deposits in bedrock in the

Atlantic EEZ probably would be in the continental shelf off the coast of Maine where the sediments

are thinner or absent and the regional geology is

favorable. There are metallic mineral deposits in

the region and base-metal sulfide deposits are mined

in Canada’s New Brunswick.

One other area that may be of interest is the

Blake Plateau located about 60 miles off the coasts

of Florida and Georgia. It extends about 500 miles

from north to south and is approximately 200 miles

wide at its widest part, covering an area of about

100,000 square miles. The Blake Plateau is thought

to be a mass of continental crust that was an extension of North America left behind during rifting. There is some expectation that microcontinents

such as the Blake Plateau might be more mineralized than parent continents or the general oceanfloor, and, because they have received little sediment, their bedrock mineral deposits should be

more accessible. s

‘K .0. Emery and B. J. Skinner, “Mineral Deposits of the DeepOcean Floor, Marine Mining, vol. 1 (1977), No. 1/2, pp. 1-71.

Sand and Gravel

Sand and gravel are high-volume but relatively

low-cost commodities, which are largely used as aggregate in the construction industry. Beach nourishment and erosion control is another common use

of sand. Along the Atlantic coast most sand and

gravel is mined from sources onshore except for a

minor amount in the New York City area. For an

offshore deposit to be economic, extraction and

transportation costs must be kept to a minimum.

Hence, although the EEZ extends 200 nautical

miles seaward, the maximum practical limit for

sand and gravel resource assessments would be the

outer edge of the continental shelf. However, the

economics of current dredging technology necessitate relatively shallow water, generally not greater

than 130 feet, and general proximity to areas of high

consumption. While these factors would further

limit prospective areas to the inner continental shelf

regions, they could potentially include almost the

entire nearshore region from Miami to Boston.

Sand and gravel are terms used for different size

classifications of unconsolidated sedimentary material composed of numerous rock types. The major constituent of sand is quartz, although other

minerals and rock fragments are present. Gravel,

because of its larger size, usually consists of multiple-grained rock fragments. Sand is generally defined as material that passes through a No. 4 mesh

(O. 187-inch) U.S. Standard sieve and is retained

on a No. 200 mesh (0.0029-inch) U.S. Standard

sieve. Gravel is material in the range of O. 187 to

3 inches in diameter.

Because most uses for sand and gravel specify

grain size, shape, type and uniformity of material,

maximum clay content, and other characteristics,

the attractiveness of a deposit can depend on how

closely it matches particular needs in order to minimize additional processing. Thus the sorting and

uniformity of an offshore deposit also will be determinants in its potential utilization.

The Atlantic continental shelf varies in width

from over 125 miles in the north to less than 2 miles

off southern Florida. The depth of water at the outer

edge of the shelf varies from 65 feet off the Florida

Keys to more than 525 feet on Georges Bank and

the Scotian Shelf. A combination of glacial, outwash, subaerial, and marine processes have deter-
46 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 2-3.—Sand and Gravel Deposits Along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts

e Plateau

n

Significant sand and gravel deposits lie on the continental shelf near urban coastal areas. As local onshore supplies of construction aggregate become exhausted, offshore deposits become more attractive. Sand is also needed for beach replenishment and erosion control.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; S. Williams, “Sand and Gravel–An Enormous Offshore Resource Within the U.S. Economic

Zone,” manuscript prepared for U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin on commodity geology research, edited by John DeYoung, Jr.

mined the general characteristics and distribution

of the sand and gravel resources on the shelf.

The northern part of the Atlantic shelf as far

south as Long Island was covered by glaciers during the Pleistocene Ice Age. At least four major episodes of glaciation occurred. Glacial deposition and

erosion have directly affected the location of sand

and gravel deposits in this region. Glacial till and

glaciofluvial outwash sand and gravel deposits cover

much of the shelf ranging in thickness from over

300 feet to places where bedrock is exposed at the

surface. The subsequent raising of sea level has allowed marine processes to rework and redistribute

sediment on the shelf. Major concentrations of

gravel in this region are located on hummocks and

ridges in the vicinity of Jeffrey’s Bank in the Gulf

of Maine and off Massachusetts on Stellwagen Bank

and in western Massachusetts Bay.

Concentrations of sand are found off Portland,

Maine, in the northwestern Gulf of Maine and in

Cape Cod Bay northward along the coast through

western Massachusetts Bay to Cape Ann (figure 2-

3). Large accumulations of sand also occur along

the south coast of Long Island and in scattered areas

of Long Island Sound. Large sand ridges on Georges

Bank and Nantucket Shoals are also an impressive
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations ● 47

Figure 2-4.—Plan and Section Views of Shoals

Off Ocean City, Maryland

Several drowned barrier beach shoals off the Delmarva

Peninsula are potential sources of sand and possibly heavy

mineral placers.

SOURCE: S. Jeffress Williams, U S. Geological Survey

potential resource of medium to coarse sand. These

ridges range in height from 40 to 65 feet and in

width from 1 to 2 miles, with lengths up to 12 miles.

The ridge tops are often at water depths of less than

30 feet, and a single ridge could contain on the order of 650 million cubic yards of sand.

South of Long Island through the mid-Atlantic

region, the shelf area was not directly affected by

glacial scouring and deposition, but the indirect effects are extensive. During the low stands of sea

level, the shelf became an extension of the coastal

plain through which the major rivers cut valleys

and transported sediment. The alternating periods

of glacial advance and marine transgression reworked the sediments on the shelf, yet a number

of inherited features remain, including filled channels, relict beach ridges, and inner shelf shoals. Features such as these are particularly common off New

Jersey and the Delmarva Peninsula and are potential sources of sand and possibly gravel (figure 2-

4). Seismic profiles and cores indicate that the

majority of these shoals consist of medium to coarse

sand similar to onshore beaches. Geologic evidence

suggests that most of the shoals probably formed

in the nearshore zone by coastal hydraulic processes reworking existing sand bodies, such as relict

deltas and ebb-tide shoals. c Some of the shoals may

also represent old barrier islands and spits that were

drowned and left offshore by the current marine

transgression. Typical shoals in this region are on

the order of 30 to 40 feet high, are hundreds of feet

wide, and extend for tens of miles. South of Long

Island, gravel is much less common and found only

where ancestral river channels and deltas are exposed on the surface and reworked by moving

processes.

The southern Atlantic shelf from North Carolina to the tip of Florida was even further removed

from the effects of glaciation and also from large

volumes of fluvial sediment. The shelf is more thinly

covered with surficial sand, and outcrops of bedrock are common. Furthermore, unlike the middle Atlantic region, the southern shelf is not cut by

river channels and submarine canyons, Sand resources in this region are described as discontinuous

sheets or sandy shoals with the carbonate content

(consisting of shell and coral fragments, limestone

grains, and oolites) increasing to the south.

Although there is more information on the Atlantic EEZ than on other portions of the U.S. EEZ,

estimates of sand and gravel resources on the Atlantic continental shelf are limited by a paucity of

data. Resource estimates have been made using

assumptions of uniform distribution and average

thickness of sediment but these are rough approximations at best since the assumptions are known

to be overly simplistic. A number of specific areas

have been cored and studied in sufficient detail by

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to make local

resource estimates. 7 Resource assessments of specific sand deposits on the Atlantic shelf in water

 Williams, “Sand and Gravel Deposits Within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone: Resource Assessment and Uses, Proceedings of the 18th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,

TX, May 5-8, 1986, pp. 377-386.

 Duane and W. L. ‘‘Sand and Gravel Resources,

U.S. Continental Shelf, ” Geology of North America: Atlantic Region, LT

. S., Ch. XI-C, Geological Society of America, Decade of North

American Geology (in press).
48 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 2=2.—Areas Surveyed and Estimated Offshore Sand Resources of the United States

Area surveyed Sand volume

Geographic area Seismic miles Cores (mile2

) (X 10’ cubic yards)

New England:

Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Massachusetts (Boston). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Connecticut (Long Island Sound). . . . . . . . . . . .

Area totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Southshore Long Island:

Gardiners-Napeague Bays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Montauk to Moriches Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Moriches to Fire Island Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fire island to East Rockaway lnlet . . . . . . . . . .

Rockaway ......,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Area totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

New Jersey:

Sandy Hook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Manasquan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Barnegat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Little Egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cape May...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Area totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Virginia:

Norfolk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Delmarva. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

North Carolina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Florida:

Northern:

Fernandina—Cape Canaveral . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Southern:

Cape Canaveral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cape Canaveral—Palm Beach . . . . . . . . . . . .

Palm Beach—Miami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Area totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

California:

Newport-Pt. Dume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pt. Dume—Santa Barbara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Area totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Great Lakes:

Erie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Grand totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1,900

955

255

86

200

389

760

1,660

260

435

734

1,328

356

611

176

2,471

360

145

505

Unknown

Unknown

280

122

10

38

107

198

57

78

112

197

91

72

31

391

69

34

103

Unknown

Unknown

8.920 1.341

10

175

25

50

260

100

160

350

125

50

785

50

25

75

120

340

123

57

141

130

531

162

1,912

2,404

1,359

1,031

6,868

1,000

60

448

180

1,880

610

180

310

950

1,650

350

450

141

3,568

20

225

218

295

2,000

92

581

2,591

140

90

230

Unknown

Unknown

2,673

491

90

599

Unknown

Unknown

7,266 15,011

SOURCES: Published and unpublished reaortsof U.S. Armv CorDsof Enalneers Coastal Enalneerino Research Center: David B. Duane. “Sedimentation and Ocean

Engineerlng:PIac6r Mineral R&sources/’ MarheSedhrent Tra;spofi and Env/ronhenta/ fianagernerr~D.J. Stanley and D.J.P. Swlft(eds) (New York, NY:

John Wiley&Sons, 1976~p. 550.

depth of 130 feet or less are included in table 2-2. Placer Deposits

A total of over 15 billion cubic yards of commercial quality sand are identified in the table, and it Offshore placer deposits are concentrations of

is fair to say that the potential for additional heavy detrital minerals that are resistant to the

amounts is large. Since the current annual U.S. chemical and physical processes of weathering.

consumption of sand and gravel is about 1,050 mil- Placer deposits are usually associated with sand and

lion cubic yards, these resources would clearly be gravel as they are concentrated by the same fluample to meet the needs of the east coast for the vial and marine processes that form gravel bars,

foreseeable future. sandbanks, and other surficial features. However,
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 49

because they have different hydraulic behavior than

less dense materials they can become concentrated

into mineable deposits.

In addition to hydraulic behavior, a number of

other factors influence the distribution and character of placer deposits on the continental shelf and

coastal areas. These factors include sources of the

minerals, mechanisms for their erosion and transport, and processes of concentration and preservation of the deposits.

While placer minerals can be derived from previously formed, consolidated, or unconsolidated

sedimentary deposits, their primary source is from

igneous and metamorphic rocks, Of these rocks,

those that had originally been enriched in heavy

minerals and were present in sufficiently large

volumes would provide a richer source of material

for forming valuable placer deposits. For example,

chromite and platinum-group metals occur in ultramafic rocks such as dunite and peridotite, and the

proximity of such rocks to the coast would enhance

the possibility of finding chromite or platinum

placers. While small podiform peridotite deposits

are found from northern Vermont to Georgia,

ultramafic rocks are not overly common in the Atlantic coastal region. Consequently, the prospects

for locating chromite or platinum placers in surficial sediments of the Atlantic shelf would be low.

Other rock types, such as high-grade metamorphic

rocks, would be a likely source of titanium minerals

such as rutile, and high-grade metamorphic rocks

are found throughout the Appalachians. Placer deposits are generally formed from minerals dispersed

in rock units, when great amounts of rock have been

reduced by weathering over very long periods of

time.

Time is a factor in the formation of placer deposits in several respects. In addition to their

chemistry, the resistance of minerals to weathering is time and climate dependent. In a geomorphologically mature environment where a broad

shelf is adjacent to a wide coastal plain of low relief, such as the middle and southern Atlantic margin, the most resistant heavy minerals will be found

to dominate placer deposit composition. These

would include the chemically stable placer minerals

such as the precious metals, rutile, zircon, monazite, and tourmaline. Less resistant heavy minerals,

such as amphiboles, garnets, and pyroxenes, which

are more abundant in igneous rock, dominate

heavy mineral assemblages in more immature tectonically active areas such as the Pacific coast.

These minerals are currently of less economic interest.

Placer deposits are frequently classified into three

groups based on their physical and hydraulic characteristics. The first group is the heaviest minerals

such as gold, platinum, and cassiterite (tin oxide).

Because of their high specific gravities, which range

from 6.8 to 21, these minerals are deposited fairly

near their source rock and tend to concentrate in

stream channels. For gold and platinum, the median distance of transport is probably on the order

of 10 miles.8 Heavy minerals with a lighter specific

gravity, in the range of 4.2 to 5.3, form the second group and tend to concentrate in beach deposits; but they also can be found at considerable distances from shore in areas where sediments have

been worked and reworked through several erosional and depositional cycles. Minerals of economic importance in this group include chromite,

rutile, ilmenite, monazite, and zircon.9 The third

group is the gemstones of which diamonds are the

major example. These are very resistant to weathering, but are of relatively low specific gravity in the

range of 2.5 to 4.1.

As a first step in assessing placer minerals resources potential in the Canadian offshore, a set

of criteria was developed and the criteria were listed

according to their relative importance. A ranking scheme was then adopted to assess the implications of each criterion with regard to the likelihood of a placer occurring offshore (table 2-3). This

approach can be applied to the U.S. EEZ.

‘K. O. Emery and L.C. Noakes, “Economic Placer Deposits on

the Continental Shelf, United Nations Economic Commission for

Asia and the Far East, Technical Bulletin, vol. 1, 1968, pp. 95-111.

‘Rutile and ilmenite are major titanium minerals (along with leucoxene), and monazite is a source of yttrium and rare earth elements

which have many catalytic applications in addition to uses in metallurgy, ceramics, electronics, nuclear engineering, and other areas. Zircon is used for facings on foundry molds, in ceramics and other refractory applications, and in several chemical products. Zircon is also

processed for zirconium and halfnium metal, which are used in nuclear components and other specialized applications in jet engines,

reentry vehicles, cutting tools, chemical processing equipment, and

superconducting magnets.

IOP. B. Hale and P. McLaren, “A Preliminary Assessment of Unconsolidated Mineral Resources in the Canadian Offshore, Cl&f

Bulletin, September 1984, p. 11.
50 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 2-3.—Criteria Used in the Assessment of Placer Minerals

Information required

Criterion Implication a

Types and sources

.- . . . . -. . . 1. Presence in marine sediments or

interest

2. Mineral presence in onland

unconsolidated deposits close to

the shoreline

3. Presence of drowned river

channels and strandlines offshore

of coastal host rocks

4. Occurrence in source rock close to

shore

5. Presence of unconsolidated

sediments seaward of onland host

rocks

6. Evidence of preglacial regoliths

and mature weathering of bedrock

7. Sea-level fluctuations:

(i) Transgression

(ii) Stable sea level

(iii) Regression

8. High-energy marine

9. Previously glaciated

10. Ice cover

11. Circulation patterns

12. Climate

+ + + Direct evidence

+ + + Alluvial sediments in seaward

+ +

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

.

+

+

+

flowing watershed in glacial

deposit

With seaward flowing watershed

No watershed but previously

glaciated with offshore ice

movement

Liberation of resistant heavy

minerals from bedrock for

subsequent transportation and

concentration

For preservation of relict fluvial

placers now submerged

For formation of a contemporary

beach placer

For formation of a contemporary

river mouth placer

For formation of a contemporary

placer

For preservation of a relict placer

Glacial ice tends to scour out,

disseminate or bury the heavy

minerals

In some circumstances glaciation

liberates heavy minerals and

transports them to considerable

distance to the offshore

Generally the longer the ice-free

period the greater potential to

generate a marine placer

Important to the maturity of the

mineral assemblage

Onsite bottom samples

Historical placer mining records,

geological reports

High-resolution seismic surveys,

detailed hydrographic surveys

CANMINDEX geological reports,

mining records, topographic

maps, surficial geology maps

Offshore surficial geology maps,

seismic records

Reports of residual deposits and

earlier formed regoliths

Geological reports, air photos, tide

records

Geological reports, air photos, tide

records

Geological reports, air photos, tide

records

Regional wave climates

Geological reports, surficial

geology maps

Ice cover maps

Current maps

Paleoclimatic maps

aA relative ranking scheme wag adopted to assess the irnpllmtlorls of each factor with regards to the likelihood of a placer occurring in the offshore. Favorable indications

are as follows: + + + extremely favorable, + + + very favorabie and, + favorable. Factors Iikeiy to detract from the possibility of an offshore placer utiiize a similar

approach with a negative sign.

SOURCE: Modified from Peter B. Hale and Patrick McLaren, “A Preliminary Assessment of Unconsolidated Mineral Resources in the Canadian Off shore,” C/M Bu//efirr,

September 19S4, p. 7.

Recent studies of heavy minerals in Atlantic continental shelf sediments have found mineral assemblages in the north Atlantic region dominated by

less chemically stable minerals. The relatively immature mineral assemblages result from the direct

glaciation that the northern shelf recently received.

In general, glacial debris is less well sorted and often

contains fresher mineral assemblages than sediment, which has been exposed to fluvial transport

and weathering processes over a long period of

time. While data for the north Atlantic region are

too limited to be conclusive in terms of potential

resources, greater concentrations of heavy minerals

are found south of Long Island (figure 2-5). Total

heavy mineral concentrations in the middle Atlantic

region reach 5 percent or more in some areas, and

the mineral assemblages show a greater degree of

weathering. In comparison to the northern regions,
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations . 51

Figure 2-5.—Atlantic EEZ Heavy Minerals

J- 1

Several areas of the Atlantic EEZ contain high concentrations

of heavy minerals in the surficial sediments. Further research

is needed to determine the extent of these deposits and

possible economic potential.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; A.E. Grosz, J.C, Hathaway,

and EC. Escowitz, “Placer Deposits of Heavy Minerals in Atlantic Continental Shelf Sediments,” Proceedings of the 18th Annual Offshore

Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, OTC 5198, May 1988.

sediments of the southern Atlantic region contain

lower concentrations of heavy minerals, but the assemblage becomes progressively more mature to

the south and, hence, more concentrated in heavy

minerals of more economic interest such as titanium. 11 This situation suggests that the mineral

composition of the southern Atlantic shelf region

holds the best prospects for economically attractive

deposits.

Precious Metals

Although, in general, the north Atlantic region

may have relatively poor prospects for economic

placer deposits compared to the southern region,

11A, E, Grosz, J, C. Hathaway, and E.C. Escowitz, ‘‘Placer Deposits

of Heavy Minerals in Atlantic Continental Shelf Sediments, Proceedings of the 18th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,

TX, May 5-8, 1986, pp. 387-394.

it might possibly be the most favorable area along

the Atlantic EEZ for gold placers. Gold occurrences

have been found in a variety of rocks along the Appalachians and in the maritime provinces of Canada, and both lode and placer gold deposits have

been worked in areas that drain toward the coast.

Because of its high specific gravity, placer gold is

expected to be near its point of origin, which would

be nearer to the coast in the New England area than

in southern areas where broad coastal plains are

developed. Further, glacial scouring and movement

could have brought gold-bearing sediment offshore

where it could be reworked and the gold concentrated by marine processes. While the prospects for

gold placers are poor in the Atlantic EEZ, gold

placers have been found on the coastal plain in the

mid- and south Atlantic regions. To reach the EEZ

in those regions, gold would have been transported

by fluvial processes a considerable distance from

its source and, if found, probably would be very

fine-grained.

Heavy Minerals—Titanium Sands

The major area of interest for economic placer

deposits, particularly titanium minerals, would be

the middle and south Atlantic EEZ. Again the criteria in table 2-3 are useful. Concentrations of the

commercially sought heavy minerals have been

found in the sediments offshore (criterion 1) and

titanium minerals mined onshore (criterion 2). In

addition, several other criteria are also evident.

These indicators would suggest a good potential for

placer deposits offshore. An interesting aspect of

this, however, is a reconnaissance study by the U.S.

Geological Survey (USGS) that found significant

concentrations of heavy minerals in surface grabsamples offshore of Virginia, where no economic

deposits are found onshore.12 However, rich rutile

and ilmenite placer deposits have been mined in

the drainage basin of the James River, a tributary

of Chesapeake Bay. These deposits had their source

in anorthosite and gneisses of the Virginia Blue

Ridge. 13 An earlier study, which had found high

12A, E. GroSz and E. c. Escowitz, ‘‘Economic Heavy Minerals of

the U.S. Atlantic Continental Shelf, W. F. Tanner (cd.), Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on Coastal Sedimentology, Florida State

University, Tallahassee, FL, 1983, pp. 231-242.

13J. P. Minard, E.R. Force, and G.W. Hayes, “Alluvial Ilmenite

Placer Deposits, Central Virginia, ” U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 959-H, 1976.
52 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

concentrations of heavy minerals parallel to the

present shoreline off the Virginia coast in water

depths between 30 and 60 feet, hypothesized sources

from the Chesapeake Bay and the Delaware River. 14

The deposit was thought to be a possible ancient

strandline where the heavy minerals were concentrated by hydraulic fractionation.

Bottom topography may be an important clue

to surface concentrations of heavy minerals. One

investigation off Smith Island near the mouth of

Chesapeake Bay found high concentrations of heavy

minerals on the surface of a layer of fine sand that

was distributed along the flanks of topographic

ridges. 15 However, coring data are needed to provide information on the vertical distribution of

placer minerals and on whether or not similar buried topography is preserved and contains similar

heavy mineral concentrations.

Overall, the south Atlantic EEZ would be a

favorable prospective region for titanium placers,

based on maturity of heavy mineral assemblages,

although sediment cover is thinner and more patchy

than farther north. However, individual features

such as submerged sand ridges could contain concentrated deposits.

As with sand and gravel, regional resource estimates are probably not very useful since they are

based on gross generalizations. This caveat notwithstanding, recent studies indicate that the average

heavy mineral content of sediments on the Atlantic shelf is on the order of 2 percent, and that the

total volume of sand and gravel may be larger than

earlier estimates. 16 17 These studies suggest that

whatever the total offshore resource base is estimated to be, the southern Atlantic EEZ may hold

considerable promise for titanium placer deposits

of future interest, particularly in areas of paleostream channels where there are major gaps in the

14B,K.Goodwin and J. B. Thomas, ‘ ‘Inner Shelf Sediments Off of

Chesapeake Bay III, Heavy Minerals, ” Special Scientific Report No.

68, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, 1973, p. 34.

ISC. R. Be~uist and C. H. Hobbs! “Assessment of Ekonomic Heavy

Minerals of the Virginia Inner Continental Shelf, ” Virginia Division

of Mineral Resources Open-File Report 86-1, 1986, p. 17.

IGU S Department of the Interior, Program Feasibility Document.’ . .

OCS Hard Minerals Leasing, prepared for the Assistant Secretaries

of Energy and Minerals and Land and Water Resources by the OCS

Mining Policy Phase II Task Force, August 1979, Executive Summary, p. 40.

‘

7 Grosz, Hathaway, and Esowitz, “Placer Deposits of Heavy

Minerals in Atlantic Continental Shelf Sediments, ” p. 387,

Trail Ridge formation (a major onshore titanium

sand deposit). In any event, only high-grade, accessible deposits would be potentially attractive, and

the total heavy mineral assemblage would determine the economics of the deposit.

Phosphorite Deposits

Sedimentary deposits consisting primarily of

phosphate minerals are called phosphorites. The

principal component of marine phosphorites is carbonate fluorapatite. Marine phosphorites occur as

muds, sands, nodules, plates, and crusts, generally in water depths of less than 3,300 feet. Phosphatic minerals are also found as cement bonding

other detrital minerals. Marine phosphorite deposits

are related to areas of upwelling and high bioproductivity on the continental shelves and upper

slopes, particularly in lower latitudes.

Bedded phosphorite deposits of considerable areal

extent are of major economic importance in the

Southeastern United States. The bedded deposits

in the Southeastern United States are related to

multiple depositional sequences in response to

transgressive and regressive sea level changes. 18

Major phosphate formation in this region began

about 20 million years ago during the Miocene.

Low-grade phosphate deposits are found in younger surficial sediments on the continental shelf, but

these are largely reworked from underlying units.

While these surface sediments are probably not of

economic interest, they may be important tracers

for Miocene deposits in the shallow subsurface.

On the Atlantic shelf, the northernmost area of

interest for phosphate deposits is the Onslow Bay

area off North Carolina. (Concentrations of up to

19 percent phosphate have been reported in relict

sediments on Georges Bank, but these are unlikely

to be of economic interest. ) In the Onslow Bay area,

the Pungo River Formation outcrops in an northeast-southwest belt about 95 miles long by 15 to

30 miles wide and extends into the subsurface to

the east and southeast. The Pungo River Formation is a major sedimentary phosphorite unit under the north-central coastal plain of North CaroIBS.R. Riggs, D.W. Lewis, A,K. Scarborough, et al., ‘‘Cyclic Deposition of Neogene Phosphorites in the Aurora Area, North Carolina,

and Their Possible Relationship to Global Sea-Level Fluctuations,

Southeastern Geology, vol. 23, No. 4, 1982, pp. 189-204.
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations . 53

lina. Five beds containing high phosphate values

have been cored in two areas of Onslow Bay. The

northern area harboring three phosphate beds contains an estimated resource of 860 million short tons

of phosphate concentrate with average phosphorus

pentoxide (P2O5) values of 29.7 to 31 percent. The

P2O5 content of the total sediment in these beds

ranges from 3 to 6 percent. The Frying Pan area

to the south contains two richer beds estimated to

contain 4.13 billion tons of phosphate concentrate

with an average content of 29.2 percent P2O5

. 

19 The

P2O5 content of the total sediment in these beds

ranges from 3 to 21 percent. Of the two areas, the

Frying Pan district is given a better potential for

economic development. The deposits are in shallow water relatively close to shore.

Further to the south, from North Carolina to

Georgia, phosphates occur on the shelf in relict

sands. Phosphate grain concentrations of 14 to 40

percent have been reported in water depths of 100

to 130 feet. On the Georgia shelf off, the mouth

of the Savanna River, a deposit of phosphate sands

over 23 feet thick has been drilled. Other deposits

near Tyber Island, off the coast of Georgia, include

a 90-foot-thick bed of phosphate in sandy clay averaging 32 percent phosphate overlying a 250-foot

thick bed of phosphatic limestone averaging 23 percent phosphate. Concerns over saltwater intrusion

into an underlying aquifer may constrain potential development in this area.

Further offshore, the Blake Plateau is an area of

large surficial deposits of manganese oxides and

phosphorites (figure 2-6). The Plateau is swept by

the Gulf Stream and water depth ranges from 2,000

feet on the northern end to nearly 4,000 feet on the

southeastern end. Phosphorite occurs in the shallower western and northern portions as sands,

pellets, and concretions, The northern portion of

the Blake Plateau is estimated to contain 2.2 billion tons of phosphorite.20

Off the Florida coast near Jacksonville, deep and

extensive sequences of phosphate-rich sediments exf gs. . R Riggs, s. W. P. Snyder, A.C. H ine, et al., ‘‘Geologic Framework of Phosphate Resources in Onslow Bay, North Carolina Continental Shelf, Economic Geology, vol. 80, 1985, pp. 716-738.

20F. T. Manheim, “Potential Hard Mineral and Associated Resources on the Atlantic and Gulf Continental Margins, Program Feasibility Document—OCS Hard Minerals Leasing, app. 12, U.S. Department of Interior, 1979, p. 42.

tend eastward onto the shelf. One bed, 20 feet thick

beneath 260 feet of overburden, containing 70 to

80 percent phosphate grains, was slurry test-mined

in this area. A core hole 30 miles east of Jacksonville contained a 11 5-foot section of cyclic phosphate-rich beds with the thickest unit up to 16 feet

thick. The phosphate facies ran between 30 and 70

percent phosphate grains.

Deep drill data in the Osceola Basin have shown

two phosphate zones extending eastward onto the

continental shelf. The lower grade upper zone is

1,000 feet thick with 140 feet of overburden and

phosphate grain concentrations of 10 to 50 percent of the total sediment. The higher grade deeper

zone is 82 feet thick with 250 feet of overburden

and phosphate grain concentrations ranging from

25 to 75 percent of total sediment.

The Miami and Pourtales Terraces off the southeast coast of Florida are also known to have phosphate occurrences. On the Pourtales Terrace,

phosphorite occurs as conglomerates, phosphatic

limestone, and phosphatized marine mammal bones.

This deposit is thought to be related to the phosphatic Bone Valley Formation onshore.

Manganese Nodules and Pavements

Ferromanganese nodules are concretions of iron

and manganese oxides containing nickel, copper,

cobalt, and other metals that are found in deep

ocean basins and in some shallower areas such as

the Blake Plateau off the Southeastern United

States. On the Blake Plateau, nodule concretions

are found at depths of 2,000 to 3,300 feet; and their

centers commonly are phosphoritic. Ferromanganese crusts and pavements are more common at

shallower depths of around 1,600 feet. The ferromanganese concretions of the Blake Plateau are

well below the metal values found in the prime nodule sites in the Pacific Ocean, but the Blake Plateau offers the advantages of much shallower depths

and proximity to the U.S. continent. Potential ferromanganese nodule resources on the Blake Plateau are estimated to be on the order of 250 billion

tons averaging O. 1 percent copper, 0.4 percent

nickel, 0.3 percent cobalt, and 15 percent manganese.21

“I bid., p. 15.
54 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 2-6.–Potential Hard Mineral Resources of the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific EEZs

Explanation

Known

occurrence

Placers o2

Phosphorites o3

Mn-nodules o4

Co-crusts o5

Likely

occurrence

1

2

3

4

5

6

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; U.S. Department of the Interior, “Symposium Proceedings—A National Program for the Assessment and Development of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone, ” US. Geological Survey Circular 929, 1983.

PUERTO RICO AND THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are part

of an island arc complex with narrow insular shelves.

The geologic environment of this type of active plate

boundary suggests that sand and gravel deposits

would not be extensive and that placer mineral assemblages would be relatively immature.

Sand and Gravel

Modern and relict nearshore delta deposits are

the main source of offshore sediment for both

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Further

offshore the elastic sediments contain increasing

amounts of carbonate material. In general, the islands lack large offshore sand deposits because wave

action and coastal currents tend to rework and

transport the sand across the narrow shelves into

deep water. Submarine canyons also play a role in

providing a conduit through which sand migrates

off the shelf. The outer edge of the shelves is at a

water depth of around 330 feet.

Three major sand bodies are located on the shelf

of Puerto Rico in water depths of less than 65 feet.

As one might expect in an area of westward moving winds and water currents, all three deposits are

at the western ends of islands. Inferred resources
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations ● 55

have been calculated for two of these areas, the

Cabo Rojo area off the west end of the south coast

of Puerto Rico and the Escollo de Arenas area north

of the west end of Vieques Island (near the east

coast of Puerto Rico). The total volume of sand in

these deposits is estimated at 220 million cubic

yards, which could supply Puerto Rico’s construction needs for over 20 years .22

In the U.S. Virgin Islands, several sand bodies

contain an estimated total of 60 million cubic yards.

Some of the more promising are located off the

southwest coast of St, Thomas, near Buck Island,

and on the southern shelf of St. Croix.

‘2R. W. Rodriguez, ‘ ‘Submerged Sand Resources of Puerto Rico

in USGS Highlights in Marine Research, USGS Circular 938, 1984,

~Q. 57-63.

Placer Deposits

Heavy mineral studies along the north coast of

Puerto Rico found a strong seaward sorting with

relatively heavy minerals such as monazite and

magnetite enriched on the inner shelf relative to

pyroxenes and amphiboles. The high degree of

nearshore sorting may indicate a likelihood of the

occurrence of placers, particularly in the inner shelf

zone. 23 Gold has been mined in the drainage basin of the Rio de La Plata which discharges to the

north coast of Puerto Rico, although no gold placers

as yet have been found on the coast.

NO, H. pilkey and R. Lincoln, “Insular Shelf Heavy Mineral Partitioning Northern Puerto Rico, “ Marine Mining, vol. 4, No. 4, 1984,

pp. 403-414.

GULF OF MEXICO REGION

The Gulf of Mexico is a small ocean basin whose

continental margins are structurally complex and,

in some cases, rather unique. The major structural

feature of the U.S. EEZ in the northern Gulf of

Mexico is the vast amount of sediment that accumulated while the region was subsiding. The structural complexity of the northern Gulf margin was

enhanced by the mobility of underlying salt beds

that were deposited when the region was a shallow

sea. In general, the sedimentary beds dip and

thicken southward and are greatly disrupted by diapiric structures and by flexures and faults of regional extent.

Sulfur and salt are both recovered from bedded

evaporite deposits and salt domes in the Gulf region. Sulfur is generally extracted by the Frasch

hot water process, which is easily adaptable to operation from an offshore platform. Sulfur has been

recovered from offshore Louisiana and could be

more widely recovered from offshore deposits if the

market were favorable.

Sand and Gravel

The sand and gravel resources of the Gulf of

Mexico are even more poorly characterized than

the Atlantic EEZ. Most of the shallow sedimentary

and geomorphological features of the Gulf were

similarly developed as a result of the sea-level fluctuations during the Quaternary. The Mississippi

River dominates the sediment discharge into the

northern Gulf of Mexico. Over time, the Mississippi River has shifted its discharge point, leaving

ancestral channels and a complex delta system. As

channels shift, abandoned deltas and associated barrier islands are reworked and eroded, forming

blanket-type sand deposits and linear shoals.24 A

number of these shoals having a relief of 15 to 30

feet are found off Louisiana. Relict channels and

beaches are also good prospects for sand deposits.

Relict channels and deltas have been identified off

Galveston, containing over 78 million cubic yards

of fine grained sand which may have uses for beach

replenishment or glass sand. Sand and gravel resource estimates for the U.S. EEZ are given in table 2-4. Based on an average thickness of 16 feet,

these are projected to be around 350 billion cubic

yards of sand for the Gulf EEZ. No gravel resources

are identified on the Gulf shelf although offshore

shell deposits are common and have been mined

as a source of lime. Until more surveys aimed at

evaluating specific sand and gravel deposits are conducted, resource estimates are little more than an

educated guess. In any event, the resource base is

large, although meeting coarser size specifications

may be a limiting factor in some areas.

2+ Williams, ‘ ‘Sand and Gravel Deposits Within the United States

Exclusive Economic Zone, p. 381._
56 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 2-4.—Estimates of Sand and Gravel Resources

Within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone

Volumes

Province (cubic meters)

Atlantic:

Maine—Long Island. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 billion

New Jersey—South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . 190 billion

South Carolina—Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 billion

Gulf of Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 billion

Caribbean:

Virgin Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .> 46 million

Puerto Rico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 million

Pacific:

Southern California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 billion

Northern California—Washington . . . insufficient data

Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . > 160 billion

Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 billion

SOURCE: Modified after S.J. Williams, “Sand and Gravel Deposits Within the

United States Exclusive Economic Zone: Resource Assessment and

Uses,” 18th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, TX,

1986, pp. 377-386.

Placer Deposits

Although reconnaissance surveys have not been

conducted over much of the region, concentrations

of heavy minerals have been found in a number

of locations in the Gulf of Mexico. Several offshore

sand bars or shoals are found off Dog Island, Saint

George Island, and Cape San Bias in northwestern

Florida that may contain concentrations of heavy

minerals .25 Some of these shoals are believed to be

drowned barrier islands.

One recent survey of the shelf off northwest

Florida found heavy mineral concentrations associated with shoal areas offshore of Saint George and

Santa Rosa Islands. *G The heavy minerals of ecoZ5W. F. Tanner, A.Mu]]ins, and J. D. Bates, ‘‘Possible Masked

Heavy Mineral Deposit: Florida Panhandle, ” ~conornk Geology, vol.

56, 1961, pp. 1079-1087.

MJ. D. Arthur, s. Melkote, J. Applegate, et al., ‘‘Heavy Miner~

Reconnaissance Off the Coast of the Apalachicola River Delta, Northwest Florida, ” Florida Bureau of Geology in Cooperation with U.S.

Minerals Management Service, Contract No. 14-12-001-30115, Aug.

16, 1985 (unpublished).

nomic interest totaled about 39 percent of the heavy

mineral fraction averaged over the study area.

However, the percentages of heavy minerals and

the composition of the heavy mineral sites reported

are lower and of less economic interest, respectively,

than those on the Atlantic shelf. Sediments derived

from the Mississippi River off Louisiana contain

heavy mineral fractions in which ilmenite and zircon are concentrated. In the western part of the

Gulf, less economically interesting heavy minerals

of the amphibole and pyroxene groups are dominant. 27

An aggregate heavy-mineral sand resource estimate was not attempted for the gulf coast as part

of the Department of the Interior’s Program Feasibility Study for Outer Continental Shelf hard

minerals leasing done in 1979. Too little data are

available and aggregate numbers are not very

meaningful in terms of potentially recoverable resources.

Phosphorite Deposits

Recent seismic studies indicate that the phosphate-bearing Bone Valley Formation extends at

a relatively shallow depth at least 25 miles into the

Gulf of Mexico and the west Florida continental

shelf. An extensive Miocene sequence also extends

across the shelf, and Miocene phosphorite has been

dredged from outcrops on the mid-slope. This situation would suggest that the west Florida shelf may

have considerable potential for future phosphate exploration. 28 Core data would be needed to assess

this region more fully.

27R. G. BeauChamp and M.J. Cruickshank, ‘‘Placer Minerals on

the U.S. Continental Shelves—Opportunity for Development,

Proceedings OCEANS ’83, vol. II, 1983, pp. 698-702.

26W .C. Burnett, “Phosphorites in the U.S. Exclusive Economic

Zone, ” Proceedings, the Exclusive Economic Zone Symposium Exploring the New Ocean Frontier, held at Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, DC, October 1985 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department

of Commerce, May 1986), pp. 135-140.

PACIFIC REGION

The continental margin along the Pacific coast tensional complex of basins, islands, banks, ridges,

and Alaska has several subregions. Southern Cali- and submarine canyons. Tectonically, this region

fornia, from Mexico northward to Point Concep- is undergoing lateral or transform movement along

tion, is termed a ‘‘borderland, a geomorphic ex- the San Andreas fault system. The offshore base-
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations ● 57

ment (deep) rocks include metasediments, schist,

andesites, and dacites. Thick sequences of Tertiary

sediments were deposited in deep marine basins

throughout the region. The shelf is fairly narrow

(3 to 12 miles) and is transected by several submarine canyons extending to the edge of the shelf.

From Point Conception north along the mountainous coast to Monterey Bay, the shelf is quite

narrow in places, but north of San Francisco to

Cape Mendocino it widens again to 6 to 25 miles.

The coast in this area is generally rugged with a

few lowland areas along river valleys. Wave energy

is high along the entire coast and uplifted wavecut terraces indicating former higher stands of sea

level are common.

Northward along the coast of Oregon, the continental shelf is as narrow as 6 miles and averages

less than 18 miles in width. Off Washington, the

shelf gradually widens to over 30 miles and is underlain by a varied terrain of sedimentary rocks,

mafic and ultramafic intrusive, and granite rocks.

The Washington coast also has been influenced by

glaciation, and glacial till and alluvium extend out

onto the shelf. The Columbia River is a major

source of sediment in the southern Washington and

northern Oregon region. Beyond the shelf, but

within the U.S. EEZ, the seafloor spreading centers

of the Gorda and Juan de Fuca ridges and related

subduction zones at the base of the continental slope

contribute to the tectonic activity of the region.

Sand and Gravel

The narrow continental shelf and high wave

energy along the Pacific coast limit the prospects

for recovering a great abundance of sand and gravel

from surficial deposits. In southern California, deposits of sand and gravel at water depths shallow

enough to be economic are present on the San

Pedro, San Diego, and Santa Monica shelves. Most

coarse material suitable for construction aggregate

is found in relict blanket, deltaic, and channel deposits off the mouth of major rivers. One deposit

of coarse sand and gravel within 10 miles of San

Diego Bay in less than 65 feet of water has been

surveyed and estimated to contain 26 million cubic yards of aggregate. Total resource estimates for

the southern California region indicate about 40

billion cubic yards of sand and gravel .29 However,

‘

gWilliams, “Sand and Gravel Deposits Within the U.S. Exclusive

Economic Zone, ” p. 382.

excessive amounts of overlying fine sand or mud,

high wave energy, and unfavorable water depth

may all reduce the economically recoverable material by as much as an order of magnitude. Individual deposits would need to be studied for their

size, quality, and accessibility.

Sand and gravel resource estimates for northern

California are based primarily on surface information with little or no data on depth and variability

of the deposits. As is typical elsewhere, the sand

and gravel deposits are both relict and recent. Much

of the relict material appears to be too coarse to

have been deposited by transport mechanisms operative at the present depth of the outer continental

shelf.30 These relict sands are thought to be nearshore bars and beach deposits formed during lower

stands of sea level in the Pleistocene. Recent coarse

material is nearer the coast and generally deposited parallel to the coastline by longshore currents.

Sand and gravel estimates for the northern California shelf, assuming an average thickness of about

1 yard, are 84 million cubic yards of gravel, 542

million cubic yards of coarse sand, and 2.6 billion

cubic yards of medium sand.31 Most of this material would lie in State waters.

Off the coast of Oregon and Washington, sea

level fluctuations and glaciation controlled the location of coarse sand and gravel deposits. Most of

the gravel lies to the north off Washington, where

it was deposited in broad outwash fans by glacial

meltwater streams when the sea level was about 650

feet lower than present. Promising gravel resource

areas convenient to both Portland and Seattle are

off Gray’s Harbor, Washington, and the southern

Olympic Mountains. Smaller gravel deposits off

Oregon lie in swales between submarine banks in

relict reworked beach deposits. Little data on the

thickness of individual deposits are available, but

general information on the thickness of outwash and

beach sediments in the area suggest that estimates

of 3 to 15 feet average thickness are reasonable .32

‘OS.G. Martindale and H.D. Hess, “Resource Assessment: Sand,

Gravel, and Shell Deposits on the Continental Shelf of Northern and

Central California, ” Program Feasibility Document—OCS Hard

Minerals L-easing, app. 9, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1979, p. 5.

311 bid., p. 7.

32G. W. Moore and M.D. Luken, “Offshore Sand and Gravel Resources of the Pacific Northwest, Program Feasibility Document—

OCS Hard Minerals Leasing, app. 7, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1979, p. 8.

72-672 0 - 87 -- 3
58 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Precious Metals

Placer deposits containing precious metals have

been found throughout the Pacific coastal region

both offshore and along modern day beaches (figure 2-6). In the south, streams in the southern California borderland drain a coastal region of sandstone and mudstone marine sediments and granitic

intrusive. These source rocks do not offer much

hope of economically significant precious metal concentrations offshore, and fluvial placers have not

been important in this area. North of Point Conception, gold placers have been worked and additional deposits might be found offshore.

The most promising region along the Pacific

coast of the coterminous States is likely to be off

northern California and southern Oregon where

sediments from the Klamath Mountains are deposited. The Klamath Mountains are excellent source

rocks containing, among other units, podiform

ultramafic intrusive, which are thought to be the

source of the platinum placers found in the region.

Gold-bearing diorite intrusive are also present and

provide economically interesting source rocks. Platinum and gold placers have both been mined from

beaches in the region. In some areas, small flecks

of gold appear in offshore surface sediments.

Several small gold and platinum beach placers

have been mined on the coast of Washington from

deposits which may have been supplied by glacially

transported material from the north. The Olympic Mountains are not particularly noted for their

ore mineralization, but gold and chromite-bearing

rocks are found in the Cascades.

Two questions remain: do offshore deposits exist? and, if so, are they economic? For heavier

minerals such as gold or platinum, only very finegrained material is likely to be found offshore. Gold

is not uncommon on Pacific beaches from northern California to Washington, but is often too finegrained and too dispersed to be economically recovered at present. However, some experts also argue that in areas undergoing both uplift and cyclic

glaciation and erosion, such as the shelf off southern Oregon, there may be several cycles of retrainment and progressive transport which could allow

even the coarser grains of the precious metals to

be transported some distance seaward on the shelf.33

33K. C. Bowman, ‘ ‘Evaluation of Heavy Minerat Concentrations

on the Southern Oregon Continental Shelf, ” Proceedings, Eighch AnBlack Sand—Chromite Deposits

Chromite-rich black sands are found in relict

beach deposits in uplifted marine terraces and in

modern beach deposits along the coast of southern

Oregon. The terrace deposits were actively mined

for their chromium content during World War 11.

Remaining onshore deposits are not of current economic interest. However, there are indications that

offshore deposits may be of future economic interest. Geologic factors in the development of placer

deposits in relatively high-energy coastal regimes

offer clues to chromite resource expectations in the

EEZ.

Geologic Considerations

The ultimate source of chromite in the black

sands found along the Oregon coast of Coos and

Curry counties is the more or less serpentinized

ultramafic rock in the Klamath Mountains. However much of the chromite in the beach deposits

appears to have been reworked from Tertiary

sedimentary rocks. 34 Chromite eroded out of the

peridotites and serpentine of the Klamath Mountains was deposited in Tertiary sediments. Changes

in sea level eroded these deposits and the chromite

was released again and concentrated into deposits

by wind, wave, and current action. These deposits have been uplifted and preserved in the present

terraces and beach deposits.

This reworking through deposition, erosion, and

redeposition is an important consideration in the

formation of offshore placer deposits. Not only does

reworking allow for the accumulation of more minerals of economic value over time, but it also allows the less resistant (and generally less valuable)

heavy minerals such as pyroxenes and amphiboles

to break down and thus not dilute or lower the

grade of the deposit.

The river systems in the region were largely responsible for eroding and transporting the heavy

minerals from the Klamath Mountains. Once in

the marine environment, reworking of minerals was

enhanced during periods of continental glaciation

when the sea level fluctuated and the shoreline

nual Conference, Marine Technology Society, 1972, pp. 237-253.

34A. B. Griggs, “Chromite-Bearing Sands of the Southern Part of

the Coast of Oregon, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, 945-E, pp.

113-150.
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 59

retreated and advanced across the shelf at least four

times. During these glacial periods, high rainfall,

probable alpine glaciation in the higher Klamath

peaks, and increased stream gradients from lowered

base levels all contributed to accelerated erosion of

the source area. Concentrations of heavy opaque

minerals along the outer edge of the continental

shelf off southern Oregon demonstrate the transport capacity of the pluvial-glacial streams during

low stands of the sea. 35 High discharge and low

stands of sea also allow for the formation of channel deposits on the shelf. During high interglacial

stands of the sea, estuarine entrapment of sediments

is a larger factor in the distribution of heavy minerals in the coastal environment. Each transgression and regression of the sea has the opportunity

to rework relict or previously formed deposits. Preservation of these deposits is related to changes in

the energy intensity of their environment.

While most geologists agree that uplifted beach

terrace deposits and submerged offshore deposits

are secondary sources of resistant heavy minerals

in the formation of placer deposits, questions remain about which secondary source is more important. Differing views on the progressive enrichment

of placer deposits have implications for locating concentrations of heavy minerals of economic value.

One view is that each sea-level transgression reworks and concentrates on the shelf the heavy minerals laid down earlier, and any deposits produced

during the more recent transgression are likely to

be richer or more extensive than the raised terrace

deposits that served as secondary sources since their

emergence. This concentration effect would especially include those deposits now offshore which

could be enriched by a winnowing process that removes the finer, lighter material, thereby concentrating the heavy minerals.36 The other view is that

offshore deposits are likely to be reworked as the

sea level rises and heavy mineral concentrations in

former beaches tend to move shoreward with the

transgressing shore zone so that then the modern

beaches would be richest in potentially economic

heavy minerals. In this view, offshore deposits

would be important secondary sources to the mod351 bid., p. 241.

tcBowman, Ev~uation of Heavy Mineraf Concentrations on the

Southern Oregon Continental Shelf, p. 243.

ern beaches, and raised terraces would be the next

richest in heavy minerals. 37

Prospects for Future Development

The black sand deposits that were mined for

chromite in the past offer a clue as to the nature

of the deposits that might be found offshore. During World War II, approximately 450,000 tons of

crude sand averaging about 10 percent chromite

or 5 percent chromic oxide (Cr2O3) were produced.

This yielded about 52,000 tons of concentrate at

37 to 39 percent Cr2O3. The chromium to iron ratio of the concentrate was 1.6:1. A number of investigators have examined other onshore deposits.

The upraised terraces near Bandon, Oregon, have

been assessed for their chromite content with the

aid of a drilling program. Over 2, 1 million tons of

sand averaging 3 to 7 percent Cr2O3 is estimated

for this 15-mile area.

38 Deposit thicknesses range

from 1 to 20 feet, and associated minerals include

magnetite, ilmenite, garnet, and zircon.

In a minerals availability appraisal of chromium,

the U.S. Bureau of Mines assessed the southwest

Oregon beach sands as having demonstrated resources (reserve base) of 11,935,000 short tons of

mineralized material with a contained Cr 2O3 content of 666,000 tons. 39 In the broader category of

identified resources, the Oregon beach sands contain 50,454,000 tons of mineralized material with

a Cr2O3 content of 2,815,000 tons. None of the

beach sand material is ranked as reserves because

it is not economically recoverable at current prices.

If recovered, the demonstrated resources would

amount to a little over one year’s current domestic chromium consumption.

Another indication of the nature of potential Oregon offshore deposits comes from studies of coastal

terrace placers, modern beach deposits, and offshore current patterns. In general, longshore currents tend to concentrate heavy minerals along the

southern side of headlands. This concentration is

37 Emery and Noakes, “Economic Placer Deposits on the Continental

Shelf, ” p. 107.

‘

8 Bowman, “Evaluation of Heavy Mineral Concentrations on (he

Southern Oregon Continental Shelf, ” pp. 242-243.

39J. F, Lemons, Jr, , E. H. Boyle, Jr. , and CC. Kilgore, ‘ ‘Chromium Availability—Domestic, A Minerals Availability System Appraisal, “ U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular, IC 8895, 1982,

p. 4.
60 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

thought to be the result of differential seasonal longshore transport and shoreline orientation with regard to storm swell approach and zones of decelerating longshore currents. In addition, platform

gradient also influences the distribution of placer

sands, with steeper gradients increasing placer

thickness. Similarly, the formation of offshore

placer deposits would be determined by paleoshoreline position and geometry, platform gradient,

and paleo-current orientation .40

Bathymetric data indicate several wave-cut

benches left from former still stands of sea level.

Concentrations of heavy minerals that may be related to submerged beach deposits have been found

in water depths ranging from 60 to 490 feet. Surface samples of these deposits have black sand concentrations of 10 to 30 percent or more, and some

are associated with magnetic anomalies indicating

a likelihood of black sand placers within sediment

thicknesses ranging from 3 to 115 feet. In addition,

gold is found in surface sediments in some of these

areas. These submerged features would be likely

prospects for high concentrations of chromite and

possibly for associated gold or platinum.

Several Oregon offshore areas containing concentrations of chromite-bearing black sands in the

surface sediment have been mapped. These areas

range from less than 1 square mile to over 80 square

miles in areal extent, and they are found from Cape

Ferrelo north to the Coquille River, with the largest

area nearly 25 miles long, centered along the coast

off the Rogue River. If metal tenor (content) increases with depth, as some investigators expect,

there may be considerable potential for economically interesting deposits offshore. Also depending

on the value of any associated heavy minerals, chromite might be recovered either as the primary product or as the byproduct of other minerals extraction.

Other Heavy Minerals

North of Point Conception in California, a few

small ultramafic bodies are found within coastal

drainage basins. Heavy mineral fractions in beach

and stream sediments are relatively high in titanium

+OC. D. peterson, G. W, Gleeson, and N. Wetzel, ‘‘Stratigr-aphic

Development, Mineral Sources, and Preservation of Marine Placers

from Pleistocene Terraces in Southern Oregon, USA, ” Sedimentary

Geology, in press.

minerals associated with monazite and zircon, and

small quantities of chromite have been found.

Titanium minerals have been mined from beach

sands in this area in the past.

The Klamath Mountains of southwestern Oregon and northwestern California contain a complex of sedimentary, metasedimentary, metavolcanic, granitoid, and serpentinized ultramafic rocks

that are the source of most, if not all, of the heavy

minerals and free metals found on the continental

shelf in that region. In addition to metallic gold,

platinum metals, and chromite discussed previously, these minerals include ilmenite, magnetite,

garnet, and zircon. Abrasion during erosion and

transport of these minerals is minimal, and they

are generally resistant to chemical weathering.

Another area of interest for heavy mineral placer

deposits is off the mouth of the Columbia River.

The Columbia River drains a large and geologically diverse region and its sediments dominate the

coastal areas of northern Oregon and southern

Washington. A large concentration of titanium-rich

black sand has been reported on the shelf south of

the Columbia River. 41 Sand from this deposit has

been found to average about 5 percent ilmenite and

10 to 15 percent magnetite. Several other smaller

areas on the Oregon shelf containing high heavy

mineral concentrations lie seaward of or adjacent

to river systems. Estimates of heavy mineral content on the Oregon shelf suggest a potential of several million tons each of ilmenite, rutile, and zircon. 42

Chromite, ilmenite, and magnetite are also found

in heavy mineral placers on the Washington coast.

Five areas on the Washington shelf contain anomalously high concentrations of heavy minerals.

Three areas south of the Hoh River and off Gray’s

Harbor are at depths of 60 to 170 feet and probably represent beach deposits formed during low

stands of the sea. Two more areas are near the

mouth of the Columbia River.

41R. L.. Phillips, “Heavy Minerals and Bedrock Minerals on the

Continental Shelf off Washington, Oregon, and California, ” Program

Feasibility Document—OCS Hard Minerals Leasing, app. B, U.S.

Department of the Interior, 1979, pp. 14-17.

4Z~auchmp and Cruickshank, “Placer Minerals on the U.S. Continental Shelves—Opportunity for Development, p. 700.
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations ● 61

Phosphorite Deposits

The southern portion of the California borderland is well known for marine phosphorite deposits. The deposits are located on the tops of the numerous banks in areas relatively free of sediment.

The phosphorites are Miocene in age and are generally found in water depths between 100 and 1,300

feet. The deposits consist of sand, pebbles, biological remains, and phosphorite nodules. Relatively

rich surficial nodule deposits averaging 27 percent

P2O5 are found on the Coronado, Thirty Mile and

Forty Mile banks, and west of San Diego. Estimates

based on available data on grade and extent of the

major deposits known in the region indicate a resource base of approximately 72 million tons of

phosphate nodules and 57 million tons of phosphatic

sands .43 However, because assumptions were necessary to derive these tonnages, these estimates

should be regarded as being within only an order

of magnitude of the actual resource potential of the

area. Further sampling and related investigations

are necessary to define the resource base more accurately.

Phosphorite deposits are also found further north

off central California at water depths of 3,300 to

4,600 feet. These deposits, located off Pescadero

Point, on Sur Knoll and Twin Knolls, range in

P2O5 content from 11.5 to 31 percent, with an average content of 24 percent .44 However, their patchy

distribution and occurrence at relatively great water

depths make them economically less attractive than

the deposits off the southern California shore.

Polymetallic Sulfide Deposits

‘‘Polymetallic sulfide ‘‘ is a popular term used to

describe the suites of intimately associated sulfide

minerals that have been found in geologically active areas of the oceanfloor. The relatively recent

discovery of the seabed sulfide deposits was not an

accident. The discovery confirmed years of research

and suggestions regarding geological and geochemical processes at the ocean ridges. Research related

43H. D. Hess, ‘ ‘Preliminary Resource Assessment—Phosphorites

of the Southern California Borderland, Program Feasibility DOCUment—OCS Hard Minerals Leasing, app. 11, U.S. Department of

the Interior, 1978, p. 21.

44H ,T,h4uHins and R. F. Rasch, ‘ ‘Sea-Floor Phosphorites along

the Central California Continental Margin, Economic Geology, vol.

80, 1985, pp. 696-715.

to: 1) separation of oceanic plates, 2) magma upwelling at the ocean ridges, 3) chemical evolution

of seawater, and 4) land-based ore deposits that

were once submarine, has contributed to and culminated in hypotheses of seawater circulation and

mineral deposition at ocean spreading centers that

closely fit recent observations. Much of the current

interest in the marine polymetallic sulfides stems

from the dynamic nature of the processes of formation and their role in hypotheses of the evolution of the Earth’s crust. An understanding of the

conditions resulting in the formation of these marine sulfides allows geologists to better predict the

occurrence of other marine deposits and to better

understand the processes that formed similar terrestrial deposits.

Geologic Considerations

The Gorda Ridge and possibly part of the Juan

de Fuca Ridge (pending unsettled boundary claims)

are within the EEZ of the United States. They are

part of the seafloor spreading ridge system that extends over 40,000 miles through the world’s oceans.

These spreading centers are areas where molten

rock (less dense than the solid, cold ocean crust)

rises to the seafloor from depth, as the plates move

apart. Plates move apart from one another at different rates, ranging from 1 to 6 inches per year.

Limited evidence suggests that the relative rate of

spreading has an influence on the type, distribution, and nature of the hydrothermal deposits

formed, and that significant differences can be expected between slow-spreading centers and intermediate- to fast-spreading centers .45

The mineralization process involves the interaction of ocean water with hot oceanic crust. Simply

stated, ocean water percolates downward through

fractures in the solid ocean crust. Heated at depth,

the water interacts with the rock, leaching metals.

Key to the creation of an ore deposit, the metals

become more concentrated in the percolating water

than they are in the surrounding rocks. The hot

(300 to 400° centigrade) metal-laden brine moves

upward and mixes with the cold ocean water, causing the metals to precipitate, forming sulfide min-

——45P. A. Rona, “Hydrothermal Mineralization at Slow-Spreading

Centers: Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, Marine A4ining, vol. 5, No. 2, 1985, pp. 117-145.
62 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 2-7.— Formation of Marine

Polymetallic Sulfide Deposits

The Juan de Fuca and Gorda Ridges are active spreading

centers off the coasts of Washington, Oregon, and California.

Polymetallic sulfides are formed at spreading centers, where

seawater heated by magma circulates through the rocks of

the seafloor dissolving many minerals and depositing

massive sulfide bodies containing zinc, copper, iron, lead,

cadmium, and silver. Such sulfide deposits have been found

on the Juan de Fuca Ridge within the EEZ of Canada and on

the Gorda Ridge within the U.S. EEZ.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S7; Champ, Dillon, end

 Howell, “Non-Living Resources: Minerals, Oil, and Gas,”

 volume 27, number 4, winter 19S4/S5.

erals along cracks, crusts on the oceanfloor, or

chimneys or stacks (figure 2-7). High temperatures

suggest little or no mixing with cold seawater before the solutions exit through the vents.

The degree to which the ore solution is diluted

in the subsurface depends on the porosity or fracturing of the near surface rock and also determines

the final exit temperature and composition of the

hydrothermal fluids. The fluid ranges from manganese-rich in extreme dilution to iron-dominated

at intermediate dilution levels to sulfide deposition

when little dilution occurs. In support of these observations, investigators have found sulfide deposition at the vents with manganese oxide deposits

farther away from the seawater-hydrothermal fluid

interface. 46 Iron oxides are often found in association with, but at a distance from, the active vent

and sulfide mineralization.

An important control on the location of hydrothermal mineralization, either beneath or on the

seafloor at a spreading center, is whether the subseafloor hydrothermal convection system is leaky

or tight. In leaky high-intensity hydrothermal systems, seawater penetrates downward through fractures in the crust and mixes with upwelling primary

hydrothermal solutions, causing precipitation of disseminated, stockwork, and possibly massive copperiron-zinc sulfides beneath the seafloor. Dilute, lowtemperature solutions depleted in metals discharge

through vents to precipitate stratiform iron and

manganese oxides, hydroxide, and silicate deposits on the seafloor and suspended particulate matter enriched in iron and manganese in the water

column.47 In tight, high-intensity hydrothermal systems, primary hydrothermal solutions undergo negligible mixing with normal seawater beneath the

seafloor and discharge through vents to precipitate

massive copper-iron-zinc sulfide deposits on the

seafloor and suspended particulate matter enriched

in various metals in the water column.

 Pacific Rise Study Group, Processes of the MidOcean Ridge, ” Science, vol. 213, July 3, 1981, pp. 31-40. 47 Rena, “Hydrothermal Mineralization at Slow-Spreading Centers:

Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, ” p. 123.
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 63

Table 2-5.—Estimates of Typical Grades of Contained Metals for Seafloor Massive

Sulfide Deposits, Compared With Typical Ore From Ophiolite Massive

Sulfide Deposits and Deep-Sea Manganese Nodules

Sulfides, Iat 21° N. & Sulfides Sulfide ore, Deep-sea

Juan de Fuca Ridge Galapagos rift Cyprus manganese nodules

Typical grade, Typical grade, Typical grade, Typical grade,

Element in percent in percent in percent in percent

Zinc . . . . . . . . 30 0.2 0.2 0.13

Copper . . . . . 0.5 5.0 2.5 0.99

Nickel . . . . . . — — — 1.22

Cobalt . . . . . . — 0.02 — 0.23

Molybdenum — 0.017 — 0.018

Silver . . . . . . . 0.02 — — —

Lead . . . . . . . 0.30 — — —

Manganese. . — — — 28.8

Germanium. . 0.01 — — .

SOURCE Adapted from V. E. McKelvey, “Subsea Mineral Resources,” U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin, 1669-A, 1966, p. 62

Prospects for Future Development

At the present time, too little is known about marine polymetallic sulfide deposits to project their

economic significance. Analysis of grab samples of

sulfides collected from several other spreading zones

indicate variable metal values, particularly from one

zone to another. In general, all of the deposits sampled, except those on the Galapagos rift, have zinc

as their main metal in the form of sphalerite and

wurtzite. The Galapagos deposits differ in that they

contain less than 1 percent zinc but have copper

contents of 5 to 10 percent, mainly in the form of

chalcopyrite. Weight percentage ranges of some

metals found in the sulfide deposits are given in table 2-5. Some of the higher analyses are from individual grab samples composed almost entirely of

one or two metal sulfide minerals and analyze much

higher in those metal values (e. g., a Juan de Fuca

Ridge sample which is 50 percent zinc is primarily zinc sulfide). While this is impressive, it says

nothing about the extent of the deposit or its uniformity. In any event, it is certain that any future

mining of hydrothermal deposits would recover a

number of metal coproducts.

Highly speculative figures assigning tonnages

and dollar values to ocean polymetallic sulfide occurrences have begun to appear. Observers should

be extremely cautious in evaluating data related to

these deposits. The deposits have only been examined from a scientific perspective related primarily to the process of hydrothermal circulation and

its chemical and biological influence on the ocean.

No detailed economic evaluations of these deposits or of potential recovery techniques have been

made. Thus, estimates of the extent and volume

of the deposits are based on geologic hypotheses and

limited observational information. Even estimates

of the frequency of occurrence of submarine sulfide deposits would be difficult to make at present.

Less than 1 percent of the oceanic ridge system has

been explored in any detail.

A further note of caution is also in order. In

describing the potential for polymetallic sulfide deposits, several investigators have drawn parallels

or made comparisons to the costs of recovery and

environmental impacts of ferromanganese nodule

mining. There is also a parallel with regard to economic speculation. Early speculative estimates of

the tonnages of ferromanganese nodules in the Pacific Ocean were given by John Mero in 1965 as

1.5 trillion tons. 48 Even though this estimate was

subsequently expressed with caveats as to what

might be potentially mineable (10 to 500 billion

tons) ,49 the estimate of 1.5 trillion tons was widely

quoted and popularized, thus engendering a common belief at the time that the deep seabed nodules were a virtually limitless untapped resource—a

wealth that could be developed to preferential benefit of less developed nations. The unlimited abunqeMero, The Mjneral Resources of th<’ Sc’a, P. 175.

49J. L, Mere, “Potential Economic Value of Ocean-Floor Manganese

Nodule Deposits, ’ Ferromangancsc Deposits on the Ocean Floor,

DR. Horn (cd.), National Science Foundation, International Decade of Ocean Exploration, Washington, DC, 1972, p. 202.
64 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

dance of seabed nodules was a basic premise on

which the Third United Nations Conference on the

Law of the Sea was founded. Economic change and

subsequent research indicate both a more limited

mineable resource base and much lower projected

rates of return from nodule mining. However, as

often happens, positions that become established

on the basis of one set of assumptions are difficult

to amend when the assumptions change.

Creating expectations on the basis of highly

speculative estimates of recoverable tonnages and

values for hypothetical metal deposits serves little

Photo credit: U.S. Geological Survey

Hand sample of sulfide minerals recovered from

Juan de Fuca Ridge.

purpose. Avoiding the present temptation to extrapolate into enormous dollar values could avoid

what may, upon further research, prove to be less

than a spectacular economic resource in terms of

recovery. This is not to say that the resource may

not be found, but simply that it is premature to define its extent and estimate its economic value.

What then can be said about expectations for the

U.S. EEZ? The Gorda Ridge is a relatively slow

spreading active ridge crest. Until recently, most

sulfide deposits were found on the intermediate- to

fast-spreading centers (greater than 2 inches per

year). This trend led some investigators to consider

the potential for sulfide mineralization at slowspreading centers to be lower than at faster spreading centers. On the other hand, the convective heat

transfer by hydrothermal circulation is on the same

order of magnitude for both types of ridges. This
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 65

suggests that, if crustal material remains close to

hydrothermal heat sources for a longer period of

time, it might become even more greatly enriched

through hydrothermal mineralization .50 In any

event, a complete series of hydrothermal phases can

be expected at slow-spreading centers, ranging from

high-temperature sulfides to low-temperature oxides. The hydrothermal mineral phases include

massive, disseminated and stockwork sulfide deposits and stratiform oxides, hydroxides, and silicates,

To account further for their differences, the

deeper seated heat sources at slow-spreading centers

can be inferred to favor development of leaky

hydrothermal systems leading to precipitation of

the sulfides beneath the seafloor. This inference,

however, cannot be verified until the deposits are

drilled extensively.

Another view regarding the differences in potential for mineralization between fast- versus slowspreading ridge systems suggests that the extent of

hydrothermal activity and polymetallic sulfide deposition along oceanic ridge systems is more a function of that particular segment’s episodic magmatic

phase than the spreading rate of the ridge as a

whole .51 According to this view, at any given time

a ridge segment with a medium or slow average

spreading rate may show active hydrothermal venting as extensive as that found along segments with

fast spreading rates. Thus, massive polymetallic sulfide deposits may be present along slow-spreading

ridge segments, but they probably would be separated by greater time and distance intervals.

Another factor, particularly on the Gorda Ridge,

is the amount of sediment cover. The 90-mile-long,

sediment-filled Escanaba Trough at the southern

part of the Gorda Ridge is similar to the Guaymas

Basin in the Gulf of California, where hydrothermal sulfide mineralization has been found. The

amount of sediment entering an active spreading

center is critical to the formation and preservation

of the sulfide deposits. Too much material delivered during mineralization will dilute the sulfide

and reduce the economic value of the deposit. On

the other hand, an insufficient sediment flux can

result in eventual oxidation and degradation of the

unprotected deposit.

Sulfide deposits and active hydrothermal discharge zones have been found on the southern Juan

de Fuca Ridge beyond the 200-nautical-mile limit

of the EEZ. The Juan de Fuca Ridge is a mediumrate spreading axis separating at the rate of 3 inches

per year. Zinc and silver-rich sulfides have been

dredged from two vent sites that lie less than a mile

apart. Photographic information combined with geologic inference suggests a crude first-order estimate of 500,000 tons of zinc and silver sulfides in

a 4-mile-long segment of the axial valley .52

Although marine polymetallic sulfide deposits

may someday prove to be a potential resource in

their own right, the current value of oceanfloor sulfides lies in the scientific understanding of their formation processes as well as their assistance in the

possible discovery of analogous deposits on land

(figure 2-8). Cyprus; Kidd Creek, Canada; and the

Kuroko District in Japan are all mining sites for

polymetallic sulfides, and all of these areas show

the presence of underlying oceanic crust. The key

to the past by studying the present is unraveling

the mechanisms by which this very important class

of minerals and ores were formed.

50 Rena, “Hydrothermal Mineralization at Slow-Spreading Centers:

Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean, ” p. 140.

s IA. M~ahoff, ‘ $ polymet~lic Sulfides-A Renewable Marine Resource, Marine Mining: A New Beginning, Conference Proceedings, July 18-21, 1982, Hilo, HI, State of Hawaii, sponsored by Department of Planning and Economic Development, 1985, pp. 31-60.

ALASKA

In southeastern Alaska, the coast is mountainous

and heavily glaciated. Glacial sediments cover

much of the shelf, which averages about 30 miles

in width. The Gulf of Alaska has a wide shelf that

52R,A.Koski, W. R. Normark, and J. L. Morton, ‘‘Massive SUl -

fide Deposits on the Southern Juan de Fuca Ridge: Results of Investigations in the USGS Study Area, 1980-83, Marine Mining, vol.

4, No. 2, 1985, pp. 147-164.

REGION

was mostly covered by glaciers during the Pleistocene. The eastern coast of the Gulf is less mountainous and lower than the steep western coast. The

source rocks in the region include a wide range of
66 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 2-8.—Locations of Mineral Deposits Relative to Physiographic Features (vertical scale exaggerated)

Salt domes

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; A. McGregor and Millington Lockwood, “Mapping and Research In the Exclusive Economic Zone,” Department

of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey and Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

sedimentary, metamorphic, volcanic, and intrusive

bodies.

The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands consist of intrusive and volcanic rocks related to the

subduction zone along the Pacific side. The shelf

narrows westward from a width of nearly 125 miles

to places where it is nearly nonexistent between the

Aleutian Islands. The Aleutians are primarily andesitic volcanics while granitic intrusive are found

on the peninsula.

The Bering Sea shelf is very broad and generally featureless except for a few islands, banks, and

depressions. A variety of sedimentary, igneous, and

metamorphic rocks are found in the region. In the

south, of particular mineralogical interest, are the

Kuskokwim Mountains containing Precambrian

schist and gneiss, younger intrusive rocks, and

dunite. The Yukon River is the dominant drainage system entering the Bering shelf, although several major rivers contribute sediments including

streams on the Asian side, The region also has been
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 67

significantly affected by glaciation and major sea

level changes. Glacial sediment was derived from

Siberia as well as Alaska. Barrier islands are found

along the northern side of the Seward Peninsula.

The major physiographic feature of the north

coast of Alaska is the gently sloping arctic coastal

plain, which extends seaward to form a broad shelf

under the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. This area

was not glaciated during the Pleistocene, and only

one major river, the Colville, drains most of the

region into the Beaufort Sea. The drainage area

includes the Paleozoic sedimentary rocks of the

Brooks Range and their associated local granitic

intrusive and metamorphosed rocks.

Sand and Gravel

Approximately 74 percent of the continental shelf

area of the United States is off the coast of Alaska.

Consequently, Alaskan offshore sand and gravel

resources are very large. However, since these materials are not generally located near centers of consumption, mining may not always be economically

viable.

While glaciation has deposited large amounts of

sand and gravel on Alaska’s continental shelf, the

recovery of economic amounts for construction aggregate is complicated by two factors:

1. much of the glacial debris is not well sorted,

and

2. it is often buried under finer silt and mud

washed out after deglaciation.

Optimal areas for commercial sand and gravel deposits would include outwash plains or submerged

moraines that have not been covered with recent

sediment, or where waves and currents have winnowed out finer material.

In general, much of the shelf of southeastern

Alaska has a medium or coarse sand cover and is

not presently receiving depositional cover of fine

material. The Gulf of Alaska is currently receiving glacial outwash of fine sediment in the eastern

part and, in addition, contains extensive relict deposits of sand and gravel. Economic deposits of sand

have been identified parallel to the shoreline west

of Yakutat and west of Kayak Island. An extensive area of sand has been mapped in the lower

Cook Inlet, and gravel deposits are also present

there (figure 2-9). Large quantities of sand and

gravel are also found on the shelf of Kodiak Island.

The Aleutian Islands are an unfavorable area for

extensive sand and gravel deposits. Relict glacial

sediments should be present on the narrow shelf,

but the area is currently receiving little sediment.

Large amounts of fine sand lie in the southern

Bering Sea and off the Yukon River, but the northern areas may offer the greatest resource potential

for construction aggregate. Extensive well-sorted

sands and gravels are found at Cape Prince of

Wales and northwest of the Seward Peninsula.

However, distances to Alaskan market areas are

considerable. Sand, silt, and mud are common on

the shelf in the Chukchi Sea and Beaufort Sea.

Small, thin patches of gravel are also present, but

available data are sparse. The best prospect of

gravel in the Beaufort Sea is a thick layer of Pleistocene gravel buried beneath 10 to 30 feet of overburden east of the Colville River.

Overall sand and gravel resource estimates of

greater than 200 billion cubic yards are projected

for Alaska (table 2-4). In many areas, environmental concerns in addition to economic considerations would significantly influence development.

Precious Metals

Source rocks for sediments in southeastern

Alaska are varied. Gold is found in the region and

has been mined from placer deposits. Platinum has

been mined from lode deposits on Prince of Wales

Island. Although few beach or marine placer deposits are found in the area, the potential exists

since favorable source rocks are present. However,

glaciation has redistributed much of the sediment,

and the shelf is receiving relatively little modern

sediment.

Some gold has been recovered from beach placers

in the eastern Gulf of Alaska; but, in general, the

prospects for locating economic placers offshore

would not be great because of the large amount of

glacially derived fine-grained material entering the

area. In the western Gulf, the glaciation has removed much of the sediment from the coastal area

and deposited it offshore where subsequent reworking may have formed economically interesting
68 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 2-9.– Potential Hard Mineral Resources of the Alaskan EEZ

\

Gold and gravel have been mined from Alaskan waters and the potential exists for locating other offshore placer deposits.

SOURCES: Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987; U.S. Department of the Interior, “SYmPosium Proceedings-A National Program for the Assessment and Development of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 929, 1983.

placer deposits. 53 Gold is found in the region and

has been mined from beaches on Kodiak Island and

Cook Inlet. Placer deposits may have formed on

the outer shelf but recovery may be difficult. Lower

Cook Inlet might be the best area of the Gulf to

prospect.

SSH, E. Clifton and G. Luepke, Heavy-Minera/ placer Deposits of

the Continence Margin of Alaska and the Pacific Coast States, in Geology and Resouree Potential of the Continental Margin of Western

North America and A~”acent Ocean Baaisn-Beaufort Sea to Baja, California, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir, ed.,

D.W. Scholl, (in press).

The shelf along the Aleutian Islands is a relatively unfavorable prospective locale for finding economic placer deposits. Sediment supply is limited,

and ore mineralization in the volcanic source rocks

is rare. Lode and placer gold deposits have been

found on the Alaska Peninsula, and gold placers

may be found off the south shore near former mining areas.

Platinum has been mined from alluvial placers

near Goodnews Bay on the Bering Sea. Anomalous concentrations of platinum are also found on
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 69

the coast south of the Salmon River and in sediments in Chagvan Bay.

54 The possibility exists that

platinum placers may be found on the shelf if glacially transported material has been concentrated

by marine processes. Source rocks are thought to

be dunites in the coastal Kuskokwim Mountains,

but lode deposits have not been found. Gold placers

are also found along the coast of the Bering Sea

and are especially important to the north near

Nome. Lode gold and alluvial placers are common

along the southern side of the Seward Peninsula,

and tin placers have also been worked in the area.

Gold has been found offshore in gravel on submerged beach ridges and dispersed in marine sands

and muds. Economic deposits may be found in the

submerged beach ridges or in buried channels offshore. The region around Nome has yielded about

5 million ounces of gold, mainly from beach deposits, and it is suggested that even larger amounts

may lie offshore. 55 How much of this, if any, may

be discovered in economically accessible deposits

is uncertain, but the prospects are probably pretty

good in the Nome area.

54R. M. Owen, ‘ ‘Geochemistry of Platinum-Enriched Sediments:

Applications to Mineral Exploration, Marine Mining, vol. 1, No.

4, 1978, pp. 259-282.

jjBeauchamp and Cmickshank, “Placer Minerals on the U.S. Continental Shelves—Opportun ity for Development, p. 700.

HAWAII

Hawaii is a tectonically

Other Heavy Minerals

The eastern Gulf of Alaska is strongly influenced

by the modern glaciers in the area. Fresh, glacially

derived sediments, including large amounts of finegrained material, are entering the area and being

sorted by marine processes. Heavy mineral suites

are likely to be fairly immature and burial is rapid.

In general, the prospects for locating economically

interesting heavy mineral placers offshore in this

area would not be great.

About 2,000 tons of tin have been produced from

placers on the western part of the Seward Peninsula. Tin in association with gold and other heavy

minerals may occur in a prominent shoal which extends over 22 miles north-northeast from Cape

Prince of Wales along the northwest portion of the

Seward Peninsula. While seafloor deposits off the

Seward Peninsula might be expected to contain

gold, cassiterite, and possibly tungsten minerals,

data are lacking to evaluate the resource potential.

In general, the Chukchi and Beaufort seas may

not contain many economic placers. Source rocks

are distant, and ice gouging tends to keep bottom

sediments mixed.

REGION AND U.S. TRUST TERRITORIES

active, mid-ocean volcanic chain with typically narrow and limited shelf

areas. Sand and gravel resources are in short supply. The narrow shelf areas in general do not promote large accumulations of sand and gravel offshore. One area of interest is the Penguin Bank,

which is a drowned shore terrace about 30 miles

southeast of Honolulu (figure 2-10). The bank’s resource potential is conservatively estimated at over

350 million cubic yards of calcareous sands in about

180 to 2,000 feet of water.56 This resource could

supply Hawaii’s long-term needs for beach restoration and, to a lesser extent for construction. However, high winds and strong currents are common

‘b~. Il. Murdaugh, ‘ ‘Preliminary Feasibility Assessment: Offshore

Sand Mining, Penguin Bank, Hawaii, ” Program Feasibilit}r

Document—OCS Hard Minerals Leasing, app. 19, U.S. Department

of the Interior, 1979, p. 14.

on the Penguin Bank. Total sand and gravel resource estimates for Hawaii may be as high as 25

billion cubic yards (table 2-4).

No metalliferous deposits are mined onshore in

Hawaii. Thus the prospects are somewhat poor for

locating economically attractive placer deposits on

the Hawaiian outer continental shelf. Minor phosphorite deposits have been found in the Hawaii

area, although phosphorite is found on seamounts

elsewhere in the Pacific.

The geology of the U.S. Trust Territories is generally similar to Hawaii with the islands being of

volcanic origin, often supporting reefs or limestone

deposits. Clastic debris of the same material is

present and concentrated locally, but very little information is available as to the nature and extent

of any sand or gravel deposits. Other areas are rela-
70 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 2-10.–Potential Hard Mineral Resources of the Hawaiian EEZ

Cretaceus

seamounts

\

Explanation

Known Likely

occurrence occurrence

1

Mn-nodules o4 4

Co-crusts o5 5

0 Massive sulfides 6 6

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; U.S. Department of the Interior, “Symposium Proceedings—A National Program for the Assessment and Development of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 929, 1983.

tively free of sediment or are covered with fine sediment consisting of red clay and/or calcareous ooze.

The extent to which the United States has jurisdiction over the EEZs of the various Trust Territories (figure 2-1 1) is examined in appendix B.

Cobalt-Ferromanganese Crusts

Recently, high concentrations of cobalt have been

found in ferromanganese crusts, nodules, and slabs

on the sides of several seamounts, ridges, and other

raised areas of ocean floor in the EEZ of the central Pacific region. The current interest in cobaltenriched crusts follows an earlier period of considerable activity during the 1960s and 1970s to determine the feasibility of mining manganese nodules from the deep ocean floor, While commercial

prospects for deep seabed nodule mining have

receded because of unfavorable economics compounded by political uncertainties resulting from

the Law of the Sea Convention, commercial interest in cobalt-ferromanganese crusts is emerging. A

number of factors are contributing to this shift of

interest, including seamount crusts that:

1. appear to be richer in metal content and more

widely distributed than previously recognized,

2. are at half the depth or less than their abyssal

counterparts,
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations . 71

Figure 2-11 .—Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts

on the Flanks of Seamounts and Volcanic Islands

Iron-manganese crusts enriched in cobalt occur on the flanks

of volcanic islands and seamounts in geochemically favorable

areas of the Pacific. Samples have been recovered for

scientific purposes, but equipment for potential commercial

evaluation and recovery has not been developed.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; Bonnie A. McGregor and

Terry W. Of field, “The Exclusive Economic Zone: An Exciting New

Frontier, ” U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey.

3.

4.

can be found within the U.S. EEZ which

could provide a more stable investment climate, and

may provide alternative sources of strategic

metals.

Geologic Considerations

Ferromanganese crusts range from thin coatings

to thick pavements (up to 4 inches) on rock surfaces that have remained free of sediment for millions of years. The deposits are believed to form

by precipitation of hydrated metal oxides from nearbottom seawater. The crusts form on submarine

volcanic and phosphorite rock surfaces or as nodules around nucleii of rock or crust fragments. They

differ from deep ocean nodules, which form on the

sediment surface and derive much of their metals

from the interstitial water of the underlying sediment. Several factors appear to influence the composition, distribution, thickness, and growth rate

of the crusts. These factors include metal concentration in the seawater, age and type of the substrate, bottom currents, depth of formation, latitude, presence of coral atolls, development of an

oxygen-minimum zone, proximity to continents,

and geologic setting.

The cobalt content varies with depth, with maximum concentrations occurring between 3,300 and

8,200 feet in the Pacific Ocean. Cobalt concentrations greater than 1 percent are generally restricted

to these depths. Platinum (up to 1.3 parts per million) and nickel (to 1 percent) are also found associated with cobalt in significant concentrations in

many ferromanganese crust areas. Other metals

found in lesser but significant amounts include lead,

cerium, molybdenum, titanium, rhodium, zinc,

and vanadium (table 2-6).

At least two periods of crust formation occur in

some crusts. Radiometric dating and other analyses indicate that crusts have been forming for the

last 20 million years, with one major interruption

in ferromanganese oxide accretion during the late

Miocene, from 8 to 9 million years ago, as detected

in some samples. During this period of interruption, phosphorite was deposited, separating the

older and younger crust materials. In some areas,

there is evidence of even older periods of crust formation. Crust thickness is related to age; consequently, within limits, the age of the seafloor is an

important consideration in assessing the resource

potential of an area. However, crust thickness does

not ensure high cobalt and nickel concentrations.

The U.S. Geological Survey found thick crusts

with moderate cobalt, manganese, and nickel concentrations on Necker Ridge, which links the Mid-
72 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 2-6.–Average Chemical Composition for Various Elements of Crusts From <8,200 Feet Water Depth

From the EEZ of the United States and Other Pacific Nations (all data are in weight percent)

Areas n Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Pb Ti SiO2 P205 Fe/Mn

Hawaii and Midway (on axis) . . . . . . . .

Hawaii and Midway (off axis) . . . . . . . .

Johnston Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Palmyra Atoll-Kingman Reef . . . . . . . .

Howland-Baker Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Marshall Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Average central Pacific crusts . . . . . . .

Northern Marianna Islands

(and Guam). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Western U.S. borderland . . . . . . . . . . . .

Gulf of Alaska Seamounts . . . . . . . . . .

Lau Basin (hydrothermal) . . . . . . . . . . .

Tonga Ridge and Lau Basin

(hydrogenous) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

South China Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Benin Island area (Japan) . . . . . . . . . . .

French Polynesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Average for Pacific hydrogenous

crusts (all data from figures 2-8) . . .

2-38 24 16.0 0.91 0.45 0.05

4-15 21 18.0 0.60 0.37 0.10

12-40 22 17.0 0.70 0.43 0.11

7-8 27 16.0 1.1 0.51 0.06

3 29 18.0 0.99 0.63 0.08

5-13 26 14.0 0.94 0.56 0.13

34-117 23 17.0 0.81 0.45 0.09

6-7 12 16.0 0.09 0.13 0.05

2-5 19 16.0 0.30 0,30 0.04

3-6 26 18.0 0.47 0.44 0.15

2 46 0.600.007 0.005 0.02

6-9 16 20.0 0.33 0.22 0.05

14 13 13.0 0.13 0.34 0.04

1-1o 21 13.0 0.41 0.55 0.06

2-9 23 12.0 1.2 0.60 0.11

55-319 22 15.0 0.63 0.44 0.08

1.1 7.9

0.18 1.3 16.0

0.17 1.3 12.0

0.17 1.1 5.5

0.14 1.2 6.2

0.25 1.1 5.6

0.18 1.2 9.1

0.07 – –

0.15 0.31 17.0

0.17 0.57 –

0.006 0.005 –

0.16 1.0 –

0.08 – 14.0

0.12 0.67 4.9

0.26 1.0 6.5

0.16 0,98 11.0

—

1.0

1.2

1.9

1.7

0.90

1.3

—

—

0.87

0.05

1.0

—

0.82

0.34

1.1

0.73

0.88

0.81

0,61

0.64

0.56

0.75

1.41

0.95

0.72

0.01

1.26

1.07

0.70

0.56

0.81

n = Number of analyses for various elements.

— = No data.

SOURCE: JR. Hein, L.A. Morgenson, D.A. Clague, and R.A. Koski, “Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts From the Exclusive Economic Zone of the United States and

Nodules From the Oceanic Pacific,” D. Schoil, A. Grantz, and J. Vedder (eds.), Geology and Resource Potential of the Corrth’rerrta/ Margins of Western North

American and Adjacent Ocean Basins: American Association of Petroleum Geologkts, Memoir, in press.

Pacific Mountains and the Hawaiian Archipelago .57

Further, high cobalt values of 2.5 percent were

found in the top inch or so of crusts from the S.P.

Lee Seamount at 8° N. latitude. These deposits occur at depths coincident with a water mass that contains minimum concentrations of oxygen, leading

most investigators to attribute part of this cobalt

enrichment to low oxygen content in the seawater

environment. However, high cobalt values (greater

than 1 percent) have also been found in the Marshall Islands, the western part of the Hawaiian

Ridge province, and in French Polynesia, all of

which are outside the well-developed regional

equatorial oxygen-minimum zone but which appear to be associated with locally developed oxygenminimum zones. Oxygen-minimum zones are also

associated with low iron/manganese ratios. Figure

2-12 illustrates the zone of cobalt enrichment inferromanganese crusts on seamounts and volcanic islands. In general, while progress is being made to

understand more fully the physical and geochemical mechanisms of cobalt-manganese crust forma57J. R. Heine, et al., “Geological and Geochemical Data for Seamounts and Associated Ferromanganese Crusts In and Near the Hawaiian, Johnston Island, and Palmyra Island Exclusive Economic

Zones, ” U.S. Geological Survey, Open File Report 85-292, 1985,

p. 129.

tion, the cobalt enrichment process is still uncertain. investigations to gain insight in this area will

be of considerable benefit in identifying future resources.

Surface texture, slope, and sediment cover also

may influence crust growth rates. For example,

sediment-free, current-swept regions appear to be

favorable sites for crust formation.

Nodules are also found associated with cobaltrich manganese crusts in some areas. These nodules are similar in composition to the crusts and,

consequently, differ from their deep ocean counterparts. Another difference between crustassociated nodules and deep ocean nodules is the

greater predominance of nucleus material in the

crust-associated nodules. The cobalt-rich nodules

generally occur as extensive fields on the tops of

seamounts or within small valleys and depressions.

While of much lesser extent overall than crust

occurrences, these nodules may prove more easily

recoverable and, hence, possibly of nearer term economic interest.

Prospects for Future Development

The geologic considerations mentioned previously are important determinants in assessing the
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 73

Figure 2-12.— EEZs of U.S. Insular and Trust Territories in the Pacific

Midway Island

Howland and

Baker Islands

In addition to the waters off the fifty states, the Exclusive Economic Zone includes the waters contiguous to the insular territories

and possessions of the United States. The United States has the authority to manage these economic zones to the extent

consistent with the legal relationships between the United States and these islands.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S7; D.A. and “Cobalt-Rich Crusts From the Exclusive

Economic Zone of the United States and Nodules From the Oceanic Pacific,” in D. Scholl, A. and J. “Geology and Resource Potential

of the Continental Margin of Western North America and Adjacent Ocean Basins,” American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 43, in press.

resource potential of cobalt-rich ferromanganese cial concentrations of cobalt-rich crusts would be

crusts. Using three primary assumptions based on confined to the slopes and plateau areas of seathese factors, the East West Center in Hawaii mounts in water depths between 2,600 and 7,900

produced a cobalt-rich ferromanganese crust re- feet. The second assumption was that commercial

source assessment for the Minerals Management concentrations would be most common in areas

Service .58 The first assumption was that commer- older than 25 million years, where both generations

of crust would be found, and less common in areas

 P. Humphrey, C .J, Johnson, et younger than 10 million years, where only thinManganese Crust Potential, Study, MMS 85-0006, U.S. ner younger crust generation occurs. The third

 of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 1985, 35 pp. primary assumption was that commercial concen-
74 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 2-7.—Resource Potential of Cobalt, Nickel,

Manganese, and Platinum in Crusts of U.S. Trust

and Affiliated Territories

Resource Potential

Nickel Platinum

Territory Cobalt ( t x 10°) Manganese (OZ X 1OE

)

Belau/Palau . . . . . . . . 0.55 0.31 15.5 0.68

Guam . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.55 0.31 15.5 0.68

Howland-Baker . . . . . 0.19 0.11 5.5 0.48

Jarvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.03 1.6 0.15

Johnston Island . . . . 1.38 0.69 41.6 3.50

Kingman—Palmyra . 3.38 1.52 76.1 5.70

Marshall Islands. .. .10.55 5.49 281.3 21.50

Micronesia. . . . . ....17.76 9.96 496.0 34.70

Northern Mariana

Islands . . . . . . . . . . 3.60 1.97 100.2 7.70

Samoa . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.01 0.8 0.04

Wake . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.51 26.8 2.00

NOTE: The above are estimates of in-place resources and as such do not indicate

either potential recoverability or mineable quantities.

SOURCE: Allen L. Clark, Peter Humphrey, Charles J. Johnson, and Dorothy K.

Pak, Coba/t-Rich Manganese Crust Potential, OCS Study MMS 65-0006,

1985, p. 20.

trations would be most common in areas of low

sediment cover that have been within the geographically favorable equatorial zone for the majority of

their geologic history.

The East-West Center’s procedure was to use

detailed bathymetric maps to determine permissive

areas for each EEZ of the U.S. Trust and Affiliated

Territories in the Pacific. The permissive areas included all the seafloor between the depths of 2,600

and 7,900 feet, making corrections for areas of significant slopes. Then, based on published data, the

metal content and thickness of crust occurrences

for each area were averaged. Crust thicknesses were

also assigned on the basis of ages of the seamounts,

guyots, and island areas. Seamounts older than 40

million years were assigned a thickness of 1 inch.

Seamounts younger than 10 million years were assigned a thickness of one-half inch, and seamounts

younger than 2 to 5 million years were not included

in the resource calculations. These data are summarized in table 2-7.

According to table 2-7, the five territories of highest resource potential would be the Federated States

of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Commonwealth

of the Northern Mariana Islands, KingmanPalmyra Islands, and Johnston Island. Further geologic inference suggests that the resource potential of the Federated States of Micronesia and the

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

could be reduced because of uncertainties in age

and degree of sediment cover. Thus, according to

their more qualitative assessment, the largest resource potential for cobalt crusts would likely be

in the Marshall Islands, followed by the KingmanPalmyra, Johnston, and Wake Islands (figure 2-

13). The territories of lesser resource potential

would include, in decreasing order, the Federated

States of Micronesia, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (figure 2-14), Belau-Palau,

Guam, Howland-Baker, Jarvis, and Samoa.59

Another assessment of crust resource potential

using grade and permissive area calculations with

geologic and oceanographic criteria factored in is

given in table 2-8.60 This assessment is also a qualitative ranking without attempting to quantify tonnages. In this regard, other factors that would have

to be considered to assess the economic potential

of any particular area include: nearness to port facilities and processing plants, and the cost of transportation. In addition, factors highly critical to the

economics of a potential crust mining operation

would be the degree to which the crust can be separated from its substrate and the percentage of the

‘

g

Ibid., p. 21.

‘OJ. R. Hein, L.A. Morgenson, D.A. Glague, and R.A. Koski,

‘

(Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts From the Exclusive Economic

Zone of the United States and Nodules From the Oceanic Pacific,

D. Scholl, A. Grantz, and J, Vedder (eds. ), Geology and Resource

Potent]af of the Continental Margins of Western North America and

Adjacent Ocean Basins, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir (in press), 1986.

Table 2-8.—Estimated Resource Potential of Crusts

Within the EEZ of Hawaii and U.S. Trust

and Affiliated Territories

Relative

Pacific area banking Potential

Marshall Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 High

Micronesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 High

Johnston Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 High

Kingman-Palmyra. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 High

Hawaii-Midway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Medium

Wake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Medium

Howland-Baker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Medium

Northern Mariana Islands. . . . . . 8 Low

Jarvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Low

Samoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Low

Belau/Palau. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Low

Guam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Low

SOURCE: Modified from J.R. Hein, F.T. Manheim, and W.C. Schwab, Coba/t-Rich

Ferrornangwrese Crusts from the Centra/ Pac/flc, OTC 5234, Offshore

Technology Conference, May 1966, pp. 119126,
Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 75

Figure 2-13.– Potential Hard Mineral Resources of U.S. Insular Territories South of Hawaii

0 .0

.

●

●

✎ 

Se

●

●

Seamounts

Seamounts

Co-crusts o5

Massive sulfides 60

5

6

0 500 1000 Miles

J i 1 J

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; U.S. Department of the Interior, “Symposium Proceedings—A Program tne Assessment ana 

ment of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 929, 1983.

area that could not be mined because of roughness

of small-scale topography. When asked to place the

stage of knowledge of the economic potential of cobalt crusts on the time-scale experienced in the investigations of manganese nodules, one leading

researcher chose 1963.61

 M. Broadus, Seabed Mining, report to the Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, Feb. 14, 1984, p. 24,

Manganese Nodules

Ferromanganese nodules are found at most water

depths from the continental shelf to the abyssal

plain. Since the formation of nodules is limited to

areas of low sedimentation, they are most common

on the abyssal plain. Nodules on the abyssal plain

are enriched in copper and nickel and, until recently, have been regarded as candidates for commercial recovery. Nodules found on topographic

highs in the Pacific are enriched in cobalt and were

mentioned in the previous section.
76 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 2-14.– Potential Hard Mineral Resources of U.S. Insular Territories West of Hawaii

Northern Mariana Islands Wake Island

Co-crusts o5 5 1 I I

Massive sulfides o6 6

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S7; U.S. Department of the Interior, “Symposium Proceedings-A National Program for the Assessment and Development of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 929, 19S3.

The prime area considered for commercial re- per square yard to be commercially interesting. Becovery of nodules in the Pacific lies in international cause of uncertainties brought about by the United

waters between the Clarion and Clipperton frac- Nations Law of the Sea Convention in regard to

ture zones in the mid-Pacific ocean. However, sev- mining in international waters, and because of the

eral other smaller areas may contain suitable mine low price of copper on the world market, the resites, for example, southwest of Hawaii. A mine covery of nodules from the Clarion-Clipperton resite should have an average grade of about 2.25 per- gion is not attractive at this time.

cent copper plus nickel with 20 pounds of nodules


Chapter 3

Minerals Supply, Demand,

and Future Trends
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Trends in Minerals Consumption . . . . . . . . . 81

Commodity Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

State of the Mining Industry . . . . ........ 85

Ferroalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

National Defense Stockpile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Substitution, Conservation, and Recycling . 88

Major Seabed Mineral Commodities . . . . . . 89

Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................100

Platinum-Group Metals . . . . . . . . . . .. ....102

Titanium (Ilmenite and Rutile) . ........104

Phosphate Rock (Phosphorite) . .........107

Sand and Gravel . ....................111

Garnet . .............................112

Monazite . . . . . . . . . . . . ................112

Zircon . .............................112

Box

Box Page

3-A. Government Sources of Information

and Units of Measure Used in This

Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Figures

Figure No. Page

3-1.

3-2.

3-3.

3-4.

3-5.

Actual and Projected Consumption of

Selected Minerals in the MarketEconomy Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Price Trends for Selected Seabed

Mineral Commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Cobalt Prices, 1920-85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

U.S. Ferrochromium and Chromate

Ore Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Percentage of Manganese Imported

Into the United States as

Ferromanganese, 1973-86 . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Figure No. Page

3-6.

3-7.

Table

3-1

3-2.

3-3.

3-4.

3-5.

3-6.

3-7.

3-8.

3-9<

3-10(

3-11.

3-12.

3-13.

3-14.

3-15.

3-16.

Vorld Titanium Pigment

Manufacturing Capacity . ............105

Major World Exporters of Phosphate

Rock Since 1975, With Projections to

995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108

Tables

No. Page

Major U.S. Strategic Materials

Contained in the National Defense

Stockpile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Forecast of U.S. and World Cobalt

Demand in 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

1986 National Defense Chromium

Stockpile Goals and Inventories . . . . . . 91

Forecasts for U.S. Chromium

Demand in 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Status of Manganese in the National

Defense Stockpile-1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Forecast for U.S. and World

Manganese Demand in 2000 . . . . . . . . 96

Forecast of U.S. and World Nickel

Demand in 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

U.S. and World Copper Demand

in 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Forecast of U.S. and World Zinc

Demand in 2000. . .................100

Platinum-Group Metals in the

National Defense Stockpile . . . . . . . . ..102

Forecast of Demand for PlatinumGroup Metals in 2000 . .............103

U.S. Titanium Reserves and Reserve

Base . ............................105

Forecast for U.S. Titanium Demand

in 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...106

World and U.S. Phosphate Rock

Production . . . . . . . .................108

World Phosphate Rock Reserves and

Reserve Base.. . ...................109

Forecasts of U.S. and World

Phosphate Rock Demand in 2000. ...110
Chapter 3

Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends

INTRODUCTION

Commodities, materials, and mineral concentrates—the stuff made from minerals-are actively

traded in international markets. An analysis of domestic demand, supply, and prices of minerals and

their products must also consider future global supply and demand, and international competition.

This is important to all mining and minerals ventures, but particularly so for seabed minerals, which

must not only compete with domestically produced

land-based minerals, but which must also match

the prices of foreign onshore and offshore producers. 1

The commercial potential of most seabed minerals from the EEZ is uncertain. Several factors

make analysis of their potential difficult, if not impossible:

●

●

●

●

●

First, very little is known about the extent and

grade of the mineral occurrences that have

been identified thus far in the EEZ.

Second, without actual experience or pilot

operations, the mining costs and the unforeseen operational problems that affect costs cannot be assessed accurately.

Third, unpredictable performance of domestic and global economies adds uncertainty to

forecasts of minerals demand.

Fourth, changing technologies can cause unforeseen shifts in demand for minerals and materials.

Fifth, past experience indicates that methods

for projecting or forecasting minerals demand

‘J. Broadus, “Seabed Materials, ” Science, vol. 235, Feb. 20, 1987,

p. 835.

fall short of perfection and are sometimes incorrect or misleading.

Mineral commodities demand is a function of demand for construction, capital equipment, transportation, agricultural products, and durable consumer goods. These markets are tied directly or

indirectly to general economic trends and are notably unstable. With economic growth as the “common denominator’ for determining materials consumption and hence minerals demand, and with

recognition of the shortcomings in predicting global

economic changes, any hope for reasonably accurate forecasts evaporates.

It is probably unwise to even attempt to speculate on the future commercial viability of seabed

mining, but few can resist the temptation to do so.

The case of deep seabed manganese nodule mining offers a graphic example of how external international and domestic political events and economic factors can affect the business climate and

economic feasibility of offshore mining ventures.

After considerable investment in resource assessments, development and testing of prototype mining systems, and detailed economic and financial

analyses, the downturn of the minerals markets

from the late 1970s through the 1980s continues

to keep the mining of seabed manganese nodules

out of economic reach, although many of the international legal uncertainties once facing the industry have been eliminated through reciprocal

agreements among the ocean mining nations. As

a consequence, several deep seabed mining ventures have either shrunk their operations or abandoned their efforts altogether.

TRENDS IN MINERALS CONSUMPTION

Minerals consumption for a product is deter- consumed in the economy (product composition),

mined by the number of units manufactured and because each consumes different materials as well

the quantity of metal or material used in each unit. as different amounts of those materials. Finally,

Total demand is influenced by the mix of goods minerals demand is closely related to macroeconomic

81
82 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

activity, consumer preference, changing technologies, prices, and other unpredictable factors (see

box 3-A).

Long-term demand is difficult to forecast. Simple projections of consumption trends may be misleading (figure 3-1).2 From the late 1970s through

‘J. “Changing Trends in Metal Demand and the Decline

of Mining and Mineral Processing in Nonh America, paper presented at Colorado School of Mines Conference on Public Policy and

the Competitiveness of U.S. and Canadian Metals Production,

Golden, CO, Jan. 27-30, 1987.

Figure 3-1 .—Actual and Projected Consumption of

Selected Minerals in the Market-Economy Countries

(1950-85)

Copper

Projected

Changes in the world economy since 1973 have made it

difficult to forecast the long-term consumption of metals

by the Market-Economy Countries.

SOURCE: “Changing Trenda in Metal Demand and the of Mining and Mineral Processing in North America,” paper presented at a

conference on public Policy and the Competitiveness of U.S. and Canadian Metals Production, Colorado School of Mines, Jan. 27-30, 1967

(modified).
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends 83

middle 1980s, unforeseen changes in the world

economy significantly altered consumption; these

changes were partially caused by economic pressures resulting from substantial increases in energy

prices, coupled with technological advancements

(including substitution), changes in consumer attitude, imports of finished products rather than raw

materials, and growth in the service sector of the

U.S. economy.

These shifts in minerals demand are reflected in

both the intensity of use and in consumption.3 Of

the major industrial metals derived from minerals

known to occur in the U.S. EEZ, only two—platinum and titanium—show growth in domestic consumption between 1972 and 1982. Whether the

long-term trends in use intensity and consumption

will continue, stabilize, or recover depends on many

complex factors and unpredictable events that confound even the most sophisticated analyses. However, there are indications that trends in reduced

intensity of use and consumption for some metals,

e.g., nickel, have stabilized since 1982.

3’ Intensity of use, as used in this report, is the quantity of metal

consumed per constant dollar output.

For most minerals,

and demand resulting

COMMODITY PRICES

the normal forces of supply demand are notably volatile (figure 3-2). While all

from macroeconomic trends minerals are subject to some oscillations in market

determine the market price.4 Mineral prices and prices due to normal economic events, some that

are produced by only a few sources (where there

‘Broadus, “Seabed Materials, ” p. 857. is a relatively low level of trade, e.g. , cobalt) and

Photo credit: Jenifer Robison

Considerable onshore mining capacity remains idle as a result of depressed mineral prices, foreign competition, and

reduced demand. Idle capacity will likely be brought back into production to satisfy increased future consumption before

new mining operations are begun either onshore or offshore.
84 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 3-2.– Price Trends for Selected

Seabed Mineral Commodities

Prices of several commodities that are derived from minerals known to occur on the seabed within the U.S. EEZ can change

abruptly in world markets.

SOURCE: “Seabed Materials,” vol. 235, Feb. 20, 19S7, p. S57 (modified and abbreviated).
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 85

those that are targets of speculators (e. g., the precious metals) undergo drastic and often unpredictable swings in price. Although attempts at forming

mineral cartels similar to Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in order to

stabilize prices have generally failed eventually,

e.g., attempts by Morocco to control the production and price of phosphate rock and the International Tin Council’s effort to stabilize tin prices,

they nevertheless can trigger serious price disruptions.5 Speculative surges, such as that encountered

by silver in 1979-80, also can have tremendous impacts on price structure.

In addition, unforeseen supply interruptions or

the fear of such interruptions can drive the price

of commodities up. The short-lived guerrilla invasion of the Zairian province of Shaba in 1977 and

1978, had a psychological effect on cobalt consumers that sent prices up from $6.40 per pound

in February 1977 to $25 per pound in February

1979, although the invasion caused little interruption in production and Zairian cobalt production

actually increased in 1978 (figure 3-3).6 Threats of

a possible cutoff of the supply of platinum-group

metals from the Republic of South Africa, resulting from U.S. sanctions against apartheid, recently

caused similar increases in the market price of

platinum.

5S. Strauss, Trouble in the Third Kingdom (London, U. K.: M ining Journal Books, Ltd., 1986), p. 116; see also, K. Hendrixson and

J. Schanz, Jr., International Mineraf Market Control and Stabilization: Historical Perspectives, 86-601 S (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 1986).

bOfiice of Technology Assessment, Strategic Materials: Technologies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, OTA-ITE-248 (Washington, DC: U.S. Congress, 1985), pp. 97-104; see also, W. Kirk

“A Third Pricing Phase: Stability?” American Metaf Market, Aug.

23, 1985, pp. 9-12.

Figure 3-3.—Cobalt Prices, 1920-85

—

1920 1930 1940 1950 1980 1970 1980 1990

Year

Cobalt is a good example of how mineral commodity prices

can be affected by the fear of a supply interruption. Although

supplies of cobalt were only briefly interrupted during the

Shaba guerrilla uprising in Zaire, the psychological impact on

traders caused cobalt prices to skyrocket from 1978 to 1979.

SOURCE: F. Manheim, “Marine Cobalt Resources,” Science, vol. 232, May 2, 19S6.

Such commodity price fluctuations pose significant economic uncertainties for investors in new

mineral developments, including seabed mining.

Macroeconomic cycles coupled with macroeconomic

disruptions within the minerals sector make planning difficult and the business future uncertain.

Nonmetallic minerals, while not completely immune from downturns in the business cycle, as a

whole have fared better than metals in recent years.

The prices of phosphate rock, sulfur, boron, diatomite, and salt have all increased at a higher rate

than has inflation since 1973, whereas only the

prices of tin (temporarily) and certain precious metals have matched that performance among the nonferrous metals.7 However, all mineral prices fluctuated greatly during that period.

‘Strauss, Trouble in the Third Kingdom, p. 140.

STATE OF THE MINING INDUSTRY

The downturn in the world minerals industry

into the 1980s had a combination of causes:

● First, there has been a long-term (but only recently recognized) trend toward less metal-intensive goods.

● Second, growth has slackened in per capita

consumption of consumer goods and capital

expenditures.

● Third, developing countries’ economies have

not expanded to the point that they have become significant consumers, while at the same

time some of these countries have become lowcost mineral producers competing with traditional producers in the industrialized countries.

● Fourth, petroleum companies diversified by

investing in minerals projects that turned out
86 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

to be poor investments due to the 1982-83

recession.8

As a result, metal prices have remained quite low

during the 1980s and will probably remain so until demand absorbs the unused mineral production

capacity. The World Bank Index of metal and mineral prices indicates that the constant-dollar value

of mineral prices in the 1981 to 1985 period was

19 percent below the value from 1975 to 1979 and

37 percent lower than the years 1965 through 1974.9

To survive these prices, the domestic industry has

undergone a significant shakedown and restructuring, coupled with cuts in operations to improve efficiency. While the surviving firms may emerge as

stronger competitors, their ability and willingness

to invest in future risky ventures such as seabed

mining are likely to be limited.

Recent increases in the number of governmentowned or state-controlled foreign mining ventures

have added a new twist to the structure of the world

‘Tilton, “Changing Trends in Metal Demand. ”

‘World Bank, Commodities Division, ‘‘Primary Commodity Price

Forecasts, Aug. 18, 1986.

mining industry. The domestic industry tends to

blame state-owned producers for ignoring market

forces and maintaining production despite low

prices or supply surpluses. There is some evidence

that state-owned operators may continue production in order to maintain employment or generate

much-needed hard currency. 10

Until recently, production costs in the United

States have been well above the world average.

Overvalued currency (high value of the dollar) during 1981-86 also may have contributed to making

North American production less competitive. These

factors may have masked any effect that state

ownership might have played in distorting the world

market. 11 Nevertheless, domestic competition with

state-owned mining ventures is a trend that will

likely continue in the future.

IOM. Radetzki, “The Role of State Owned Enterprises in the International Metal Mining Industry, paper presented at Conference

on Public Policy and the Competitiveness of U.S. and Canadian Metals

Production, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, Jan. 27-30, 1987,

p. 15.

“J. Ellis, “Copper,” The Competitiveness of American Metal Mining and Processing (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service,

1986). p. 17.

FERROALLOYS

Manganese, chromium, silicon, and a number

of other alloying elements are used to impart specific properties to steel. Manganese is also used to

reduce the sulfur content of steel and silicon is a

deoxidizer. Most elements are added to molten steel

in the form of ferroalloys, although some are added in elemental form or as oxides. Ferroalloys are

intermediate products made of iron enriched with

the alloying element. Ferromanganese, ferrochromium, and ferrosilicon are the major ferroalloys

used in the United States. There are no domestic

reserves of either manganese or chromium; therefore the United States must import all of these alloying elements.

U.S. ferroalloy producers have lost domestic

markets to cheaper foreign sources. Higher domestic operating costs related to electric power rates,

labor rates, tax rates, transportation costs, and regulatory costs have given foreign producers a competitive edge.

As a result, the form of U.S. chromium imports

has changed during the last decade. Since 1981,

the United States has imported more finished ferroalloys and metals than chromite (figure 3-4). Domestic production of chromium ferroalloys has decreased steadily since 1973, when 260,000 tons

(chromium content) of ferroalloy was produced, to

59,000 tons in 1984 (largely conversion of stockpiled chromite).12 Foreign producers now supply

U.S. markets with about 90 percent of the highcarbon ferrochromium consumed and all of the ore

used domestically for the manufacture of chemicals and refractories.

This shift from imports of ores and concentrates

to imports of ferrochromium and finished metals

could have important strategic implications. Since

1975, an increasing number of ferrochromium

1 ZR, Brown and G. Murphy, ‘‘ Ferroalloys, Mineral Facts and

Probk*ms-~985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau c,f Mines, 1986), p. 269.
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 8 7

plants have been built close to sources of chromite

ores in distant countries, such as the Republic of

South Africa, Zimbabwe, Greece, the Philippines,

Turkey, India, and Albania. This trend in the

movement of ferrochromium supply is expected to

continue. Decline of U.S. ferroalloy production capacity in relation to demand will likely make the

United States nearly totally dependent on foreign

processing capacity in the future.

Domestic demand for ferroalloys is related to steel

production. Domestic steel capacity fell by almost

50 million tons (30 percent) between 1977 and 1987.

Iron castings capacity also has shrunk considerably in recent years. In 1986, the United States imported about 21 percent of its iron and steel. The

decline in domestic steel production has also reduced the domestic demand for ferroalloys. With

the decreases in both U.S. ferroalloy production

and iron and steel production, demand for chromium and manganese ores for domestic production of ferroalloys is likely to continue to decline

proportionately.

Figure 3-4.—U.S. Ferrochromium and

Chromite Ore Imports

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

NATIONAL DEFENSE STOCKPILE

In 1939, Congress authorized stockpiling of critical materials for national security. World War 11

precluded the accumulation of stocks, and it was

not until the Korean War that materials stockpiling began in earnest. Since that time, U.S. stockpile policy has been erratic and subject to periodic,

lively debate. Past presidents have supported stockpiling critical materials for times of emergency, but

some have favored disposal of some of the stockpiled items for fiscal or budgetary reasons. The

question of how much of each commodity should

be retained in the stockpile remains a hotly debated

issue.

Stockpile goals are currently based on the materials needed for critical uses for a 3-year period that

are vulnerable to supply interruption. Some observers conclude that an increase in one unit of domestic production capacity from domestic reserves

could offset three units of stockpiled materials. This

view argues in favor of promoting domestic production of stockpiled materials where feasible so as

to reduce the need for emergency stockpiling. Several seabed minerals, including cobalt, manganese,

and chromium could be considered as candidates

for special treatment if government policies were

to shift away from emergency stockpiling toward

economic support of marginal resource development for strategic and critical purposes. To be considered a secure source of supply, however, marine mineral operations offshore would have to be

protected from saboteurs or hostile forces.

The stockpiling program was overhauled in 1979

to create a National Defense Stockpile with a Transaction Fund that dedicates revenue received by the

Federal Government from the sale of stockpile excesses to the purchase of materials short of stockpile goals. 13 In 1986, the stockpile inventory was

valued at approximately $10 billion. If the stockpile met current goals, it would have a value of

about $16.6 billion. 14 A number of materials deItStrategic and Critical Materi~s Stock Piling Act of 1979, Public

Law 96-41, 50 U.S. C. 98 et seq.

1+Feder~ Emergency Management Agency, Stockpile Report to the

Congress: October J985-March 1986, FEMA 36, 1986, p, 61,
88 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

rived from minerals known to occur within the U.S.

EEZ are included in the stockpile: r-utile, platinumgroup metals, chromium, lead, manganese, nickel,

cobalt, zinc, chromium, copper, and titanium (table 3-l).

The stockpile program can affect minerals markets when there are large purchases to meet stockpile goals or sales of materials in excess of goals,

although the authorizing legislation prohibits transactions that would disrupt normal marketing practices. Stockpile policies have on occasion opened

additional markets for certain minerals, while at

other times sales from the stockpile have significantly depressed some commodity prices. The mere

existence of stockpile inventories can also have a

psychological effect on potential mineral producers’ actions.

Table 3-1.—Major U.S. Strategic Materials

Contained in the National Defense Stockpile

Most vulnerable Vulnerable Less vulnerable

Chromium Bauxite/alumina Copper

Cobalt Beryllium Lead

Manganese Columbium Nickel

Platinum-group Diamond (industrial) Silver

Graphite (natural) Zinc

Rutile

Tantalum

Tin

Titanium sponge

Vanadium

SOURCE: Adapted from Federal Emergency Management Agency, Sfockpi/e

Report to the Congress (Washington, DC: Federal Emergency

Management Agency, 1986), pp. 30-31.

SUBSTITUTION, CONSERVATION, AND RECYCLING

Changes in production technology can substantially affect minerals and materials use. Changes

in use are generally made in response to economic

incentives, although environmental regulations also

have been instrumental in promoting some conservation and recycling. Cheaper materials or materials that perform better can replace their competitors by substitution. Similarly, there is significant

motivation to reduce the amount of material used

in a production process or to use it more efficiently.

Finally, if the material is valuable enough to offset

the cost of collecting, separating, and reclaiming

scrap, there is an incentive to recycle the material

through secondary processing. Each of these options can reduce the demand for primary minerals

production.

Materials substitution is a continuing, evolutionary process where one material displaces another

in a specific use. Examples of substitution abound.

Steel has replaced wood for floor joists, studs, and

siding in many construction applications. Plastics

are replacing wood as furniture parts and finishes,

many metals in non-stress applications, and steel

in automobile bodies. Ceramics show promise for

displacing carbide steels in some cutting tools and

some internal combustion engine components.

Glass fiber optics have replaced copper wire in some

telecommunications applications. At a more elemental level, there are other examples: manganese

can partially substitute for nickel and chromium

in some stainless steels; the increased use of nickelbased superalloys have reduced the quantity of cobalt used in aircraft engines; and, for some electronic applications, gold can replace platinum.

Conservation technologies can reduce the

amount of metal used in the manufacturing process. Near-net-shaping, in which metals are cast into

shapes that correspond closely to the final shape of

the object, can reduce materials waste in some instances. Conventional processing generally involves

considerable machining of billets, bars, or other

standard precast shapes and generates substantial

amounts of mill cuttings and machine scrap. In

some cases, the ratio between purchased metal and

used metal may be as high as 10 to 1.15 While much

of this ‘‘new scrap ‘‘ is reclaimed, some is contaminated and is unusable for high-performance applications like aircraft engines.

Improvements in production processes can also

reduce metals needs. The use of manganese to

desulfurize steel has been reduced with the introIJOfflce of TeChnOIO~ Assessment, Strategic Materials: Technologies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, p. 24.
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 8 9

duction of external desulfurization processes. Continuous casting technology can reduce the amount

of scrap produced in steel manufacturing. Emerging technologies, for example, surface treatment

technologies (e. g., ion-implantation) and powdered

metal technologies, may also reduce the use of some

metals for high-performance applications in the

future.

For several metals, ‘ ‘obsolete scrap’ (’‘old

scrap’ could play an even more important role

in reducing the need for virgin materials if economic

conditions change and institutional problems are

overcome. Recycling and secondary production has

become a stable sector for several of the minerals

(e. g., copper, lead, zinc, nickel, silver, iron, steel,

and to a lesser extent platinum, chromium, and cobalt). Very little manganese is recycled. Economic

factors largely determine the recyclability of materials, factors such as price; cost of collecting, identifying, sorting, and separating scrap; and the cost

of cleaning, processing, and refining the metal. It

is technologically possible to recover significantly

more chromium, cobalt, and platinum from scrap

should the need arise and economics permit.

MAJOR SEABED MINERAL COMMODITIES

Cobalt

Properties and Uses

Cobalt imparts heat resistance, high strength,

wear resistance, and magnetic properties to materials. In 1986, about 36 percent of the cobalt consumed in the United States was for aircraft engines

and industrial gas turbines (superalloys contain

from 1 to 65 percent cobalt); 14 percent was for

magnetic alloys for permanent magnets; 13 percent

for driers in paints and lacquers; 11 percent for

catalysts; and 26 percent for various other applications. These other applications included using of

cobalt to cement carbide abrasives in the manufacture of cutting tools and mining and drilling

equipment; to bind steel to rubber in the manufacture of radial tires; as a hydrators, desulfurizer,

and oxidizer and as a synthesizer of hydrocarbons;

in nutritional supplements; and in dental and medical supplies.

There are currently no acceptable substitutes or

replacements for cobalt in high-temperature applications, although alternatives have been proposed.

However, the possible substitutes are also strategic and critical metals such as nickel. While ceramics have potential for high-temperature applications, it will be some time in the future before

they can be used extensively in jet engines or industrial gas turbines. Use of some cobalt-rich alloys could be reduced by substitution of ceramic

or ceramic-coated automobile turbochargers, and

there are possible replacements for cobalt in

magnets.

National Importance

The United States imported 92 percent of the cobalt it consumed in 1986.16 Cobalt is considered

to be a potentially vulnerable strategic material (table 3-1) and is a priority item in the National Defense Stockpile. The stockpile goal for cobalt is

42,700 tons, and the inventory is currently 26,590

tons of contained cobalt, or about 62 percent of the

goal. Much of the stockpiled cobalt is of insufficient

grade to be used for the production of high-performance metals, although it could be used to produce

important chemical products and for magnets. 17

No cobalt has been mined in the United States

since 1971. Zaire supplied 40 percent of U.S. cobalt needs from 1982 to 1985, Zambia 16 percent,

Canada 13 percent, Norway 6 percent, and various other sources 25 percent. 18 In addition, about

600 tons of cobalt was recycled from purchased

scrap in 1986, or approximately 8 percent of apparent consumption. There has been no domestic cobalt refinery capacity since the AMAX Nickel

Refining Company closed its nickel-cobalt refinery at Port Nickel, Louisiana, (capacity of 2 million pounds of cobalt per year), although two firms

use the facility to produce extra-fine cobalt powder from virgin and recycled material.

“~’. Kirk, ‘ ‘Cobalt, ” .bfineraf Commodit,v Summaries-1987

(Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 38,

I TAmerican Smiety for Met~s, Qualit}, Assessment of i%’afional Defense Stockpile Cobalt In\’entory (Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals, 1983), p. 40.

“Kirk, ‘ ‘Cobalt, ’ ,$ finera) Commodi[j Summaries—1987, p. 38.

72-672 0 - 87 - 4
90 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

With 56 percent of cobalt imports originating

from Zaire and Zambia, which together produce

almost 70 percent of the world’s supply of cobalt,

the U.S. supply of cobalt is concentrated in developing countries with uncertain political futures. For

example, the invasion of Shaba Province in Zaire

in 1977 and 1978 by anti-government guerrillas

caused some concern about the impact of political

instability on cobalt supply. Abrupt increases in

market prices followed, driven more by market opportunists and fear of the consequences than from

direct interdiction of cobalt supply. Mining and

processing facilities were only briefly closed and the

impact on Zaire’s production capacity was negligible. 19

Domestic Resources and Reserves

Cobalt is recovered as a byproduct of nickel, copper, and, to a much lesser extent, platinum. Economic deposits typically contain concentrations of

between 0.1 and 2 percent cobalt. The U.S. reserve

base is large (950,000 tons of contained cobalt), but

there are currently no domestic reserves of cobalt.

Domestic cobalt resources are estimated at about

1.4 million tons (contained cobalt) .20

The economics of cobalt recovery are linked more

with the market price of the associated major metals (copper and nickel) than with the price of cobalt. It is necessary, therefore, that the major metals be economically recoverable to permit the

recovery of cobalt as a byproduct. As a result, the

price sensitivity of cobalt production is difficult to

forecast. Depressed prices for the base metals reduce the economic feasibility of recovering cobalt.

Domestic land-based cobalt-bearing deposits are

likely not to be mined until some time in the fu-

‘

9 Kirk, “A Third Pricing Phase: Stability ?,” pp. 9, 12.

20 Kirk, ‘ ‘Cobalt, ’ Mineral Commodity Summar-ies-f987, p. 39.

ture. However, in an emergency and with government support, they could produce a significant

proportion of U.S. cobalt consumption for a short

time. 21 In addition, cobalt-rich manganese crusts

in the Blake Plateau off the southeastern Atlantic

coast and crusts or pavements on seamounts in the

Pacific Ocean contain cobalt concentrations of between 0.3 and 1.6 percent (some ferromanganese

crust samples have been reported to contain up to

2.5 percent), along with nickel, manganese, and

other metals. These compare favorably with U.S.

land-based resources that range from 0.01 to about

0.55 percent cobalt.22

Future Demand and Technological Trends

U.S. consumption generally accounts for about

35 percent of total world consumption. There is little prospect for major reductions in cobalt demand

through substitution. Total U.S. demand for cobalt in 2000 is forecast to be between 24 million

and 44 million pounds, with a probable demand

of 34 million pounds (table 3-2).23 Future demand

for cobalt is difficult to forecast. Both the intensity

of cobalt use and the amount of cobalt-based materials consumed have changed abruptly in the past

and will likely continue to change in the future.

Chromium

Properties and Uses

Chromium is used in iron and steel, nonferrous

metals, metal plating, pigments, leather processZIG. Peterson, D. Blciwas, and P. Thomas, CobaJt AvaiJability—

Domestic, IC 8849 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1981),

p. 27.

22c. M ishra, C. Sheng-Fogg, R. Christ iansen, et al. , cob~t

Avadabifity—A4arket Economy Countries, IC 9012 (Washington, DC:

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1985), p. 10,

23W. Kirk, “Cobalt,” Mineral Facts and Problems-1985 Edition,

Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 180.

Table 3-2.—Forecast of U.S. and World Cobalt Demand in 2000

2000 Annual growth

Actual Low Probable High 1983-2000

(thousand pounds) (percent)

United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5,000a 24,000 34,000 44,000 3.9

Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,500 50,000 65,000 75,000 3.5

Total world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 74,000 99,000 120,000 3.7

au,s, data for 1966 from W, Kirk, “cobalt,” Mineral Commodity Summaries— 1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1~7), P. 38.

SOURCE: Adapted from W. Kirk, “Cobalt,” Mineral Facts and Problems–1985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1966), p, 182,
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 91

ing, catalysts, and refractories. In 1986, 88 percent

of the chromite (common ore form of chromium)

consumed in the United States was used by the

metallurgical and chemical industry, and 12 percent by the refractory industry.

Metallurgical Uses. —Chromium is used in a

variety of alloy steels, cast irons, and nonferrous

alloys. Chromium is used in these applications to

improve hardness, reduce creep, enhance impact

strength, resist corrosion, reduce high-temperature

oxidation, improve wear, or reduce galling.

High-carbon ferrochromium contains between

52 and 72 percent chromium and between 6 and

9.5 percent carbon. Low-carbon ferrochromium

contains between 60 and 75 percent chromium and

between 0.01 and 0.75 percent carbon. Ferrochromium-silicon contains between 38 and 45 percent

silicon and between 34 and 42 percent chromium.

The largest amount of ferrochromium (76 percent in 1986) is used for stainless steels. Chromium

is also used in nonferrous alloys and is essential in

the so-called ‘‘superalloys’ used in jet engines and

industrial gas turbines. In 1984, about 3 percent

of the ferrochromium and pure chromium metal

used for metallurgy was for superalloys; less than

1 percent was used for other nonferrous alloys.

Chromium, along with cobalt, nickel, aluminum,

titanium, and minor alloying metals, enables superalloy to withstand high mechanical and thermal

stress and to resist oxidation and hot corrosion at

high operating temperatures.

Chemical Uses.—Chromium-containing chemicals include color pigments, corrosion inhibitors,

drilling mud additives, catalysts, etchers, and tanning compounds. Sodium bichromate is the primary intermediate product from which other

chromium-containing compounds are produced.

Refractory Uses. —Chromite is used to produce

refractory brick and mortar. The major use for

refractory brick is for metallurgical furnaces, glassmaking, and cement processing. Use of chromite

in refractories improves structural strength and

dimensional stability at high temperatures.

National Importance

Chromium is considered to be a strategic material that is critical to national security and potentable 3-3.—1986 National Defense Chromium

Stockpile Goals and Inventories (as of Sept. 30, 1986)

Inventory as

Material Goal Inventory percent of goal

(thousand tons)

Chromite:

Metallurgical . . . . . 3,200 1,874 59

Chemical . . . . . . . . 675 242 36

Refractory . . . . . . . 850 391 46

Ferrochromium:

High-carbon . . . . . . 185 502 271

Low-carbon 75 300 400

Silicon . . . . . . . . . . 90 57 63

Chromium metal . . 20 4 20

SOURCE J Papp, “Chromium,” Mineral COrnrnocfity Summaries– 1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 35,

tially very vulnerable to supply interruptions24 (table 3-1 and 3-3). It is critical because of limitations

on substitutes for chromium in the vacuum-melted

superalloys needed for hot corrosion and oxidation

resistance in high-temperature applications and in

its extensive use in stainless steels.

The Republic of South Africa accounted for 59

percent of total chromium imports (chromite ore,

concentrates, and ferroalloys) between 1982 and

1985. Other suppliers included Zimbabwe, which

provided 11 percent, Turkey 7 percent, and Yugoslavia 5 percent. 25 The Republic of South Africa

and the U.S.S.R jointly led in world production

of chromite in 1986, producing about 3.7 and 3.3

million tons respectively, far ahead of the next

largest producer, Albania, with about 1 million

tons.26 Some foreign producing countries, such as

Brazil, are producing and exporting ferrochromium

from chromite deposits which would not be competitive in the world market if shipped as ore or

concentrate. However, by adding the value of conversion to ferroalloy, both the Brazilian and the

Zimbabwe deposits remain competitive.

Domestic Resources and Reserves

The United States currently has no chromite reserves or reserve base. Domestic resources have

been mined sporadically when prices are high, or

L+ Office of TechnoloW Assessment, Strategic Materials: Technologies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, p. 52.

25J. Papp, “Chromium,” Mineral Facts and Problems—J985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986),

p. 141.

2’J. Papp, ‘ ‘Chromium, Minerals Yearbook (Washington DC:

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1985), p, 229.
92 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

with the aid of government price supports, or in

times of national emergencies. Under normal economic conditions of world trade, U.S. chromite resources are not competitive with foreign sources of

supply. There are 43 known domestic deposits estimated to contain approximately 7 million tons of

contained chromic oxide as demonstrated resources

and 25 million tons as identified resources .27 U.S.

chromite deposits range between 0.4 percent and

25.8 percent chromic oxide content.

The major known domestic deposits of chromite

minerals are the stratiform deposits in the Stillwater

Complex in Montana and in small podiform-type

deposits in northern California, southern Oregon,

and southern Alaska. Placer chromite deposits occur in beach sands in southwest Oregon and stream

sands in Georgia, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania.

Although 91 percent of U.S. demonstrated chromite resources and 84 percent of identified resources

could be converted as low-chromium ferrochromium, the U.S. Bureau of Mines doubts that domestic chromite resources could be produced economically even with much higher market prices

than the current $470 per ton for low-chromium

ferrochromium and $600 per ton for high-chromium ferrochromium. Most low-chrome ferrochromium could be produced domestically for a little

less than about $730 per ton, and high-chrome ferrochromium would cost even more.28

With enormous reserves of all grades of chromite

in other parts of the world, it is doubtful that the

meager chromite resources of the United States

could justify the investment needed to rebuild the

domestic ferrochromium production capacity that

has been lost. In addition, there is currently significant overcapacity in the ferrochromium industry in the market economy countries. Estimates in

1986 showed production capacity of 2.6 million tons

compared to demand of 1.9 million tons.29 There

have been no significant shortages of ferrochromium encountered in world markets in the past to

indicate that things might change in the future.

“J. Lemons, Jr., E. Boyle, Jr., and C. Kilgore, Chromium

Atailabifity-Domestic, IC 8895 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of

Mines, 1982), p. 4.

*

e

Ibid., p. 9.

29W. Dresler, ‘‘A Feasibility Study of Ferrochromium Extraction

from Bird River Concentrates in a Submerged-Arc Furnace, Cl&f

Bulletin, vol. 79 (September 1986), pp. 98-105.

Domestic Production

The United States was the world’s leading chromite producer in the 1800s, but, since 1900, seldom more than 1,000 tons have been produced annually except for periods of wartime emergencies.

During both World Wars and the Korean War,

production increased when the Federal Government subsidized domestic chromite production. Domestic production ceased in 1961 when the last purchase contract under the Defense Production Act

terminated. Since then, there was one attempt to

reopen a mine closed in the 1950s, but, after producing only a small amount of chromite for export

in 1976, the mine was again abandoned. There has

been no domestic production reported since.

The United States imported and consumed about

512,000 tons of chromite ore and concentrate in

1984, primarily for use in chemicals and refractories. In 1973, the United States ferrochromium capacity was about 400,000 tons (contained chromium); by 1984, domestic capacity had shrunk to

about 187,000 tons—a decrease of about 54 percent.30 U.S. capacity is expected to shrink further,

to perhaps 150,000 tons by 1990.31 Ferrochromium

production in 1984 was about 51,000 tons (contained chromium), or approximately 27 percent utilization of installed capacity .32 Production in 1984

was nearly four times that of 1983 as a result of

government contracts for the conversion of stockpiled chromite to ferrochromium for the National

Defense Stockpile. Once upgrading of the stockpile is completed, ferrochromium production may

return to levels at or below 1983 production (13,000

tons—contained chromium). In 1984, only two of

the six domestic ferrochromium firms were operating plants, and those only at low production levels

or intermittently.

Future Demand and Technological Trends

Commodity analysts differ on the outlook for future chromium demand. One U.S. Bureau of

30G. Guenther, “Ferroalloys,” The Competitiveness of American

A4etaJ Mining and Processing, ch. VIII (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 1986), p. 127.

31 Papp, ‘ ‘Chromium, Mineral Facts and Problems—1985 Edition, p. 141.

32 Papp, ‘ ‘Chromium, Minerals Yearbook—1984, p, 220.
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 93

Table 3-4.–Forecasts for U.S. Chromium Demand in 2000

(thousand tons of contained chromium)

2000

End use 1983 Low Probable High

Chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 90 110 121

Refractory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 27 35 47

Fabricated metal products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 60 80 100

Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 75 100 130

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 80 100 130

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 300 390 500

SOURCE: J, Papp, “Chromium,” &fineral Facts and Problems— 1965 Editiorr, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U S. Bureau of Mines,

1986), p. 152

Mines report foresees an increase in domestic chromium demand at a rate of about 6.5 percent per

year between 1983 and 2000 (table 3-4),33 from approximately 329,000 tons in 1983 to between

632,000 tons and about one million tons by 2000,

with the most probable estimate being 815,000 tons.

About 83 percent of the probable estimated demand

in 2000 is expected to be used in metals; 13 percent in chemicals; and 4 percent in refractories.

Based on trends in chromium consumption and

use, another Bureau of Mines report, produced in

cooperation with basic industry analysts of the Department of Commerce, foresees a different demand scenario. This scenario is based on the theory that demand for ferrochromium is largely

determined by the demand for stainless steel. Domestic production of stainless steel has remained

relatively stable since 1980 at between 1.7 million

and 1.8 million tons per year, with the exception

of 1982 when it dipped to 1.2 million tons. Although

chromium content of specific alloy and stainless

steels remains stable, the use of high-chromium

content steels has decreased in volume .34

There is significant potential for reducing the

consumption of chromium through substitution by

low-chromium steels, titanium, or plastics for stainless steel in less-demanding applications. The National Materials Advisory Board (NMAB) determined that 60 percent of the chromium used in

stainless steel could be saved in a supply emergency

by the use of low-chromium substitutes or no-chromium materials that either currently exist or could

be developed within 10 years.35 Only 20 to 30 per33 Papp, ‘ ‘Chromium, ,$ fincral Facts and Problcms—1985, p. 152.

34 Domc5t1c~onsumption Trends, 1972-82, and Forecasts tO J 993

for Twel}e Major Me(a/s, Open File Report 27-86 (Washington DC:

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 7,

35 ~-at iona] Materials Advisorv Board, Concingenc}, Plans for Chrocent of the chromium currently used domestically

in stainless steel is considered to be irreplaceable.

Substitution may also displace some of the chromite used in refractories with the use of low-chromite bricks or dolomite bricks. Substitutes for chromium in pigments and plating are also available,

although at some sacrifice in desirable properties.

Use of chromium in chemicals generally reflects

a slow but steady growth in chromium consumption, with expanded capacity of the chemical industry offsetting a decrease in the intensity of use

of chromium. The use of chromite-containing

refractories has significantly declined as the result

of technological improvements in steel furnaces;

open hearth furnaces have given way to electric arc

furnaces and basic oxygen furnaces (BOF) in the

steelmaking process. As a result of these changes

in the intensity of use of chromium, the combined

Bureau of Mines and Department of Commerce

report forecasts a reduction in chromium demand

from about 330,000 tons in 1983 to 275,000 tons

in 1993.36

New technology for processing chromite ores has

also increased the world supply of usable chromite

reserves. Improvements in technologies to recover

chromium from laterite deposits may also make

low-grade deposits, some located in the western

United States, more desirable for chromium recovery, but probably still not competitive. 37

mium Utilization, NMAB-335 (Washington, DC: N’ational .Academ}

of Sciences, 1978).

3GIbid., p. 44.

37A, Silverman, J, Schmidt, P, Qucneau, et al , Strate,qic and ~ritkal Mineral Position of the United States with Respect to Chromlurn,

Nickel, Cobalt, Alangancscr and Platinum, OTA Contract Report

(Washington, DC: Office of Technology Assessment, 1983), p. 133;

see also, H, Salisbury, M. Wouden, and M, Shirts, Beneficiation of

Low-Grade California Chromite Ores, RI 8592 (Washington, DC:

U.S. Bureau of %lincs, 1982), p. 15.
94 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Manganese

Properties and Uses

Manganese plays a major role in the production

of steels and cast iron. Originally, manganese was

used to control oxygen and sulfur impurities in

steel. As an alloying element, it increases the

strength, toughness, and hardness of steel and inhibits the formation of carbides which could cause

brittleness. Manganese is also an important alloying element for nonferrous materials, including aluminum and copper.

Hadfield steels containing between 10 and 14

percent manganese, are wear-resistant alloys used

for certain railroad trackage and for mining and

crushing equipment. An intermediate form of manganese alloy—ferromanganese —is usually used in

the manufacture of steels, alloys, and castings. Because manganese can exist in several chemical oxidation states, it is used in batteries and for chemicals. Several forms of manganese are used in the

manufacture of welding-rod coatings and fluxes and

for coloring bricks and ceramics.

National Importance

Demand for manganese is closely related to steel

production. Two major trends have combined to

lessen domestic consumption of manganese. First,

domestic steel production has declined; in 1986, it

was at about half of its peak year in 1973, when

the U.S. produced 151 million tons of raw steel.

Second, developments in steel manufacturing technology have reduced the per-unit quantities of manganese needed. As a result, manganese consumption decreased from 1.5 million tons (contained

manganese) in 1973 to 700,000 tons in 1986.

In the early 1970s, the United States was importing about 70 percent of its manganese in the form

of ores, a large share of which was processed into

ferromanganese by U.S. producers. By 1979, the

picture had reversed, with imports of foreignproduced ferromanganese running at about 70 percent and manganese ores at about 30 percent. Since

1983, imports have been about one-third as ore and

two-thirds as ferromanganese and metal (figure 3-

5). There currently is no remaining domestic capacity for ferromanganese production.

Figure 3-5.—Percentage of Manganese imported

into the United States as Ferromanganese, 1973=86

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Year

Like chromium and ferrochromium, the proportion of manganese imported by the United States as ferromanganese and

manganese metal has increased compared to imported manganese ore. Manganese producing countries find it advantageous to ship processed ferromanganese or metal rather

than unprocessed ore to gain the value added for export.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987,

Today, the United States is highly dependent on

foreign sources for manganese concentrates, ores,

ferromanganese, and manganese metal. About 30

percent of the imports (based on contained manganese) are from the Republic of South Africa, 16

percent from France (produced largely from ore imported from Gabon), 12 percent from Brazil, 10

percent from Gabon, and 32 percent from diverse

other sources .38

Manganese is a strategic material which is critical to national security and is potentially vulnerable to supply interruptions (table 3-l). Several

forms of manganese are stockpiled in the National

Defense Stockpile (table 3-5). However, the diversification of imports among many producing countries tends to somewhat reduce U.S. vulnerability

to supply interruptions, although some supplier nations obtain raw material from less-secure African

sources,

Domestic Resources and Reserves

Manganese pavements and nodules (approximately 15 percent manganese) on the Blake Plateau in the U.S. EEZ off the southeast coast are

3

*T. Jones, “Manganese,” Minera/ Commodity Summaries-1987

(Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p, 98.

.
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends 95

Table 3-5.—Status of Manganese in the National

Defense Stockpile— 1986 (as of Sept. 30, 1986)

Inventory as

Material Goal Inventory percent of goal

(thousand tons)

Battery grade. . . . . . . 87 175 201

Chemical ore . . . . . . . 170 172 101

Metallurgical ore. . . . 2,700 2,235a

83

Ferromanganese . . . . 439 700 160

Silicomanganese . . . 0 24 —

Electrolytic metal . . . 0 14 —

astockpiled metallurgical grade ore is being converted to high-carbon ferromanganese which will add about 472,000 tons of ferromanganese to the stockpile

and reduces the amount of manganese ore.

SOURCE T Jones, “Manganese,” Mineral Commodity Summaries–1987(Washington, DC: U.S Bureau of Mines, 1987), p 99.

estimated to contain as much as 41 million tons of

manganese. Similar deposits off Hawaii and the Pacific Islands represent even more manganese on the

seafloor within the U.S. EEZ.39

At current prices, there are no reserves of manganese ore in the continental United States that contain 35 percent or more manganese, nor are there

resources from which concentrates of that grade

could be economically produced. The 70 million

tons of contained manganese resources estimated

to exist in the United States average less than 20

percent and generally contain less than 10 percent

manganese. The U.S. Bureau of Mines estimates

that the domestic land-based subeconomic resources

would require from 5 to 20 times the current world

price of manganese to become commercially viable. 40

Should an emergency require that economically

submarginal domestic deposits be brought into production, the most likely would be in the north

Aroostook district of Maine and the Cuyuna north

range in Minnesota .41

It is unlikely that there will be much improvement in the U.S. manganese supply position. Past

efforts to discover rich ore bodies or to improve the

efficiency of processing technology have not been

successful. What is known about seabed resources

39F. Manheim, “Marine Cobalt Resources, ” Science, vol. 232,May

2, 1986, Pp. 600-608.

40T. Jones, “Manganese,” ,$lineral Facts and Problems—19&5 Edi-

[ion, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986),

p. 486.

41 Nat ion~ Materi~s Advisor), Board, ,klanqanesc ~eCOt’C’~r ~ec~-

.

nolo<gy’, h’ MAB-323 (Washington, DC: N’ational Academy of Sciences,

1976).

of manganese pavement and nodules indicates that

manganese content may range between 15 and 30

percent, which makes offshore deposits at least comparable with some onshore deposits. But the uncertainties of offshore mining ventures and their

associated costs, coupled with marginal mineral

prices, raise doubts as to their economic feasibility

as well.42

Future Demand and Technological Trends

Future manganese consumption will be determined mainly by requirements for steelmaking.

The amount of manganese required for steelmaking depends on two factors: 1 ) the quantity of manganese used per ton of steel produced, and 2) the

total amount of steel produced in the United States.

Comparing 1982 with 1977, the intensity of use of

manganese in the steel sector was reduced by half,

and the total consumption of manganese used for

producing steel also dropped around 50 percent .43

Although there has been a trend toward the use

of higher manganese contents for alloying in highstrength steels and steels needed for cryogenic applications, the reduction in the intensity of use for

steels used in large volumes has far exceeded the

increases for the high-performance steels. Because

manganese is an inexpensive commodity, there is

little incentive to develop conservation technologies

further.

The U.S. Bureau of Mines expects domestic

manganese demand in 2000 to range between

700,000 and 1.3 million tons (manganese content),

with probable demand placed at 900,000 tons (table 3-6). With 1986 apparent consumption about

665 million tons, only modest growth in demand

is expected through the end of the century.

Nickel

Properties and Uses

Nickel imparts strength, hardness, and corrosion

resistance over a wide range of temperatures when

42c, Hi]]man, Manganese Nodu]e Resources of Three Areas in the

Northeast Pacific Ocean: With Proposed Mining-Beneficiation Systems and Costs, IC 8933 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines,

1983).

43 Domestic Consumption Trends, 1972-82, and Forecasts to 1993

for Twelve Major Meta/s, Open File Report 27-86 (Washington, DC:

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 77.
96 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 3-6.—Forecast for U.S. and World Manganese Demand in 2000

2000 Annual growth

Actual Low Probable High 1983-2000

(thousand tons) (percent)

United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665a

660 920 1,260 1.9

Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,132 8,200 10,200 13,900 1.3

Total world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 8,900 11,100 15,200 1.4

au,s, data for 1988 from T. Jones, “Manganese, ” ~irreral Commodity Surnrnaries-1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 98.

SOURCE: Adapted from T. Jones, “Manganese, “ in Minera/ Facts and Problems— 1985 Edition (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1988), p. 495

alloyed with other metals. Approximately 39 percent of the primary nickel consumed in the United

States in 1986 went into stainless and alloy steels;

31 percent was used in nonferrous alloys; and 22

percent was used for electroplating. The remaining 8 percent was used in chemicals, batteries, dyes

and pigments, and insecticides.

Stainless steels may contain between 1.25 percent and 37 percent nickel, although the average

is about 6 percent. Alloy steels, such as those used

for high-strength components in heavy equipment

and aircraft operations, contain about 2 percent

nickel, although the average is less than 1 percent,

while superalloy used for very high-temperature

and high-stress applications like jet engines and industrial turbines may contain nearly 60 percent

nickel. Nickel also is used in a wide range of other

alloys (e. g., nickel-copper, copper-nickel, nickelsilver, nickel-molybdenum, and bronze).

National Importance

Most uses for nickel are considered critical for

national defense and are generally important to the

U.S. industrial economy overall. However, based

on criteria that consider supply vulnerability and

possible substitute materials, OTA determined in

a 1985 assessment that nickel, while economically

important, is not a major ‘‘strategic’ material .44

Nickel is stockpiled in the National Defense Stockpile. The stockpile goal is 200,000 tons of contained

nickel, and the inventory in 1986 was 37,200 tons—

about 20 percent of the goal.

The United States imported about 78 percent of

the nickel consumed in 1986.45 Canada was the major supplier of nickel (40 percent) to the United

440ffice of Technology Assessment, Strategic Materials: Technologies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, p. 52.

4sp. Chamberlain, ‘‘Nickel, Mineral Commodity Summaries—

1987 (Washington, DC: L’, S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 108.

States; Australia provided 14 percent, Norway 11

percent, Botswana 10 percent, and 25 percent was

obtained from other countries, including the Republic of South Africa, New Caledonia, Dominican

Republic, Colombia, and Finland. In 1986, the

United States consumed 184,000 tons of nickel,

compared to 283,000 tons in 1974.

Domestic Resources and Reserves

Domestically produced nickel will probably continue to be a very small part of U.S. total supply

in the future. U.S. demonstrated resources are estimated to be about 9 million tons of nickel in place,

from which 5.3 million tons may be recoverable.46

Identified nickel resources are about 9.9 million

tons, which could yield 6 million tons of metal. The

domestic reserve base is estimated to be 2.8 million tons of contained nickel.47 Although U.S. resources are substantial, the average grade of domestic nickel resources is about 0.21 percent

(ranging from 0.16 percent to 0.91 percent), compared to the average world grade of nearly 0.98 percent. Ferromanganese crusts on Pacific Ocean seamounts are reported to be about 0.49 percent

nickel .48

Domestic Production

Nickel production from U.S. mines was 1,100

tons in 1986, with about 900 tons of nickel recovered as a nickel sulfate byproduct of two primary

4

’D. Buckingham and J. Lemons, Jr,, IVickef Avai]abi/ity -

Dornes[ic, IC 8988 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1984),

p. 25.

47 Chamberlain, ‘ ‘Nickel, ” Mineral Commodity Summaries—1987,

p. 109.

48W,Harvey and P. Ammann, “Metallurgical Processing Component for the Mining Development Scenario for Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Oxide Crust, Final Draft Chapter, Manganese Crust

EIS Project (Arlington, MA: Arlington Technical Services, 1985),

pp. 3-2
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 97

copper operations. 49 The only domestic mine t o

metal production came from Hanna Mining Company’s Nickel Mountain Mine in Oregon, which

produced ferronickel; the mine closed permanently

in August 1986. Secondary recovery of nickel from

recycled old and new scrap contributed about

39,000 tons in 1986, which was approximately 21

percent of apparent consumption.

Future Demand and Technological Trends

After growing at an average rate of roughly 6

percent per year for most of the century, nickel consumption flattened in the 1970s. From 1978 to

1982, the consumption sharply declined before

stabilizing in the mid- 1980s. A major factor in the

declining consumption between 1978 and 1982 was

the drop in the intensity of nickel use. Less nickel

was used per value of Gross National Product and

per capita each year during the period. Since 1982,

the intensity of use has remained fairly constant.

Much of the decrease in the intensity of use resulted from the substitution of plastics in coatings,

containers, automobile parts, and plumbing, and

displacement in the use of some stainless steel.

Other possible substitute materials include aluminum, coated steel, titanium, platinum, cobalt, and

copper. These substitutes, however, can mean

poorer performance or added cost. Higher imports

of finished goods and the reduced size of automobiles also reduce domestic nickel demand.

Domestic demand for nickel in 2000 is forecast

to be between 300,000 and 400,000 tons, with the

probable level being about 350,000 tons (table 3-

7).50 The forecast for a 2.6 percent annual growth

in domestic nickel demand through 2000 is due to

projected growth in total consumption, primarily

for pollution abatement and waste treatment machinery, mass transit systems, and aerospace components. 51

Properties and

Copper offers

Copper

Uses

very high electrical and thermal

conductivity, strength, and wear- and corrosionresistance, and it is nonmagnetic. As a result, copper is valuable both as a basic metal and in alloys

(e.g., brass, bronze, copper nickel, copper-nickelzinc-alloy, and leaded copper), and ranks third in

world metal consumption after steel and aluminum.

About 43 percent of U.S. copper products are used

in building construction, 24 percent in electrical and

electronic products, 13 percent for industrial machinery and equipment, 10 percent in transportation, and the remaining 10 percent in general products manufacturing.

In the aggregate, the largest use of copper (65

percent) is in electrical equipment, in the transmission of electrical energy, in electronic and computing equipment, and in telecommunications systems.

Because of its corrosion resistance, copper has many

uses in industrial equipment and marine and aircraft products. Copper is used extensively for

plumbing, roofing, gutters, and other construction

purposes. Brass is used in ordnance, military equipment, and machine tools that are important to national security. Copper chemicals are also used in

agriculture, in medicine, and as wood preservatives.

Once used extensively in coinage, copper has been

*

gChamberlain, “Nickel,” Mineral Commodity Summaries-1987,

p. 109.

50S. Sibley, ‘‘ Nickel,’ Mineral Facts and Problems—1985 Edition,

Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 547.

SIInternation~ Trade Administration, The End- USC Market fi)r 13

Non-Ferrous Metals (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Commerce, 1986), p. 32.

Table 3-7.— Forecast of U.S. and World Nickel Demand in 2000

2000 Annual growth

Actual Low Probable High 1983-2000

(thousand tons) (percent)

United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184a 300 350 400 2.6

Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 1,000 1,300 1,500 2.9

Total world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 1,300 1,700 1,900 2.7

au, s. data for 1986 from P. Chamberlain, “Nickel,” Mineral Commodity Summaries– 1987 Edifion (Washington, DC: US. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p 108.

SOURCE Adapted from S. Sibley, “Nickel, ” Mineral Facts and Problems– 1985 Edition (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 548.
98 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

largely replaced by zinc and zinc-copper alloys in

U.S. currency.

National Importance

Copper is a strategic commodity in the National

Defense Stockpile. The stockpile goal is one million tons, with an inventory of 22,000 tons in 1986.

The United States is the leading consumer of refined copper; it accounted for about 29 percent of

world consumption, or 2.2 million tons of copper,

in 1986. In 1982 the United States import reliance

was 1 percent of the copper it consumed; by 1985,

it was importing 28 percent .52 Imports came largely

from North and South America: Chile, 40 percent;

Canada, 29 percent; Peru, 8 percent; Mexico, 2

percent. Other sources were: Zambia, 7 percent;

Zaire, 6 percent; and elsewhere, 8 percent. Since

1982, Chile has led the world in copper production, followed by the United States, Canada,

U. S. S. R., Zambia, and Zaire,

Domestic Resources and Reserves

World copper reserves total about 375 million

tons, with 80 percent residing in market economy

countries. The world’s reserve base is about 624

million tons of copper, Chile has the largest single

share of world reserves, accounting for 23 percent;

the United States is second with 17 percent .53

The United States has a reserve base of about

99 million tons of copper, with reserves of 63 million tons. The average grade of domestic copper

ore is about 0.5 percent copper, while the world

average is close to 0.87 percent .54 By comparison,

copper in some polymetallic sulfide deposits that

have been recovered from the seafloor show high

variability ranging between 0.5 to 5 percent .55

Domestic Production

The United States mined 1.2 million tons of copper in 1986—second only to Chile in world mine

production. Domestic mine production peaked in

5’J. Jo]IY and D. Edelstein, “Copper,” ~ineraf comrno~jty sum.

maries—J987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 42.

“J Jolly, “COpper,” Mineral Facts and Problems-1985 Edition,

Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 203.

ML. Sousa, The U.S. Copper Industry (Washington, DC: U.S.

Bureau of Mines, 1981), p. 27.

SSV, McKe]vey, Subsea Mineral Resources, Bulletin 1689-A (Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey, 1986), p. 82.

1970, 1973, and 1981 at about 1.7 million tons each

year, but then in response to depressed prices and

a worldwide recession, production was cut back.

Since then, copper production has recovered slowly

to roughly the 1980 level. Copper’s recent recovery has benefited from industry-wide cost cutting

and improvements in efficiency and productivity

resulting from equipment modernizations and renegotiated labor agreements.

The United States is one of the world’s largest

producers of refined copper, accounting for about

16 percent of world production in 1985. Copper

is one of the most extensively recycled of all the

common metals. Nearly 22 percent of domestic

apparent consumption is recycled from old scrap.

Copper prices peaked in 1980 at about $1.00 per

pound (current dollars) as a result of high demand

and industry labor disruptions, but have since sunk

to nearly $0.62 (current dollars) in 1986. With

lower prices, there is little incentive to increase efforts to recycle used copper.

Notwithstanding the large reserve base of copper in the United States, lower-cost imported copper has displaced appreciable domestic production

in recent years. During 1984-85, domestic copper

refinery capacity was reduced by about 410,000

tons, and several major mines closed. Between 1974

and 1985, domestic operating refinery capacity declined from 3.4 million tons to about 2 million tons

as the result of major industry restructuring and

cost reduction.

A number of factors have contributed to the disadvantage that U.S. producers face in meeting foreign competition, e.g., lower ore grade, higher labor costs, and more stringent environmental

regulations and until recently, foreign exchange

rates. Although significant progress recently has

been made by U.S. copper producers to increase

productivity and reduce costs at the mine and

smelter, there is some doubt whether domestic producers can maintain their market position in the

long term.56

Future Demand and Technological Trends

Since 1981, worldwide copper production has increased significantly while the rate of demand

sscomm~ities Research Unit, Copper Studies, VO1. 14, No. 4 (New

York, NY: CRV Consultants, 1986), p. 7.
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 99

growth has been moderated largely by economic

conditions and, to a lesser extent, by reduction in

the intensity of copper use and substitution of other

materials. Thus, today there is the possibility of

substantial excess mine capacity in the world copper industry. Overly optimistic forecasts of demand

based on consumption trends made in the late 1960s

and early 1970s, forecasts of higher real prices, and

the unforeseen onset of worldwide recessions beginning in 1975 and 1981 contributed to excess copper production.

The U.S. Bureau of Mines forecasts that domestic demand will increase to between 2.6 tons and

4.5 million tons by 2000, with probable demand

about 3.1 million tons of copper (table 3-8). U.S.

demand is forecast to increase at an annual rate

of approximately 1.9 percent, while the rest of the

world is expected to expand copper use at the higher

rate of 2.9 percent.

The intensity of copper use fell by about onefourth between 1970 and 1980.57 Reductions in use

were caused by the reduction in size of automotive and consumer goods, changes in design to conserve materials or increase efficiency, and substitutions of aluminum, plastics, and, to a lesser

extent, optical fibers. Although the decline in the

intensity of copper use is not expected to continue

at the 1970s’ rate and even could be offset by gains

in other areas, the future of copper demand is uncertain. Moreover, copper is an industrial metal,

and its consumption is linked to industrial activity

and capital expansion. This makes copper demand

very sensitive to general economic activity.

sJDomes(ic consumption Trends; 1972-82, and Forecasts to J993

for Tweh’e Major Metals, p. 60.

Zinc

Properties and Uses

Zinc is the third most widely used nonferrous

metal, exceeded only by aluminum and copper. It

is used for galvanizing (coating) steel, for many

zinc-based alloys, and for die castings. Zinc is also

used in industrial chemicals, agricultural chemicals,

rubber, and paint pigments. Construction materials account for about 45 percent of the slab zinc

consumed in the United States; transportation accounts for 25 percent; machinery, 10 percent; electrical, 10 percent; and other uses, 10 percent.

National Importance

During the last 15 to 20 years, the United States

has gone from near self-sufficiency in zinc metal

production to importing 74 percent of the zinc consumed domestically in 1986.58 Zinc is a component

of the National Defense Stockpile; the stockpile goal

is 1.4 million tons and the inventory in 1986 was

about 378,000 tons—27 percent of the goal.

The United States consumed about 1.1 million

tons of zinc in 1986. Between 1972 and 1982, U.S.

slab zinc consumption decreased by nearly half,59

a dramatic drop attributable to the combined effects of the economic recession and a decline in the

intensity of use of zinc in construction and manufacturing.

Zinc is imported as both metal and concentrates.

Canada provides about half the zinc imported into

the United States; Mexico provides 10 percent;

Peru, 8 percent; and Australia, 4 percent. All of

58J. Jolly, “Zinc,” Mineraf Commodity Summar]es- 1987 (k$’ash -

ington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p, 180

sgDomestic Consumption Trends, 1972-82, and Forecasts to 1.99.7

for Twelve Major Metals, p, 131,

Table 3-8.—U.S. and World Copper Demand in 2000

2000 Annual growth

Actual Low Probable High 1983-2000

(thousand tons) (percent)

United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,390” 2,600 3,100 3,900 1.9

Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,300 11,700 13,400 15,000 2.9

Total world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 14,300 16,500 18,800 2.7

au s, data for 1986, J. Jolly, and D Edelstein, “copper,” Mineral Commodity Summaries— 1987 (Washington, DC: U S Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 42, world data for

1983 from source below

SOURCE Adapted from J Jolly, “Copper,” Minera/ Facts and Prob/ems– 1985 Ed/t/on (Washington, DC: Bureau of Mines, 1986), p 219
100 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

the major foreign sources of supply are considered

to be secure, and there is little risk of supply interruptions.

Domestic Resources and Reserves

The U.S. reserve base is estimated to be about

53 million tons of zinc. Domestic reserves are nearly

22 million tons. Zinc is generally associated with

other minerals containing precious metals, lead,

and/or copper. The world reserve base is estimated

to be 300 million tons of zinc, with major deposits

located in Canada, Australia, Peru, and Mexico.

World zinc resources are estimated to be nearly 2

billion tons, GO Zinc occurs in seabed polymetallic

sulfide deposits along with numerous other metals.

The few samples of sulfide material that have been

recovered for analysis show wide ranges in zinc content (30-0.2 percent). 61

Domestic Production

U.S. mine production of zinc in 1986 was about

209,000 tons, down from 485,000 tons in 1976. The

decline is attributed to poor market conditions and

depressed prices. Some mines shut down in 1986

are expected to reopen in 1987, and new mines will

open. Production is then expected to return to

around the 1985 level, or about 250,000 tons. Domestic zinc metal production in 1986 also reached

lows comparable to those of the depression in the

early 1930s. Recycling accounted for 413,000 tons

of zinc—about 37 percent of domestic consumption—in 1986.

Future Demand and Technological Trends

The U.S. Bureau of Mines forecasts that both

domestic and world zinc demand will increase at

‘OJ. Jolly, “Zinc,” Mineral Commodity Summaries—1987, p. 181.

61 McKelvey, Subsea Miner& Resources, p. 82.

the rate of about 2 percent annually through 2000.

Probable U.S. demand in 2000 is forecast to be

about 1.5 million tons, with possible demand ranging between a low of 1.1 million tons and a high

of 2.3 million tons (table 3-9).

A major determinant of future zinc demand will

be its use in the construction (galvanized metal

structural members) and automotive industries,

which together account for about 60 percent of zinc

consumption in the U.S. Although use of zinc by

the domestic automotive industry has decreased in

recent years, this trend is expected to reverse, and

manufacturers will again use more electro-galvanized, corrosion-resistant parts as a competitive

strategy through extended warranty protection.

Aluminum, plastics, and magnesium can substitute for many zinc uses, including castings, protective coatings, and corrosion protection. Aluminum,

magnesium, titanium, and zirconium compete with

zinc for some chemical and pigment applications.

It is likely that the U.S. will continue to rely in

part on foreign sources of supply; however, domestic resources in Alaska and perhaps Wisconsin

might be developed to offset some imports.62 Secondary sources and recycling of zinc could become

more important in the future with improvements

in recycling technology and better market conditions.

Gold

Properties and Uses

Gold is a unique commodity because it is considered a measure and store of wealth. Jewelry and

art accounted for 48 percent of its use in the United

bZJolly , ‘‘Zinc, Mineraf Facts and Problems—J985 Edition, Bul]etin 675 (Washington, DC: U. S, Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 939.

Table 3.9.—Forecast of U.S. and World Zinc Demand in 2000

2000 Annual growth

Actual Low Probable High 1983-2000

(thousand tons) (percent)

United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ,130a 1,100 1,540 2,310 2.0

Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,340 7,490 8,820 10,250 2.0

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 8,590 10,360 12,560 2.0

au,s, data for 19w from J, Jolly, “zinc,” &f/nera/ COnJr-nOdity Wrrrnan’m— 1987 (Washington, DC: US. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 180, wotld data for 1983 frOm 50urce below.

SOURCE: Adapted from J. Jolly, “Zinc,” Mineral Facts and Prob/erns-1985 Edition (Washington, DC: US. Bureau of Mines, 1988), p, 938,
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 101

States in 1986, Gold’s resistance to corrosion makes

it suitable for electronics uses and dentistry. Gold

is also used in the aerospace industry in brazing

alloys, in jet and rocket engines, and as a heat

reflector on some components. Industrial and electronic applications accounted for about 35 percent

of 1986 consumption, dental 16 percent, and investment bars about 1 percent of the gold consumed

in 1986. Although gold is exchanged in the open

market, about 1.2 billion troy ounces—one-third

of the gold mined thus far in the world—is retained

by governments.

National Importance

Gold is not a component of the National Defense

Stockpile, but the U.S. Treasury keeps a residual

stock of about 263 million troy ounces of bullion.

Although gold is no longer linked directly to the

U.S. monetary system, its value in the world economic equation continues to be a hedge against future economic uncertainties. Should the United

States or other major countries return to a regulated gold standard, its price could be affected significantly. Recently the United States issued the

Golden Eagle coin for sale as a collector’s and investor’s item, but gold is not normally circulated

as currency.

Apparent U.S. consumption of gold was 3.3 million troy ounces in 1986, whereas about 3.6 million troy ounces were produced by U.S. mines. 63

When U.S. primary industrial gold demand peaked

in 1972 at about 6.6 million troy ounces, imports

relative to domestic production were about 71 percent. At the lowest primary demand level in 1980

(1 million troy ounces), net imports exceeded primary demand by nearly 2.6 million troy ounces. 64

Canada is the largest single source of imported gold.

Domestic Resources and Reserves

The United States gold reserve base is about 120

million troy ounces. Most of the reserve base is in

lode deposits. The world reserve base of gold is

about 1.5 billion ounces, of which about half is located in the Republic of South Africa. 65 Some off-

‘3J. Lucas, “Gold,” Mineral Commodity Summaries—J987 (Washington, DC: U. S, Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 62.

“J. Lucas, “Gold,” ,%finera/ Facts and Problems— 1985 .Edition,

Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 336,

65 Lucas, “Gold,” MincraJ Commodity Summaries-1987, p. 63.

shore placer deposits, such as those currently being experimentally dredge mined by Inspiration

Mines near Nome, Alaska, maybe considered part

of the reserve base.

Domestic Production

Domestic gold production was at an all-time high

in 1986 with about 3.6 million ounces mined.

Lowest production within the last 10 years was

964,000 ounces in 1979. The Republic of South

Africa produced about 21 million ounces of gold

in 1986—over 40 percent of total world production.

Compared to major gold mines in South Africa,

the U. S. S. R., and Canada, most existing and potential U.S. gold mines are low-grade, short-life

operations with annual outputs between 20,000 and

90,000 troy ounces. 66

Future Demand and Technological Trends

Generally, domestic primary demand for gold

has decreased steadily since its peak at 6.3 million

ounces in 1972. Nevertheless, the U.S. Bureau of

Mines forecasts that domestic gold demand will increase at an average annual rate of about 2.4 percent through 2000. Domestic primary demand is

forecast to be between a low of 2.8 million ounces

and a high of 4.6 million ounces in 2000, with the

probable demand at 3.7 million troy ounces. 67 Demand in the rest of the world is expected to grow

at a slower pace of 1.7 percent annually through

2000.

While other metals may substitute for gold, substitution is generally done at some sacrifice in properties and performance. Platinum-group metals are

occasionally substituted for gold but with increased

costs and with metals considered to be critical and

strategic. Silver may substitute in some instances

at lower cost,

involves some

bendability.

but it is less corrosion-resistant and

compromise in performance and deG’p, Thomas and E. Boyle, Jr., Gold A\railabilir}’— W’orld, IC 9070

(Washington DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 38.

b7Lucas, “Gold, ’ Mineral Facts and Problems—198.5 )iiition, p.

335.
102 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Platinum-Group Metals

Properties and Uses

The platinum-group metals (PGMs) consist of

six closely related metals that commonly occur together in nature: platinum, palladium, rhodium,

iridium ruthenium, and osmium .68 They are not

abundant metals in the earth’s crust; hence their

value is correspondingly high. At one time, nearly

all of the platinum metals were used for jewelry,

art, or laboratory ware but during the last 30 or

40 years they have become indispensable to industry, which now consumes 97 percent of the PGMs

used annually in the United States.

Industry uses PGMs for two primary purposes:

1) corrosion resistance in chemical, electrical, glass

fiber, and dental-medical applications, and 2) a

catalysis for chemical and petroleum refining and

automotive emission control. About 46 percent of

PGMs was used for the automotive industry in

1986, 18 percent for electronic applications, 18 percent for dental and medical uses, 7 percent for

chemical production, and 14 percent for miscellaneous uses.69 Although the importance of platinum

for jewelry and art has diminished as industrial uses

increase, a significant amount of the precious metal

is retained as ingots, coins, or bars by investors.

While the PGMs are often referred to collectively

for convenience, each has special properties. For

example, platinum-palladium oxidation catalysts

are used for control of auto emissions, but a small

amount of rhodium is added to improve efficiency.

Palladium is used in low-voltage electrical contacts,

but ruthenium is often added to accommodate

higher voltages. 70

National Importance

The United States is highly import-dependent

for PGMs. About 98 percent of PGMs consumed

in 1986 were imported. The Republic of South

.——

bBThe disparities in demand among PGMs and the variance in

proportion and grade of individual metals recovered from PGM

mineral deposits complicate the assessment of supply-demand for this

metal group. For simplicity, the PGMs are discussed as a unit,

69J. Loebenstein, “Platinum-Group Metals, ” Mineral Commodity

Summaries—1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987),

p. 118.

70J. Loebenstein, “Platinum-Group Metals, ” Mineral Facts and

Problems—1985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 599.

Africa supplied 43 percent of U.S. consumption,

United Kingdom 17 percent, U.S.S.R. 12 percent,

and Canada, Colombia and other sources 28 percent. Because nearly all of the PGMs imported from

the United Kingdom originated in South Africa

prior to refining, the Republic of South Africa actually provides the United States with approximately 60 percent of its platinum imports.

Potential instability in southern Africa, dependence on the U.S.S.R. for a portion of U.S. supply, scarcity of domestic resources, and the importance that PGMs have assumed in industrial goods

and processes make platinum metals a first tier critical and strategic material. 71 Platinum, palladium,

and iridium are retained in the National Defense

Stockpile (table 3-10).

Domestic Resources and Reserves

There are several major areas with PGM deposits

that are currently considered to be economic or

subeconomic in the United States. The domestic

reserve base is estimated to be about 16 million troy

ounces. 72 Of that, however, only 1 million ounces

are considered to be reserves. 73 Most of the PGM

reserves are byproduct components of copper reserves. Demonstrated resources may contain 3 million ounces of platinum of which 2 million ounces

are gauged to be recoverable. 74 Some estimates

place identified and undiscovered U.S. resources

at 300 million ounces. 75

Tloffice of Technology Assessment, Strategic MateriaIs: Technologies to Reduce U.S. Vulnerability, p. 52.

72 Loebenstein, “Platinum-Group Metals, ” Minera) Commodity

Summaries—1987, p. 119.

731 bid., p. 21.

T+T. Anstett, D, B]eiwas, and C. Sheng-Fogg, Platinum A vaiJability—Market Economy Countries, IC 8897 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Bureau of Mines, 1982), p. 4.

751 bid., p. 6.

Table 3-10.—Platinum. Group Metals in the National

Defense Stockpile (as of Sept. 30, 1986)

Inventory as

Material Goal Inventory percent of goal

(thousand troy ounces)

Platinum. . . . . . . . . . . 1,310 440 34

Palladium . . . . . . . . . . 3,000 1,262 42

Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 30 30

aThe stockpile also Contain 13,043 troy ounces of nonstockpile-grade Platinum

and 2,214 ounces of palladium.

SOURCE: J.R. Lobenstein, “Platinum-Group Metals, ” Mineral Commodity Surnrnaries — 1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 119.
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 103

The PGM potential of the Stillwater Complex

in Montana is higher than that of the other known

domestic deposits. Stillwater PGMs are found in

conjunction with nickel and copper. The Stillwater

Mining Company, which is capable of producing

500 tons of ore per day, began producing PGMs

in March 1987, but the mineral concentrates are

being shipped abroad for refining to metal. Nearly

80 percent of the PGMs in Stillwater ores is palladium, and the remainder is mostly platinum.

Platinum generally brings several times the price

of palladium. The Salmon River deposit in Alaska

is an alluvial gravel placer that is estimated to contain about 500,000 troy ounces of recoverable platinum. The Ely Spruce and Minnamax deposits in

northeastern Minnesota are estimated to contain

less than 800,000 troy ounces of platinum at the

demonstrated level. 76

World resources are estimated to be about 3.3

billion troy ounces of PGMs. The world reserve

base is about 2.1 billion troy ounces, with the

Republic of South Africa controlling 90 percent of

the reserves. Other major reserves are found in the

U.S.S.R. and Canada, The United States has less

than 10 percent of the world’s total PGM resources.

Domestic Production

Domestic firms produced approximately 5,000

troy ounces of PGMs in 1986, all as byproducts

from copper refining. The Republic of South Africa

and the U.S. S. R. dominate world production of

PGMs; in 1986 South Africa’s mine production was

4 million ounces and the Soviet Union’s was 3,7

..—

7GIbid., p, 7.

million ounces of PGMs. Together they accounted

for 95 percent of world production. It is expected

that existing world reserves will have no problem

in meeting cumulative demand through 2000.

Future Demand and Technological Trends

U.S. demand for PGMs in 2000 is expected to

be between 2 million ounces and 3.3 million ounces

(table 3-1 1) with the probable demand at about 2.9

million ounces. Domestic demand is forecast to

grow at a rate of 2.5 percent annually between 1983

and 2000. Demand in the rest of the world is expected to increase more rapidly—perhaps 3 percent annually—due to the introduction of catalytic

auto emission controls in Europe and Australia, and

to the Japanese and U.S. emphasis on developing

fuel cell technology as an alternative power source.

For most PGM end uses, the intensity of use has

diminished since 1972.77 Although intensity of use

has declined, consumption has generally increased

as a result of the growth of the automotive, electronic, and medical industries that consume platinum, palladium, and iridium. Since 1982, investors and speculators have been purchasing large

quantities of platinum coins, bars, and ingots.

There are opportunities to reduce imports by improved recycling and substitution. About 97 percent of the PGMs used for petroleum refining and

85 percent of the catalysts used for chemicals and

pharmaceutical manufacturing are recycled. Automobile catalysts are recycled much less frequently,

‘TDome~tjc Consumption Trends, 1972-82, and Forecasts to 199.?

for Twelt’e Major Metals, p. 96.

Table 3-11.– Forecast of Demand for Platinum-Group Metals in 2000

2000

Material 1983 Low Probable High

(thousand troy ounces)

Platinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 900 1,300 1,400

Palladium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922 1,000 1,400 1,500

Rhodium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 50 70 80

Ruthenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 140 210 230

Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 10 20

Osmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2 4

Total platinum-group . . . . . . 1,914 2,000a 2,900 3,300

aTOtal differs from individual forecasts due to rounding.

SOURCE: J. Loebenste!n, “Platinum-Group Metals,” A4irreral Facts and Problems— 1985 (Washington, DC U.S Bureau of Mines,

1966), p. 611.
104 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

but recycling could increase if PGM prices escalate and if collection and waste disposal costs are

reduced. It may be possible to reprocess as much

as 200,000 troy ounces of PGMs annually from

used automotive catalysts (about 3 percent of 1986

U.S. consumption). 78 Recycling of electronic scrap

has collection and processing problems similar to

recycling of automotive catalysts.

Substitution opportunities for PGMs in automotive catalysts are limited. Moreover, there is little

incentive to seek alternatives for catalysts in the petroleum industry because a high proportion of

PGMs used is currently recycled. Similarly, in the

chemical and pharmaceutical industry, the value

of the product far exceeds the return on investment

for developing non-PGM substitutes, which usually are less efficient. It is possible to reduce the

amount of PGMs used for electrical and electronic

applications by substituting gold and silver for platinum and palladium.

Titanium (Ilmenite and Rutile)

Properties and Uses

Titanium is used as a metal and for pigments.

Ninety-five percent of world production is used for

white titanium dioxide pigment. Its high light

reflectivity makes the pigment valuable in paints,

paper, plastics, and rubber products. About 65 percent of the titanium pigments used domestically are

for paint and paper.

Titanium alloys have a high strength-to-weight

ratio and high heat and corrosion resistance. They,

therefore, are well-suited for high technology applications, including high performance aircraft,

electrical generation equipment, and chemical processing and handling equipment.

Although only 5 percent of all titanium goes into

metal, it is an important material for aircraft engines. About 63 percent of the titanium metal consumed in the United States in 1985 was for aerospace applications. The remaining 37 percent was

used in chemical processing, electric power generation, marine applications, and steel and other alloys. Titanium carbide is used in commercial cutting tools in combination with tungsten carbide.

—.-—Tap]at;num, MCP-ZZ (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines,

1978), p. 13.

Organotitanium compounds are used as catalysts

in polymerization processes, in water repellents,

and in dyeing processes.

National Importance

Over 80 percent of the titanium materials used

in the United States are imported. The major

sources of U.S. raw material imports are Canada

and Australia. Other suppliers include the Republic

of South Africa and Sierra Leone. The United

States also imported about 5,500 tons of titanium

metal in 1984 (about 5 percent of consumption),

mainly from Japan, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Titanium’s importance to the military and

to the domestic aerospace industry makes this metal

a second-tier strategic material (’strategic to some

degree’ with some small measure of potential supply vulnerability. 79 The current National Defense

Stockpile goal for titanium sponge is 195,000 tons,

and the current inventory is about 26,000 tons. The

stockpile goal for rutile (used for metal production

as well as pigments) is 106,000 tons, with the current inventory at 39,186 tons.

Domestic Resources and Reserves

The United States has reserves of about 7.9 million tons of titanium in the form of ilmenite and

200,000 tons in the form of rutile, both located

mainly in ancient beach sand deposits in Florida

and Tennessee and in ilmenite rock (table 3-12).

The domestic reserve base of 23 million tons of

titanium contains 15.5 million tons of ilmenite, 6,5

million tons of perovskite (not economically minable), and 900,000 tons of rutile. Total resources (including reserves and reserve base) are about 103

million tons of titanium dioxide, made up of 13 million tons of rutile, 30 million tons of ilmenite, 42

million tons of low-titanium dioxide ilmenite, and

18 million tons of perovskite.80 These resources include large quantities of rutile at concentrations of

about 0.3 percent in some porphyry copper ores

and mill tailings .81

‘

gOffice of Technology Assessment, Strategic Materials: Technologies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, p. 52.

L70E. Force and L. Lynd, Titanium Mineral Resources of the United

States—Definitions and Documentation, Geological Survey Bulletin

1558-B (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984),

p. B-1.

8]E. Force, “Is the United States of America Geologically Dependent on Imported Rutile?, ” Proceedings of the 4th Industrial Minerals International Congress, Atlanta, GA, 1980.
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 105

Table 3-12.—U.S. Titanium Reserves and Reserve Base

Reserves Reserve bsea

Ilmenite Rutile Total Ilmenite b Rutile Total

(thousand tons of contained titanium)

Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — — — — 100 100

California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — — — 400 400

Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —

—

— — 6,500 — 6,500

Florida. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000 200 5,200 5,400 200 5,600

New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,700 — 2,700 5,300 — 5,300

Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 10 210 3,700 600 4,300

Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — — — 500 — 500

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,900 210 8,110 22,000 900 23,000

aTh~ ~e~eWe base i“~j”d~~ &mOn~tr~ted ~e~~U~~eS that are currently economic resefves, marginally ecoflornic reserves, and Some that are Currefltty subeconomic

resources.

bllmenite except for 6,5 million tons in Colorado perovskite.

SOURCE L. Lynd, “Titanium,” hfineral Facts and Prob/ems– 1985 Edition (Washington, DC: US. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 663.

Domestic Production

The United States is the world leader in titanium

pigment production, with 31 percent of the world’s

pigment capacity, far ahead of the Federal Republic

of Germany in second place with 12 percent (figure 3-6). There were 11 U.S. titanium pigment

plants operated by 5 firms in production in 1986.

Their combined capacity was about 919,000 tons

of pigment per year. Production in 1986 was about

917,000 tons, with nearly all of the plant capacity

being utilized.

The United States accounts for about 25 percent

of the world’s titanium sponge production capacity, third behind the U.S.S.R. (39 percent) and Japan (28 percent). In 1985, total U.S. sponge capacity was about 33,500 tons annually, the Soviet

capacity was about 53,000 tons, and the Japanese

38,000 tons. U.S. production of sponge in 1985 was

about 23,000 tons, indicating that domestic producers were then operating at about 70 percent of

capacity.

When demand peaked in 1981 due to rapid increases in aerospace use, the U.S. consumed about

32,000 tons of titanium metal. This surge in demand, which resulted in a temporary titanium

shortage, prompted both the United States and Japan to increase their titanium metal production capacity. However, in 1982 the recession and overstocked inventories forced a cutback in sponge

production in both countries to below 50 percent

of capacity. Since then, the economic recovery and

expansion of the U.S. military and commercial air

fleets has increased domestic demand for titanium

Figure 3-6.—World Titanium Pigment

Manufacturing Capacity

Titanium dioxide is the major form of titanium used in the

United States. It is primarily used for manufacturing pigments

for paints and whiteners. The United States currently leads

the world in pigment production.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987

metal, but significant U.S. production capacity remains idle.

Production of titanium heavy minerals is driven

primarily by demand for titanium dioxide pigments. E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc., the

world’s largest titanium dioxide producer, obtains

raw materials from its own mines in Florida and

from a partially owned Australian subsidiary.

Currently, there are only two deposits producing heavy minerals from titaneous sands in the

United States. Both are in northeastern Florida,

Trail deposit near Starke, Florida (du Pent), and

the Green Cove Springs deposit (Associated Minerals (U.S.A.), Ltd. ) near the community of the
106 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

same name.82 The six U.S. titanium sponge producers import rutile, the raw material now used for

metal production in the market economy countries, 83 primarily from Australia, Sierra Leone, and

the Republic of South Africa. Associated Minerals

(U.S.A.), Ltd., is the sole domestic producer of

natural rutile concentrate, although Kerr-McGee

Chemical Corp. produces about 100,000 tons of

synthetic rutile84 from high-grade ilmenite through

the removal of iron at its Mobile, Alabama, plant.

Future Demand and Technological Trends

Projected total titanium demand in 2000 is estimated at 750,000 tons, an increase of 43 percent

from 1983; however, demand could range from a

low of 600,000 tons to a high of 1 million tons (table 3-1 3).85 The greatest percentage increase in

titanium demand is expected to occur in the use

-——— 8ZW, HaNey and F, Brown, offshore Titanium Heavy Mineraf

Placers: Processing and Related Considerations, ” OTA Contract Report, November 1986, p. 3.

asA]though the free market countries prefer to produce t Itanium

metal from rutile, the U. S.S. R and People’s Republic of China—

which collectively produce 63 percent of the world titanium metal—

manufacture metal from high-grade titanium oxide slag made from

ilmenite. The process involves chlorination, purification, and reduction of titanium chloride. The U.S. could probably also use the same

process to produce titanium metal feedstock, or synthetic rutile could

be used,

84s nthetic ruti]ei5 often referred to in the trade as ‘‘ beneflciated Y

ilmenite. A natural analogue of this material is ‘‘Ieucoxene. S]agging processes are also used elsewhere to produce high-titanium dioxide, low-iron products from ilmenite.

BJA1though titanium demand is equated to e]ementtd titanium content, the major proportion of domestic demand will be for titanium

dioxide.

of metals, which is projected to increase over fivefold, from 8,000 to 45,000 tons (this appears to be

an optimistic estimate). Nevertheless, non-metal

uses will continue to dominate the titanium market, probably approaching 700,000 tons by 2000,

up from 515,000 tons in 1983.

In contrast, domestic titanium mine production

in 2000 is projected at about 210,000 tons, an annual growth rate of about 4.6 percent from the 1982

level of 98,000 tons. Cumulative domestic mine

production from the period 1983 to 2000 is projected to be 2.6 million tons titanium, significantly

less than the probable cumulative primary nonmetal demand of 10.5 million tons. Most of the future 7.9-million-ton shortfall is expected to be supplied by imports, even though domestic reserves

of 7.8 million tons of ilmenite (contained titanium

equivalent) and 199,000 tons of rutile (contained

titanium equivalent) are considered sufficient to

meet about 80 percent of expected U.S. non-metal

demand in 2000.

Although a major proportion of future U.S. mine

production is considered suitable for conversion to

metal with intermediate processing,86 nearly all of

the titanium concentrates used for domestic metal

production are expected to come from cheaper im-

— -- —

scTheSe include intermediate products such as synthetic IUtde an~or

high-titanium slags. Such slags have been made from American ores.

See G Elger, J. Wright, J. Tress, et al., Producing Ch]orinationGrade Feedstock fmm Domestic 1lmenite—LaboratoV and Pilot Plant

Studies, RI-9002 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1985),

p. 24.

Table 3.13.—Forecast for U.S. Titanium Demand in 2000

2000

End use 1983 Low Probable High

(thousand tons contained titanium)

Nonmetal:

Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 270 320 400

Paper products . . . . . . . . . . . 137 160 200 280

Plastics and synthetics . . . . 66 80 100 140

Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 57 85 116

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 570 700 940

Metal:

Aerospace , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 15 23 29

Industrial equipment . . . . . . 2 7 13 20

Steel and alloys . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 9 13

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 27 45 62

Grand total. . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 600 750 1,000

SOURCE: L. Lynd, “Titanium,” Mineral Facts and Prob/erns– 1985 Edition (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1988), p. 875.
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 107

ports. U.S. ilmenite reserves that could be used for

metal production are estimated to contain about

10 times the probable forecast of metal cumulative

demand of 490,000 tons by 2000.

Titanium Metal. —Titanium is one of only

three metals expected to increase significantly in

consumption and intensity of use; its demand is

closely related to requirements for the construction

of military and civilian aircraft. The outlook for

titanium mill products through 1990 will depend

primarily on military aircraft procurement and on

the rate at which commercial air carriers replace

aging fleets. The intensity of use (ratio of use to

shipments) in the aerospace industry remained unchanged during the period 1972 to 1982. It is expected that significant replacement of titanium by

carbon-epoxy composite materials-titanium’s major competitor for lightweight, high-strength aircraft construction—will not occur before at least

1994. Titanium can be effectively used in conjunction with composite materials because their coefficients of thermal expansion match closely. Selection of titanium alloys over other materials for

aerospace applications generally is based on economics and their special properties.

Because of its corrosion resistance and highstrength, titanium is likely to be increasingly used

in industrial processes involving corrosive environments, although price has been somewhat of a deterrent to expanded commercial use. Non-aircraft

industrial demand is currently showing strong

growth in intensity of use of titanium. Automotive

uses may also increase in the future. Currently,

however, the use of titanium metal represents a

relatively small amount of materials, and titanium

dioxide for use in pigments and chemicals remains

the major use in the United States.

Titanium Pigments.—Demand for paint pigments is projected to increase from 246,000 tons

of titanium in 1983 to a probable level of 320,000

tons of titanium by 2000, but may range as low as

270,000 tons or as high as 400,000 tons. By 2000,

metal and wood products precoated with durable

plastic or ceramic finishes could be used in the construction industry, which would reduce or eliminate the need for repainting, thus adversely affecting demand growth of conventional coatings.

Paper products are projected to consume about

200,000 tons of titanium by 2000, up from 137,000

tons in 1983. The United States is the world’s

largest producer of paper, accounting for 35 percent of total world supply. The industry seems assured of continued growth, which should also be

reflected in increased demand for titanium pigment. 87

Some substitution by alternative whiteners and

coloring agents may be developed in the future

which could slightly offset growth of titanium pigment usage, but it is projected that total pigment

consumption will probably reach 640,000 tons of

titanium by 2000.

Because production of titanium dioxide pigment

by the chloride process results in fewer environmental problems than does the sulfate process, future trends are likely to be toward the development

of concentrates that are suited as chlorination feed

materials and for making metals. Future commercial applications for utilizing domestic ilmenite to

produce high-titanium dioxide concentrates may

have the potential to make the United States selfsufficient in supplying its titanium requirements,

should they prove economically competitive. Technically, such concentrates can be produced from

rutile, high-titanium dioxide ilmenite sands, leucoxene, synthetic rutile, and low-magnesium, lowcalcium titaniferous slags. Perovskite found in

Colorado also might be convertible to synthetic rutile or titanium dioxide pigment.

Phosphate Rock (Phosphorite)

Properties and Uses

Over 90 percent of the phosphate rock (a sedimentary rock composed chiefly of phosphate minerals) mined in the United States is used for agricultural fertilizers. Most of the balance of phosphate

consumed domestically is used to produce sodium

tripolyphosphate —a major constituent of household

laundry detergents—and other sodium phosphates

that are used in cleaners, water treatment, and

foods. Phosphoric acid is also used in the manut37u s Department of Commerce, f 986 ~“. S. ~ndustr;af ~ut~oo~

(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), p. 5-5.
108 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

facture of calcium phosphates for animal feeds, dentifrices, food additives, and baking powder. Technical grades of phosphoric acid are used for cleaning

metals and lubricants. Food-grade phosphoric acid

is used as a preservative in processed foods.

National Importance

There is no substitute for phosphorus in agricultural uses; however, its use in detergents has been

reduced by the substitution of other compounds to

reduce environmental damage in lakes and streams

partially caused by phosphorus enrichment (eutrophication).

The United States leads the world in phosphate

rock production (table 3-14), but it is likely to be

challenged by Morocco as the world’s largest producer in future years. Domestic production supplies nearly all of the phosphorus used in the United

States, except for a small amount of low-fluorine

phosphate rock imported from Mexico and the

Netherlands Antilles and high-quality phosphate

rock for liquid fertilizers from Togo. The United

States is currently a major exporter of phosphate

rock and phosphate chemicals but is facing increased price competition from foreign sources (figure 3-7). Producers in the Middle East and North

Africa may continue to encroach on U.S. export

markets as new phosphorus fertilizer plants begin

operation and U.S. production continues to shut

down.

Table 3-14.—World and U.S. Phosphate

Rock Production

World U s . Us.

Year Production Production production

(million tons)

1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 52

1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 55

1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 57

1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 60

1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 60

1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 41

1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 47

1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 54

1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 56

1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 44

(percent)

41

40

39

34

37

30

32

32

33

29

SOURCE: Adapted from W. Stowasser and R. Fantel, “The Outlook for the United

States Phosphate Rock Industry and its Place In the World,” Society

of Mining Engineers of AlME, Society of Mining Engineers, Inc., Reprint

65-116, 1965.

Figure 3.7.—Major World Exporters of Phosphate Rock

Since 1975, With Projections to 1995

1970 75 80 85 90 95

Year

The United States is currently a major exporter of phosphate

rock and phosphate chemicals but is facing increased price

competition from foreign sources, principally Morocco.

Domestic mines are shutting down, and some analysts believe that the U.S. industry is in danger of collapsing in the

future.

SOURCE: W. Laver, ‘“Phosphate Rock: Regional Supply and Changing Pattern

of World Trade,” TransactIons of the Irrstltutlon of Mining and Meta/-

Iurgy, Sec. A–Mining Industry, July 1966, Transactions Vol. 95, p. Al 19.

Domestic Resources and Reserves

Phosphorus-rich deposits occur throughout the

world, but only a small proportion are of commercial grade. Igneous phosphate rock (apatites) are

also commercially important in some parts of the

world. Commercial deposits in the United States

are all marine phosphorites that were formed under warm, tropical conditions in shallow plateau

areas where upwelling water could collect. U.S.

phosphate rock reserves are estimated to be 1.3 billion tons at costs of less than $32 per ton.88 The

reserve base is about 5.8 billion tons (at costs ranging from less than $18 per ton to $91 per ton), with

total resources estimated at 6.9 billion tons, Over

70 percent of the U.S. reserve base is located in

Florida and North Carolina. There are also large

phosphate deposits in some Western States.

Although the United States has potentially vast

inferred and hypothetical resources (7 billion tons

and 24 billion tons of phosphate rock respectively),

economic production thresholds for these resources

have not been calculated. Other deposits probably

68W. Stowasser and R. Fantel, “The Outlook for the United States

Phosphate Rock Industry and its Place in the World, paper presented

at the SME-AIME Annual Meeting, New York, NY, Feb. 24-28,

1985, Society of Mining Engineers Reprint No. 85-116, p. 5.
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends ● 109

will likely be discovered. Deep phosphate rock deposits may also hold promise if economically acceptable means for recovering them without excessive

surface disturbance can be developed. Hydraulic

borehole technology may be adapted for this purpose, but very little is known about its economic

feasibility and environmental acceptability .89

The United States is a distant second in world

demonstrated phosphate resources (19 percent) behind Morocco, whose enormous resources account

for over 56 percent of the total demonstrated resources of the market economy countries, the

U.S.S.R, and the Federal Republic of China90 (table 3-1 5). Morocco alone may have sufficient resources to supply world demand far into the future.91

Domestic Production

The United States produced 44 million tons of

phosphate rock in 1986, which accounted for about

one-third of total world production. U.S. production of rock phosphate peaked in 1980-81 at approximately 60 million tons each year, 92 Twenty-three

domestic companies were mining phosphate rock

in 1986, with an aggregate capacity of about 66 million tons. Of the domestic phosphate rock that was

mined in 1984, 84 percent came from Florida and

North Carolina.

The domestic phosphate industry is vertically integrated and highly concentrated .93 Most of the

phosphate rock produced in the United States is

used to manufacture wet-process phosphoric acid,

which is produced by digestion with sulfuric acid.

Elemental phosphorus is produced by reducing

phosphate rock in an electric furnace. About half

the elemental phosphorus produced is converted to

sodium tripolyphosphate for use in detergents.

89J. Hrabik and D. Godesky, Economic Evaluation of Borehole and

Conventional Mining Systems in Phosphate Deposits, IC 8929 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1983), p. 34.

90R, Fante],G,Peterson, and W. Stowasser, ‘‘The Worldwide

Availability of Phosphate Rock, Naturaf Resources Forum VO1. 9,

No. 1 (New York, NY: United Nations, 1985), pp. 5-23.

g] R, Fantel, T. Anstett, G, Peterson, et al. , Phosphate ROC~

Availability— World, IC 8989 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of

Mines, 1984), p. 12.

‘

2W. Stowasser, “Phosphate Rock, ” Mineral Commodity Summaries—1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 116.

9JR, Fante], D. Su]livan, and G, Peterson, Phosphate Rock Availability-Domestic, IC 8937 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of hlines,

1983), p. 5.

Table 3-15.—World Phosphate Rock Reserves

and Reserve Base

Reserves a Reserve baseb

(million tons)

North America:

United States . . . . . . . . . . 1,543 5,951

Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,543 6,127

South America:

Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 386

Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 650

Europe:

U. S.S.R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,433 1,433

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,433 1,587

Africa:

Algeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871

Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,604 22,040

Western Sahara . . . . . . . . 937 937

South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . 2,865 2,865

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 231

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,670 27,220

Asia:

China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 231

Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 562

Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 485

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 1,449

Oceania:

Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551

Nauru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 11

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 561

World total . . . . . . . . 15,119 37,594

acost less ttlarr $32 per ton. Cost includes capital, oPerating exPenses, etc. and

a 15 percent rate of return on investment. Costs and resources as of January

1983, f.o.b. mine.

bcost tess than $91 per ton.

SOURCE: Adapted from W. Stowasser, “Phosphate Rock,” Mlnera/ Facts and

Prob/ems– 1985 .Editlorr (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986),

p. 582.

Future Demand and Technological Trends

Demand for phosphate rock is closely linked to

agricultural production. Domestic primary demand

for phosphate rock (including exports) grew from

31.2 million tons in 1973 to 45 million tons in 1980.

The global recession that followed, coupled with

agricultural drought conditions and government

agricultural policies aimed at reducing excessive domestic grain inventories, reduced phosphate rock

consumption to 31.7 million tons in 1982. Domestic

consumption rebounded in 1984 to 46 million tons
110 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

as the world economy improved and U.S. grain

production increased. 94 But depressed agricultural

prices and increased operating costs have tended

to stabilize demand growth as domestic farmers

continue to struggle with the cost-price squeeze.

Probable domestic demand for phosphate rock

is projected to be 52 million tons by 2000, with the

low forecast at 50 million tons and the high at 55

million tons (table 3-1 6).95 However, these forecasts

are very uncertain due to global changes taking

place in agricultural production. End uses in 2000

are expected to remain in about the same proportion as current uses.

From the mid-1970s, when exports represented

about 40 percent of domestic production, the

proportion of exported phosphate rock, fertilizers,

and chemicals increased slowly through 1982 but

decreased to its 10-year low by 1985. In 1983, fertilizer and chemicals slightly exceeded phosphate

rock as export commodities (in terms of contained

phosphorus pentoxide).96

Competition for international market share is expected to increase. Economics favors the conversion of phosphate rock to higher valued chemicals

and fertilizers for export. There is currently a trend

in phosphate rock producing countries to expand

facilities for processing raw material into intermediate or finished products, particularly among Middle Eastern and North African nations.

The U.S. share of world markets is expected to

continue to decline in the future. Probable annual

growth rate for phosphate fertilizer exports through

“W. Stowasser, “Phosphate Rock, ” Mineral Facts and Problems—

1985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines,

1986), p. 585.

95 Stowasser, “Phosphate Rock, ” Mineral Facts and Problems—

1985 Edition, p. 591.

9’Stowasser and Fantel, “The Outlook for the United States Phosphate Rock Industry, ” pp. 85-116.

2000 is forecast to be 2 percent, with a low of 1.5

and a high of 3 percent. 97 Exports of phosphate rock

are projected to decline at an annual rate of about

1 percent through 2000. In summary, the annual

growth rate is expected to approach 0.8 percent

from 1983 through 2000.

Future export levels of phosphate rock and phosphate fertilizer will be largely determined by the

availability of resources from Florida and North

Carolina, competition from foreign producers, and

an increase in international trade of phosphoric acid

rather than phosphate rock. U.S. phosphate rock

supply is likely to be sufficient to meet demand

through 1995, but demand could exceed domestic

supply by 2000 if U.S. producers reduce domestic

capacity as a result of foreign competition.

In addition to the domestic industry’s problems

with foreign competition and diminishing ore quality and quantity, problems associated with the environment affect phosphate rock mining and beneficiation. Environmental concerns include disposing

of waste clay (slimes) produced from the beneficiation of phosphate ores, disposing of phosphogypsum from acid plants, developing acceptable reclamation procedures for disturbed wetlands, and

operating with reduced water consumption.

Industry analysts think the phosphate industry’s

problems will grow with time. It is likely that the

price will not increase enough to justify mining

higher-cost deposits, and that the public will continue to oppose phosphate mining and manufacturing phosphatic chemicals. In that event, the remaining low-cost, high-quality deposits will

continue to satisfy demand until they are exhausted

or until the markets for phosphate rock or fertilizer

become unprofitable. If domestic phosphate rock

‘

7 Stclwasser, ‘ ‘Phosphate Rock, ” Mineraf Facts and Problems—

1985 Edition, p. 590.

Table 3-16.– Forecasts of U.S. and World Phosphate Rock Demand in 2000

2000 Annual growth

Actual Low Probable High 1983-2000

(million tons) (percent)

United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44a

50 50 60 1.8

Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 220 220 230 4.2

World total ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 270 290 3.6

au,s, data for 19M, frOtTI w. stowasser, “Phosphate Rock,” Mh?eml Corrrrrrodity Summar/es— 1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 116.

SOURCE: Adapted from W. Stowasser, “Phosphate Rock,” A4irteral Facts and Prob/ems– 1985 .Editlorr (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1966), p 592.
Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends 111

production costs continue to rise and investment

in new mines is not justified, the shortfall between

domestic supply and domestic demand will have

to come from imports of lower-cost phosphate

rock. 98

Sand and Gravel

Properties and Uses

Sand and gravel is a nationally used commodity

which is an important element in many U.S. industries and is used in enormous quantities. Sand

and gravel can be used for industrial purposes such

as in foundary operations, in glass manufacturing,

as abrasives, and in infiltration beds of water treatment facilities.

Most sand and gravel, however, is used in construction. Much of the aggregate is used in concrete for residential housing, commercial buildings,

bridges and dams, and in concrete or bituminous

mixes for highway construction. A large percentage of sand and gravel is also used without binders

as road bases, as road coverings, and in railroad

ballast.

National Importance

Generally, there is an abundance of sand and

gravel in the United States. Even though these materials are widely distributed, they are not universally available for consumptive use. Some areas are

devoid of sand and gravel or may be covered with

sufficient material to make surface mining impractical. In some areas, many sand and gravel sources

do not meet toughness, strength, durability, or

other physical property requirements for certain

uses. Similarly, many sources may contain mineral

constituents that react adversely when used as concrete aggregate. Furthermore, even though an area

may be endowed with an abundance of sand and

gravel suitable for the intended purpose, existing

land uses, zoning, or regulations may preclude

commercial exploitation of the aggregate.

Domestic Resources and Reserves

Sand and gravel resources are so extensive that

resource estimates of total reserves are probably not

‘* Ibid., p. 593.

obtainable. Mineable resources occur both onshore

and in coastal waters. Large offshore deposits have

been located in the Atlantic continental shelf and

offshore Alaska. 99 The availability of construction

sand and gravel is controlled largely by land use

and/or environmental constraints. Local shortages

of sand and gravel are becoming common, especially near large metropolitan areas, and therefore

onshore resources may not meet future demand.

Crushed stone is being used often as a substitute,

despite its higher price.

Domestic Production

In 1986, about 837 million tons of construction

sand and gravel were produced in the United

States, industrial sand and gravel production approached 28.5 million tons100 and about 2.5 million tons of construction and industrial sand and

gravel were exported.

101 The domestic industry is

made up of many producers ranging widely in size.

Most produce materials for the local market. The

western region led production and consumption of

sand and gravel, followed by the east north-central,

mountain, and southern regions.

Future Demand and Technological Trends

Demand forecasts for U.S. construction sand and

gravel for 2000 range between a low of 650 million tons and a high of 1.2 billion tons, with the

demand probably about 1 billion tons. Average annual growth in demand is expected to be about 2.9

percent annually through 2000. 102 Apparent consumption in 1986 was about 836 million tons.

Offshore resources may find future markets in

certain urban areas where demand might outpace

onshore supply because of scarcity or limited production due to land use or environmental con99J. Williams, “Sand and Gravel Deposits Within the United States

Exclusive Economic Zone: Resource Assessment and Uses, OTC

5197, Proceedings of the 18th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, May 5-8, 1986, p. 377.

‘ OOV. Tepordei, “Sand and Gravel, ” Minera) Comtnodity Summaries— 1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of M incs, 1985 ), pp.

136-137.

101 v, Tepordei and L, Davis, ‘‘ Sand and Gravel, Minerafs Yearbook—1984 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1985), p. 775.

‘02V. Tepordei, “Sand and Grave l,” Miner-al Facts and Problems198.5 Edi[ion, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: L’. S. Bureau of Mines,

1986), p. 695.
112 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

straints. Such areas include New York, Boston, Los

Angeles, San Francisco, San Juan, and Honolulu.

Garnet

Garnet is an iron-aluminum silicate used for

high-quality abrasives and as filter media. Its size

and shape in its natural form is important in determining its industrial use. The United States is

the dominant world producer and user of garnet,

accounting for about 75 percent of the world’s output and 70 percent of its consumption. In 1986,

the U.S. produced about 35,000 tons of garnet and

consumed about 28,000 tons. 103 Domestic demand

is expected to rise only modestly to about 38,000

tons per year by 2000.104 World resources are very

large and distributed widely among nations.

Monazite

Monazite is a rare-earth and thorium mineral

found in association with heavy mineral sands. It

is recovered mainly as a byproduct of processing

titanium and zirconium minerals, principally in

Australia and India. Domestic production of

monazite is small relative, to demand. As a result,

the United States imports monazite concentrates

and intermediates, primarily for their rare-earth

content.

The rare earths are used domestically in a wide

variety of end uses including: petroleum fluid cracking catalysts, metallurgical applications in highstrength low-alloy steels, phosphors used in color

television and color computer displays, highstrength permanent magnets, laser crystals for highenergy applications such as fusion research and special underwater-to-surface communications, electronic components, high-tech ceramics, fiber-optics,

and superconductors. It is estimated that about

15,400 tons of equivalent rare-earth oxides were

consumed domestically in 1986.105

Substitutes for the rare earths are available for

many applications, but are usually much less effective. The United States imported 3,262 tons of

monazite concentrates in 1986, representing about

12 percent of the total estimated domestic consumption of equivalent rare-earth oxides.

World resources of the rare-earth elements are

large, and critical shortages of most of the elements

are not likely to occur. Because domestic demand

for thorium is small, only a small amount of the

thorium available in monazite is recovered. It is

used in aerospace alloys, lamp mantles, welding

electrodes, high-temperature refractory applications, and nuclear fuel.

Zircon

Zircon is recovered as a byproduct from the extraction of titanium minerals from titaneous sands.

Zirconium metal is used as fuel cladding and structural material in nuclear reactors and for chemical

processing equipment because of its resistance to

corrosion. Ferrozirconium; zircon and zirconium

oxide, is used in abrasives, refractories, and ceramics. Zircon is produced in the United States with

about 40 to 50 percent of consumption imported

from Australia, South Africa, and France.

Domestic consumption of contained zirconium

was about 50,000 tons in 1983. 106 The United States

is estimated to have about 14 million tons of zircon, primarily associated with titaneous sand deposits. It is expected that domestic contained zirconium demand may reach about 116,000 tons by

2000, an annual growth of nearly 6 percent. Substitutes for zirconium are available, but at a sacrifice in effectiveness. Domestic reserves are gauged

to be adequate for some time in the future although

the United States imports much of that consumed

from cheaper sources.

’03G. Austin, “Garnet, Industrial, ” Mineral Commodity Summaries—1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 56.

‘“’J. Smoak, “Garnet,” Mineral Facts and Problems—1985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986),

p. 297.

105J. Hedrick, ‘ ‘Rare-Earth Metals, Mineral Commodity Summaries—J987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 126.

locw. Adams, “Zirconium and Hafnium, ” Minera) Facts ~d Probfems—f985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of

Mines, 1986), p. 941.
Chapter 4

Technologies for Exploring the

Exclusive Economic Zone
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Reconnaissance Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........119

Side-Looking Sonars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................119

Bathymetric Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........,124

Reflection and Refraction Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...132

Magnetic Methods.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................136

Gravity Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................138

Site-Specific Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............139

Electrical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................139

Geochemical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................143

Manned Submersibles and Remotely Operated Vehicles . ...................145

Optical Imaging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................152

Direct Sampling by Coring, Drilling, and Dredging . . . . ....................154

Navigation Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............162

Figures

Figure No. Page

4-1. USGS Research Vessel S.P. Lee and EEZ Exploration Technologies. .. ....117

4-2. GLORIA Long-Range Side-Looking Sonar . ...........................121

4-3. SeaMARC CL Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............125

4-4. Multi-Beam Bathymetry Products . . . . . . . . . . ..............,............126

4-5. Sea Beam Beam Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............127

4-6. Operating Costs for Some Bathymetry and Side-Looking Sonar Systems ...129

4-7. Comparing SeaMARC and Sea Beam Swath Widths . ...............,...130

4-8. Frequency Spectra of Various Acoustic Imaging Methods . ...............133

4-9. Seismic Reflection and Refraction Principles . ..........................134

4-10. Seismic Record With Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...135

4-11. Conceptual Design of the Towed-Cable-Array Induced Polarization System .142

4-12. A Tethered, Free-Swimming Remotely Operated Vehicle System. ..,..... .147

4-13. Schematic of the Argo-Jason Deep-Sea Photographic System . . . . . . . . . .. ...153

4-14. Prototype Crust Sampler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............159

4-15. Conceptual Design for Deep Ocean Rock Coring Drill. . .................162

Tables

Table No. Page

4-1. Closing Range to a Mineral Deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...116

4-2. Side-Looking Sonars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................,.120

4-3. Swath Mapping Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............123

4-4. Bathymetry Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................127

4-5. U.S. Non-Government Submersibles (Manned) . . . . . . . . ..................145

4-6. Federally Owned and Operated Submersibles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...146

4-7. U.S. Government Supported ROVs. . . . . . . . . . . . ........................146

4-8. Worldwide Towed Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ............150

4-9. Vibracore Sampling Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............155
Chapter 4

Technologies for Exploring the

Exclusive Economic Zone

INTRODUCTION

The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is the

largest piece of “real estate” to come under the

jurisdiction of the United States since acquisitions

of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the purchase

of Alaska in 1867. The EEZ remains largely unexplored, both in the Lewis and Clark sense of gaining general knowledge of a vast new territory and

in the more detailed sense of assessing the location,

quantity, grade, or recoverability of resources. This

chapter identifies and describes technologies for exploring this vast area, assesses current capabilities

and limitations of these technologies, and identifies future technology needs.

The goal of mineral exploration is to locate, identify, and quantify mineral deposits, either for scientific purposes (e. g., better understanding their

origin) or for potential commercial exploitation.

Detailed sampling of promising sites is necessary

to prove the commercial value of deposits. Obviously, it would be impractical and costly to sample the entire EEZ in the detail required to assess

the commercial viability of a mineral deposit. Fortunately, this is not necessary as techniques other

than direct sampling can provide many indirect

clues that help researchers or mining prospectors

narrow the search area to the most promising sites.

Clues to the location of potential offshore mineral

accumulations can be found even before going to

sea to search for them. The initial requirements of

an exploration program for the EEZ are a thorough

understanding of its geological framework and of

the geology of adjacent coastal areas. In some instances, knowledge of onshore geology may lead

directly to discoveries in adjacent offshore areas.

For example, a great deal is currently known about

the factors responsible for the formation of offshore

heavy mineral deposits and gold placers. These factors include onshore sources of the minerals, transport paths, processes of concentration, and preservation of the resulting deposit. 1 In contrast,

relatively little is known about the genesis of cobalt crusts or massive sulfides. Although a thorough

understanding of known geology and current geological theory may not lead directly to a commercial discovery, some knowledge is indispensable for

devising an appropriate offshore exploration

strategy.

Rona and others have used the concept of ‘closing range to a mineral deposit’ to describe an exploration strategy for hydrothermal mineral deposits.2 With some minor modifications this strategy

may be applicable for exploration of many types

of offshore mineral accumulations. It is analogous

to the use of a zoom lens on a camera which first

shows a large area with little detail but then is adjusted for a closeup view to reveal greater detail in

a much smaller area. The strategy of closing range

begins with regional reconnaissance. Reconnaissance technologies are used to gather information

about the ‘‘big picture. While none of these techniques can provide direct confirmation of the existence, size, or nature of specific mineral deposits, they can be powerful tools for deducing likely

places to focus more attention. As knowledge is acquired, exploration proceeds toward increasingly

more focused efforts (see table 4-1), and the exploration technologies used have increasingly specific

applications. Technologies that provide detailed information can be used more efficiently once reconnaissance techniques have identified the promising

‘H. E, Clifton and G. Luepke, “Heavy Mineral Placer Deposits

of the Continental Margin of Alaska and the Pacific Coast States,

Geology and Resource Potential of the Continental Margin of Western North America and AdJ”acent Ocean Basins—Beaufort Sea to BaJ’a

California, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir

43, in press, 1986, p. 2 (draft).

‘P. A. Rona, ‘ ‘Exploration for Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits at

Seafloor Spreading Centers, Marine Mining, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1983,

pp. 20-26.

115
116 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 4-1.—Closing Range to a Mineral Deposit

Approximate

range to deposit Method

10 kilometers . . . . Long-range side-looking sonar

Regional sediment and water sampling

1 kilometer . . . . . . Gravity techniques

Magnetic techniques

Bathymetry

Midrange side-looking sonar

Seismic techniques

100 meters. . . . . . . Electrical techniques

Nuclear techniques

Short-range side-looking sonar

10 meters. . . . . . . . Near-bottom water sampling

Bottom images

0 meter. . . . . . . . . .Coring, drilling, dredging

Submersible applications

SOURCE: Adapted from P.A. Rona, “Exploration for Hydrothermal Mineral

Deposits at Seafloor Spreading Centers,” Marine Mining, vol. 4 No.

1, 1963, pp. 20-26.

areas. Systematic exploration does not necessarily

mean comprehensive exploration of each acre of

the EEZ.

Accurate information about seafloor topography

is a prerequisite for detailed exploration. Sidelooking sonar imaging and bathymetric mapping

provide indispensable reconnaissance information.

Side-looking sonar provides an image of the seafloor

similar to that provided by aerial radar imagery.

Its use has already resulted in significant new discoveries of subsea geological features within the

U.S. EEZ. By examining side-looking sonar images, scientists can decide where to focus more

detailed efforts and plan a more detailed exploration strategy.

Long-range side-looking sonar (e. g., GLORIA

or SeaMARC II, described below) may show patterns indicating large seabed structures. At somewhat closer range, a number of other reconnaissance technologies (figure 4-1) may provide more

detailed textural and structural data about the

seabed that can be used to narrow further the focus of a search to a specific mineral target.

Photo credit: U.S. Geological Survey

USGS S.P. Lee

118 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Bathymetric profiling yields detailed information about water depth, and hence, of seabed

morphology.

Midrange side-looking sonars provide acoustic images similar to long-range sonars, but

of higher resolution.

Seismic reflection and refraction techniques acquire information about the subsurface structure of the seabed.

Magnetic profiling is used to detect and characterize the magnetic field. Magnetic traverses

may be used offshore to map sediments and

rocks containing magnetite and other iron-rich

minerals.

Gravity surveys are used to detect differences

in the density of rocks, leading to estimates of

crustal rock types and thicknesses.

Electrical techniques are used to study resistivity, conductivity, electrochemical activity,

and other electrical properties of rocks.

Nuclear techniques furnish information about

the radioactive properties of some rocks.

Many of these reconnaissance technologies are

also useful for more detailed studies of the seabed.

Most are towed through the water at speeds of from

1 to 10 knots. Hence, much information may be

gathered in relatively short periods of time. It is

often possible to use more than one sensor at a time,

thereby increasing exploration efficiency. Data sets

can be integrated, such that the combined data are

much more useful than information from any one

sensor alone. Generally, the major cost of offshore

reconnaissance is not the sensor itself, but the use

of the ship on which it is mounted.

At still closer ranges, several other remote sensing techniques and technologies become useful.

Short-range, higher frequency side-looking sonars

provide very high resolution of seafloor features at

a range of 100 meters (328 feet)3 and less. At less

than about 50 meters in clear water, visual imaging is often used. Photographs or videotapes may

be taken with cameras mounted on towed or low3Many geophysical and geological measurements are commonly expressed in metric units. This convention will be retained in this chapter.

For selected measures, units in both metric and English systems will

be given.

ered platforms or on either unmanned or manned

submersibles. Instruments for sampling the chemical properties and temperature of near-bottom

water also may be carried aboard these platforms.

Indirect methods of detection give way to direct

methods at the seabed. Only direct samples can provide information about the constituents of a deposit,

their relative abundance, concentration, grain size,

etc. Grab sampling, dredging, coring, and drilling

techniques have been developed to sample seabed

deposits, although technology for sampling consolidated deposits lags behind that for sampling unconsolidated sediments. If initial sampling of a

deposit is promising, a more detailed sampling program may be carried out. In order to prove the

commercial value of a mineral occurrence, it may

be necessary to take thousands of samples.

While some technology has been specifically designed for minerals exploration, much technology

useful for this purpose has been borrowed from

technology originally designed for other purposes.

Some of the most sophisticated methods available

for exploration were developed initially for military

purposes. For instance, development of multi-beam

bathymetric systems by the U.S. Navy has proven

useful for civilian charting, oceanographic research,

and marine minerals exploration. Much technology developed for military purposes is not immediately available for civilian uses. Some technologies developed by the scientific community for

oceanographic research are also useful for minerals

exploration.

Advances in technology usually generate interest in finding applications to practical problems.

It is often costly to adapt technology for marine use.

When the military defines a need, the cost of development of new technology is commonly less constrained than may be the case for the civilian sector. Conversely, although certain exploration

techniques (e. g., for sampling polymetallic sulfides)

are not yet very advanced, it does not necessarily

follow that the technical problems in research and

development are overwhelming. Identification of

the need for new technology may be recent, and/or

the urgency to develop the technology, which might

be high for military use, may be relatively low for

civilian use.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 119

RECONNAISSANCE

Side-Looking Sonars

Side-looking sonars are used for obtaining acoustic images of the ocean bottom. Most side-looking

sonars use ship-towed transducers which transmit

sound through the water column to the seafloor.

The sound is reflected from the seabed and returned

to the transducer. Modern side-looking sonars

measure both echo-time and backscatter intensity.

As the ship moves forward, successive sound pulses

are transmitted, received, and digitally recorded.

Side-looking sonars were originally designed for

analog operation (i. e., for producing a physical

trace of the returned echo), but most now use digital methods to facilitate image processing. The data

are usually processed to correct for variations in

the ship’s speed, slant-range distance to the seafloor,

and attenuation of sound in the water. The final

product is a sonograph, or acoustic image, of the

ocean floor. It is also possible to extract information about the texture of some seabed deposits from

the sonar signal. Side-looking sonars useful for EEZ

exploration are of three types:

1. long-range (capable of mapping swaths 10 to

60 kilometers wide),

2. mid range (1 to 10 kilometers swaths), and

3. short range ( <1 kilometer swaths). 4

Table 4-2 displays characteristics of several sidelooking sonars.

Long-Range Side-Looking Sonar

One of the few technologies used to date to investigate large portions of the U.S. EEZ is a longrange side-looking sonar known as GLORIA (Geological LOng Range Inclined Asdic) (figure 4-2).

GLORIA was designed by the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences (IOS) in the United Kingdom and

is being used by the U.S. Geological Survey

(USGS) for obtaining acoustic images of the U.S.

EEZ beyond the continental shelf. 5 When proc4P

. R, Vogt and B. E. Tucholke (eds. ) ‘‘Imaging the Ocean Floor—

History and State of the Art, ‘‘ in The Geology of North America,

Volume M, The Western North Atlantic Region (Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America, 1986), p. 33.

5EEZ Scan 1984 Scientific Staff, Adas of the ExcJusi}’e Economic

Zone, Western Conterminous United States, U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series 1-1792, Scale 1 :500,000, 1986.

TECHNOLOGIES

essed, GLORIA images are similar to slant-range

radar images. GLORIA’s main contribution is that

it gives geologists a valuable first look at expanses

of the seafloor and enables them to gain insight

about seabed structure and geology. For instance,

the orientation and extent of large linear features

such as ridges, bedforms, channels, and fracture

zones can be determined. 6 Horizontal separations

as little as 45 meters (148 feet) and vertical distances

on the order of a few meters can be resolved.

USGS is using GLORIA to survey the EEZ relatively inexpensively and quickly. GLORIA can survey swaths of seabed as wide as 60 kilometers (although, in practice, a 45-kilometer swath width is

used to improve resolution). When towed 50 meters

beneath the sea surface at 8 to 10 knots and set to

illuminate a 60-kilometer swath, GLORIA is capable of surveying as much as 27,000 square kilometers (about 8,300 square nautical miles) of the

seafloor per day. It is less efficient in shallow water,

since swath width is a function of water depth below the sonar, increasing as depth increases.

GLORIA can survey to the outer edge of the EEZ

in very deep water.

Processing and enhancement of digital GLORIA

data are accomplished using the Mini-Image Processing System (MIPS) developed by USGS.7 MIPS

is able to geometrically and radiometrically correct

the original data, as well as enhance, display, and

combine the data with other data types. In addition, the system can produce derivative products,

all on a relatively inexpensive minicomputer system. 8 It is also possible now to vary the scale and

projection of the data without having to do much

manual manipulation.

‘R. W. Rowland, M. R. Goud, and B.A. McGregor, ‘‘The U.S.

Exclusive Economic Zone—A Summary of Its Geology, Exploration,

and Resource Potential, U.S. Geological Survey, Geological Circular 912, 1983, p. 1 6 .

7P. S. Chavez, “Processing Techniques for Digital Sonar Images

From GLORIA, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, vol. 52, No. 8, 1986, pp. 1133-1145.

8G. W. Hill, ‘‘U.S. Geological Survey Plans for Mapping the Exclusive Economic Zone L’sing ‘GLORIA’, Proceedings: The Exclusive Economic Zone Symposium: Exploring the New Ocean Fron

tier, M. Lockwood and G. Hill (eds. ), conference sponsored by

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, L’. S. Department

of the Interior, Smithsonian Institution, and Marine Technology. Society, held at Smithsonian Institution, Oct. 2-3, 1985, p. 76.
Table 4.2.—Side-Looking Sonars

— ..-

Area Equipment

Max Fish Max Tow coverage Resolution Tow

Frequency range

Cost a

beamwidth Dimensions weight speed ratec

at max range depth M = millions

System kilohertz k m degrees meters pounds knots km2

/day meters meters K=thousand Cost/km2

.—. . —-

Swath Map

(SQS-26CX) .. .3.5 37 >2.5 x NA hull mounted — 20 66,000 >100 hull —b

GLORIA II . .....6.2/6.8 22.5 2.5 X 30 7.75 x .66 dia 4,000 10 20,000 100 50 typ

SeaMARC II .. ..11/12 10 2.0 x 40 5.5 x 1.3 dia 3,800 8 3,000

$1.3M $2-$4

10 200 typ $1.2M $5-$10

SeaMARC 1. .. ..27/30 2.5 1.7 x 50 3 x 1.2x 1.1 1,300 5 1,100 5 6,000 max $900K

SEAMOR . . . . . . .27/30 3 1.7 x 50 3.8 X 1.9x 2.3 6,400 2 500 3

$20-$40

6,000 max $2M

Deep Tow .. ....110 1 .75x60 N A 2,000 (in water) 2 170 1 7,000 —

SAR . . . . . . . . . . . 170/190 0.75 0.5x80 5 x 1.0 dia

—

4,800 2 130 0.75 6,100 max —

EDO 4075......100 0.6

—

2.0 x 50 4.3 x 1.0 dia 2,000 2 104 0.5 6,000 max $600K

SeaMARC CL. ..150 0.5

$150-$400

1.5 x 50 2 x.4x.4 175 2 97 0.5 1,500 max $250K

EG&G SMS 960.105 0.5

—

1.2 x 50 1.4 x.1 1 dia 55 15 670 0.5 600 max $96K $10-$60

SMS 260.....105 0.5 1.2 x 50 1.4 x.1 1 dia 55 15 670 0.5 600 max $42K

Klein . . . .......50

$10-$60

0.5 1.5 x 40 1.5 x .09 dia 62 16 710 0.5 2,300 max $40-50K $10-$60

100 0.4 1.0 x 40 1.4 x .09 dia 52 16 570 0.4 2,300 max $40-50K $10-$60

500 0.2 0.2 x 40 1.2 x .09 dia 48 16 280 0.2 2,300 max $40-50K $10-$60

a~osts are for Com-plete systems, Irlcludlng .flsh, ” electronics-(subsea and topside), ar,alog or dlgltal recording, and w!nch and cable Winch and cable cOStS are substantial ($250.000) for deeP.water sYstems

The ship positioning system IS not Included, but fish positioning (relatlve to the ship) IS tncluded for deep. water systems (.$80,000) Costs probably tend to be underestimated because they are for more basic

systems than would likely be used In general, costs range from $50,000 to $150,000 for shallow systems $600,000 to $900,000 for short-range, deep tow systems, and from $1 mllllon to $3 mllllon for Iong. range

bfiy~~eo~~ ,s estimated for SWATf+MAp A graphic recorder ,s the only extra e~ulprnent needed lt a frigate IS equipped with an sQS.26CX sonar NO cost estlf’flate IS glverl for Deep TOW because It has been

a constantly evolving system incorporating many more capabllttles than just the Imag!ng system No cost IS available for the French-developed SAR

C T he flgure s given for area coverage rate assume operations at maximum speed and rna~lnlunl range 24 hours per day I n practice, transit time weather delays, CrOX+llnes, equl pment failures, etc reduce

the effective nljmber of hours per day In shallow water the maximum useful range decreases because the Image becomes distorted by refraction at shallow angles and Its appearance deteriorates because

of the changes In reflect Ion characteristics If grazing angles are less than about 5

NA—not available

SOURCE National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admlnlstratlon

●
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 121

Figure 4-2.—GLORIA Long-Range Side. Looking Sonar

a) GLORIA ready for deployment b) Schematic of GLORIA system

125° 30'W

c) GLORIA image of Taney Seamounts

SOURCE: U S. Geological Survey.

72-672 0 - 87 -- 5
122 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

USGS used GLORIA in 1984 to survey the EEZ

adjacent to California, Oregon, and Washington.

This entire area (250,000 square nautical miles) was

surveyed in 96 survey days (averaging about 2,600

square nautical miles per day). In 1985, USGS used

GLORIA to complete the survey of the Gulf of

Mexico started in 1982 and to survey offshore areas

adjacent to Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. In

1986, GLORIA surveys were conducted in parts

of the Bering Sea and in Hawaiian waters. The benefits of using GLORIA data to reconnoiter the EEZ

have become apparent in that, among other things,

several dozen previously unknown volcanoes (potential sites for hard mineral deposits) were discovered.9 These and other features appear in USGS’s

recently published west coast GLORIA atlas, a collection of 36, 2- by 2-degree sheets at a scale of

1:500,000. 10 Digital GLORIA data will be even

more useful in the future, as additional bathymetric, magnetic, gravity, and other types of data are

collected and integrated in the database.

USGS has now acquired its own GLORIA (it

previously leased one owned by 10 S). Known as

GLORIA Mark III, this newest system is an improved version of earlier models, incorporating

titanium transducers and a digitized beam-steering

unit to correct for yaw. 11 During the next several

years, GLORIA Mark III is scheduled to survey

Alaskan, Hawaiian, and Atlantic EEZs. The USGS

plan is to survey the entire U.S. EEZ by 1991, with

the exception of the U.S. Trust Territories, the icecovered areas of the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas,

and continental shelf areas (i. e., areas shallower

than 200 meters (656 feet)).

The potential market for GLORIA surveys has

recently attracted a private sector entrepreneur,

Marconi Underwater Systems of the United Kingdom. Marconi is convinced that other coastal states

will wish to explore their EEZs and will look to commercial contractors for assistance. Eventually,

USGS also may be in a position to use its GLORIA

for mapping the EEZs of other countries. Once the

U.S. EEZ is surveyed, GLORIA would be available for use to explore EEZs of countries that have

cooperative science programs with the United

States.

—‘Ibid.

10EEZ Scan 1984 Scientific Staff, A das.

I ID, Swinbanks, “New GLORIA in Record Time, ’ Nature, \Tol.

320, Apr. 17, 1986, p. 568.

USGS is coordinating its GLORIA program

with the detailed EEZ survey program of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA). NOAA is using Sea Beam and Bathymetric Swath Survey System (BS3

) technology (discussed below) to produce detailed bathymetric

charts. NOAA uses GLORIA information provided by USGS for determining survey priorities.

USGS geologists use NOAA’s bathymetry in conjunction with GLORIA data to assist in interpreting the geologic features of the seafloor. The most

accurate geological interpretations will result from

use of many different types of data simultaneously:

side-looking sonar, bathymetry, gravity, magnetic,

seismic, electrical, etc.

Midrange Side-Looking Sonar

Like GLORIA, midrange systems record the

acoustic reflection from the seafloor; however, they

are capable of much higher resolution. In addition,

whereas GLORIA is used to obtain a general picture of the seafloor, midrange and shortrange sidelooking sonars are usually used for more detailed

surveys. A seabed miner interested in looking for

a specific resource would select and tune the sidelooking sonar suitable for the job. For example,

manganese nodule fields between the Clarion and

Clipperton fracture zones in the Pacific Ocean were

mapped in 1978 using an imaging system specially

designed and built for that purpose.

The Sea Mapping And Remote Characterization systems—SeaMARC I and II—developed by

International Submarine Technology, Ltd. (1ST),

and, respectively, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory and the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics

(HIG), are two of several such systems available.

SeaMARC I recently has been used to survey the

Gorda and Juan de Fuca ridges. 12 It can resolve

tectonic and volcanic features with as little as 3

meters of relief. Higher resolution is obtained because midrange systems use wider bandwidths and

generally operate at higher frequencies (10 to 80

12J.G Kosalos and D. Chayes, “A Portable System for Ocean Bottom Imaging and Charting, Proceedings, Oceans 83, sponsored by

Marine Technology and IEEE Ocean Engineering Society, Aug. 29-

Sept. 1, 1983, pp. 649-656.

IJE,S. Kappel and W. B. F. Ryan, “Volcanic Episodicity and a NonSteady State Rift Valley Along Northeast Pacific Spreading Centers:

E\idence from Sea Marc I,’’ Journal of Geophysical Research, 1986,

in press
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 123

kilohertz) than long-range systems and because they

are towed closer to the bottom. 14 However, higher

resolution is obtained at the expense of swath width.

SeaMARC I data is relatively expensive to acquire, given the smaller area that can be surveyed

in a given time; however, SeaMARC I coverage

in specific areas is a logical follow-on to GLORIA

regional coverage, as the information it provides

is of much higher resolution. For example, little is

known about the small-scale topography of seamounts and ridges where cobalt crusts are found.

SeaMARC I surveys (or surveys by a similar deeptowed system) will be needed to determine this

small-scale topography before appropriate mining

equipment can be designed. 15

Interferometric Systems

By measuring the angle of arrival of sound echoes

from the seafloor in addition to measuring echo amplitude and acoustic travel time, interferometric systems are able to generate multi-beam-like bathymetric contours as well as side-scanning sonar

imagery (table 4-3). 16 SeaMARC II developed

jointly by 1ST and HIG, newer versions of Sea-

——-— 14Rowland, Goud, McGregor, ‘ ‘The L’ .S. Exclusive Economic

Zone—Summary, ” p. }8.

‘5J. R, Hein, L.A. Morgenson, D.A. Clague, et al , “Cobalt-Rich

Ferromanganese Crusts From the Exclusive Economic Zone of the

United States and Nodules From the Oceanic Pacific, Geology and

Resource PotentiA of the Continental Margin of k$’es[ern .\70rth America and Adjacent Ocean Basins—Beaufbrt Sea to I?aJ”a California, D.

Scholl, A, Grantz, and J. Vedder (eds. ), American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 43, in press, 1986.

“J. G. Blackinton, D.M. Hussong, and J.G, Kosalos, “First Results From a Combination Side-Scan Sonar and Seafloor Mapping

System (SeaMARC I I),” Proceedings, Offshore Technology Confercncc, Houston, TX, May 2-5, 1983, OTC 4478, pp. 307-314.

Table 4-3.—Swath Mapping Systems

Image only Image and bathymetry Bathymetry only

Side looking Interferometric Sector scan

Swath Map SeaMARC II Hydrosearch

GLORIA SeaMARC/S SNAP

SeaMARC I SeaMARC TAMU Multibeam

SeaMARC II Bathyscan Sea Beam

SeaMARC CL TOPO-SSS BSSS/Hydrochart

Deep Tow SASS

SAR BOTASS

EDO 4075 Krupp-Atlas

EG&G SMS960 Honeywell-Elac

EG&G 260 Simrad

Klein Benetech

SOURCE: International Submarine Technology, Ltd.

MARC I, and several other systems have this dual

function capability.

SeaMARC II is a midrange to long-range sidelooking sonar towed 100 meters below the surface

(above SeaMARC I, below GLORIA). It is capable of surveying over 3,000 square kilometers (875

square nautical miles) per day when towed at 8

knots, mapping a swath 10 kilometers wide (20

kilometers or more when used for imaging only)

in water depths greater than 1 kilometer. Some recent SeaMARC II bathymetry products have produced greater spatial resolution than Sea Beam or

SASS bathymetry technologies (discussed below).

Currently, SeaMARC II does not meet International Hydrographic Bureau accuracy standards for

absolute depth, which call for sounding errors of

no more than 1 percent in waters deeper than 100

meters, Although there are physical limits to improvements in SeaMARC accuracy, the substantial advantage in rate of coverage may outweigh

needs for 1 percent accuracy, particularly in deep

water.17 SeaMARC II’s swath width is roughly four

times Sea Beam’s in deep water, so at similar ship

speeds the survey rate will be about four times

greater.

Two other SeaMARC systems, both of which

will have the capability to gather bathymetry data

and backscatter imagery, are now being developed

at 1ST: SeaMARC TAMU and SeaMARC CL.

SeaMARC TAMU is a joint project of the Naval

Ocean Research and Development Activity, Texas

A&M University, and John Chance Associates.

The unit will be able to transmit and receive signals simultaneously at several frequencies, which

may enable identification of texture and bottom

roughness.

Concurrently, developments are underway to use

Sea Beam returns to measure backscattering

strength; hence, technical developments are beginning to blur the distinction between SeaMARC and

Sea Beam systems. 18 Additional advances in seabed

mapping systems are being made in the design of

tow vehicles and telemetry systems, in signal proc1 TD, E. pryor, Nation~ Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

OTA Workshop on Technologies for Surveying and Exploring thr

Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.

1 B\~ogt and Tucholke, ‘‘ Imaging the Ocean Floors, p. 34.
124 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Photo credit: International Submarine Technology, Ltd.

Sea MARC II towfish

essing, in materials used in transducers, and in

graphic recording techniques.19

Short-Range Side-Looking Sonar

Short-range side-looking sonar systems are used

for acquiring acoustic images of small areas. They

are not used for regional reconnaissance work, but

they may be used for detailed imaging of seafloor

features in areas previously surveyed with

GLORIA or SeaMARC I or II. Operating frequencies of short-range sonars are commonly between 100 and 500 kilohertz, enabling very high

resolution. Like midrange systems, they are towed

close to the ocean bottom. Deep Tow, developed

by Scripps Institution of Oceanography, has been

used to study morphology of sediment bedforms

and processes of crustal accretion at the MidAtlantic Ridge.20 SAR (Systeme Acoustique Remorque) is a similar French system, reportedly capable of distinguishing objects as small as 30 by 76

centimeters (12 by 30 inches). It is towed about 60

meters off the seafloor and produces a swath of

about 1,000 meters. Both of these deep-water systems have been used in the search for the Titanic .21

SeaMARC CL is a short-range deep-towed interferometric system which is under development (figure 4-3). One model has been built for use in the

Gulf’ of Mexico; another has been configured by

Sea Floor Surveys International for use by the private sector and is available for hire. Shallow water,

high-resolution, side-looking sonar systems developed by EG&G and Klein are used for such activities as harbor clearance, mine sweeping, and

detailed mapping of oil and gas lease blocks.

Bathymetric Systems

Bathymetry is the measurement of water depths.

Modern bathymetric technologies are used to determine water depth simultaneously at many locations. Very accurate bathymetric charts showing

the topography of the seafloor can be constructed

if sufficient data are collected with precise navigational positioning (figure 4-4). These charts are important tools for geological and engineering investigations of the seafloor, as well as aids to navigation

and fishing. If bathymetric and side- looking sonar data are integrated and used jointly, the product is even more valuable.

Most existing charts are based on data acquired

using single beam echo-sounding technology. This

technology has now been surpassed by narrow,

multi-beam technology that enables the collection

of larger amounts of more accurate data. The older

data were obtained without the aid of precise positioning systems. Moreover, existing data in the offshore regions of the EEZ generally consist of soundings along lines 5 to 10 miles apart with positional

uncertainties of several kilometers .22 Charts in the

existing National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service (NOAA/

NOS) series are usually compiled from less than

10,000 data points. In contrast, similar charts using

the newer multi-beam technology are compiled

from about 400,000 data points, and this quantity

constitutes a subset of only about 2 percent of the

observed data. Hence, much more information is

available for constructing very detailed charts.

‘9M, Klein, “High-Resolution Seabed Mapping: New Developments , Proceedings, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,

TX, May 1984, p.75.

ZoVogt and Tucholke, “Imaging the Ocean Floor, ” p. 34.

ZIP,R. Ryan and A. Rabushka, “The Discovery of the Titanic by

the U.S. and French Expedition, ’ Ocean us, vol. 28, No. 4, winter

1985/86, p. 19.

22D. E. Pryor, “Overview of NOAA’s Exclusive Economic Zone

Survey Program, Ocean Engineering and the Environment, Oceans

85 Conference Record, sponsored by Marine Technology and IEEE

Ocean Engineering Society, Nov. 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp.

1186-1189.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone 125

Figure 4-3.—SeaMARC CL images

Three images made of a PB4Y aircraft at the bottom of Lake Washington near Seattle. Swath width, altitude, and depth of

towfish varies.

SOURCE: International Submarine Technology, Ltd.
126 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 4-4.—Multi-Beam Bathymetry Products

45” 10’

a) Contour map of part of the Kane Fracture Zone, MidAtlantic Ridge

b) Three-dimensional Mesh Surface Presentation of the same

data. Charts and 3-D presentations such as these are important tools for geological and engineering investigations of

the seafloor,

SOURCE: R. Tyce, Sea Beam Users Group.

Improvements in seafloor mapping have resulted

from the development of multi-beam bathymetry

systems (table 4-4), the application of heave-rollpitch sensors to correct for ship motion, the improved accuracy of satellite positioning systems, and

improved computer and plotter capability for processing map data. 23 These improvements make

possible:

Z$C. Andreasen, “National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Exclusive Economic Zone Mapping Project, in Proceedings:

The Exclusive Economic Zone Symposium: Exploring the New Ocean

Frontier, M, Lockwood and G. Hill (eds. ), conference sponsored by

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department

of the Interior, Smithsonian Institution, and Marine Society, held at

Smithsonian Institution, Oct. 2-3, 1985, pp. 63-67.

1.

2.

3.

4.

much higher resolution

bottom features;

a significant decrease

making area surveys;

nearly instantaneous

charts, eliminating the

cartography; 24 and

for detecting fine scale

in time required for

automated contour

need for conventional

the availability of data in digital format.

Deep-Water Systems

Swath bathymetric systems are of two types:

those designed to operate in deep water and those

designed primarily for shallow water. The principal

deep-water multi-beam systems currently in use in

the United States are Sea Beam and SASS. Sea

Beam technology, installed on NOAA’s NOS ships

to survey EEZ waters deeper than 600 meters, first

became available from General Instrument (GI)

Corp. in 1977. GI’s original multi-beam bathymetric sonar, the Sonar Array Sounding System (or

SASS) was developed for the U.S. Navy and is not

available for civilian use. Sea Beam is a spinoff from

the original SASS technology.

Sea Beam is a hull-mounted system, which uses

16 adjacent beams, 8 port and 8 starboard, to survey a wide swath of the ocean bottom on both sides

of the ship’s track (figure 4-5). Each beam covers

an angular area 2.670 square. The swath angle is

the sum of the individual beam width angles, or

42.670, With the swath angle set, the swath width

depends on the ocean depth. At the continental shelf

edge, i.e., 200 meters, the swath width is about 150

meters at the bottom; in 5,000 meters (16,400 feet)

of water, the swath width is approximately 4,000

meters. Therefore, Sea Beam’s survey rate is

greater in deeper waters. By carefully spacing ship

tracks, complete (or overlapping) coverage of an

area can be obtained. The contour interval of

bathymetric charts produced from Sea Beam can

be set as fine as 2 meters.

The Navy’s older SASS model uses as many as

60 beams, providing higher resolution than Sea

Beam in the direction perpendicular to the ship’s

track (Sea Beam resolution is better parallel to the

ship’s track). In current SASS models, the outer

10 or so beams are often unreliable and not used .25

24H. K. Farr, “Multibeam Bathymetric Sonar: Sea Beam and

Hydrochart, Marine Geodosy, vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 88-89.

Zsvogt and Tucholke, “Imaging the Ocean Floor, ” p. 37.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone 127

Table 4-4.--Bathymetry Systemsa

Swath Max System

Frequency Beams Beamwidth angle depth

System

cost

kilohertz no. degrees degrees meters $10’

Sea Beam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 16 2.7 42.7 11,000 1,800

Super Sea Beam (proposed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 48 2 96 11,000 —

Towed Sea Beam (proposed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 32 2 64 — —

BS 3/Hydrochart ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 21/17 5 105 600/1,000 1,200

KRUPP Atlas Hydrosweepb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.5 59 1.8 90 10,000 2,000

Honeywell ELAC Superchartc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2 90 7,000 3,000

61 2 120 600 3,000

Minichart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 40 3 120 1,000 —

SIMRAD EM 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 32 2/2.5 40/80/104 420 500

HOLLMING Echos 15/625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 15 2 42

Echos AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 15 2 42 600

45 60 2 90 6,000

BENTECH Benigraphd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 200 0.5 100 30 2,000

740 200 0.75 100 50 2,000

500 200 1 100 60 2,000

alnt~rf~rOm~t~C ~Y~t~~~t~,~,,s~aMARc l~a~~~~”~ide~ad i“tabled.z;however,they couldbecoflsidered iflthebathyrnet~ctableaswdl,astheyhwethe pOterttld

of producing bathymetric data equivalent to that of multibeam systems. This system does not yet produce adequate bathymetric information, but improved versions

are under development. Another system, the Bathyscan 300, has recently become commercially available. This system has demonstrated acceptable accuracy. ltoperatesat 300 kilohertz, covers swathsof 200 meters width In waters less than 70 meters deep, weighs about 550 pounds, and costs about $400,000. bKrUpp.AtlaS’ HydrOSWeepiS installedmthe Meteorll, but isnotyetoperational

CThe characteristics of Honeywell’s ELAC are quoted from proposals,Honeywell claims no system was built other than an experimental one. The comPanY did suPPIY

transducers to the Hollming Shipyard in Finland for three Soviet ships. Data from Hollming indicates that the systems that were built using these transducers were

virtual clones of the Sea Beam system.

dBentech,s Benigraph is oriented toward use in pipeline construction, The unit has very high resolution and a short rmge and can eaSily be scaled to lower frequencies

and used as a mapping system. Company management has stated that this approach is their intention.

SOURCE: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Figure 4-5.— Sea Beam Beam Patterns

The Sea Beam swath width at the seafloor depends on water

depth. In 200 meters of water the swath width is about 150

meters; in 5,000 meters of water, the swath width is approximately 4,000 meters.

SOURCE: R Tyce, Sea Beam Users Group

Hence, an upgraded SASS is now being designed

that will be more reliable and will feature improved

beam-forming and signal-processing capabilities.

These should improve performance of the outer

beams in deep water.

Improvements in Sea Beam, which has performed very well but which is now considered to

be old technology, have also been proposed. One

proposed modification is to develop a capability to

quantify the strength of the signal returning from

the bottom.26 With such information, it would be

possible to predict certain bottom characteristics.

Nodule fields, for example, already have been

quantified using acoustic backscatter information,

Another proposed modification is to build a towed

Sea Beam system. Such a system could be moved

from ship to ship as required. 27

All bathymetric systems have resolution and

range limits imposed by wave front spreading, absorption, and platform noise. However, by reducing Sea Beam’s current beam width, its resolution

can be improved. There are limitations to using

the immense amounts of data that would be collected by a higher resolution system. Only a small

fraction (2 percent) of existing Sea Beam data are

26C. de Mcmstier, ‘ ‘Inference of Managese Nodule Co\erage From

Sea Beam Acoustic Backscattering Data, ” Geophysics 50, 1985, pp.

989-1001.

27D, white,\~]ce president, General Instruments, OTA Workshop

on Technologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusi\’e Economic

Zone, Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.
128 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

used in making bathymetric charts (except for

charts of very small areas), and generating charts

with a 1- meter contour interval is impractical. Sea

Beam, unlike SASS, may be installed on small

ships. In order to build a Sea Beam with a 10 beam

width, an acoustic array 2.5 times longer than current models would be required. To accommodate

such an array, one must either tow it or use a larger

ship. The Navy has found that the current Sea

Beam system is capable of producing contour charts

of sufficient quality for most of its needs and is currently considering deploying Sea Beam systems for

several of its smaller ships.

It is important to match resolution requirements

with the purpose of the survey. Use of additional

exploration technologies in conjunction with Sea

Beam data may provide better geological interpretations than improving the resolution of the Sea

Beam system alone. For instance, combined bathymetry and side-looking sonar data may reveal

more features on the seafloor.

Improving swath coverage is probably more important than improving resolution for reconnaissance surveys. Wider swath coverage, for example, could increase the survey rate and reduce the

time and cost of reconnaissance surveys. Sea

Beam’s swath angle is narrow compared to that of

GLORIA or SeaMARC (figure 4-6); thus the area

that can be surveyed is smaller in the same time

period. It may be possible to extend Sea Beam capability from the current 0.8 times water depth to

as much as 4 times water depth without losing hydrographic quality. 28 The current limit is imposed

by the original design; hence, a small amount of

development may produce a large gain in survey

coverage without giving up data quality.

Another factor that affects the survey rate is the

availability of the Global Positioning System (GPS)

for navigation and vessel speed. Currently, NOAA

uses GPS when it can; however, it is not yet fully

operational. When GPS is inaccessible, NOAA

survey vessels periodically must approach land to

maintain navigational fixes accurate enough for

charting purposes. This reduces the time available

for surveying. Ship speed is also a factor, but increases in speed would not result in as great improvements in the survey rate as increases in swath

width. Operating costs for some typical bathymetric systems are shown in figure 4-7.

Shallow-Water Systems

Several shallow-water bathymetric systems are

available from manufacturers in the United States,

Norway, West Germany, and Japan. NOAA uses

Hydrochart, commonly known as the Bathymetric Swath Survey System (BS3

), for charting in

coastal waters less than 600 meters (1 ,970 feet)

deep. One of the principle advantages BS3 has over

Sea Beam is the wider angular coverage available,

1050 versus 42.70, enabling a wider swath to be

charted. This angular coverage converts to about

260 percent of water depth, in contrast to 80 percent of depth for Sea Beam. Data acquisition is

more rapid for BS3 because the swath width is wider

and transmission time in shallow water is reduced.29

Hence, signal processing and plotting requirements

for BS3 are different than those for Sea Beam. GI

has recently introduced Hydrochart H, an improved version of Hydrochart. The principal difference is a maximum depth capability of 1,000

meters. With its 17 beams, Hydrochart II offers

much greater resolution and accuracy than older

single-beam sonars.

Along the narrow continental shelf bordering the

Pacific Coast, bathymetry in very shallow water is

fairly well known. Thus, NOAA has set an inshore

limit of 150 meters for its BS3 surveys (except for

special applications), even though BS3 is designed

to be used in water as shallow as 3 meters. In regions where there are broad expanses of relatively

shallow water and where the bathymetry is less well

known, as off Alaska and along the Atlantic Coast,

BS3 maybe used in water less than 150 meters deep.

Various bathymetric charting systems are currently under development which may enable systematic surveying of very shallow waters, limited

only by the draft of the vessel. One such system,

for use in waters less than 30 meters deep, is the

airborne laser. Laser systems are under development by the U.S. Navy, the Canadians, Australians, and others. NOAA’s work in this field

Z8R, Tyce, Director, Sea Beam Users Group, OTA Workshop on

Technologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusive Economic

Zone, Washington, DC, June 10, 1986. 29 Farr, “Multibeam Bathymetric Sonar, ” p. 91.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone 129

1,000

100

10

1

Figure 4-6.–Operating Costs for Some Bathymetry

and Side. Looking Sonar Systems

“lo 100 1,000 10,000

Depth (meters)

NOTES: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Operating costs are not really system characteristics but are primarily determined by platform (ships, etc.) costs

(including Positioning system operation). platform costs are highly variable. Variability is influenced more by economic conditions, ship operating costs, etc. than by survey system requirements.

For shallow water imaging systems, work generally takes place in relatively protected areas not far from a port.

Shallow water surveys can be performed using small (30-60 ft long) vessels at costs of from $500-$1200 per day,

but operations would likely be limited to daylight hours. Considering daily transits, it would be difficult to survey

more than 8 hours per day in an area or, given downtimes caused by inclement weather, to average more than 4

hours daily

Acquisition of deep water acoustic data commonly requires use of a larger, oceangoing vessel that can operate

24 hours a day. At this time, operational costs range from $5K-$15K a day for such vessels. With a system capable of withstanding 10 knot towing speeds, it should be possible to survey, on the average, 100 nautical track

miles a day. Production goals for the Surveyor and the Davidson are 65 linear nautical miles per day.

Several imaging systems can be operated in different modes to give higher resolution data, but this will be at a

penalty to the cost of coverage.

Experience with only three bathymetric systems is adequate enough (and not classified) to estimate operating

costs. These are Sea Beam, BSSS/Hydrochart 11, and the Simrad EM100.

Bathymetric system operating costs are based on the assumption that 100 nautical miles of seafloor a day can be

surveyed using a vessel costing $5K-$15K per day.

Costs of processing data (whether side-looking or bathymetric) are not included.

SOURCE: D. Pryor, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 
130 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 4-7.—Comparing SeaMARC and Sea Beam Swath Widths

The SeaMARC II system can acquire both bathymetric data and

that of the Sea Beam system. The Sea Beam system, however,

sonar imagery and has a swath width more than four times

produces more accurate bathymetry.

SOURCE: International Submarine Technology, Ltd., Redmond, WA.

stopped in 1982, due to limited funds. The Canadian system, the Larsen 500, is now being used by

the Canadian Hydrographic Service. The Australian laser depth sounding system, WRELADS,

has been used experimentally to map a swath 200

meters wide.30 Water must be clear (i. e., without

suspended sediments) for the airborne lasers to

work. Towed underwater lasers have not yet been

developed.

Another method currently under development

for use in very shallow water is airborne electromagnetic (AEM) bathymetry. This technique has recently been tested at sea by the Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity (NORDA).31

NORDA reports that with additional research and

development, the AEM method maybe able to produce accurate bathymetric charts for areas as deep

as 100 meters. Passive multispectral scanners also

have been applied to measuring bathymetry.32 A

combination of laser, AEM, and multispectral techniques may be useful to overcome the weather and

turbidity limits of lasers alone. Satellite altimeters

and synthetic aperture radar images of surface expressions can also indicate bathymetry, but much

 K. “Land Into Sea Does Not Go, ” Remote Sensing

Applications in Science and Technology, (cd.)

 MA: D. Publishing Co., 1983), p. 366.

 Won and K. Smits, “Airborne Electromagnetic 

try, ” Report 94, U.S. Navy, Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity, April 1985. 32D. R. Lyzenga, “Passive Remote Sensing Techniques for Mapping Water Depth and Bottom Features, Optics, 

No. 3, February 1978, pp. 29-33.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 131

less accurately. 33 If airborne bathymetric survey

techniques for shallow water can be further refined,

they would have the distinct advantage over shipbased systems of being able to cover much more

territory in much less time and at reduced cost.

Technology for airborne surveys in deep water has

not yet been developed.

Systematic Bathymetric Mapping of the EEZ

NOAA has recently begun a long-range project

to survey and produce maps of the entire U.S.

EEZ. The NOAA ship Surveyor is equipped with

Sea Beam and has been mapping the EEZ since

May 1984. Initial Sea Beam surveys were made

of the Outer Continental Shelf, slope, and upper

rise off the coasts of California and Oregon. 34 A

second Sea Beam was installed aboard Discoverer

in 1986. The Davidson has been equipped with BS3

since 1978, NOAA plans to acquire two additional

swath mapping systems with 1987 and 1988 fiscal

year funds.

NOAA is currently able to map between 1,500

and 2,500 square nautical miles per month (with

two ships, Surveyor and Davidson, working on the

west coast continental slope). This is significantly

below the expected coverage rate for the Sea Beam.

Transit time, weather, crosslines, equipment failure, and decreased efficiency in shallower water are

factors that have limited production to about 50

square nautical miles per ship per day. Moreover,

NOAA has not yet surveyed any areas beyond 120

miles from the coast. With the GPS available only

part-time, too much time would be wasted in maintaining accurate navigation control on the outer half

of the EEZ. Delays in launching satellites, the

Challenger accident, and several recent failures of

GPS satellites already in orbit are further eroding

the near-term usefulness of GPS and, therefore,

limiting the efficiency of NOAA surveys.

33W. Alpers and 1. Hennings, “A Theory of the Imaging Mechanism of Underwater Bottom Topography by Real and Synthetic Aperture Radar, ’ ‘~ournzd of Geophysical Research, vol. 89, No. C6, No\”.

20, 1984, Pp. 10,529-10,546.

34D. E. Pryor, “NOAA Exclusive Economic Zone Survey Program, ‘‘ in PA CON 86, proceedings of the Pacific Congress on Marine Technology, sponsored by Marine Technology Society, Hawaii

Section, Honolulu, HA, Mar. 24-28, 1986, pp. OST5/9,10.

The agency would like to map all 2.3 million

square nautical miles of the U.S. EEZ. With current technology, funding, and manpower, this

project could take more than 100 years. In order

to ensure that the most important areas are surveyed first, NOAA consults with USGS and uses

USGS’s GLORIA side-looking sonar imagery to

select survey targets. USGS has provided funds to

NOAA for data processing; in return, NOAA accepts the survey priorities set by USGS.

By mid-1986, less than 1 percent of the U.S. EEZ

had been systematically surveyed with NOAA’s Sea

Beam and BS3 systems. To date, few of the charts

or raw data have been publicly released because

the U.S. Navy has determined that public dissemination of high-resolution bathymetric data could

endanger national security. NOAA and the Navy

are currently exploring ways to reduce the security risks while producing bathymetric charts useful for marine geologists, potential seabed miners,

fishermen, and other legitimate users (see ch. 7).

NOAA’s Survey Program is the only systematic

effort to obtain bathymetry for the entire EEZ; however, several academic institutions have mapped

small portions of the EEZ. For instance, Woods

Hole Oceanographic Institution, Lamont-Doherty

Geological Observatory, and Scripps Institution of

Oceanography have their own Sea Beam systems.

Much of the mapping these institutions have done

has been outside the U.S. EEZ. Moreover, additional bathymetric data (how much of it useful is

unknown) are gathered by the offshore petroleum

industry during seismic surveys. As much as 10 million miles of seismic profiles (or about 15 percent

of the EEZ) have been shot by commercial geophysical service companies in the last decade, and

almost all of these surveys are believed to contain

echo soundings in some form (probably mostly 3.5

kilohertz data) .35 Some of these data are on file at

the National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) in

Boulder, Colorado; however, most remain proprietary. Moreover, maps made from these data might

35R. B. Perry, ‘ ‘Mapping the Exclusive Economic Zone, Ocean

Engineering and the En;’ironmenf, Oceans 85 Conference Kc-curd,

Sponsored by Marine Technology Society and IEEE Ocean Engineering Society, Nov. 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, p. 1193. The seismic

profiles themselves generally include ocean bottom reflections when

water depths are more than about 150 meters. These profiles am accurate, continuous bathymetric records along the line of sun.e)’.
132 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

also be considered classified under current Department of Defense policy. The grid lines are often

only one-quarter mile apart, indicating that these

maps would be very accurate (although a standard 3.5 kilohertz echo sounding does not have the

resolution of Sea Beam) .36

NOAA is currently exploring ways to utilize data

acquired by academic and private institutions to

upgrade existing bathymetric maps to avoid duplication. In some areas, it may be possible to accumulate enough data from these supplemental sources

to improve the density and accuracy of coverage.

However, because these data usually were not

gathered for the purpose of making high-quality

bathymetric maps, these data may not be as accurate as needed. NOAA is adhering to International Hydrographic Bureau standards because

these standards are: widely accepted by national

surveying agencies, result in a product with a high

degree of acceptance, and are feasible to meet.

NOAA could relax its standards if this meant that

an acceptable job could be done more efficiently.

For example, if depth accuracy of the SeaMarc 11

system (which has a much wider swath width than

Sea Beam) could be improved from the present 3

percent of depth to 1.5 percent or better, NOAA

might consider using SeaMarc II in its bathymetric surveys.

Public data sets rarely have the density of coverage that would provide resolution approaching

that of a multi-beam survey. Commercial survey

data are not contiguous over large areas because

they cover only selected areas or geologic structures.

Data may be from a wide beam or deep seismic

system, possibly uncorrected for velocity or unedited for quality. Data sets would also be difficult

to merge. Unless the lines are sufficiently dense,

computer programs cannot grid and produce contours from the data at the scale and resolution of

multi-beam data. 37

SASS data acquired by the U.S. Navy is classified. NOAA neither knows what the bathymetry

is in areas surveyed by SASS nor what areas have

been surveyed. More optimistically, once the

S6C. Savit, senior vice President, Western Geophysical, OTA

Workshop on Technologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.

“Perry, “Mapping the Exclusive Economic Zone, ” p. 1193.

Global Positioning System becomes available

around the clock, thereby enabling precise navigational control at all times, it may be possible for

NOAA to utilize multi-beam surveys conducted by

others, e.g., by University National Oceanographic

Laboratory System (UNOLS) ships. If the three

university ships currently equipped with Sea Beam

could be used as ‘ ‘ships of opportunity’ when

otherwise unemployed or underemployed, both

NOAA and the academic institutions would benefit. NOAA has already discussed the possibility of

funding Sea Beam surveys with the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.

Reflection and Refraction Seismology

Seismic techniques are the primary geophysical

methods for acquiring information about the geological structure and stratigraphy of continental

margins and deep ocean areas. Seismic techniques

are acoustic, much like echo sounding and sonar,

but lower frequency sound sources are used (figure 4-8). Sound from low-frequency sources, rather

than bouncing off the bottom, penetrates the bottom and is reflected or refracted back to one or more

surface receivers (channels) from the boundaries

of sedimentary or rock layers or bodies of different density (figure 4-9). Hence, in addition to

sedimentary thicknesses and stratification, structural characteristics such as folds, faults, rift zones,

diapirs, and other features and the characteristic

seismic velocities in different strata may be determined (figure 4-10).

Seismic reflection techniques are used extensively

to search for oil, but they are also used in mineral

exploration. Reflection techniques have been and

continue to be refined primarily by the oil industry. Seismic refraction, in contrast to seismic reflection, is used less often by the oil industry than it

once was; however, the technique is still used for

academic research. Ninety-eight percent of all seismic work supports petroleum exploration; less than

2 percent is mineral oriented.

The depth of wave penetration varies with the

frequency and power of the sound source. Low-frequency sounds penetrate deeper than high-frequency sounds; however, the higher the frequency

of the sound source, the better the resolution possible. Seismic systems used for deep penetration
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone 133

Figure 4-8.—Frequency Spectra of Various Acoustic Imaging Methods

Frequency

SOURCE: “A Historical to Underwater Acoustics, With Reference to Echo Sounding, Sub-bottom Profiling, and Side Scan in (cd.), Developments in SidesCan Sonar Techniques (Capetown, South Africa: ABC Press, Ltd., 1982).

range in frequency from about 5 hertz to 1 kilohertz. The systems with sound frequencies in this

range are very useful to the oil and gas industry.

Most often these are expensive multi-channel systems. Since most mineral deposits of potential economic interest are on or near the surface of the

seabed, deep penetration systems have limited usefulness for mineral exploration. Seismic systems

most often used for offshore mineral exploration

are those that operate at acoustic frequencies between 1 and 14 kilohertz (typically 3.5 kilohertz).

These systems, known as sub-bottom profilers, provide continuous high-resolution seismic profile

recordings of the uppermost 30 meters of strata. 38

 High-Resolution Geophysical Methods:

Offshore Hazards (Boston, MA: International Human Resources Development Corp., 1984), p. 81.

Typically, they are single-channel systems. They

can be operated at the same ship speeds as bathymetric and sonar systems. A few towed vehicles are

equipped with both side-looking sonar and subbottom profiling capability using the same coaxial

tow cable.39

One drawback with single-channel systems is that

they suffer from various kinds of multi-path and

pulse reverberation problems, problems best handled by multi-channel systems. A 100 or 500 hertz

multi-channel system is able to provide shallow

penetration data while avoiding the problems of

 Ingram, “High-Resolution Side-Scan 

Profiling to 6000M Water Depth, ” unpublished, presented at the Pacific Congress on Marine Technology, sponsored by Marine Technology Society, Hawaii Section, Honolulu, HA, Mar. 24-28, 1986.
134 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 4.9.—Seismic Reflection and Refraction Principles

In the seismic reflection technique, sound waves from a source at a ship bounce directly back to the ship from

sediment and rock layers. In the seismic refraction technique, the sound waves from a “shooting” ship travel

along the sediment and rock layers before propagating back to a “receiving” ship.

SOURCE: Rena, Exploration Methods for the Continental Geology, Geophysics, NOAA Technical Report ERL 238-AOML 8

 CO: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1972), p. 15.

single-channel systems. Because of cost, however,

a multi-channel system is usually not used for

reconnaissance work.

High-resolution seismic reflection techniques are

able to detect the presence of sediment layers or

sand lenses as little as 1 meter thick. In addition,

information about the specific type of material detected sometimes may be obtained by evaluating

the acoustic velocity and frequency characteristics

of the material. Seismic techniques may provide

clues for locating thin, surficial deposits of manganese nodules or cobalt crusts, but side-looking

sonar is a better tool to use for this purpose. Ryan

reports that a 1 to 5-kilohertz sub-bottom profiler

was very effective in reconnaissance of sedimenthosted sulfides of the Juan de Fuca Ridge.40 While

seismic methods provide a cross-sectional view of

stratigraphic and structural geologic framework, geologists prefer to supplement these methods with

coring, sampling, and drilling (i. e., direct methods), with photography and submersible observa-

 Geological Observatory, 

Workshop on Technologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 135

Figure 4-10.—Seismic Record With Interpretation

I Sea-surface I

SOURCE: U.S. Geological Survey.

tions, and with geochemical sampling of bottom

sediments and of the water column, etc., for the

highest quality interpretations.

Advances in reflection seismology have been

made more or less continuously during the approximately 60 years since its invention .41 Recent technological innovations have been the development

of three-dimensional (3-D) seismic surveying and

interactive computer software for assisting interpretation of the mountains of 3-D data generated. To

acquire enough data for 3-D work, survey lines are

set very close together, about 25 to 100 meters

apart. Data for the gaps between lines then can

be interpolated. The efficiency of data acquisition

can be increased by towing two separate streamers

— H. Savit, “The Accelerating Pace of Geophysical Technology, ”

Oceans Conference Record, Sponsored by Marine Technology Society and IEEEE Ocean Engineering Society, Sept. 10-12, 1984,

(Washington, D. C.: Marine Technology Society, 1984), pp. 87-89.

(and technical advances will soon enable two lines

of profile to be acquired from each of two separate

cables) .42

Interactive programs allow the viewer to look at

consecutive cross-sections of a 3-D seismic profile

or at any part of it in horizontal display. Thus, if

desired, the computer can strip away everything

but the layer under study and look at this layer at

any angle. Moreover, the surveyed block can be

cut along a fault line, and one side can be slid along

the other until a match is made. Interpretation of

data can be accomplished much faster than on paper. Such systems are expensive. While the cost of

acquiring and processing 20 kilometers of twodimensional seismic data may be from $500 to

$2,000 per kilometer, a 3-D high-density survey

 OTA Workshop, June 10, 1986.
136 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

of a 10-by 20-kilometer area could cost on the order of $3 million.

Resolution also continues to improve, assisted

by better navigation, positioning, and control methods. An innovation which promises to further improve resolution is the use of chirp signals rather

than sound pulses. Chirp signals are oscillating signals in which frequency is continuously varying.

Using computer-generated chirp signals, it is possible to tailor and control emitted frequencies. In

contrast, pulse sources produce essentially uncontrolled frequencies, generating both useful and unneeded frequencies at the same time.

About 10 million miles of seismic profiles have

been run in the U.S. EEZ. Most of these data are

deep penetration profiles produced by companies

searching for oil and are therefore proprietary. The

Minerals Management Service within the U.S. Department of the Interior (MMS) purchases about

15 percent of the data produced by industry, most

of the data are held for 10 years and then turned

over to the National Geophysical Data Center.

NGDC archives about 4 million miles of public

(mostly academic) seismic data. Much of this data

is for regions outside the EEZ. NGDC also archives

USGS data, most of which are from the EEZ (see

ch. 7).

It is possible to acquire shallow-penetration seismic information (as well as magnetic and gravity

data) at the same time as bathymetric data, so that

surface features can be related to vertical structure

and other characteristics of a deposit. NOAA acknowledges that simultaneous collection of different types of data could be accomplished easily

aboard its survey ships. Additional costs would not

be significant relative to the cost of operating the

ships, but would be significant relative to currently

available funds. The agency would like to collect

this data simultaneously if funds were available.

NOAA hopes to interest academia and the private

sector, perhaps with USGS help, to form a consortium to coordinate and manage the gathering

of seismic and other data, using ships of opportunity. 43 The offshore seismic firms serving the oil

and gas industry are opposed to any publicly funded

data acquisition that could deprive them of business opportunities. All but very shallow penetration data generally are of interest to the petroleum

industry and therefore could be considered competitive with private sector service companies.

Magnetic Methods

Some marine sediments and rocks (as well as

sunken ships, pipelines, oil platforms, etc. ) contain

iron-rich minerals with magnetic properties. Magnetic methods can detect and characterize these

magnetic materials and other features by measuring differences (or anomalies) in the geomagnetic

field. Magnetic (and gravity) techniques are inherently reconnaissance tools, since the data produced

must be compiled over fairly broad areas to detect

trends in the composition and structure of rock.

However, spatial resolution, or the ability to detect increasingly fine detail, varies depending on

the design of the sensor, the spacing of survey lines,

and the distance of the sensor from the source of

anomaly.

Satellite surveys are able to detect magnetic

anomalies on a global or near-global scale. Satellite data are important for detecting global or continental structural trends of limited value to resource exploration. At such broad scale, mineral

deposits would not be detected. Airplane and ship

surveys record finer scale data for smaller regions

than satellites, enabling specific structures to be detected. The closer the sensor to the structure being sensed, the better the resolution, but the time

required to collect the data, as well as the cost to

do so, increases proportionately.

Regional magnetic surveys, usually done by airplane, can detect the regional geologic pattern, the

magnetic character of different rock groups, and

major structural features which would not be noted

if the survey covered only a limited area. 44 For example, oceanic rifts, the transition between continental and oceanic crusts, volcanic structures, and

major faults have been examined at this scale. Regional magnetic surveys also have been used extensively in exploring for hydrocarbons. Accurate

measurement of magnetic anomalies can help ge-

+3c, Andrease n, NOAA EEZ project manager, interview by f~.

Westermeyer at NOAA, Rockville, MD, Apr. 22, 1986.

+4P. V. Sharma, Geophysical Methods in Geology (New York, NY:

Elsevier Science Publishing Co., 1976), p, 228.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 137

ophysicists delineate geologic structures associated

with petroleum and measure the thickness of sediments above magnetic basement rocks .45

Surveys also may be conducted to locate concentrations of ferromagnetic minerals on or beneath

the seafloor. The detection of magnetite may be

particularly important in mineral prospecting because it is often found in association with ilmenite

and other heavy minerals. Ilmenite also contains

iron, but it is much less strongly magnetized than

the magnetite with which it is associated (it also may

have weathered during low stands of sea level and

may have lost magnetic susceptibility).

The precise location of a mineral deposit or other

object may require a more detailed survey than is

possible by satellite or airplane. Use of ship-towed

magnetometers has met with varying measures of

success in identifying placer deposits. Improvements in sensitivity are needed. If enough data are

gathered to determine the shape and amplitude of

a local anomaly, the size of an iron-bearing body

and its trend can be estimated, a common practice on land. When magnetic information can be

correlated with other types of information (e. g.,

bathymetric, seismic, and gravity) interpretation

is enhanced.

Magnetic anomalies also can be used to locate

and study zones of alteration of the oceanic crust.

The initial magnetization of the oceanic crust is acquired as it cools from a magma to solid rock. For

the next 5 to 10 million years, hydrothermal circulation promotes the alteration of this igneous rock

and the generation of new secondary minerals. Initially, the heat of hydrothermal circulation destroys

the thermal remanent magnetization. Rona suggests that this reduction in magnetization will produce a magnetic anomaly and signal the proximity

of active or inactive smokers or hydrothermal

vents. 46 The Deep Sea Drilling project and Ocean

Drilling Program drilling results suggest that as the

secondary minerals grow, they acquire the magnetization of the ambient magnetic field. This aggregate magnetization produces a signature which

45P. A. Rona, “Exploration Methods for the Continental Shelf: Geology, Geophysics, Geochemistry, NOAA Technical Report, F. RI.

238-AOML 8 (Boulder, CO: NOA.4, 1972), p. 22.

4bRona, ‘‘ Exploration for Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits at

Seafloor Spreading Centers, ” p. 25.

is detectable on a regional scale and might be used

to determine the degree and rate of regional alteration. 47

Variations in the intensity of magnetization (total

field variations) are detected using a magnetometer. Magnetometers deployed from ships or airplanes are either towed behind or mounted at an

extreme point to minimize the effect of the vessel’s

magnetic field. Among the several types of magnetometers, proton precession and flux-gate types

are most often used. These magnetometers are relatively simple to operate, have no moving parts, and

provide relatively high-resolution measurements in

the field. The technology for sensing magnetic

anomalies is considered mature. A new heliumpumped magnetometer with significantly improved

sensitivity has been developed by Texas Instruments and is being adapted to oceanographic work.

Most magnetic measurements are total field

measurements. A modification of this technique is

to use a second sensor to measure the difference

in the total field between two points rather than the

total field at any given point. Use of this gradiometry technique helps eliminate some of the external noise associated with platform motion or external field variation (e. g., the daily variation in

the magnetic field). This is possible because sensors (if in close enough proximity) measure the

same errors in the total field, which are then eliminated in determining the total field difference between the two points. Gradiometry improves sensitivity to closer magnetic sources .48

The most important problem in acquiring highquality data at sea is not technology but accurate

navigation. The Global Positioning System, when

available, is considered more than adequate fme

navigation and positioning needs. Future data, to

be most useful for mineral exploration purposes,

will necessarily need to be collected as densely as

possible. It is also important that magnetic (and

gravity) data be recorded in a manner that minimizes the effects of external sources, such as of the

towing platform, and that whatever data are meas-

+TJ. L, LaBrecque, Lament-Dohe~y Geological Obsen’atory, ~TA,

May 1, 1987,

48J. Brozena, Naval Research Laboratory, and J. LaBrcque,

Lament-Doherty Geological Observatory, OTA Workshop on Technologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone,

Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.
138 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

ured be incorporated into larger data sets, so that

data at different scales are simultaneously available

to investigators.

Gravity Methods

Like magnetic methods, the aim of gravity methods is to locate anomalies caused by changes in

physical properties of rocks .49 The anomalies sought

are variations in the Earth’s gravitational field resulting from differences in density of rocks in the

crust—the difference between the normal or expected gravity at a given point and the measured

gravity. The instrument used for conducting total

field gravity surveys is a gravimeter, which is a welltested and proven instrument. Techniques for conducting gradiometric surveys are being developed

by the Department of Defense, although these will

be used for classified defense projects and will not

be available for public use.50

The end product of a gravity survey is usually

a contoured anomaly map, showing a plane view

or cross-section. The form in which gravity, as well

as magnetic, data is presented differs from that for

seismic data in that the fields observed are integrations of contributions from all depths rather than

a distinct record of information at various depths.

Geophysicists use such anomaly characteristics as

amplitude, shape, and gradient to deduce the location and form of the structure that produces the

gravity disturbance.

51 For example, low-density

features such as salt domes, sedimentary infill in

basins, and granite appear as gravity “lows” because they are not as dense as basalt and ore bodies, which appear as gravity ‘‘highs. Interpretation of gravity data, however, is generally not

straightforward, as there are usually many possible explanations for any given anomaly. Usually,

gravity data are acquired and analyzed together

with seismic, magnetic, and other data, each contributing different information about the sub-bottom geological framework.

Since variations in terrain fleet the force of gravity, terrain corrections must be applied to gravity

4gSharma, Geophysical Methods in Geology, p. 88.

5~. Brozena, Naval Research Laboratory, OTA Workshop on Technologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone,

Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.

Slsharma, Geophysic~ Methods in Geology, p. 131.

data to produce an accurate picture of the structure and physical properties of rocks. Bathymetric

data are used for this purpose; however, terrain corrections using existing bathymetry data are relatively crude. Terrain corrections using data produced by swath mapping techniques provide a

much improved adjustment.

Like magnetic data, the acquisition of gravity

data may be from satellite, aircraft, or ship. The

way to measure the broadest scale of gravity is from

a satellite. SEASAT, for instance, has provided

very broad-scale measurements of the geoid (surface of constant gravitational potential) for all the

world’s oceans. To date, almost all gravity coverage of the EEZ has been acquired by ship-borne

gravimeters. Gravimetry technology and interpretation techniques are now considered mature for

ship-borne systems. However, the quality of shipbased gravity data more than 10 years old is poor.

Airborne gravimetry is relatively new, and technology for airborne gravity surveys (both total field

and gravity gradient types) is still being refined.

As airborne gravity technology is further developed,

it can be expected that this much faster and more

economical method of gathering data will be used.

Of all the techniques useful for hard mineral

reconnaissance, however, gravity techniques are

probably the least useful. This is because it is very

difficult to determine variations in structure for

shallow features (e. g., 200 meters or less). Shallow

material is all about the same density, and excess

noise reduces resolution. Gravity techniques are

used primarily for investigating intermediate-todeep structures—the structure of the basement and

the transition between continental and oceanic

crust. Many of these structures are of interest to

the oil industry. Although large faults, basins, or

seamounts may be detected with air- or ship-borne

gravimeters, it is unlikely that shallow placer deposits also could be located using this technique.

USGS has published gravity maps of the Atlantic coast, the Gulf of Mexico, central and southern offshore California, the Gulf of Alaska, and the

Bering Sea. However, little of the EEZ has been

mapped in detail, and coverage is very spotty. For

example, port areas appear to be well-surveyed, but

density of track lines decreases quickly with distance

from port. Oil companies have done the most grav-
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 139

ity surveying, but the information they hold is proprietary. Little surveying has been done in very

shallow waters (i. e., less than 10 meters), as the

larger survey ships cannot operate in these waters.

The availability of high-density gravity data (and

possibly also magnetic data) for extensive areas of

the EEZ may pose a security problem similar to

that posed by high-resolution bathymetry. Gravitational variations affect inertial guidance systems and

flight trajectories. The Department of Defense has

concerns about proposals to undertake systematic

EEZ gravity surveys, particularly if done in conjunction with the systematic collection of bathymetry data, since characteristic subsea features might

be used for positioning missile-bearing submarines

for strikes on the United States.

SITE-SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGIES

Site-specific exploration technologies generally

are those that obtain data from small areas relative to information provided by reconnaissance

techniques. Some of these technologies are deployed

from a stationary ship or other stationary platform

and are used to acquire detailed information at a

specific site. Often, in fact, such techniques as coring, drilling, and grab sampling are used to verify

data obtained from reconnaissance methods. Other

site-specific technologies are used aboard ships moving at slow speeds. Electrical and nuclear techniques

are in this category.

Electrical Techniques

Electrical prospecting methods have been used

extensively on land to search for metals and minerals, but their use offshore, particularly as applied

to the shallow targets of interest to marine miners,

is only just beginning. Recent experiments by researchers in the United States and Canada suggest

that some electrical techniques used successfully on

land may be adaptable for use in marine mineral

exploration. 57 Like other indirect exploration techniques, the results of electrical methods usually can

be interpreted in various ways, so the more independent lines of evidence that can be marshaled in

making an interpretation, the better.

The aim of electrical techniques is to deduce information about the nature of materials in the earth

based on electrical properties such as conductivity,

5ZA. D. Chave, S.C, Coustab]e, and R.N. Edwards, ‘‘Electrical Exploration Methods for the Seafloor, ‘‘ in press, 1987. See also S, Cheesman, R.N. Edwards, and AD. Chave, “On the Theory of Seafloor

Conductivity Mapping Using Transient EM Systems, Geophysics,

February 1987; and J.C. Wynn, ‘ ‘Titanium Geophysics—A Marine

Application of Induced Polarization, unpublished draft, 1987.

electrochemical activity, and the capacity of rock

to store an electric charge. Electrical techniques are

similar to gravity and magnetic techniques in that

they are used to detect anomalies—in this case,

anomalies in resistivity, conductivity, etc. , which

allow inferences to be made about the nature of the

material being studied.

The use of electrical methods in the ocean is very

different from their use on land. One reason is that

seawater is generally much more conductive than

the underlying rock, the opposite of the situation

on land where the underlying rock is more conductive than the atmosphere. Hence, working at sea

using a controlled-source electromagnetic method

is somewhat analogous to working on land and trying to determine the electrical characteristics of the

atmosphere. In both cases, one would be looking

at the resistive medium in a conductive environment. The fact that seawater is more conductive

than rock appeared to preclude the use of electrical techniques at sea, Improvements in instrumentation and different approaches, however, have

overcome this difficulty to a degree, A difference

which benefits the use of electrical techniques at sea

is that the marine environment is considerably

quieter electrically than the terrestrial environment.

Thus, working in a low-noise environment, it is

possible to use much higher gain amplifiers, and

it is usually not necessary to provide the noise

shielding that would be needed on land. Also, coupling to the seafloor environment for both source and

receiver electrodes is excellent. Thus, electrode

resistances on the seafloor are typically less than

1 ohm, whereas on land the resistance would be

on the order of 1,000 ohms.

Electrical techniques that may be useful for marine mineral prospecting include electromagnetic
140 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

methods, direct current (DC) resistivity, self potential, and induced polarization.

Electromagnetic Methods

Electromagnetic (EM) methods detect variations

in the conductive properties of rock. A current is

induced in the conducting earth using electric or

magnetic dipole sources. The electric or magnetic

signature of the current is detected and yields a

measure of the electrical conductivity of the underlying rock. The Horizontal Electric Dipole and the

Vertical Electric Dipole method are two controlledsource EM systems that have been used in academic

studies of deep structure. Both systems are undergoing further development. Recent work suggests

that these techniques may enable researchers to determine the thickness of hydrothermal sulfide deposits, of which little is currently known. Changes

in porosity with depth are also detectable .53 To date,

little work has been done regarding the potential

applicability of these techniques for identifying marine placers.

Researchers at Scripps Institution of Oceanography are currently developing the towed, frequency domain Horizontal Electric Dipole method

for exploration of the upper 100 meters of the

seabed. A previous version of this system consists

of a towed silver/silver-chloride transmitting antenna and a series of horizontal electric field

receivers placed on the seafloor at ranges of 1 to

70 kilometers from the transmitter. Since this arrangement is not very practical for exploratory purposes, the Scripps researchers are now developing

a system in which the transmitter and receiver can

be towed in tandem along the bottom. Since the

system must be towed on the seabed, an armored,

insulated cable is used. The need for contact with

the ocean floor limits the speed at which the system can be towed to 1 to 2 knots and the type of

topography in which it can be used; hence, this

method, like other electrical techniques, would be

most efficiently employed after reconnaissance

methods have been used to locate areas of special

interest.

sJp.A. Wo]fgrarn, R.N. Edwards, L. K. Law, and M. N. Bone,

“Polymetallic Sulfide Exploration on the Deep Seafloor: The MiniMoses Experiment, ” Geophysics 51, 1986, pp. 1808-1818.

The Vertical Electric Dipole method is being developed by researchers at Canada’s Pacific Geoscience Center and the University of Toronto. The

Canadian system is known as MOSES, short for

magnetometric offshore electrical sounding. It consists of a vertical electric dipole which extends from

the sea surface to the seafloor and a magnetometer receiver which measures the azimuthal magnetic

field generated by the source .54 The receiver is fixed

to the seafloor and remains in place while a ship

moves the transmitter to different locations. A

MOSES survey was conducted in 1984 at two sites

in the sediment-filled Middle Valley along the

northern Juan de Fuca Ridge. Using MOSES, researchers estimated sediment and underlying basalt resistivity, thickness, and porosity.

Another electromagnetic method with some

promise is the Transient EM Method. Unlike controlled source methods in which a sinusoidal signal is generated, a source transmitter is turned on

or off so that the response to this ‘‘transient’ can

be studied. An advantage of the Transient EM

method is that the effects of shallow and deep structure tend to appear at discrete times, so it is possible to separate their effects. Also, the effects of topography, which are difficult to interpret, can be

removed, allowing researchers to study the underlying structure. The Transient EM method also

may be particularly useful for locating sulfides, since

they have a high conductivity relative to surrounding rock and are located in ragged areas of the

seafloor. A prototype Transient EM system is currently being designed for survey purposes. It will

use a horizontal magnetic dipole source and receiver

and will be towed along the seafloor. 55

Direct Current Resistivity

Resistivity is a measure of the amount of current that passes through a substance when a specified potential difference is applied. The direct current resistivity method is one of the simplest

electrical techniques available and has been used

extensively on land to map boundaries between

54D. C. Nobes, L.K. Law, and R.N. Edwards, ‘‘The Determination of Resistivity and Porosity of the Sediment and Fractured Basalt

Layers Near the Juan de Fuca Ridge, ” Geophysical Journal of the

Royal Astronomical Society 86, 1986, pp. 289-318.

JsCheesman, Edwards, and Chave, ‘ ‘On the Theory of Seafloor

Conductivity Mapping. ”
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 141

layers having different conductivities.56 Recent marine DC resistivity experiments suggest that the DC

resistivity method may have applications for locating and delineating sulfide ore bodies. For example, during one experiment at the East Pacific Rise

in 1984, substantial resistivity anomalies were detected around known hydrothermal fields, and seafloor conductivities were observed that were twice

that of seawater . 57 In this experiment the source

and receiver electrodes were towed from a research

submersible. Conversely, resistivity techniques

would not be expected to detect placer deposits, except under the most unusual circumstances. This

is because seawater dominates the resistivity response of marine sediments (as they are saturated

near the surface), and, in this case, only the relative compaction (porosity) of the sediments could

be measured .58

Self Potential

The self potential (or spontaneous polarization)

(SP) method is used to detect electrochemical effects caused by the presence of an ore body. The

origin of SP fields is uncertain, but it is believed

that they result from the electric currents that are

produced when a conducting body connects regions

of different electrochemical potential, 59 On land,

SP has been used primarily in the search for sulfide mineral deposits. It is a simple technique in

that it does not involve the application of external

electric fields. However, its use offshore has been

limited. Results of some experiments have been inconclusive, but the offshore extension of known land

sulfide deposits was successfully detected in a 1977

experiment. 60 More recently, researchers at the

University of Washington have proposed building

a towed SP system for exploring the Juan de Fuca

Ridge. SP may prove effective for detecting the

presence of sulfide deposits; however, it is unlikely

to be of help in assessing the size of deposits.

S6M, B, Dobrin, Introduction to Geoph,vsical prospecting (New

York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1976), p. 6.

57 T.J.G. Francis, “Resistivity Measurements of an Ocean Floor

Sulfide Mineral Deposit From the Submersible C}’ana, Marine Geophysical Research 7, 1985, pp. 419-438.

“J. Wynn, U.S. Geological Survey, letter to W, Westerrneyer,

OTA, May 1986.

sgchal~e, Coustable, and Edwards, “Electrical Exploration Methods for the Seafloor.

‘“Ibid,

Induced Polarization

The induced polarization (1P) method has been

used for years to locate disseminated sulfide

minerals on land. Recent work by USGS to adapt

the technique for use as a reconnaissance tool to

search for offshore titanium placers (figure 4-11)

has produced some promising preliminary results.

The 1P effect can be measured in several ways, but,

in all cases, two electrodes are used to introduce

current into the ground, setting up an electric potential field. Two additional electrodes are used,

usually spaced some distance away, to detect the

1P effect. This effect is caused by ions under the

influence of the potential field moving from the surrounding electrolyte (groundwater onshore, seawater in the seabed sediments) onto local mineralgrain interfaces and being adsorbed there. When

the potential field is suddenly shut off, there is a

finite decay time when these ions bleed back into

the electrolyte, similar to a capacitor in an electric

circuit.

If perfected for offshore use, the reconnaissance

mode of 1P may enable investigators to determine

if polarizable minerals are present, although not

precisely what kind they are (although ilmenite and

some base metal sulfides, especially pyrite and chalcopyrite, have a significant 1P effect, so do certain

clays and sometimes graphite). In the reconnaissance mode, the 1P streamer can be towed from

a ship; as seawater is highly conductive, it is not

necessary to implant the 1P electrodes on the seafloor. Consequently, it is ‘‘theoretically possible to

cover more terrain with 1P measurements in a week

offshore than has been done onshore by geophysicists worldwide in the last 30 years."61 Best results

are produced when the electrodes are towed 1 to

2 meters off the bottom (although before 1P exploration becomes routine, a better cable depressor and

more abrasion-resistant cables will have to be developed). Electrodes spaced 10 meters apart enable

penetration of sediments to a depth of about 7

meters. The current USGS system is designed to

work in maximum water depths of 100 meters.

“J. C. Wynn and A.E. Grosz, ‘ ‘Application of the Induced Polarization Method to Offshore Placer Resource Exploration, Proceedings, Offshore Technology Conference 86, May 5-8, 1986, Houston,

TX, OTC 5199, pp. 395-401.
142 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 4-11 .—Conceptual Design of the Towed-Cable-Array Induced Polarization System

Induced polarization, used for many years onshore, is currently being adapted for use at sea to search for titanium placers.

SOURCE: Wynn and A.E. Grosz, “’Application of the Induced Polarization Method to Offshore Placer Resource Exploration, ” Proceedings, Offshore Technology

Conference S6, May 5-8, 1986, Houston, TX (OTC 5199), p. 399.

When polarizable minerals are located, there is

some hope that a related method, spectral induced

polarization (which requires a stationary ship), may

be able to discriminate between the various sources

of the 1P effect, It has been demonstrated that certain onshore titanium minerals (e. g., ilmenite and

altered ilmenite) have strong and distinctive 1P signatures, and that these signatures can be used in

the field for estimating volumes and percentages

of these minerals. 62 One factor complicating interpretation of the spectral 1P signature for ilmenite

could be the degree of weathering. More work is

required to determine if spectral 1P works as well

offshore as it does onshore. If so, it may be possible to survey large areas of the EEZ using recon-

 E. and V. M. Foscz, ‘‘Induced 

 Response of Titanium-Bearing Placer Deposits in the 

 States, ” Open-File Report 85-756 (Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey, 1985).

naissance and spectral 1P. Sampling then could be

guided in a much more efficient manner. 63

The applicability of 1P to placers other than titanium-bearing sands has not been demonstrated, but

USGS researchers also believe that it may be possible, by recalibrating 1P equipment, to identify and

quantify other mineral sands. Experiments are now

being designed to determine if 1P methods can be

used to identify gold and platinum sands. 64 The applicability of 1P techniques to marine sulfide deposits and to manganese-cobalt crusts, too, has yet

to be demonstrated. USGS researchers hope to acquire samples of both types of deposits to perform

the necessary laboratory measurements.

 and Grosz, “Applications of the Induced Polarization

Method, ” p. 397.

WA. Eastern Mineral Resources, USGS, telephone conversation with W. Westermeyer, OTA, Apr. 8, 1986.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 143

Induced Polarization for Core Analysis

Another interesting possibility now being investigated is to use 1P at sea to assay full-length

vibracore samples. Many techniques can assist geologists and mineral prospectors in identifying

promising areas for mineral accumulations. Nevertheless, to determine precisely what minerals are

present and in what quantities, it is still necessary

to do laborious, expensive site-specific coring. Moreover, once a core is obtained, it often takes many

hours to analyze its constituents, and much of this

work must be done in shore-based laboratories.

To explore a prospective offshore mine site

thoroughly, hundreds or even thousands of core

samples would be needed. Geologists need analytical methods that would enable them to quickly identify and characterize deposits. USGS researchers

have begun to insert 1P electrodes into unopened

vibracores to determine the identity and proportion of polarizable minerals present. Such a procedure can be done in about 20 minutes and can

therefore save considerable time and expense. If

the analysis showed interesting results, the ship

could immediately proceed with more detailed coring (shore-based analysis of cores precludes revisiting promising sites on the same voyage).

Geochemical Techniques

Water Sampling

Measurement of geochemical properties of the

water column is a useful exploration method for

detecting sulfide-bearing hydrothermal discharges

at active ridge crests. 65 Some techniques have been

developed for detecting geochemical anomalies in

the water column 500 kilometers (310 miles) or

more from active vent sites. Used in combination

with geophysical and geological methods, these

techniques help researchers “zero in’ on hydrothermal discharges. Other geochemical methods are

used to sense water column properties in the immediate vicinity of active vent sites.

Reconnaissance techniques include water sampling for particulate metals, elevated values of dissolved manganese, and the helium-3 isotope. Iron

and manganese adsorbed on weak acid-soluble parc~Rona, ‘‘ Exploration for Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits, pp.

7-37.

ticulate matter have been detected 750 kilometers

(465 miles) from the vent from which they were issued. Total dissolvable manganese is detectable several tens of kilometers from active hydrothermal

sources. Methane, which is discharged as a dissolved gas from active vent systems, can be detected

on the order of several kilometers from a vent site.66

Analysis of water samples for methane has the

advantage that it can be done aboard ship in less

than an hour. Analysis for total dissolvable manganese requires about 10 hours of shipboard time.

At a distance of 1 kilometer or less from an active vent, the radon-222 isotope and dissolved metals also may be detected. The radon isotope produced by uranium series decay in basalt, reaches

the seafloor through hydrothermal circulation and

can be sampled close to an active vent. Helium-3

derived from degassing of the mantle beneath

oceanic crust and entrained in subseafloor hydrothermal convection systems may be detectable in

the vicinity of active vents. Other near-field water

column measurements which may provide evidence

of the proximity of active vents include measurements of light scattering due to suspended particulate matter, temperature, thermal conductivity,

and salinity. Light scattering and temperature observations proved to be very useful in identifying

hydrothermal plumes along the southern Juan de

Fuca Ridge. 67

Geochemical properties of the water column are

measured using both deep-towed instrument packages and ‘‘on-station’ sampling techniques. For

example, NOAA’s deep-towed instrumented sled,

SLEUTH has been used to systematically survey

portions of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Measurements

made by SLEUTH sensors over the ridge crest

were supplemented by on-station measurements up

to 100 kilometers off the ridge axis. 68 Similar surveys have been made over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge69

and elsewhere. The sensitivity and precision of instruments used to acquire geochemical information

continues to improve. Perhaps as importantly,

bbIbid.

6TE.T, Baker, J .W. Lavdle, and G.*J. Massoth, ‘‘ H}drorhermal

Particle Plumes Cher the Southern Juan de Fu~a Ridge, Nature,

vol. 316, July 25, 1985, p, 342.

b81bid.

cgp, A. Rona, G. Klinkhammer, T.A. Nelsen, J. H. Trefcy, and

H. Elder!ield, ‘ ‘Black Smokers, Massive Sulfides, and Vent Biota at

the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, ” Nature, vol. 321, Ma} 1, 1986, p. 33.
144 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

towed instrument packages like SLEUTH are enabling systematic surveys of large ocean areas to

be undertaken.

Nuclear Methods

Nuclear methods consist of physical techniques

for studying the nuclear or radioactive reactions and

properties of substances. Several systems have been

developed to detect the radiation given off by such

minerals as phosphorite, monazite, and zircon. One

such device was developed by the Center for Applied Isotope Studies (CAIS) at the University of

Georgia. In the mid-1970s, the Center developed

an underwater sled equipped with a radiation detector that is pulled at about 3 knots over relatively

flat seabed terrain. The towed device consists of a

four-channel analyzer that detects potassium-40,

bismuth-214, thallium-208, and total radiation. The

sled has been used to locate phosphorite off the coast

of Georgia by detecting bismuth-214, one of the

radioactive daughters of uranium, often a constituent of phosphorite. In another area offshore Georgia, the Center’s towed sled detected thallium-208,

an indicator of certain heavy minerals. Subsequent

acquisition of surficial samples (grab samples) of

the area confirmed the presence of heavy mineral

sands. 70

A similar system for detecting minerals associated with radioactive elements has been developed

by Harwell Laboratory in the United Kingdom.

The Harwell system identifies and measures three

principal elements: uranium, thorium, and potassium. The seabed probe resembles a snake and is

towed at about 4 knots in water depths up to 400

meters (1, 300 feet). The Harwell system is now

commercially available and is being offered by British Oceanics, Ltd., as part of its worldwide survey

services .71

A second type of nuclear technique with promise for widespread application in marine mineral

exploration uses X-ray fluorescence to rapidly analyze surface sediments aboard a moving ship. The

method was developed by CAIS and uses X-ray

fluorescence as the final step. X-ray fluorescence

is a routine method used in chemical analyses of

solids and liquids. A specimen to be analyzed using

this technique is irradiated by an intense X-ray

beam which causes the elements in the specimen

to emit (i. e., fluoresce) their characteristic X-ray

line spectra. The elements in the specimen maybe

identified by the wavelengths of their spectral

lines. 72

The CAIS Continuous Seafloor Sediment Sampler was originally developed for NOAA’s use in

rapid sampling of heavy metal pollutants in nearshore marine sediments. A sled is pulled along the

seafloor at about three knots. The sled disturbs the

surficial sediments, creating a small sediment

plume. The plume is sucked into a pump system

within the sled and pulled to the surface as a slurry.

The slurry is further processed, after which small

portions are collected on a continuous filter paper.

After the water is removed, a small cookie-like wafer remains on the paper (hence, the system is

known as the ‘‘cookie maker’ ‘). ‘ ‘Cookies’ are

coded for time, location, and sample number and

can be made about every 30 seconds, which, at a

ship speed of 3 knots, is about every 150 feet. An

X-ray fluorescence unit is then used to analyze the

samples. It is possible to analyze three or four elements aboard ship and approximately 40 elements

in a shore-based laboratory. The system has been

designed to operate in water 150 feet deep but could

be redesigned to operate in deeper water.73

The cookie maker can increase the speed of marine surveys. Not only are samples quickly obtained

but preliminary analysis of the samples is available

while the survey is still underway. Availability of

real-time data that could be used for making shipboard decisions could significantly improve the efficiency of marine surveys. One current limitation

is that samples are only obtainable from the top 3

or 4 centimeters of sediment. Researchers believe

that some indication of underlying deposits may be

obtained by sampling the surfacial sediments, but

further tests are needed to determine if the technique also can be used for evaluating the composition of deeper sediments.

70J. Noakes, Center for Applied Isotope Studies, OTA Workshop

on Site-Specific Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic

Zone, Washington, DC, July 16, 1986.

7“’Radiometric Techniques for Marine Mineral Survey s,” World

Dredging and Marine Construction, Apr. 1, 1983, p. 208.

~zEncyc]opedia of Science and Technolo~, 5th ed. , (New York,

NY: McGraw-Hill, 1982), p. 741.

73J. Noakes, OTA Workshop on Site-Specific Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, July 16, 1986.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone 145

A third type of nuclear technique, neutron activation analysis, has been used with some success

to evaluate the components of manganese nodules

from the deep seafloor. 74 The technique consists of

irradiating a sample with neutrons, using californium-252 as a source. Gamma rays that are emitted

as a result of neutron interactions then can be analyzed. Ideally, the identification and quantification

of elements can be inferred from the spectral intensities of gamma ray energies that are emitted

by naturally occurring and neutron-activated radioisotopes.

75 Although the neutron activation technique can be used at sea to obtain chemical analyses of many substances, its use is limited by the

difficulty of taking precise analytical weights at sea.

The X-ray fluorescence method has proven both

easier to use at sea and less expensive.

Manned Submersibles and Remotely

Operated Vehicles

Both manned and remotely operated vehicles

(ROVs) have been working in the EEZ for many

years. One characteristic that all undersea vehicles

— ------

741bid.

75A BOrChOle Probe for In Situ Neutron ~ctitrat;on Anal) ’sis, Open

File Report 132-85 (Washington, DC: U S. Bureau of Mines, June

1984), p. 8.

share is the ability to provide the explorer with a

direct visual or optical view of objects in real-time.

Another common characteristic is that undersea vehicles operate at very slow speeds relative to surfaceoriented techniques. Indeed, a great deal of the

work for which undersea vehicles are designed is

accomplished while remaining stationary to examine or sample an object with the vehicles manipulators. As a consequence, neither manned nor unmanned vehicles are cost-effective if they are

employed in large area exploration. Their best application is in performing very detailed exploration

of small areas or in investigating specific characteristics of an area.

All manned submersibles carry a crew of at least

1 and as many as 12, one of which is a pilot. Most

of the many types of manned submersibles are

battery-powered and free-swimming; others are

tethered to a surface support craft from which they

receive power and/or life support (tables 4-5 and

4-6). A typical untethered, battery-powered

manned submersible is Alvin which carries a crew

of three (one pilot; two observers); its maximum

operating depth is 4,000 meters (13,000 feet).

ROVs are unmanned vehicle systems operated

from a remote station, generally on the sea surface.

There are five main categories of ROVs:

Table 4-5.—U.S. Non-Government Submersibles (Manned)

Date Operating Power Crew/ Manipulators/

Vehicle built Length (ft) depth (ft) supply observers viewports Operators

Arms /,//,1// and IV .1976 -1978 8 . 5 3,000 Battery 1/1 3/Bow dome Oceaneering International, Santa Barbara, CA

Auguste Piccard ., ,1978 93.5 2,000 Battery 6/3 0/1 Chicago, Inc., Barrington, IL

Beaver ... .1968 24.0 2,700 Battery 1/4 I/Bow dome International Underwater Contractors, City

Island, NY, NY

Deep Ques t ,1967 39.9 8,000 Battery 2/2 2 / 2 Lockheed Missiles & Space, San Diego, CA

Delta 1982 15.0 1,000 Battery 1/1 1/19 Marfab, Torrence, CA

Diaphus ... .,1974 19.8 1,200 Battery 1/1 l/Bow dome Texas A & M University, College Station, TX

Jim (14 ea) ., .. .,1974 – 1,500 Human 1/ 0 2/1 Oceaneering International, Houston, TX

Johnson-Sea-Link I & II . ..1971 22.8 3,000 Battery 1/3 1/Panoramic Harbor Branch Foundation, Ft. Pierce, FL

1975

Mermaid II ... .,1972 17.9 1,000 Battery 1/1 l/Bow dome International Underwater Contractors, City

Island, NY

Nekon B&C ., ., 1968 15.0 1,000 Battery 1/1 l/Bow dome Oceanworks, Long Beach, CA

1970

1972

Pioneer. . ......,197 8 17.0 1,200 Battery 1/2 2/3 Martech International, Houston, TX

Pisces VI ., 1976 20,0 6,600 Battery 1/2 2/3 International Underwater Contractors, City

Island, NY

Snooper ., . ....,1969 14.5 1,000 Battery 1/1 1 /10 Undersea Graphics, Inc., Torrance, CA

Makalii ., . .....1966 17,7 1,200 Battery 1/1 1/6 University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI

Wasp ., ,1977 – 2,000 Surface 1/10 2/Bow dome Oceaneering International, Houston, TX

SOURCE Busby Assooales, Inc. Arlington, VA
146 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 4-6.—FederalIy Owned and Operated Submersibles

Date Operating Power Crew/ Manipulators/ Speed (kts) Endurance (hrs)

Vessel built Length (ft) depth supply observers view ports cruise/max cruise/max

UNOLS

Alvin . ......1964 2 5 12,000 Battery 1/2 1/4 1/2 —

NOAA

Pisces V .. ..1973 2 0 4,900 Battery 1/2 2/3 0.5/2 6/2

NAVY

Sea Cliff .. ..1968 26 20,000 Battery 2/1 2/5 0.5/2.5 8/2

Turtle . ......1968 26 10,000 Battery 2/1 2/5 0.5/2.5 8/2

NR-1 . . . . . . ..1969 136 — Nuclear 7/— — — —

SOURCE: Busby Associates, Inc., Arlington, VA.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

tethered, free-swimming vehicles (the most

common);

towed vehicles;

bottom crawling vehicles;

structurally-reliant vehicles; and

autonomous or untethered vehicles.

For exploring the EEZ, two types of ROVs appear most appropriate: tethered, free-swimming vehicles and towed vehicles (table 4-7). A typical

tethered, free-swimming ROV system is shown in

figure 4-12. Typically, vehicles of this type carry

one or more closed-circuit television cameras, lights,

and, depending on their size, a variety of tools and

monitoring/measuring instrumentation. Almost all

of them receive electrical power from a surface support vessel and can maneuver in all directions using

onboard thrusters.

Towed vehicles are connected by a cable to a surface ship. Most often these vehicles carry television

cameras and still cameras. Lateral movement is

Photo credit: Office of Undersea Research, NOAA

The Submersible Alvin and the At/antis //. Alvin is an

untethered, battery-powered manned submersible

capable of operating in 13,000 feet of water.

Table 4-7.—U.S. Government Supported ROVs

Type Depth (ft) Operator

Tethered fnw-swimming:

Mini Rover. . . . . . . . . . . . 328

ADROV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000

Mini Rover MK II, . . . . . . 1,200

Pluto, ... . . . . . . . . . . 1,300

Snoopy (2). .. .,., . . . . . . . . 1,500

Recon IV (4) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500

Curv II (2) . . . . . . . 2,500

URS-1 3,000

Super Scorpio (2) . . . . . . . 4,900

Deep Drone ., . . . . . 5,400

Curv III ... . . . . . . . 10,000

Towed:

Manta, ., ., 2,100

Teleprobe, ., . . . . . . . . 20,000

Deep Tow, . . . . . . . . 20,000

Argo/Jason . . . . . . . . . . . 20,000

ANGUS . . 20,000

Katz Fish 2,500

STSS ., . . . . . 20,000

Untethered:

Eave East . 150

Eave West ... . . . . . 200

SPURV 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,000

SPURV II . . . . . 5,000

UFSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500

U.S. Navy

U.S. Navy

NOAA

U.S. Navy

U.S. Navy

U.S. Navy

U.S. Navy

U.S. Navy

U.S. Navy

U.S. Navy

U.S. Navy

NOAA, NMFS

U.S. Navy

Scripps

Woods Hole

Woods Hole

Lamont-Doherty

U.S. Navy

University of New Hampshire

U.S. Navy

University of Washington

University of Washington

U.S. Navy

SOURCE Busby Associates, Inc , Arlington, Vlrgma

generally attained by maneuvering the towing vessel, and depth is controlled by reeling in or reeling

out cable from the surface. These vehicles are designed to operate within the water column and not

on the bottom, but some have been designed and

equipped to periodically scoop sediment samples

from the bottom.

Advantages and Limitations

Manned submersibles, particularly in the industrial arena, have gradually given way to ROVs.

The relatively few manned vehicles that have remained in service have done so because they offer

a unique capability which ROVs have yet to dupli-
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 147

Figure 4-12.—A Tethered, Free-Swimming Remotely Operated Vehicle System

Vehicles of this type usually carry one or more closed-circuit television cameras, lights, grabbers, and instruments for monitoring

and measuring.

SOURCE: Busby Associates, Inc.

cate. Comparisons of the relative advantages and three-dimensional view of the target to be investidisadvantages of manned submersibles and ROVs gated or worked on. Second, the manipulative

are difficult to make unless a particular task has capability of certain types of manned vehicles is subeen specified and the environment in which it has perior to ROVs. Third, the absence of a drag-proto operate is known. The first major advantage of ducing cable connecting the manned submersible

a manned vehicle is that the observer has a direct, to its support ship permits the submersible to oper-
148 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

ate within stronger currents and at greater depths

than most ROVs can presently operate.

Nonetheless, manned submersibles have several

drawbacks. Most industrial applications require

working around and within a structure where the

possibility of entanglement/entrapment is often

present and, consequently, human safety is potentially in jeopardy. Manned vehicles that operate independently of a surface-connecting umbilical cord

can operate for a duration of 6 to 8 hours before

exhausting batteries. Even with more electrical

power, there is a limit to how long human occupants can work effectively within the confines of

a small diameter sphere—6 to 8 hours is about the

limit of effectiveness. Relative to ROVs, a manned

submersible operation will always be more complex, since there is the added factor of providing

for the human crew inside.

The two major advantages of ROVs are that they

will operate for longer durations than manned vehicles (limited only by the electrical producing capability of the support ship) and that there is a lower

safety risk for humans. Towed ROVs, for example, can and do operate for days and even weeks

before they need to be retrieved and serviced. The

many varieties of ROVs (at least 99 different

models produced by about 40 different manufacturers) permit greater latitude in selecting a support craft than do manned submersibles (which usually have dedicated support vessels). Many ROVs,

because of their small size, can access areas that

manned vehicles cannot. Because ROV data and

television signals can be relayed continuously to the

surface in real-time, the number of topside observers participating in a dive is limited only by the

number of individuals or specialists that can crowd

around one or several television monitors. Depending on the depth of deployment and the type of work

conducted, an ROV may incur only a fraction of

the cost of operating a manned submersible.

Probably the most debated aspect of manned v.

unmanned vehicles is the quality of viewing the subsea target. There is no question that a television

camera cannot convey the information that a human can see directly. Even with the high quality

and resolution of present underwater color television cameras and the potential for three-dimensional television viewing, the image will probably

never equal human observation and the comprehension it provides. To the scientific observer, direct viewing is often mandatory. For the industrial

user, this is not necessarily the case. Some segments

of industry may be satisfied with what can be seen

by television, and, while they would probably like

to see more, they can see well enough with television to get the job done. The distinction between

scientific and industrial needs is important because

in large part, it allowed the wide-scale application

of the ROV, which contributed to the slump in

manned vehicle use.

costs

The cost of undersea vehicles varies as widely

as their designs and capabilities. One of the few

generalizations that can be made regarding costs

is that they increase in direct proportion to the vehicle’s maximum operating depth.

Manned submersibles can cost from as little as

$15,000 for a one-person vehicle capable of diving

to 45 meters (150 feet) to as much as $5 million

for an Alvin replacement. A replacement for the

Johnson-Sea-Link, which is capable of diving to

over 900 meters (3,000 feet), would cost from $1.5

million to $2 million. These figures do not include

the support ships necessary to transport and deploy

the deeper diving vehicles. Such vessels, if bought

used, would range from $2 million to $3 million;

if bought new, they could cost from $8 million to

$10 million.

ROVs also range widely in costs. There are

tethered, free-swimming models currently available

that cost from $12,000 to $15,000 per system, reach

depths of 150 and more meters, and provide video

only. At the other end are vehicles that reach depths

in excess of 2,400 meters, are equipped with a wide

array of tools and instrumentation, and cost from

$1.5 million to $2 million per system. Intermediate depth (900 meters/3,000 feet) systems equipped

with manipulators, sonars and sensors range from

$400,000 to $500,000. Most of the towed vehicles

presently available are deep diving (20,000 feet) systems requiring a dedicated support ship and extensive surface support equipment. Such systems start

at about $2 million and can, in the case of the towed

hybrid systems, reach over $5 million.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone 149

The foregoing prices are quoted for new vehicles only. However, in today’s depressed offshore

service market, there are numerous opportunities

for obtaining used manned and remotely operated

vehicle systems for a fraction of the prices quoted

above. Likewise, support ships can be purchased

at similar savings. This generalization does not apply to the towed or the hybrid systems, since they

were built by their operators and are not commercial vehicles.

Capabilities

The environmental limits within which a vehicle can work are determined by such design features as operating depth, speed, diving duration,

and payload. These factors are also an indication

of a vehicle’s potential to carry equipment, The actual working or exploration capabilities of a manned

or unmanned vehicle are measured by the tools,

instruments, and/or sensors that it can carry and

deploy. These capabilities are, in large part, determined by the vehicle’s carrying capacity (payload), electrical supply, and overall configuration.

For example, Deep Tow represents one of the most

sophisticated towed vehicles in operation. Its equipment suite includes virtually every data-gathering

capability available for EEZ exploration that can

be used with this type of vehicle. On the other hand,

there are towed vehicles with the same depth capability and endurance as Deep Tow but which

cannot begin to accommodate the vast array of instrumentation this vehicle carries, due to their design. Table 4-8 is a current worldwide listing of

towed vehicles and the instrumentation they are designed to accommodate. Towing speed of these vehicles ranges from 2 to 6 knots.

Tethered, free-swimming ROVs offer another

example of the wide range in exploration capabilities available in today’s market. Vehicles with the

most basic equipment in this category have at least

a television camera and adequate lighting for the

camera (although lighting may sometimes be optional). However, there is an extensive variety of

additional equipment that can be carried, The

ROV Solo, for example, is capable of providing

real-time observations via its television camera,

photographic documentation with its still camera,

short-range object detection and location by its

scanning sonar, and samples with its three-function

grabber (i. e., manipulator). The vehicle is also

equipped for conducting bathymetric surveys. Assuming it is supported by an appropriate subsea

navigation system, it can provide:

●

●

●

●

●

●

a high-resolution topographic profile map on

which the space between sounding lanes is

swept and recorded by side-looking sonar,

a sub-bottom profile of reflective horizons beneath the vehicle,

a chart of magnetic anomalies along the tracks

covered,

television documentation of the entire track,

selective stereographic photographs of objects

or features of interest, and

the capability to stop and sample at the surveyor’s discretion.

With adequate equipment on the vehicle and

support ship and the proper computer programs,

the entire mapping program, once underway, can

be performed automatically with little or no human

involvement. At least a dozen more competitive

models exist that can be similarity equipped.

In addition to ROVs of the Deep Tow and Solo

class, several vehicles have been designed to conduct a single task rather than multiple tasks. One

such vehicle is the University of Georgia’s Continuous Seafloor Sediment Sampler, discussed

earlier in the section on nuclear methods.

Untethered, manned vehicles are, for the most

part, equipped with at least one television camera,

still camera, side-looking sonar, and manipulator,

and with pingers or transponders compatible with

whatever positioning system is being used. The absence of an umbilical cable has an advantage that

received little attention until the Challenger space

shuttle tragedy in 1986. Challenger’s debris was

scattered under the Atlantic Ocean’s Gulf Stream,

which flows at maximum speed on the surface but

decreases to less than 0.25 knot at or near the bottom. Once the manned submersibles used in the

search descended below the swift flowing surface

waters (upwards of 3 knots), they worked and maneuvered without concern for the current. The

ROVs used, on the other hand, were all tethered,

and, even though the vehicle itself might be operating within little or no discernible current, the umbilical had to contend with the current at all times.

This caused considerable difficulty at times during

the search operation.
150 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 4-8.—Worldwide Towed Vehicles

Depth

Vehicle (ft.) Instrumentation Operator

ANGUS . .............20,000

Brut /V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900

CSA/STCS . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000

CSA/UTTS. . . . . . . . . . . . 1,150

Deep Challenger . .....20,000

Deep Tow . ...........20,000

Deep Tow Survey

System . ...........20,000

DSS-125 (4 each) . .....20,000

Manta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,132

Nodule Collection

Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . NA

Ocean Rover . . . . . . . . . 1,000

OFOS . ..............20,000

Raie // . ..............20,000

Sea Bed 2. . . . . . . . . . . . 6,500

Sea Kite . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000

Sound (b each)... . ....13,000

STSS . . . . . . . . . . . . ....20,000

Teleprobe . ...........20,000

Turn s . . . . . . .. . ......20,000

Still camera w/strobe, echo sounder,temperature sensor

TV camera w/light, still camera w/strobe,

automatic altitude control

TV w/light

TV w/lights, still camera w/strobe, altimeter

TV w/lights, still camera w/strobe, sideIooking sonar, sub-bottom profiler,

depth/altitude sensor, C/T/D sensors

Slow-scan TV w/ strobe illumination, echo

sounder, side-looking sonar, scanning

sonar, magnetometer, stereo camera system, C/T/D sensors, transponder

TV w/ light, still camera w/ strobe, sideIooking sonar, magnetometer sub-bottom

profiler, current meter, altitude/depth

sensor

TV w/ light, still camera w/ strobe, magnetic compass

TV w/ lights, still camera w/ strobe, sideIooking sonar, C/T/D sensors

Cutting and pumping devices to collect

nodules for transport to surface

TV on pan/tilt w/ light, still camera w/

strobe, depth and speed sensor

Color TV and three still cameras w/ appropriate lighting

Still cameras w/ strobe echo sounder, pressure/depth sensor, transponder

Side-looking sonar (6km swath), sub-bottom

profiIer

TV, still camera, pipe, tracker, scanning

sonar, side-looking sonar, sub-bottom

profiler, magnetometer

TV w/ light, still camera w/ strobe, sideIooking sonar, magnetometer, seismic

profiler

TV w/ light, still camera w/ strobe, scanning sonar, side-looking sonar, altitude/depth sonar, transponder

TV w/ light, stereocameras w/ strobes,

magnetometer, side-looking, altitude/depth sonar

TV w/ light, stereocameras w/ strobe, scanning sonar, side-looking sonar, magnetometer, manipulator

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,

Woods Hole, MA, USA

Biological Station, St. Andrews, New

Brunswick, NS, Canada

Continental Shelf Associates, Jupiter, USA

Continental Shelf Associates, Jupiter, USA

Japan Marine Science & Technology

Center, Yokosuka, Japan

Marine Physical Laboratory, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, USA

Lockheed Ocean Laboratory, San Diego,

CA, USA

Japanese and West German industrial

firms.

National Marine Fisheries Service, Pascagoula, MS, USA

National Research Institution for

Resources & Pollution, Japan

Seametrix Ltd., Aberdeen, Scotland

Preussag Meerestechnik, Hannover, West

Germany

IFREMER, Brest, France

Huntec, Ltd. Scarborough, Ontario,

Canada

Blue Deep Sari, Valmondois, France

Institute of Oceanology, Moscow, USSR

Submarine Development Group One, U.S.

Navy, San Diego, CA, USA

U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, Bay St.

Louis, MS, USA

Royal British Navy

SOURCE: Busby Associates, Inc., Arlington, Virginia.

Very little work using manned or ROVs has been and a wide variety of other tasks. Scientific applidone solely for exploration purposes. In the indus- cation of undersea vehicles has been almost always

trial arena, the work has been in support of offshore directed at studying a particular phenomenon or

oil and/or gas operations, including pipeline and aspect of an ecosystem. In only a few instances have

cable route mapping and inspection, bottom site undersea vehicles been used to verify the data colsurveying, structural inspection and maintenance, lected by surface-oriented techniques.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone . 151

Hard mineral exploration, however, is a task

well-suited for manned vehicles and tethered, freeswimming ROVs. A wide array of manipulatorheld sampling equipment for these vehicles has been

developed over the past two decades. This sampling

capability ranges from simple scoops to gather unconsolidated sediment to drills for taking hard-rock

cores. Present undersea vehicles cannot, however,

collect soft sediment cores much beyond 3 feet in

length or hard-rock cores more than a few inches

in length,

The Continuous Seafloor Sediment Sampler is

an example of a specially designed vehicle. Vehicles of this type might find extensive application

in the EEZ by providing relatively rapid mineral

assays of the bottom within areas of high interest.

If supported with appropriate navigation equipment, a surficial mineral constituent chart could

be developed fairly rapidly. Due to the vehicle’s

present design, such a map could only be made over

bottoms composed of unconsolidated, fine-grained

sediments.

A recent example of a vehicle application was the

search for and subsequent examination of the RMS

Titanic, which sank in the Atlantic in 1912. The

vessel was thought to be somewhere within a 120-

square-nautical-mile area. A visual search with an

undersea vehicle could literally take years to complete at the 4,000-meter (13,000-foot) depths in

which she lay. Instead, the area was searched using

a side-looking sonar which detected a target of likely

proportions after about 40 days of looking. To verify that the target was the Titanic, the towed vehicle ANGUS was dispatched with its television and

still cameras. The next step, to closely examine the

vessel, was done with the manned vehicle Alvin and

the tethered, free-swimming ROV Jason Junior

(JJ). Alvin provided the means to ‘ ‘home on’ and

board the vessel, while JJ provided the means to

explore the close confines of the vessel’s interior.

The search for the space shuttle Challenger debris is another example of the division of labor between undersea vehicles and over-the-side techniques. Since the debris was scattered over many

square miles and intermixed with debris from other

sources, it would have taken months, perhaps years,

to search the area with undersea vehicles. Instead,

as with the Titanic, side-looking sonar was used

to sweep the area of interest and likely targets were

plotted to be later identified by manned and unmanned vehicles. The same vehicles were subsequently used to help in the retrieval of debris. Once

again, the large area was searched with the more

rapid over-the-side techniques while precision work

was accomplished with the slower moving undersea vehicles.

These two examples suggest that the main role

of undersea vehicles in the EEZ is and will be to

provide the fine details of the bottom. A typical exploration scenario might begin with bottom coverage with a wide-swath side-looking sonar, like

GLORIA, progress to one of the midrange sidelooking sonars or a Sea Beam-type system, and end

with deployment of a towed vehicle system or a

tethered, free-swimming ROV or manned submersible to collect detailed information.

Needed Technical Developments

Thanks to technological advances in offshore oil

exploration, the tools, vehicles, and support systems

available to the EEZ minerals explorer have increased

dramatically in numbers and types since the 1960s.

It would appear that adequate technology now exists to explore selected areas within the EEZ using

undersea vehicles. But, as with offshore oil, some

of these assets will probably prove to be inadequate

when they are used for hard mineral exploration

instead of the tasks for which they were designed,

Identification of these shortcomings is probably best

accomplished by on-the-job evaluation.

More than likely, whatever technological improvements are made will not be so much to the

vehicles themselves but to the tools and instrumentation aboard the vehicles that collect the data.

Hence, it is important to identify precisely the datacollecting requirements for hard mineral exploration and mining. Potential discovery of new underwater features, processes, and conditions must also

be anticipated. For example, prior to 1981, nothing was known of the existence of deepwater vents

or of the existence of the animals that inhabit these

areas. Once the vents and their associated fauna

were discovered, tools and techniques for their investigation were developed as necessary.

Certain aspects of undersea vehicles and their

equipment are perennial candidates for improve-
152 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Photo credit: U.S. Geological Survey

Underwater camera system, ready for deployment

ment. These include, but are not limited to, broader

bandwidths for television signals, greater manipulative dexterity and sensory perception, and more

precise station-keeping and control of the vehicle

itself. The advent of the microprocessor has introduced other candidates: artificial intelligence, pattern recognition, teach/learn programs, greater

memory, all of which can serve to improve the capability of the vehicles and their accompanying sensors and tools. There is no question that these

aspects of vehicle technology are worthy of consideration and that they will undoubtedly improve our

underwater exploration capability. But before additional development or improvement of undersea

vehicle technology for EEZ hard minerals exploration begins, it may be more important to assess

fully the applicability of the currently available technology.

Optical Imaging

Optical images produced by underwater cameras

and video systems are complementary to the images

and bathymetry provided by side-looking sonars

and bathymetry systems. Once interesting features

have been identified using long-range reconnaissance

techniques, still cameras and video systems can be

used for closeup views. Such systems can be used

to resolve seafloor features on the order of 10 centimeter to 1 meter. The swath width of imaging systems depends on such factors as the number of cameras used, the water characteristics, and the height

of the imaging system above the seafloor. Swaths

as wide as 200 meters are currently mappable.

ANGUS (Acoustically Navigated Underwater

Survey) is typical of many deep-sea photographic

systems. Basically, ANGUS consists of three 35-

millimeter cameras and strobe lights mounted on

a rugged sled. The system is towed approximately

10 meters off the bottom in water depths up to 6,000

meters (19,700 feet), and is capable of taking 3,000

frames per sortie. It has been used in conjunction

with dives of the submersible Alvin.

A newer system, currently under development

at the Deep Submergence Laboratory (DSL) at

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, is Argo.

On her maiden voyage in September 1985 Argo

assisted in locating the Titanic. Like ANGUS, Argo

is capable of operating in water depths of 6,000

meters. Argo, however, is equipped with a widearea television imaging system integrated with sidelooking sonar. 76 It currently uses three low-lightlevel, silicon-intensified target cameras (one forward-looking, one down-looking, and one downlooking telephoto), extending the width of the imaged swath to 56 meters (184 feet) when towed at

an altitude of 35 meters.

Argo is being designed to accommodate a second ROVs, to be known as Jason. Jason will be

a tethered robot capable of being lowered from Argo

to the seafloor for detailed camera (and sampling)

work (figure 4-13). Its designers plan to equip Jason with stereo color television ‘‘eyes." 77 One current limitation is the lack of availability of an adequate transmission cable for the color television

pictures. Color television transmissions exceed 6

million bits per second, and large bandwidth cables capable of carrying this amount of information have not yet been developed for marine use.

Fiber-optic cables are now being designed for this

 Harris and K. “Argo: Capabilities for Deep Ocean

Exploration, vol. 28, No. 4, 1985/86, p. 100. 77R. D. Ballard, ‘ ‘Argo-Jason, Oceans, March 1983, p. 19.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone 153

Figure 4-13.—Schematic of the Argo-Jason Deep-Sea Photographic System

The Argo-Jason system is currently under development at Woods Hole’s Deep Submergence Laboratory. Argo has already

assisted in locating the Titanic. Jason is being designed to be launched from Argo and will handle detailed camera work.

SOURCE: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

and related marine data transmission needs. How- The current subject-to-lens range limit for optiever, before fiber-optic cables can be employed, cal imaging is 30 to 50 meters in clear water. Sevproblems of handling tensional stress and repeated eral improvements are expected in the future that

flexing of the cable must be overcome. Personnel may enable subjects to be imaged as far as 200

at DSL believe that when the Argo-Jason system meters from the lens under optimal viewing conis fully developed, the need for manned submersi- ditions. For instance, work is underway to increase

bles will be much reduced. the sensitivity of film to low light levels. A 200,000

72-672 0 - 87 -- 6
154 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

ASA equivalent speed film was used to take pictures of the Titanic under more than 2 miles of

water. Higher film speed ratings, perhaps as high

as 2 million ASA equivalent, will enable pictures

to be taken with even less light. Improved lighting

will also help. The optimal separation between camera and light in the ocean is about 40 meters, which

suggests that towed light sources could provide an

advantage. Use of polarization filters can also help

increase viewing potential. Gated light sources,

which emit short pulses of light, will be more expensive to develop. Development of a technique to

open the camera shutter at the precise time the

gated light illuminates the subject will help reduce

scattering of the reflected light. 78

Direct Sampling by Coring, Drilling,

and Dredging

Once a prospective site is located using geophysical and/or other reconnaissance methods, direct

sampling by coring, drilling, or dredging (as appropriate) is required to obtain detailed geological

information. Direct sampling provides ‘‘ground

truth’ correlation with indirect exploration methods of the presence (and concentration) or absence

of a mineral deposit. The specific composition of

a deposit cannot be determined without taking samples and subjecting them to geochemical analyses.

Representative sampling provides potential miners

with information about the grade of deposit, which

is necessary to decide whether or not to proceed

with developing a mine site.

Placer Deposits

The state-of-the-art of sampling marine placers

and other unconsolidated marine sediments is more

advanced than that of sampling marine hard-rock

mineral deposits such as cobalt crusts and massive

sulfides. There are various methods for sampling

unconsolidated sediments in shallow water, whereas

technology for sampling crusts and sulfides in deep

water is only now beginning to be developed. Two

significant differences exist between sampling placer

deposits and marine hard-rock deposits. One is the

greater depth of water in which crusts and sulfides

T8R. B~]ard, Deep Submergence Laboratory, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, OTA Workshop on Technologies for Surveying

and Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, June 10, 1986.

occur. The other is the relative ease of penetrating

placers.

Grab samplers obtain samples in the upper few

centimeters of surfacial sediments. For obtaining

a sample over a thicker section of sediments and

preserving the sequence of sedimentary layers,

vibracore, gravity, piston, and other coring devices

are used. These corers are used to retrieve relatively

undisturbed samples that may indicate the concentration of minerals by layer and the thickness of

the deposit. On the other hand, to determine the

average grade of ore at a particular site and for use

in processing studies, large bulk samples obtained

by dredging (including any waste material or overburden), rather than undisturbed cores, may be

sufficient.

The characteristics of a sampling device appropriate for a scientific sampling program are not necessarily appropriate for proving a mine site. In order to establish tonnage and grade to prove a mine

site, thousands of samples may be required. It is

essential that the sampling device provide consistently representative samples at a reasonable cost.

The ability to carry out commercial-scale sampling,

required to define an ore body, in water deeper than

about 60 feet is still very limited. Scientific sampling can be done in deeper water, but as table 4-9

indicates, sampling costs rapidly escalate with water

depth. The costs of sampling in deeper water probably will have to be reduced significantly before

commercial development in these areas can take

place.

Only a few areas within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone have been systematically sampled in

three dimensions. Much of the data collected to date

have been from surface samples and hence are not

reliable for use in quantitative assessments. 79 Adequate knowledge of the mineral resource potential

of the EEZ will require extensive three-dimensional

sampling in the most promising areas.

Several factors, as suggested above, are important in evaluating the performance of a placer sampling system80 (in general, these factors are equally

79see, for~xample,Clifton and Luepke, ‘‘Heavy Mineral ‘lacer

Deposits.

80B. Dimock, “An Assessment of Alluvial Sampling Systems for

Offshore Placer Operations, Report, Ocean Mining Division, Resource Evaluation Branch, Energy, Mines, and Resources Canada,

January 1986.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 1 5 5

Table 4-9.—Vibracore Sampling Costsa

Shallow water Deep water

Water depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Type of coring equipment . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of cores in program . . . . . . . . .

Depth of penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Type of vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mobilization/demobilization cost . . . . . .

Vessel cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Coring equipment and operating crew .

Contingency funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Total cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cost per core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30-60 feet

Vibracorer

50

20 feet

100- to 150-foot open deck work boat,

twin screw equipped with A-frame

and double point mooring gear

$25,000

$50,000 (10 days at $5,000 per day;

assumes 6 cores per day; 30°/0

downtime for weather)

$30,000 (10 days at $3,000 per day)

$25,000

$130,000

$2.600

200 to 300 feet

Vibracorer (equipped for deep water

operation)

50

20 feet

150- to 200-foot open deck work boat,

twin screw, equipped with A-frame

and double point mooring gear

$50,000

$160,000 (20 days at $8,000 per day;

assumes 3 cores per day; 30%

down time for weather)

$100,000 (20 days at $5,000 per day)

$25,000

$335,000

$6,700

%osts do not include core analysis and program management.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.

applicable to technologies for sampling massive sulfides and cobalt crusts). The representativeness of

the sample is very important. A sample is representative if what it contains can be repeatedly obtained at the same site. In this regard, the size of

the sample is important. For example, for minerals

that occur in low concentrations (e. g., precious metals), a representative sample must be relatively

large. A representative sample for concentrated

heavy minerals may be much smaller. The depth of

sediment that a sampling tool is capable of penetrating also affects the representativeness of the sample.

Undisturbed samples are particularly important

for studying the engineering properties and depositional history of a deposit. They are less important

for determining the constituents of a deposit.

Other relevant factors affecting sampling performance include: the time required to obtain a

sample; the ease of deploying, operating, and

retrieving the sampling device in rough seas; the

support vessel requirements; and the core storage

capability. Sampling tools that can sample quickly,

can continue to operate under adverse conditions,

and can be deployed from small ships are preferred

when the cost of sampling is a significant factor.

More often, the solution is a compromise among

these factors.

Grab and Drag Sampling.—Grab sampling is

a simple and relatively inexpensive way of obtaining a sample of the top few inches of the seafloor.

With its mechanical jaws, a grab sampler can take

a bite of surficial sediment. However, a sample of

surficial sediment is not likely to be representative

of the deposit as a whole. Buried minerals may be

different from surface minerals, or, even if the

same, their abundance may be different. Moreover,

the sediments retrieved in a grab sample are disturbed. Some of the finer particles may even escape as the sample is being raised, particularly if

stones or debris prohibit the jaws from closing

properly.

Notwithstanding their shortcomings, grab samples have helped geologists gain some knowledge

of possible heavy mineral concentrations along the

Eastern U.S. seaboard. However, grab samples

provide limited information and are not appropriate for detailed, quantitative sampling of a mineral

occurrence. Drag sampling is similar to grab sampling in that it is designed to retrieve only samples

from the surface. An additional limitation of this

type of sampling is that sample material is retrieved

all along the drag track and, therefore, sampling

is not representative of a specific site.

Coring and Drilling Devices.—For more quantitative sampling, numerous types of coring or

drilling technologies have been developed. Impact

corers use gravity or some type of explosive mechanism to drive a core barrel a short distance into

sediment. Percussion drilling devices penetrate sediment by repeated pile driving action. Vibratory
156 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Photo credits: US. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Geological Survey

Chain bag dredge

Dredges Used for Sampling the Seafloor

corers use acoustical or mechanical vibrations to

penetrate material .81

An example of an impact coring device is the box

core. An advantage of this type of sampling system is that it retrieves relatively undisturbed cores.

A disadvantage is that a box corer is capable of sampling only the top few feet of an unconsolidated deposit. It is rarely used in sand because penetration

requires additional vibratory or percussive action.

Well-known percussion drilling devices include

the Becker Hammer Drill and the Amdril series of

drills. The Becker drill penetrates sediment using

a diesel-powered hammer that strikes a drill pipe

91 times per minute. It also uses reverse circulation, meaning that air and/or water is pumped

down the annulus between the inner and outer drill

pipes, continuously flushing sample cuttings to the

surface through the inner pipe.82 Among the advantages of the Becker drill are: its capability to recover all types of deposits, including gravel, sand,

boulders, and clay; its ability to drill in a combined

depth of water and sediments up to about 150 feet;

and its capacity to recover representative samples.

However, open water use of the Becker drill is slow

and relatively expensive.

The Becker drill is rated by some83 as one the

best existing systems for offshore quantitative sam-

 Barre Lee, Mining of the Continental 

Legal, Technical and Environmental Considerations (Cambridge,

MA: Publishing Co., 1978), p. 

82 “An Assessment of Alluvial Sampling Systems, p. 

*31 bid., p. 55,
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 157

Photo credit: Bonnie McGregor, U.S. Geological Survey

The box core retrieves relatively undisturbed cores but

only of the first few feet of sediment.

pling of marine placers. It has been widely and

reliably used in offshore programs around the

world. Other systems may work well but the Becker

drill has gained the confidence of investment

bankers, who must know the extent and tenor of

a deposit with a high degree of accuracy before investing money in development. For developing

commercial deposits, it is particularly important

that the method used be one with a proven record.

The Amdril, available in several different sizes,

is another type of percussion drilling device. Unlike the Becker Hammer Drill, Amdrils are submersible and virtually independent of the support

ship’s movements. As a result, this drill can operate in much deeper water than the Becker drill.

Rather than using the reverse circulation method,

an independent pipe supplies air to the casing to

raise the drill cuttings. Although the Amdril cannot sample boulders or bedrock, it is capable of

sampling gravel (unlike vibratory corers) using an

airlift system. One type of Amdril has successfully

sampled marine sands and gravels off Great Britain.84

A somewhat similar system, the Vibralift, developed by the Mississippi Mineral Resources Institute, has proved successful in sampling a variety

of mineral deposits, including heavy minerals in

dense and semi-hard material. The Vibralift is basically a counterflush system. It utilizes a dual wall

drill pipe driven into the sediment by means of a

pneumatic vibrator. Water under pressure is introduced to the annular space of the dual pipe via

a hose from a shipboard pump and is jetted into

the inner pipe just above the cutting bit. In this

way, the core rising in the inner pipe during the

sample drive is broken up by the water jets and

transported up the pipe through a connecting hose

and finally to a shipboard sample processor. Additional lift is obtained by routing exhaust air from

the vibrator into the inner pipe. Samples are collected in a dewatering box to minimize the loss of

fine material .85

Several types of vibratory corers have been developed over the years. Designs vary by length of

core obtained (6 to 12 meters), by core diameter

(5 to 15 centimeters), by water depth limits of operation (25 to 1,000 meters), by method of penetration (electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic), by portability, etc. Vibratory corers have been widely used

for scientific and reconnaissance sampling. This

method is probably the best low-cost method for

coring sand and gravel deposits. Relatively undisturbed and representative cores can be retrieved

in unconsolidated sediments such as most sands,

clay, and gravel. However, the effectiveness of

vibratory corers decreases in dense, fine, relatively

consolidated sands and in stiff clays. Some progress

has been reported in sampling dense, fine-grained,

heavy mineral placers with a jet bit that does not

disturb the core. 86 Vibratory corers will not penetrate boulders or shale. This type of sampling device is less expensive and more portable than the

Becker Hammer Drill and is, therefore, probably

** Ibid., p. 31.

 demonstrated at Underwater Mining Institute Conference, MS, November 1986.
158 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Photo source: P. Johnson, Office of Technology Assessment

Vibracore ready for deployment from side of ship.

Vibracores can retrieve relatively undisturbed samples

in many types of unconsolidated sediment.

more suitable for reconnaissance work than the

Becker drill; however, given limitations in the type

of deposit that can be sampled, vibratory corers

would be less appropriate for proving certain mine

sites.

Vibracore systems, properly designed and operated, have successfully evaluated thin (i.e., less than

12 meters), surficial, unconsolidated deposits of

fine-to-coarse-grain material, such as sand and

gravel, shell, heavy minerals, and phosphorite.

Vibratory corers are inadequate for the more disseminated precious mineral placers such as gold,

platinum, and diamonds, due to system limitations

in sampling host gravels typically containing cobbles and boulders. Vibratory corers are also useless for any deposit where the thickness of overburden and/or zones of interest exceed the penetration

limits of the system.

The costs of offshore sampling vary widely, depending on such factors as water depth, mobilization costs, weather, navigation requirements, and

vessel size and availability. One of the most important factors in terms of unit costs per core is the

scope of the program. Costs per hole for a smallscale program will be higher than costs per hole for

a large-scale program. Table 4-9 shows typical costs

of offshore vibracore programs in shallow and deep

water. Costs per core are seen to vary between

about $2,500 and $7,000.

An alternative or supplementary strategy to taking the large numbers of samples that would be

needed to prove a mine site is to employ a small,

easily transportable dredge in a pilot mining

project. Each situation is unique, but for some cases

the dredge may be less expensive and may be better at reducing uncertainty than coring or drilling.

Such a program was recently completed with a pilot airlift dredge off the coast of west Africa. Four

tons of phosphorite concentrate were recovered for 87 Dredging would cause an economic evaluation.

significantly more environmental disruption and

may, unlike other sampling methods, require an

environmental impact statement.

Crusts

Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts were discovered during the 1872-76 expedition of the HMS

Challenger, but detailed studies have only recently

begun, In general, existing coring and other devices developed to sample shallow-water placers are

not appropriate for sampling crusts in deep water;

therefore, new sampling technologies must be developed. An important consideration in developing new technology is that crusts and underlying

substrate are usually consolidated and hard and

therefore not as easily penetrated by either dredges

or coring devices. Moreover, crusts are found at

much greater depths than most unconsolidated deposits. The most desirable crusts are believed to occur between 800 and 2,500 meters water depth;

thus, sampling equipment must at least be able to

operate as deep as 2,500 meters. Crusts known to

date rarely exceed 12 centimeters (5 inches) in thickness; therefore, there is no requirement for long

samples.

 and D. Bargeron, ‘‘ Exploration for Phosphorite in

the Offshore Area of the Congo, “ Marine Mining, vol. 5, No. 3, 1986,

pp. 217-237.
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 159

A few small samples of crust have been retrieved

using standard deep-sea dredges. As these dredges

are pulled along the bottom, they are able to dislodge chunks of the outcrop or gather already dislodged material; however, techniques and technology for precise, controlled sampling have yet to be

developed .88 USGS has identified several needs in

quantitative crust sampling and, through its Small

Business Innovative Research program, has begun

several feasibility studies to develop sampling tools.

As an aid in selecting sampling sites and in quantifying the volume of crust in a given area, a device that can measure crust thickness is an important need. Deepsea Ventures, Inc., has completed

a conceptual study for such a device for USGS.89

The goal is to develop a tool to measure crust thickness continuously and in real-time. Conceptually,

a very-high-frequency acoustic-reflection profiler

able to detect the crust surface and the interface

between crust and host rock would be mounted

aboard a sled and, with a video camera, towed 20

to 25 centimeters off the seafloor. A continuous signal would be sent to the surface ship via the tow

cable. An important design consideration is the very

rough terrain in which some cobalt crusts are found.

Current design criteria call for the device to operate over relatively smooth areas with less than a

20° slope. Although it will not be able to operate

on slopes steeper than 200, it is assumed that, at

least initially, any crust mining that does occur will

be done in relatively flat areas.

For quantitative sampling, two types of coring

devices have been proposed and currently are being

designed. Deepsea Ventures has developed concepts

for a special sampling tool for taking an undisturbed

sample suitable for studying the engineering properties of crust and underlying rock. 90 This corer

would be capable of cutting a disc-shaped core 56

centimeters (22 inches) in diameter by 23 centimeters (9 inches) thick. The corer and a video camera would be mounted on a tripod anchored to the

 H. et al. , ‘‘Report of the Working

Group Manganese Nodules and Crusts, Marine Minerals: 

 in Research and Assessment, et at. )

(Dordrecht, Holland: 11, Publishing Co,, 1987), NATO ASI

Series, p. 24, 89W. Siapno, Consultant, Workshop on Site-Specific 

 for the Economic Zone, Wash 

DC, 16, 1986.

‘“Ibid.

sea bottom while the core is being cut. This type

of corer would not be useful for detailed mapping

of a deposit because the tripod must be lowered,

positioned, and raised for each core cut, a process

that would take more than 2 hours in 1,500 meters

of water.

A second coring device more appropriate for

reconnaissance sampling (and perhaps also for

proving a mine site) has been designed and built

by Analytical Services, Inc. (figure 4-14).91 The device is a percussion coring sampler that is designed

 Toth, Services, Inc., OTA Workshop on Site-Specific

Technologies for “Exploring the Exclusive Economic-Zone, 

ton, DC, July 16, 1986.

Figure 4-14.—Prototype

Frame

Crust Sampler

Trigger

assembly

/

/ Gimbal

Firing

plate

Coring devices such as this, designed to be quick and inexpensive, will be needed for quantitative sampling of crusts

SOURCE: Analytical Services, Inc., CA
160 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Photo credit: Analytical Services, Inc., Cardiff, CA

Prototype crust sampler about to be deployed from

stern of ship.

to collect as many as 30 short cores during each

deployment. The speed at which samples can be

taken and the cost per sample are important design features—especially for corers that are used

in proving a mine site—and this coring operation

is designed to be both relatively quick and inexpensive. Sampling is initiated by a bottom-sensing

trigger that starts a firing sequence. To fire the

“gun,” an electric spark ignites the powder. As

many as four samples may be taken at any one site,

after which the system can be lifted from the seabed,

moved to another spot, and lowered again. Cores

are expected to be 10 to 12 centimeters long (long

enough to sample crust and some substrate in most

cases) and 2 centimeters (1 inch) in diameter. The

system is designed to operate in water depths of

5000 meters. Eventually, a video system, scanning

sonar, and thruster will be incorporated into the

system, enabling the sampler to be steered. A

second-generation prototype sampler has been built

and was tested in 1987.

Large, bulk samples are required for processing

and tonnage/grade studies. To meet these needs,

the Bureau of Mines is developing a dredge capable of cutting into crust that maybe similar in principle to a commercial mining dredge of the future. 92

Current dredges are not designed to cut into crust

and substrate. The experimental dredge would theoretically collect 500 pounds of in situ material in

each pass. Problems were encountered in initial

 of Mines, Workshop on 

Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, July 16, 1986.

testing of the dredge in rough terrain, but the

dredge may be redesigned to better cope with rough

seafloor features. The continuous bucket line

dredge, used in sampling manganese nodules, is

also proposed to be adapted for bulk sampling of

crusts.

Polymetallic Sulfides

Massive sulfides have a third dimension that

must be considered in sampling. At the moment,

very little is known about the vertical extent of sulfide deposits, as drilling them has not been very

successful. The problem lies in the absence of suitable drills .93 Without a sediment overburden of 100

meters (328 feet) or so it is difficult to confine the

drill bit at the start of drilling. The state-of-the-art

of massive sulfide sampling is demonstrated by the

fact that one of the largest samples collected to date

was obtained by ramming a research submersible

into a sulfide chimney, knocking the chimney over,

and picking up the pieces with the submersible’s

manipulator arm. 94 Clearly, current bulk and core

sampling methods leave something to be desired,

Recent advances have been made in bare-rock

drilling. For example, one of the main purposes of

Leg 106 of the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) in

December 1985 was to test and evaluate new barerock drilling techniques. Drilling from the ODP’s

143 meter (470 foot) drill ship JOIDES Resolution

took place in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Rift Valley

some 2,200 kilometers (1 ,200 nautical miles) southeast of Bermuda. The scientists and engineers of

Leg 106 were partly successful in drilling several

holes using such innovative techniques as a hardrock guide base to confine the drill bit during initial ‘ ‘spud-in, a low-light television camera for

imaging the seafloor and for monitoring drilling

operations, and new downhole drilling and coring

motors. The first hole took 25 days to penetrate 33.3

meters (1 10 feet) of rock below the seafloor, while

recovering about 23 percent of the core material .95

 M. Edmond, et al., “Report of the Working

Group on Marine Sulfides, ” Marine Minerals: Advances in Research

and Resource Assessment, et al. ) Holland: D. Publishing Co., 1987), NATO ASI Series, p. 36.

 Offshore Minerals Section, Energy, Resources Canada, Workshop on Site-Specific Technologies for

Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, July 16,

1986.

 S. “Mid-Atlantic Bare-Rock Drilling and Hydrothermal Vents, Nature, vol. 321, May 1986, pp. 
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone 161

Although improvements in drilling rates and core

recovery are needed, the techniques demonstrated

during Leg 106 open up new possibilities for drilling

into massive sulfides.

In 1989, the JOIDES Resolution is tentatively

scheduled to visit the Juan de Fuca Ridge, thus providing an opportunity to obtain a few cores from

massive sulfide deposits. However, the JOIDES

Resolution is a large, specially designed drill ship.

Its size is governed, in part, by requirements for

handling and storing drilling pipe. Because operating the JOIDES Resolution is expensive, it is not

economically advantageous for inexpensive exploration sampling of massive sulfides in extensive

areas.

An alternative and relatively less expensive approach to using a large and expensive drill ship for

hard-rock sampling is to use a remotely operated

submersible drill which is lowered by cable from

a surface vessel to the seafloor. 96 In addition to

lower cost, the advantages to using this type of drill

are the isolation of the coring operation from seastate-induced ship motions and reduced stationkeeping requirements. Maintaining contact with

a remotely operated drill while it is drilling remains

difficult; if the umbilical is jerked during the drilling

operation, the drill can easily jam. Several remotely

operated drills have been conceived and/or built,

as described below.

The drill developed by the Bedford Institution

of Oceanography in Canada has probably had the

most experience coring sulfides, although the performance of the drill to date has not met its design

specifications. The Bedford drill is electrically powered from the surface and is designed to operate

in over 3,500 meters of water. The drill can be deployed in winds of 25 to 30 knots and in currents

up to 3 knots. It is designed to cut a core 6 meters

long (extendable another 2.5 meters) with a diameter of 2.5 centimeters. A commercial version

of this drill, made by NORDCO of St. John’s,

Newfoundland, is now available and has been sold

to Australia, India, and Norway .97

WR, petters and M. Williamson, “Design for a Deep-Ocean Rock

Core Drill, ” Marine Mining, vol. 5, No. 3, 1986, p. 322.

‘

7 P.J.C. Ryd, “Remote Drilling Technology, Journal of Marine Mining, in press, 1986.

Nine cores drilled through basalt were obtained

with the Bedford drill in 1983 on the Juan de Fuca

Ridge, but the total core length retrieved was only

0.7 meter. 98 Obtaining long cores has been difficult. Drillers have found that competent, unfractured rocks, such as metamorphic or intrusive

types, yielded the longest cores, while young,

glassy, highly fractured basalts were difficult to sample. 99 The massive sulfides themselves are easier

to drill than fractured basalts.

Since 1983, the performance of the Bedford drill

has improved. Recently, two cores, each about 1

meter long, were retrieved in gabbro. Drilling took

place at the Kane Fracture Zone. Several foot-long

cores containing sulfides also were taken from the

Endeavor Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Mechanically, the drill has not been changed much,

but electronics and control systems are better. The

experience gained thus far suggests that it is essential to do preliminary reconnaissance work before

emplacing the drill. During emplacement, a video

camera attached to the drill frame also has proved

helpful, as it lets drillers locate a stable position for

the drill.

Several other remotely controlled drills have been

designed and/or built. In the early 1970s, Woods

Hole Oceanographic Institution built a rock drill

designed to recover a 1 meter long, 2 centimeter

diameter rock core from water depths as much as

4,000 meters. The drill was originally designed to

be deployed from the research submersible Alvin

but was later reconfigured to be deployed from a

surface ship. It has not been used extensively. 100

A Japanese firm, Koken Boring & Machine Co.,

has built a remote battery-powered drill and used

it successfully in 500 meters of water. NORDCO

has recently developed a sampling system, that, depending on its configuration, can be used to sample either sediment or rock. This system was used

in October 1985 to recover eight cores in 800 meters

of water off Baffin Island. 101 Finally, design of a

gBH~e Offshore Miner& Section, Energy, Mines, and Resources

Canada, OTA Workshop on Site-Specific Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, July 1986.

‘gRyaIl, “Remote Drilling Technology. ”

10OR E Da\~is D, L. Wil]iams, and R. P. Von Herzen, ‘‘ ARpA

Rock Drill Report, ” Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Technical Report 75-28, June 1975.

‘o’ Ryan, ‘ ‘Remote Drilling Technology. ”
162 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 4=15.-Conceptual Design for Deep Ocean

Rock Coring Drill

An alternative and less expensive approach to using a large

and expensive drill ship for hard rock sampling is to use-a

remotely operated submersible drill which is lowered by cable from a surface vessel to the seafloor. (Not to scale).

SOURCES: Williamson & Associates, Inc., and Sound Ocean Systems, Inc.

rock corer was recently started by Sound Ocean

Systems & Williamson and Associates (figure 4-

15).102 This corer has not been built, but in concept it is similar to the Bedford drill. A major difference is that it is designed to core continuously to

a depth of 53 meters (175 feet) (by adding core barrels from a storage magazine). Alternatively, it can

be configured to recover 40 1.5-meter cores in a

single deployment. A workable system for obtaining cores longer than 1 meter would be a significant advancement. Both ODP and Bedford drillers

have experienced jamming beyond the first few

meters and have not been able to obtain longer

cores.

Very little sampling of sediment-hosted sulfides

(e.g., in the Escanaba Trough off the coast of northern California) has been attempted yet. Today’s

percussion and vibratory devices rated for deep

water use probably will be suitable for shallow sampling of sediment hosted sulfides but not for deeper

drilling. Additional problems may occur if the water

temperature is above 250 ‘C. Hot water could

cause a good core to turn to homogenized muck

as a sample is retrieved. Current technology also

is not capable of doing downhole sampling (e. g.,

using a temperature probe) if the temperature is

above 250 oC. If the water temperature is above

350 °C, embrittlement of the drill string could

occur.

 and Williamson, “Design for Deep-Ocean Rock Core

Drill. ”

NAVIGATION CONCERNS

Technology for navigation and positioning is essential in all marine charting and exploration work.

The accuracy required varies somewhat depending on the purpose, but, for most purposes, present

technology for navigating and for positioning a ship

on the surface is considered adequate. Most seafloor

exploration can be done quite well with local systems with internal uncertainties on the order of 10

meters and uncertainties relative to global coordinates of a kilometer or so. Use of a navigation system that can position a ship within 1 kilometer of

a target would enable a ship to return to the immediate vicinity of a survey area or mine site, for

example. Use of a system that could reliably position one within 10 meters relative to local coordinates (established, for example, by transponders
Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone ● 1 6 3

placed on the seafloor) would enable one to return

to within visual range to photograph or take samples. 103

Gravity surveys and seismic reflection surveys

do present demanding navigational requirements.

For detailed gravity surveys, the velocity of the

measuring instrument must be known with uncertainties less than 0.05 meter/second. For seismic

work, the quality of the data is directly related to

the positioning accuracy of the sequence of shots

and the streamer hydrophores. Three-dimensional

seismic surveys for exploration geophysics require

positioning precision on the order of 10 centimeters

over a survey area of about 100 square kilometers. 104 In some instances (e. g,, determining relative motion of oceanic plates) accuracy on the order of 1 centimeter is important, but exploration

technologies generally do not require this high degree of precision.

Precise positioning and tracking of remote systems, such as towed ‘‘fish’ or ROVs, is also considered challenging. Positioning is usually done by

acoustic rather than electromagnetic systems. Long

baseline systems employ three or more fixed-bottom

or structure-mounted reference points (e. g., acoustic transponders), while short baseline systems employ three or more ship-mounted transducers that

receive an acoustic pulse from a subsea acoustic

source. 105

Accurate marine charting requires precise navigational control relative to global coordinates. Although requirements are stringent, the state-of-theart is sufficient for producing high-quality bathymetric charts. The National Ocean Survey (NOS)

has established a ‘ ‘circular error of position” standard of 50 meters ( 164 feet) or better (in compliance

with international standards for charting). This is

about the average for survey ships operating beyond the range at which navigation technologies

can be frequently calibrated. Accuracies of 5 to 10

meters are typical with calibrated equipment. 106

101 ~atlona] R escarch Council, ,%door )?c’fc>rrnrd h$Jth?jn,g

,kreccfs and OpporfurIIfKs (Wrasllm,gton, 1X;: !Na[ional Acadcmv Press,

198:3), p. 6,

‘(J41bid. , pp 8-10,

I (J5 Frank Busby., ~rn(jcrst,aL’chjclcs ~irmtor~,- f .98.? (.Ar] lngt On ,

\’A: Rushy Associates, Inc., 1985), pp. 426-4~()

] ObPerry, ‘‘ Nlapping the Exclusi\,c Economic Zone.

NOS, for example, uses ARGO and Raydist systems for charting work within about 120 miles of

the coast, where these systems may achieve horizontal position accuracies of 5 to 10 meters. They

are cumbersome to use, however, because they require special onshore stations to be set up and must

be calibrated by a more precise system, such as a

line-of-sight system like Mini-Ranger. 107 Beyond

about 120 miles of the coast, these systems are unable to reliably meet NOAA’s 50-meter standard.

Far offshore, only the Global Positioning System

(GPS) is capable of meeting the desired accuracy

for charting.

LORAN-C is a commonly used ground-based

navigation system. LORAN-C coverage is available within most of the U.S. EEZ, and it is accurate

relative to global coordinates to within 460 meters.

Users who want to return to a site whose coordinates have been measured with LORAN-C can expect to return to within 18 to 90 meters (60 to 295

feet) of the site using LORAN-C navigation; 18

to 90 meters is thus the system’s repeatable accuracy. LORAN-C is expected to be phased out

once the GPS is fully operational. However, this

is not expected to occur before 2000. Once GPS

is fully operational, plans call for a 15-year transition period during which both LORAN-C and GPS

will be available. A satellite system available for civilian use is TRANSIT. This system is often used

to correct for certain types errors generated by

LORAN-C .

GPS is a satellite navigation system intended for

worldwide, continuous coverage. When fully deployed, the system will consist of 18 satellites and

three orbiting spares. Only six R&D satellites are

operating now, and, due to the interruption in the

space shuttle launch schedule, deployment of the

operational satellites has been delayed about 2

years. The system is now scheduled to be fully deployed by 1991. Some of the current R&D satellites may also be used in the operational system.

Costs to use the GPS are expected to be less than

costs to use current systems.

GPS is designed for two levels of accuracy. The

Precise Positioning Service, limited to the military

and to users with special permits (NOS, for in107 1 bid., p, 1192
164 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

stance), is accurate to 16 meters or better. GPS accuracy to within 10 meters is considered routine.

The less precise Standard Positioning Service is primarily for civilian use and is accurate to within

about 100 meters. (Use of GPS, as well as LORANC and other systems in the differential mode—in

which a ground receiver at a known location is used

to check signals and measure range errors, allows

higher accuracies to be achieved but takes much

longer). NOS uses GPS when it can to calibrate

the other systems it uses (Raydist and ARGO).

GPS is currently available about 4 hours a day;

however, it is impractical to go to sea for just the

short period in which the ‘ ‘window’ is open. Consequently, in the near term, NOS is focusing its

survey work on the inner half of the EEZ where

Raydist and ARGO can be used.
Mining

Chapter 5

and At-Sea

Processing Technologies
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . ..........................167

Dredging Unconsolidated Materials . ......169

Bucketline or Bucket Ladder Dredging.. .169

Suction Dredging.. . ..................172

Grab Dredges . . . . ....................177

New Directions and Trends in Dredging

Technology . .......................179

Mining Consolidated Materials Offshore ...180

Massive Polymetallic Sulfides . . . . . . . . . . .181

Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts ... ..182

Solution/Borehole Mining . . . . . . . . . . .. ....183

Offshore Mining Technologies . ...........185

At-Sea Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185

Processing Unconsolidated Deposits of

Chemically Inert Minerals . ..........186

Processing Unconsolidated or SemiConsolidatedDeposits of Chemically

Active Minerals . ...................190

Processing Consolidated and Complex

Mineral Ores . .....................191

Offshore Mining Scenarios . ..............192

Offshore Titaniferous Sands Mining

Scenario . . . . . . . ....................193

Offshore Chromate Sands Mining

Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............196

Offshore Placer Gold Mining Scenario. ..199

Offshore Phosphorite Mining Scenarios:

Tybee Island, Georgia and Onslow

Bay, North Carolina . . . .

Box

Box

5-A. Sand and Gravel Mining

Figure

5-1,

5-2.

5-3.

5-4.

5-5.

5-6.

5-7.

5-8.

5-9.

5-10.

5-11.

Figures

No.

. . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Page

. . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Page

Bucket Ladder Mining Dredge .. ....170

Capital and Operating Costs for

Bucket Ladder Mining Dredges. .. ...171

Motion Compensation of Bucket

Ladder on Offshore Mining Dredge ..172

Components of a Suction Dredge ....172

Trailing Suction Hopper Dredge . . . . .174

Cutter Head Suction Dredge . .......175

Bucket Wheel Suction Dredge . ......176

Airlift Suction Dredge Configuration .177

Grab Dredges . . . . . . . . .............178

Cutter Head Suction Dredge on SelfElevating Walking Platform . ........179

Conceptual Design for Suction Dredge

Mounted on Semi-Submersible

Platform . . . . . . . . . . . .........,.....180

Figure No. Page

5-12.

5-13.

5-14.

5-15.

5-16.

5-17.

5-18.

5-19.

5-20.

5-21.

Conceptual System for Mining

Polymetallic Sulfides . ..............182

Schematic of Solution Mining

Technology (Frasch Process) . .......184

Technologies for Processing Placer

Mineral Ores . ..............,.....187

Operating Principles of Three Placer

Mineral Separation Techniques .. ....189

Technologies for Processing Offshore

Mineral Ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..+ ...191

Offshore Titaniferous Mineral

Province, Southeast United States ....194

Values of TiO2 Content of Common

Titanium Mineral Concentrates

and Intermediates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195

Offshore Chromate Sands, Oregon

Continental Shelf... .. .. ... ,.. ... 197

Nome, Alaska Placer Gold District ...201

Offshore Phosphate District,

Southeastern North Carolina

Continental Shelf. . ................208

Tables

Table No. Page

5-1.

5-2.

5-3.

5-4.

5-50

5-6.

5-7.

5-8.

5-9.

5-1o.

5-11.

5-12.

Offshore Mineral Mining Worldwide

Commercial Operations . . . . . . . ......168

Currently Available Offshore

Dredging Technology . .............170

Ratio of Valuable Mineral to Ore. ...190

Offshore Titaniferous Sands Mining

Scenario: Capital and Operating Cost

Estimates . . . . . . ...................196

Offshore Chromate Sands Mining

Scenario: Capital and Operating Cost

Estimates . . . . . . ...................198

Offshore Placer Gold Mining

Scenario: Capital and Operating Cost

Estimates . . . . . . ...................203

Offshore Phosphorite Mining, Tybee

Island, Georgia: Capital and

Operating Cost Estimates ....... ...206

Offshore Phosphorite Mining, Onslow

Bay, North Carolina: Capital and

Operating Cost Estimates . ..........209

Scenario Comparisons: East Coast

Placer . . . . . . . . . . ..................210

Scenario Comparisons: West Coast

Placer . . . . . . . . . . . . ................211

Scenario Comparisons: Nome, Alaska

Gold Placer . . . . . . .................211

Scenario Comparisons: Onslow Bay

and Tybee Island Phosphorite . . . . . . .212
Chapter 5

Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies

INTRODUCTION

Many factors influence whether a mineral deposit can be economically mined. Among the most

important are the extent and grade of a deposit;

the depth of water in which the deposit is located;

and ocean environment characteristics such as

wave, wind, current, tide, and storm conditions.

Offshore mineral deposits range from unconsolidated sedimentary material (e. g., marine placers)

to consolidated material (e. g., cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts and massive sulfides). They may occur in a variety of forms, including beds, crusts,

nodules, and pavements and at all water depths.

Deposits may either lie at the surface of the seabed

or be buried below overburden. Some deposits may

be attached solidly to nonvaluable material (as are

cobalt-rich crusts), while others (gold) may lie atop

bedrock or at the surface of the seabed (manganese

nodules). The amount and grade of ore can vary

significantly by location.

All of these variables affect the selection of a mining system for a given deposit. Dredging is the most

widely used technology applicable to offshore mining. Dredging consists of the various processes by

which large floating machines or dredges excavate

unconsolidated material from the ocean bottom,

raise it to the surface, and discharge it into a hopper, pipeline, or barge. Waste material excavated

with the ore may be returned to the water body after removal of valuable minerals. Dredging techniques have long been applied to clearing sand and

silt from rivers, harbors, and ship channels. Application of dredging to mining began over a century ago in rivers draining the southern New

Zealand gold fields. Offshore, no minerals of any

type have been commercially dredged in waters

deeper than 300 feet, and very little dredge mining has occurred in water deeper than 150 feet. Offshore dredging technology is currently used to recover tin, diamonds, sea shells, and sand and gravel

at several locations around the world (table 5- 1).

Some of the problems of marine mining are common to all offshore deposits. Whether one considers mining placers or cobalt-rich ferromanganese

crusts, for instance, technology must be able to cope

with the effects of the ocean environment—storms,

waves, currents, tides, and winds. Other problems

are specific to a deposit or location (e. g., the presence of ice) and hence require technology specially

designed or adapted for that location.

Just as many variables influence offshore mineral

processing. The processing scheme must be designed to accommodate the composition and grade

of ore mined, the mineral product(s) to be recovered, and the feed size of the material. Mineral

processing technology has a long history onshore.

Applications offshore differ in that technology must

be able to cope with the effects of vessel motion and

the use of seawater for processing. Technologies

currently applied to processing minerals at sea are

all mechanical operations and include dewatering,

sizing, and gravity separation. Processing at sea is

currently limited to the separation of the bulk of

the waste material from the useful minerals. This

may be all the processing required for such products as sand and gravel, diamonds, and gold; however, many other products, including, for example,

most heavy minerals, require further shore-based

processing. Chemical treatment, smelting, and

refining of metals have heretofore taken place on

shore, and, given the difficulty and expense of processing beyond the bulk concentrate stage at sea, are

likely to continue to be done on land in most cases.

The degree to which processing at sea is undertaken depends on economics as well as on the capabilities of technology. As with mining technology, some processing technology is relatively well

developed (e. g., technology for extracting precious

metals or heavy minerals from a placer) while other

technology is unlikely to be refined for commercial use in the absence of economic incentives.

167
Table 5-1.—Offshore Mineral Mining Worldwide Commercial Operations

Water Number of

depth mining

Location Mineral (feet) Mining method Processing units Remarks

Active:

Phuket, Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Billiton, Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Palau Tujuh, Indonesia . . . . . . . . .

North Sea, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Southwestern Africa (Namibia) . .

Southwestern Africa . . . . . . . . . . .

Norton Sound, Nome, Alaska . . .

Reykjavik, Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Nationwide, Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bahamas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Inactive or Terminated

Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

T i n

T i n

T i n

Sand & gravel

Diamonds

Diamond s

Gol d

Sea shells

Sand & gravel

Calcium carbonate

Gol d

Gol d

Iron sands

T i n

T i n

SOURCE ~ffice of Technology Assessment, 1987

100

35-180

150

65

50-490

0-50

35-65

130

0-35

Bucket dredging

Bucket dredging

Bucket dredging

Hopper dredging

Water jet suction airlift

Diver-held suction

Bucket dredging

Hopper dredge

All techs

Suction dredge

Bucket

Bucke t

Gra b

Suction dredg e

Suction dredg e

Gravity/jigs 2

Gravity/jigs 18

Gravity/jigs 1

Dewatering only 12

Gravity/jigs 5 Pilot plant mining

Gravity/jigs 10 Very small scale

Gravity/jigs 1 Pilot mining in 1986 with Bima

Motion Compensation of

Bucket Ladder

Dewatering only

Dewatering only Small units (1,000m3

)

Dewatering 1
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 169

Photo credit: U.S. Geological Survey

Dredge technology for offshore mining must be designed for rough water conditions.

DREDGING UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS

The dredge is the standard technology for excavating unconsolidated materials from the seafloor.

Compacted material or even hard bedrock also can

be removed by dredging, provided it has been broken in advance by explosives or by mechanical cutting methods. Dredges are mounted on floating

platforms that support the excavating equipment.

Mining dredges may also have equipment on board

to handle and/or process ore.

Three principal dredging techniques are: bucketline, suction, and grab (table 5-2). For bucketline and suction dredging, the material is continuously removed from the seabed and lifted to the sea

surface. Grab dredges also lift material to the surface, but in discrete, discontinuous quantities.

Most existing mining dredges are designed to

operate in relatively protected waters. Dredge mining offshore in open water occurs in only a few

countries (Southwest Africa, United Kingdom, Indonesia, Thailand). The Bima, a mining dredge

built for tin mining offshore Indonesia, is being

adapted at this time for gold mining offshore Nome,

Alaska. Little special equipment capable of mining the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) has

yet been built, although some feasibility studies and

tests have been conducted.

Bucketline or Bucket Ladder Dredging

The bucketline or bucket ladder dredge consists

of a series of heavy steel buckets connected in a

closed loop around a massive steel ladder (in the

manner of the chain on a chain saw) (figure 5-l).

The ladder is suspended from a floating platform.

For mining, the ladder is lowered until the buckets

scrape against the dredging face, where each bucket

is filled with ore as it moves forward. The buckets
170 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 5-2.-Currently Available Offshore Dredging Technology

Present max

Type Description dredging depth Capacity

Bucketline and “Continuous” line of buckets looped

bucket ladder around digging ladder mechanically

digs out the seabed and carries

excavated material to floating

platform.

Suction Pump creates vacuum that draws

mixture of water and seabed material

up the suction line.

Cutter head Mechanical cutters or high pressure

Trailing hopper water jets disaggregated the seabed

material; suction continuously lifts to

floating platform.

Airlifts Suction is created by injecting air in

the suction line.

Grab:

Backhoe/dipper Mechanical digging action and lifting to

surface by a stiff arm.

Clamshell/ Mechanical digging action and lifting to

dragline surface on flexible cables.

164 feet

300 feet

50-300 feet

10,000 feet

100 feet

3,000 feet

Largest buckets currently made are

about 1.3 yd3 and lifting rates 25

buckets per minute (1,950 yd3

/hour

with full buckets).

Restricted by the suction distance

unless the pump is submerged,

Many possible arrangements all based

on using a dredge pump; the largest

dredge pumps currently made have

48” diameter intakes and flow rates of

130 to 260 yd3

/min of mixture (10 to

20% solids).

Airlifts are not efficient in shallow

water. There may be limitations in

suction line diameter when lifting

large fragments.

Restricted by the duration of the cycle

and by the size of the bucket;

currently largest buckets made are

27 yd3

.

The largest dragline buckets made are

about 200 to 260 yd3

/hr; power

requirements and cycle time increase

with depth.

SOURCE: Office of Assessment, 1987.

Figure 5-1 .—Bucket Ladder Mining Dredge

The bucket ladder dredge is a proven and widely used dredge for offshore mining; however, its use to date has been limited

to calm, shallow water.

SOURCE: U.S. Geological Survey.
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 171

traveling up the ladder lift the material to the platform and discharge the ore into the processing

plant.

The bucket ladder dredge is the most proven and

widely used technology for mining offshore tin placers in open water in Southeast Asia. Bucket ladder

dredges are widely used to mine onshore gold, platinum, diamonds, tin, and rutile placers in Malaysia,

Thailand, Brazil, Colombia, Sierra Leone, Ghana,

New Zealand, and Alaska. Bucket ladder dredge

technology is still the best method to ‘‘clean’ bedrock, which is particularly important for the recovery from placer deposits of heavy, high-unit-value

minerals like gold and platinum. These dredges

have buckets ranging in size from 1 to 30 cubic feet.

The deepest digging bucket line dredges are designed to dig up to 164 feet below the surface.

Prices of bucket ladder dredges (including processing plants) for mining onshore vary with dredge

capacity (bucket size) and with dredging depth. A

small bucket dredge (with 3-cubic-foot buckets) may

sell for approximately $1.5 million (free on board

plant). Such a dredge can mine 60,000 to 80,000

cubic yards of ore per month at depths of 30 to 40

feet below the hull. The cost of larger onshore mining bucket dredges (with buckets as large as 30 cubic feet) and capacities up to 1 million cubic yards

per month may reach $10 million to $20 million,

depending on digging depth and other variables.

The per-cubic-yard capital and operating costs

of larger dredges are lower than those of smaller

dredges (figure 5-2). Offshore bucket ladder dredges

cost more than onshore dredges because they must

be more self-contained. They must be built to carry

a powerplant, fuel, supplies, and mined ore. The

hull also must be larger and heavier to withstand

waves and to meet marine insurance specifications.

In 1979, the capital cost of the 30-cubic-foot Bima

was about $33 million. Approximately 10 bucket

dredges configured for offshore use are currently

mining tin in Indonesia in water depths of 100 to

165 feet at distances of 20 to 30 miles offshore.

Despite their versatility, offshore uses of bucket

ladder dredges are limited. Much of the EEZ

around the United States is subject to waves and

ocean swells that could make bucket ladder dredging difficult. To ensure that the lower end of the

ladder maintains constant thrust against the cutFigure 5.2.—Capital and Operating Costs

for Bucket Ladder Mining Dredges

Yearly volume excavated and treated million cubic yards

Dredges for use offshore would cost more to build and

operate than the estimates illustrated here, since they would

have to be self-contained and contain a power plant, fuel,

supplies, and mined ore. They would also have to be capable

of withstanding waves and high winds.

SOURCE: Adapted from M J. Richardson and E.E. Horton, “Technologies for

Dredge Mining Minerals of the Exclusive Economic Zone,” contractor

report prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment, August 1986

ting face, motion compensation systems must be

installed. These systems are large hydraulic and air

cylinders that act like springs to allow the end of

the ladder to remain in the same place while the

hull pitches and heaves in swells (figure 5-3). Other

limitations of current dredges include the high wear

rate of the excavating components (e. g., buckets,

pins, rollers, and tumblers) and the lack of mobility. Offshore bucket dredges are not self-propelled

and must be towed when changing locations. For

long tows across rough water, the ladder makes the

vessel unseaworthy and makes towing impractical.

The bucket dredge Bima was actually carried on

a submersible lift barge from Indonesia to Alaska.

In designing offshore dredges, especially those

working in rough water, careful attention must be

given to seaworthiness of the hull.

Most bucket ladder dredges are now built outside the United States, although the capability and

know-how still exist in this country. Except for the

motion compensation systems installed on offshore

dredges, bucket ladder dredge technology has remained essentially static, and there have been only

minor gains in dredging depth in the last 50 years.
172 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 5-3.–Motion Compensation of Bucket Ladder on Offshore Mining Dredge

Motion compensation systems might be necessary offshore to ensure that the lower end of the dredge ladder maintains constant

thrust against the cutting face while the dredge hull pitches and heaves in swells.

SOURCE: Dredge Technology Corp.

With the availability of new materials and higher

strength steels, it is now possible to design bucket

ladder dredges capable of digging twice as deep (330

feet) as present dredges, but the capital and operating costs would be greatly increased.

Suction Dredging

Suction dredging systems have three principal

components: a suction device, a suction line, and

a movable platform or vessel (figure 5-4). The suction device can be either a mechanical pump or

an airlift. Pumps are most common on suction

dredges; airlifts have more specialized applications.

Pumps create a drop in pressure in the suction line.

This pressure drop draws or sucks in a mixture of

seawater and material from the vicinity of the suction head and up the suction line into the pump.

After the slurry passes through the pump, it is

pushed by the pump along the discharge pipe until it reaches the delivery point.

Pump technology is considered relatively advanced. Dredge pumps are a specialized application. The main features required of dredge pumps

are large capacity, resistance to abrasion, and efficiency. To accommodate the large volumes of material dredged, the largest dredging pumps have intakes of up to 48 inches in diameter and impellers

up to 12 feet in diameter. These parts require large

steel castings that are both costly and complicated

to make. The flow of solids (e. g., silicate sand or

gravel) and water at speeds of 10 to 20 feet per second through the pump and suction line causes abrasion and wear.

Figure 5-4.–Components of a Suction Dredge

The main types of suction dredges currently applicable to

offshore mining are hopper, cutter head, and bucket wheel

dredges.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S7.

Pumps create suction by reducing the pressure

in suction lines below atmospheric pressure. Only

80 percent of vacuum can be achieved using present

mechanical pumping technology. This constraint

means that dredge pumps cannot lift pure seawater

in the suction line more than about 25 feet above

the ocean level. This distance would be less for a

mixture of seawater and solids and would vary with

the amount of entrained solids. Greater efficiency

can be achieved by placing the pump below the

water line of the vessel, usually as near as possible
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 173

to the seabed. This placement is more costly, since

the pump is either a long distance from the power

source or the pump motors must be submerged.

Such components are very heavy for large pump

capacities. An alternative applicable for deep dredging is to use several pumps in series and boost the

flow in the suction line by means of water jets. This

technique has been tested and proven but is not

in widespread use because it is inefficient.

The configuration of the suction head plays an

important role by allowing the passage of the solids

and water mixture up the suction line. In harder,

more compact material, the action of the suction

head may be augmented by rotary mechanical cutters, by bucket wheels, and/or by water jets, depending on the specific applications. When the material to be dredged is unhomogeneous, such as

sand and gravel, the entrance of the suction line

is restricted to prevent foreign objects (e. g, large

boulders) from entering the suction line. The main

technological constraints in suction and discharge

systems are wear and reliability due to corrosion,

abrasion, and metal fatigue.

The platform or vessel that supports suction

dredging components must be able to lift and move

the suction head from one location to another. Since

most dredgeable underwater mineral deposits are

more broad than thick, the dredge must have the

capability to sweep large areas of the seabed. This

is achieved by moving the platform, generally a

floating vessel; although experimental, bottomsupported suction dredges have been built and

tested.

The main types of suction dredges currently

applicable to offshore mining in the EEZ are hopper, cutter head, and bucket wheel dredges.

Hopper Dredges

Hopper dredges usually are self-propelled, seagoing suction dredges equipped with a special hold

or hopper in which dredged material is stored (figure 5-5). Dredging is done using one or two dredge

pumps connected to trailing drag arms and suction

heads. As the dredge moves forward, material is

sucked from the seabed through the drag arms and

emptied into the hopper. Alternatively, the dredge

may be anchored and used to excavate a pit in the

deposit.

Hopper dredges are used mainly to clear and

maintain navigational channels and harbor entrances and to replenish sand-depleted beaches. In

the United Kingdom and Japan, they are also used

to mine sand and gravel offshore. Hopper dredges

are configured to handle unconsolidated, freeflowing sedimentary material. The suction heads

are usually passive, although some are equipped

with high-pressure water jets to loosen seabed material. The trailing drag arms are usually equipped

with motion compensation devices and gimbal

joints. These devices allow the drag arms to be

decoupled from vessel motion and enable the dragheads to remain in constant contact with the

seafloor while dredging.

The dredged material is dewatered for transport

after entering the hopper. Hopper dredges may discharge material through bottom doors, conveyor

belts, or discharge pumps. Some models are emptied by swinging apart the two halves of an axially

hinged hull.

Capacities of sea-going suction hopper dredges

currently range from 650 to 33,000 cubic yards.

Although the theoretically maximum-sized hopper

dredge has not been built, the maximum capacity

of present dredges is a compromise between the

higher capital investment required for greater hopper capacity and the higher operating costs that

would result from more trips with smaller hoppers.

Typical operating depths for hopper dredges are

Photo credit: J. Williams, U.S. Geological Survey

Trailing suction hopper dredge Sugar Island with drag

arms stowed and hopper space visible.
174 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 5-5.—Trailing Suction Hopper Dredge

P

Hopper dredges have been used mainly to clear and maintain navigational channels and harbor entrances and to replenish

sand-depleted beaches. A hopper dredge is currently being used to mine sand and gravel in the Ambrose Channel entrance

to New York Harbor.

SOURCE: Dredge Technology Corp.

between 35 and 100 feet, and 260 feet is considered the maximum achievable depth with currently

available technology. For current specifications and

capacities, the capital costs of hopper dredges range

from $5 million to $50 million.

Except for sand and gravel mining in Japan and

the North Sea, hopper dredges have not been used

extensively to recover minerals. However, hopper

dredges adapted for preliminary concentration

(beneficiation) of heavy minerals at sea, with overboard rejection of waste solids and water, are likely

candidates for mining any sizable, thin, and loosely

consolidated deposits of economic heavy minerals

that might be found in water less than 165 feet deep.

A stationary suction dredge, similar in principle to the anchored suction hopper dredge, has been

designed and extensively tested for mining the

metalliferous muds of the Red Sea. 1 Although the

‘‘Technology for the Exploration and Exploitation of Marine Mineral Deposits, Non-Living Marine Resources

(New York, NY: United Nations, Oceans, Economics, and Technology Branch), in press.

dredge has not been used commercially, it successfully retrieved muds in 7,200 feet of water.

Cutter Head Suction Dredges

Mechanically driven cutting devices may be

mounted near the intake of some suction dredges

to break up compacted material such as clay, clayey

sands, or gravel. The two main types are cutter

heads and bucket wheels.

Cutter head dredges are equipped with a special

cutter (figure 5-6) mounted at the end of the suction pipe. The cutter rotates slowly into the bottom material as the dredging platform sweeps sideways, pulling against ‘‘swing lines’ anchored on

either side. Cutter head dredges usually advance

by lifting and swinging about their spuds when in

shallow water.

Cutter head dredges are in widespread use on

inland waterways for civil engineering and mining

projects. Onshore, these dredges have been used

to mine heavy minerals, (e. g., ilmenite, rutile, and

zircon) from ancient beaches and sand dunes in the
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 175

Figure 5.6.—Cutter Head Suction Dredge

Dredges such as this have been used at inland mine sites to mine heavy minerals such as ilmenite, rutile, and zircon.

SOURCE: Dredge Technology Corp

United States (Florida), Australia (Queensland),

and South Africa (Richards Bay). Ore disaggregate by the cutter is pumped through a flexible

pipeline to a wet concentrating plant floating several hundred feet behind the dredge. This configuration, while common on protected dredge ponds

inland, may not be suitable for mining in the open

water of the marine environment because of wave,

current, and wind conditions.

Large self-propelled cutter head suction dredges

have been built that are capable of steaming in

rough water with the cutter suction ladder raised.

While not able to operate in heavy seas, this type

of dredge can disengage from the bottom and ‘‘ride

out’ storms. Adaptation of a sea-going cutter head

dredge to mining may require a motion compensated ladder and installation of onboard processing facilities and would require addition of a hopper or the use of auxiliary barges.

The capital costs of cutter head suction dredges

vary widely with size and configuration. For seagoing, self-powered dredges the capital costs would

be similar to those of hopper dredges, i.e., up to

$50 million. The capacities of cutter head dredges

vary with the size of the dredge pumps, which range

in diameter between 6 and 48 inches. This range

of diameters corresponds to mining volumes of

solids between 100 and 4,000 cubic yards per hour.

Like suction hopper dredges, the operating

depths of available cutter head dredge designs are

limited by dredge pump technology to between 35

and 260 feet, although greater mining depths could

be achieved with incremental technical improvements. The cutter head suction dredge is not considered suitable for cleaning bedrock to recover gold

or other very dense minerals in placer deposits, due

to inefficiency in recovering the heavier minerals.
176 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 5-7.—Bucket Wheel Suction Dredge

Hoist I

dredges may have some potential for mining offshore placer deposits.

SOURCE: Dredge Technology Corp.

Bucket Wheel Suction Dredges

The bucket wheel dredge (figure 5-7) is a variant of a cutter head dredge, differing mainly in that

the cutter is replaced by a rotating wheel equipped

with buckets that cut into the dredging face in a

manner similar to a bucket ladder dredge. The

buckets are bottomless and discharge directly into

the suction line.

Bucket wheel mining dredges are a relatively new

development and have been used primarily in calm

inland waters. Some applications include tin mining in Brazil, sand and gravel mining in the United

States, and heavy mineral mining in South Africa.

The bucket wheel dredge has not been used in the

EEZ, but it may have potential for mining offshore

heavy minerals in specific applications. Motion

compensation, offshore hull design, and mobility

would need to be considered. These dredges are

less effective when cutting clay-rich materials, which

may clog the buckets, and when dredging boulders,

which could block the opening into the suction lines.

However, bucket wheel dredges are more suitable

than cutter head suction dredges for mining heavy

minerals, since the bucket wheel avoids the problem of loss of heavy minerals on the bottom.

Air Lift Suction Dredges

In airlift suction dredging, air under pressure is

injected in the suction line of the dredge, substituting for the mechanical action of a dredge pump

(figure 5-8) and creating suction at the intake which

allows the upward transport of solids. Airlifts have

been used for many years in salvage operations and,

during the past 25 years, for mining diamond-bearing gravels off the southwestern coast of Africa.

The technology of airlift dredges has not reached

the level of development and widespread use of the

other forms of suction dredging, but the configurations are similar. Much research has been done

on the physics of the flow of water, air, and solids

mixtures in airlift suction dredging, because this

method has been considered one of the most promising for dredging phosphorite or manganese nodules from great ocean depths. In general, applica-
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 177

Figure 5-8.—Airlift Suction Dredge Configuration

Airlift dredges may be applicable for some seabed deposits

300 feet or more below the ocean surface. Airlift dredging

has been used on a pilot scale to lift manganese nodules from

about 15,000 feet.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.

tions of airlifts for mining offshore minerals may

be considered for depths between 300 and 16,000

feet. Suction and air delivery lines can be handled

with techniques readily adapted from the petroleum

industry; the problem of platform motion in response to long period waves can be overcome by

adapting motion compensation systems used in the

petroleum industry; and seabed material can be disaggregated at the suction intake by high-pressure

water jets or by hydraulically driven mechanical

cutters.

Grab Dredges

Grab dredging is the mechanical action of cutting or scooping material from the seabed in finite

quantities and lifting the filled ‘ ‘grab’ container

to the ocean surface. Grab dredging takes place in

a cycle: lower, fill, lift, discharge, and again lower

the grab bucket. Clamshell, dragline, dipper, and

backhoe dredges are examples of this technology

(figure 5-9). Clamshells and draglines are widely

used for dredging boulders or massive rock fragments broken by explosives and for removing overburden from coal and other stratified mineral deposits. The clamshell and dragline buckets are

lowered and lifted with flexible steel cables. Variants of clamshell dredging have been used in Thailand to mine tin in Phuket Harbor and in Japan

to mine iron sands in Ariake Bay. In the late 1960s,

Global Marine, Inc., used a clamshell dredge for

pilot mining of gold-bearing material from depths

of 1,000 feet near Juneau, Alaska. Variants of

dragline dredges have been used since the late 19th

century to recover material from the deep seafloor.

With appropriate winch configurations for handling large amounts of cable and large buckets, grab

dredging is similar to the traditional technologies

used to hoist material from deep underground

mines (e. g., in South Africa, where it is economically feasible to hoist gold ores from 12,000 feet below the ground surface). Most aspects of clamshell

dredging technology, including motion compensation for working on a moving platform at sea, have

been developed and proven by either the mining

or petroleum industry and are readily available for

adaptation to offshore mining.

Dipper and backhoe dredges are designed for use

on land (figure 5-9). They may be placed on floating pontoons for offshore dredging but are limited

to shallow-water applications. Backhoes especially

can be easily adapted to mining in protected shallow water. Commercial off-the-shelf backhoes with

a maximum reach of about 30 feet and buckets with

capacities of up to 3 cubic yards are readily available for gold or tin placer mining in protected environments. Backhoes mounted on walking platforms

are conceivable for excavation in shallow surf zones.

Backhoe mining is limited by depth of reach, small

capacity, and the inability of the operator to see

the cutting action of the bucket below water. Dipper dredges are widely used to mine stratified

mineral deposits (e. g., coal and bauxite) on land,

but their unique action (figure 5-9) restricts offshore

applications to shallow water. As dredged material

using grab, dipper, and backhoe dredges is raised

through the water column, the material is washed,

which may not be desirable in mining.
178 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 5-9.—Grab Dredges
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies . 179

NEW DIRECTIONS AND TRENDS IN DREDGING TECHNOLOGY

Dredge technology for offshore mining falls into

two distinct categories: technology for mining nearshore in shallow, protected water; and technology

for further offshore in deeper water subject to

winds, currents, and ocean swell. Dredging systems

for a shallow environment can be readily adapted

from the various types of dredges currently used

onshore. Dredges for mining in a deep-water environment must be designed with special characteristics. They must be self-powered, seaworthy platforms equipped with motion compensation systems,

onboard processing plants, and mineral storage capabilities.

Design and construction of offshore dredge mining systems for almost any kind of unconsolidated

mineral deposit or environment on the continental shelf are possible without major new technological developments. However, for some environments, there may be operating limitations due to

seasonal wave and storm conditions. No breakthroughs comparable to the change from the piston to the jet engine in the aircraft industry, for

instance, are needed. If deposits of sufficient size

and richness are found, incremental improvements

in dredging technology can be expected. Costs to

design, build, and operate dredging equipment for

offshore mining are the most significant constraints.

Several new design concepts have been developed

to help solve some of the problems of dredging at

sea. The motion of platforms floating on the ocean

generally make dredging difficult, but there are

three ways to alleviate this movement other than

those described previously. In one approach for

shallow water, one firm has designed and built an

eight-leg ‘‘walking and dredging self-elevating platform" (WADSEP) to support a cutter head suction dredging system (figure 5-10). By raising and

translating one set of legs at a time the platform

creeps slowly across the seafloor. Since the platform

is firmly grounded, the problem of operating in

rough, open water is reduced. The dredge ladder

and cutter head sweep sideways by pulling against

anchors. This self-elevating platform could equally

well support a bucket ladder dredging operation.

The practical limit for dredging using a WADSEP

is probably about 300 feet. Although the concept

and technology are sound, the WADSEP is not currently cost-effective to use.

Figure 5-10.—Cutter Head Suction Dredge

on Self-Elevating Walking Platform

Although the technology is proven, mining operations with

a self-elevating walking ‘platform are currently very expensive.

SOURCE: Dredge Technology Corp.

A second technological approach to the problem

of dredge motion in offshore environments is to use

a semi-submersible platform, such as those in widespread use in the petroleum industry. This would

enable a dredge to continue mining or to stay onstation rather than having to be demobilized during rough weather. A design for a suction dredge

that incorporates a seaworthy semi-submersible hull

is shown in figure 5-11. A disadvantage of the semisubmersible platform would be its sensitivity to

large changes in deadweight if dredged material is

stored on board.

A third approach to eliminating platform motion

in shallow water is to develop a submerged dredge.

This project has proved to be complex and difficult in systems tested to date. Although a prototype of a submerged cutter head suction dredge was
180 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 5-il.–Conceptual Design for Suction Dredge

Mounted on Semi-Submersible Platform

Semi-submersible platforms have been developed for

offshore oil drilling. The semi-submersible platform offers a

stable platform from which to operate, but is very expensive.

successfully built and operated offshore for several

months, it was not an economic success and its development was discontinued.

Greater dredging depths can be attained by submerging pumping systems or by employing airlift

or water jet lift systems. While submerged pump

technology can be readily adapted from military

submarine technology or from deep-water petroleum technology, the development costs are high.

No breakthroughs are foreseen that could vastly

increase the capacities of offshore dredging systems

and bring substantial cost reductions. However, existing technology is largely based on steel construction, and the use of new, lighter materials with

higher strength-to-weight ratios has not been widely

investigated.

SOURCE: Dredge Technology Corp.

MINING CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS OFFSHORE

Two principal types of consolidated deposits that

are known to occur in the U.S. EEZ are massive

polymetallic sulfides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts. Alternatives for mining manganese

nodules, where present in the EEZ, have much in

common with dredging techniques used in shallow

water, although the deep water in which nodules

are found presents special problems. However,

techniques for mining polymetallic sulfides and cobalt crusts are likely to be very different than the

dredging techniques used to mine placers and other

unconsolidated deposits. Unlike unconsolidated deposits, these deposits must be broken up (using either some type of mechanical device or blasting)

and possibly must be crushed prior to transport to

the surface. Moreover, all known cobalt crust and
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 181

offshore polymetallic sulfide deposits occur in deep

water, beyond the range of technologies used for

conventional placer mining.

Much of the technology needed to mine massive

polymetallic sulfide and cobalt crust deposits is yet

to be developed. EEZ hard-rock deposits and massive polymetallic sulfide deposits are, therefore,

probably of more scientific than commercial interest

at this time. Research on the genesis, distribution,

extent, composition, and other geological aspects

of these deposits has been underway for only a few

years, and more knowledge will likely be required

before the private sector is likely to consider spending large sums of money to develop needed mining technology. A more immediate need is to refine the technology for sampling these hard-rock

deposits (see ch. 4). Before mining equipment can

be designed, more technical and engineering data

on the deposits will be required.2

In the deep ocean, technology must be designed

to cope with elevated hydrostatic pressure, the corrosive saltwater environment, the barrier imposed

by the seawater column, and rugged terrain. Even

onshore, mining equipment requires constant repair and maintenance. Given deep ocean conditions, it will be particularly important that mining

equipment be as simple as possible, reliable, and

sturdy. 3

Massive Polymetallic Sulfides

Although technology for mining massive sulfides

has not been developed, the steps likely to be required are straightforward. To start, any overburden covering the massive sulfides would have to be

removed, although it is likely that initial mining

targets would be selected without overburden.

Then, the resource would then have to be fragmented, collected, possibly reduced in size, transported to a surface vessel, optionally beneficiated

on the vessel, and finally transported to shore.

*R, Kaufman, ‘ ‘Conceptual Approaches for Mining Marine Poly -

metallic Sulfide Deposits, Marine T~chnology Socict)’JournaI, \ol.

19, No. 4, 19&35, p, 56 .

ID. K, Denton, Jr, , ‘ ‘Review of Existing, De\,eloping, and Required

Technology for Exploration, Delineation, and Mining of Seabed Massive Sulfide Deposits, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Availability

Program, Technical Assistance Series, October 1985, p. 13,

A number of conceptual approaches have been

suggested to fragment and/or extract massive sulfides. These include use of cutter head dredges;

drilling and blasting; high-pressure water jets;

dozers, rippers, or scrapers; high-intensity shock

waves; and in situ leaching.4 All proposed extraction methods have some drawbacks, and none have

been tested in the ocean environment. Crushing

or grinding, where required, is not technically difficult on land but has not yet been done in commercial operations on the seafloor. Transport of

crushed ore to the surface would most likely be

accomplished by hydraulic pumping (using either

airlift or submerged centrifugal pumps). This technology has been studied for mining seabed manganese nodule deposits, so it is perhaps the most

advanced submerged part of many proposed hardrock mining systems.

No major technical innovations are expected to

be needed for surface ship operations, although the

cost of equipment such as dynamically positioned

semi-submersible platforms will be expensive. Onboard storage and transport of massive sulfide ore

would have similar requirements as storage and

transport of most other ores. Flotation technology

for beneficiating massive sulfides has not yet been

adapted for use at sea; however, the U.S. Bureau

of Mines has initiated research on the subject.

One conceptual approach5 for deposits on or just

below the seafloor envisions the use of a bottommounted hydraulic dredge (figure 5-12). The dredge

would be equipped with a suction cutter-ripper head

capable of moving back and forth and also telescoping as it cuts into the sulfide deposit and simultaneously fractures and picks up the material by suction. The dredged material would be first pumped

from the seabed to a crusher and screen system,

then into a storage and injection hopper on the submerged dredge, and finally from the injection hopper to the surface. An airlift pump and segmented

steel riser would give vertical lift. The surface platform would be a large, dynamically positioned,

semi-submersible platform. After dewatering, the

pumped material would be discharged into storage

holds on the platform. In concept, the ore would

be beneficiated on the platform, loaded on a barge,

‘Ibid,, pp. 16-17

5 Kaufman, ‘ ‘Conceptual Approaches for Mining, ” pp. 55-56.
182 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 5-12.—Conceptual System for Mining

Polymetallic Sulfides

A prototype system for mining massive sulfides will unlikely

be developed until the economics improve and more is known

about the deposits (not to scale).

SOURCE: R. Kaufman, “Conceptual Approaches for Mining Marine Polymetallic

Sulfide Deposits,” Marine Technology Society Journal, VOI 19, No. 4,

1985, p. 56.

and finally transported to shore using a tug-barge

system. While such approaches seem reasonable

given the current state of knowledge, a prototype

mining system may be very different. It will not

be possible to develop such a system until more is

known about the nature of massive sulfides and until there is a perceived economic incentive to mine

them.

Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts

Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on Pacific seamounts have been known for at least 20 years.

However, knowledge that the crusts could some day

be an economically exploitable resource is recent,

and technology for mining the crusts is no more

advanced than technology for mining massive

sulfides.

Despite lack of technology and detailed information about the resource, a consortium (consisting

of Brown & Root of the United States, Preussag

AG of West Germany, and Nippon Kokan of Japan) has expressed interest in mining cobalt-rich

crusts in the U.S. EEZ surrounding the State of

Hawaii and Johnston Island. Most observers expect that crusts, if mined at all, are likely to be

mined before sulfides. With this in mind, Hawaii

and the U.S. Department of the Interior have recently prepared an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) in which the resource potential and potential environmental impacts of crust mining in

the Hawaiian and Johnston Island EEZs are

assessed.

In addition, a relatively detailed mining development scenario has been prepared as part of the

EIS.6 The scenario describes and evaluates the various subsystems required to mine crusts. A number of approaches are possible for each subsystem,

but the basic tasks are the same. Subsystems would

be required to fragment, collect, and crush crust

and probably to partially separate crust from substrate before conveying ore to the surface. The surface support vessel and subsystem for pumping ore

 S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service,

and State of Hawaii, Department of Planning and Economic Development, Proposed Marine Mineral Lease Sale in the Hawaiian

Archipelago andJohnston Island Exclusive Economic Zones (Draft

Environmental Impact Statement), app. A: “Mining Development

Scenario Summary, ” January 1987.
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies 183

to the surface probably would be similar to those

already designed for mining manganese nodules.

Crusts form thin coatings on the surface of various types of nonvaluable substrates. A principal

problem in designing a crust mining system will

be to separate crust from substrate in order to minimize dilution of the ore. The thickness and continuity of the crust (which are often highly variable),

the nature of its bonding to substrate, and the efficiency of the cutting device used will affect how

much substrate is collected. The more substrate collected, the lower the ore grade and the greater the

costs of transportation, processing, and waste disposal. The principal alternatives are to separate

crust from unwanted substrate on the seabed (and

thus avoid lifting substrate to the surface) or to separate crust and substrate on the mining vessel.

Complete separation on the seabed of ore from

waste material would be preferable (if at all feasible), but costs to do so may be prohibitively high.

It is more likely that only a small amount of the

necessary separation will take place on the seabed

and that most of the separation will take place on

the mining vessel or onshore.

The mining system assumed in the EIS mining

scenario employs a controllable, bottom-crawling

tracked vehicle attached to a mining ship by a hydraulic lift system and electrical umbilical cord.

However, before mining concepts can be significantly refined, more information will be required

about the physical characteristics of the crusts.

More data on the microtopography of crusts and

substrate are an especially important requirement

for the design of the key element of the mining system, a crust fragmenting device.

SOLUTION/BOREHOLE MINING

Solution or borehole mining has much in common with drilling for oil and gas; in fact, much of

the technology for this mining method is borrowed

from the oil and gas industry. Both terms refer to

the mining of rock material from underground deposits by pumping water or a leaching solution

down wells into contact with the deposit and removing the slurry or brine thus created. Because the

mining process is accomplished through a drill hole,

this method is applicable for recovering some types

of ore without first removing overburden.

The Frasch process, used since 1960 to mine sulfur from salt dome deposits in the Gulf of Mexico,

is the only current application of solution mining

offshore (figure 5- 13). From an offshore drilling

platform, superheated water and compressed air are

pumped into the sulfur deposit. The hot water melts

the sulfur, and liquid sulfur, water, and air are

forced to the surface for collection. 7

Borehole mining has been considered for recovery of both onshore and offshore phosphates. The

U.S. Bureau of Mines has tested a prototype borehole mining tool onshore. For mining, the tool is

7

1) ~; hlorsc, ‘‘Sulfur, ‘‘ .Iljncral Fat (S ancl I’rnblcrns- 198.5 Edition, Bullet in 67.5 (W’ashingttln, DC L-

. S Bureau of’ Mines, 1 986),

p 78.5.

lowered into a predrilled, steel-cased borehole to

the ore. A rotating water jet on the tool disintegrates

the phosphate matrix while a jet pump at the lower

end of the tool pumps the resulting slurry to the

surface. The slurry is then transported to a beneficiation plant by pipeline. The resulting cavity is backfilled with sand to prevent subsidence.

Results of economic feasibility studies of using

the borehole mining technique onshore show that,

where the thickness of the overburden is greater

than 150 feet, borehole mining may be more economical than conventional surface mining systems.8

An elaborate platform would be required for mining offshore deposits, so capital costs are expected

to be higher than for onshore deposits. Borehole

mining of phosphate appears to be less destructive

to the environment than conventional phosphate

mining techniques and, if used offshore, would

probably not require backfilling of cavities.

Solution mining also has been mentioned as a

possible technique for mining offshore massive sulfides. Significant drawbacks include the application

of chemical reagents capable of leaching these sul8J, A. Hrablk and D <J Godcsky, ‘‘ E( on(lmlc E\alual ion c)t B(]rt’-

hole and Con\’ entional hlining S~stcrns in Phosphate Ilcposits, BL~-

rcau of’ Afines Information Cirrular 892?, 1983.
184 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 5-13.—Schematic of Solution Mining

Technology (Frasch Process)

r

air

ing

fides, possible contamination of seawater by the

chemical leach solutions required, and the probable necessity of fracturing impermeable deposits

to allow the leach solution to percolate through the

deposit. Solution/borehole technology is untested

on marine hard-rock deposits.9

Solution mining of sulfur is currently done in the Gulf of

Mexico. Borehole mining, which has been suggested for

mining phosphorite, is similar, using high pressure water to

disintegrate ore below overburden. The resulting slurry is then

pumped to the surface.

SOURCES: Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 25 (Danburyj CT: Grolier, Inc., 1986), 

868; J.W. Shelton, “’Sulfur,” Mineral Facts and Problems, 1980 ed. ‘Denton, “Review of Existing, Developing, and Required Tech-

(Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines), 864. nology.
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 185

OFFSHORE MINING

Unless concentrations of mineral deposits offshore are likely to be much higher than those on

land, or unless the values of minerals increase, it

is apparent that the mining industry will have less

incentive to develop new technology than an industry like the petroleum industry. For example, the

value of oil from a relatively small offshore field

is likely to approach $1 billion. In comparison, a

reasonable target for an offshore placer gold deposit

might have a value of $100 million—an order of

magnitude less.

Massive sulfides and other primary mineral deposits of the EEZ may some day present economic

targets and offer incentives to development of mining technologies. These technologies are likely to

depart significantly from dredging concepts and

may be more closely related to solution mining, offTECHNOLOGIES

shore petroleum recovery, or conventional techniques of hard rock mining.

Many of the technological advances made by the

offshore petroleum industry would find applications

in offshore mining, provided the offshore mineral

deposits were rich enough to sustain the capital and

operating costs of such developments. This technology transfer was demonstrated during the 1970s

when several groups of leading international companies in the mining industry sponsored development work on methods for mining manganese nodules from depths of about 15,000 feet. These groups

have delayed their plans for dredging nodules, primarily because prices for copper, nickel, cobalt, and

manganese continue to be low, but also because the

institutional regime imposed on the exploitation of

the international oceanfloor is still evolving,

AT-SEA PROCESSING

Mineral processing involves separating raw material (ore) from worthless constituents and transforming it into intermediate or final mineral products. The number and type of steps involved in a

particular process may vary considerably depending on the characteristics of the ore and the end

product or products to be extracted. Mineral processing encompasses a wide range of techniques from

relatively straightforward mechanical operations

(beneficiation) to complex chemical procedures.

Processing may be needed for one or more of the

following tasks:

1.

2.

3.

To control particle size: This step may be undertaken either to make the material more

convenient to handle for subsequent processing or, as in the case of sized aggregate, to

make a final product suitable for sale.

To expose or release constituents for further

processing: Exposure and liberation are

achieved by size reduction. For cases in which

minerals must be separated by physical processes, an adequate amount of freeing of the

different minerals from each other is a prerequisite.

To control composition: Constituents that

would make ore difficult to process chemically

or would result in an inadequate final product must be eliminated or partially eliminated

(e. g., chromite must be removed from ilmenite ore in order to meet specifications for pigment). Often, an important need is to eliminate the bulk of the waste minerals from an

ore to produce a concentrate (beneficiation). 10

Processing of marine minerals may take place

either on land or at sea or partly on both land and

sea, depending on economic and technological considerations. Where processing is to be done wholly

or partly at sea, it is integrated closely with the mining operation. However, since almost no mining

has taken place to date in the EEZ, offshore processing experience is limited. Processing technology

for minerals found on land has developed over

many centuries and, in contrast to requirements

for offshore processing, has been designed to operate on stable, motionless foundations and, with few

exceptions, to use fresh water.

It is usually not desirable to do all processing of

marine minerals offshore. Final recovery may be

done onboard in the case of precious minerals, such

72-672 0 - 87 -- 7
186 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

as gold, platinum, and diamonds, but all other

minerals would probably be taken ashore as bulk

concentrates to be further processed. Trade-offs

must be considered in evaluating whether to partially process some minerals offshore. First, the cost

of transporting unbeneficiated ore to shore must

be weighed against the added costs and capital expenses of putting a beneficiation plant offshore.

Transportation to shore of a smaller amount of high

grade concentrate may be more economical than

transporting a larger amount of lower grade ore to

shore for beneficiation and subsequent processing.

(This is also a standard problem on land when evaluating trade-offs between, for example, building

a smelter or investing in transportation to an existing smelter. ) Second, it is generally thought to

be easier and more economical to discharge tailings

(waste materials) at sea than on land, but tailings

discharge may result in unacceptable environmental

impacts. Third, while seawater is an unlimited

source of water for use in many phases of processing, its higher salinity could make processing more

difficult and concentrates could require additional

washing with fresh water.

Important considerations in evaluating whether

to process minerals offshore may include the cost

of space aboard mining vessels and the sensitivity

of some processing steps to vessel motion. Space

is an important factor in the economics of a project.

Since larger platforms cost more, engineers must

consider the trade-offs between using a hull or platform large and stable enough to contain additional

processing equipment, power, fuel, storage space,

and personnel and transporting unbeneficiated ore

to shore. Although little experience is available, vessel motion may make some processing steps difficult or impossible without motion compensation

equipment and may significantly reduce the efficiency of recovering some minerals. Power requirements are also of major concern because all power

must be generated onboard, thus requiring both

additional space and costs. Personnel safety, the

availability of docking facilities, distance to refineries, and production rates may also influence processing decisions. 11

1lM.J. Cruickshank, ‘ ‘Marine Sand and Gravel Mining and Processing Technologies, Marine Mining, in press.

Some basic development options include limiting the motion of the platform (e. g., by using a

semi-submersible); isolating the processing equipment from platform motion (e. g., by mounting it

on gimbals); redesigning the processing equipment

to make it more efficient at sea; or simply accepting lower grade concentrate by using existing and,

hence, less costly equipment. In the case of mineral

processing, an initial priority probably would be

to test existing processing equipment at sea to obtain operating experience.

The costs and efficiency of operating a processing plant at sea are highly uncertain. For example, motion compensation of specific sections of the

onboard plant or of major portions of the vessel is

expensive. For most minerals, further development

of technology will be needed to optimize offshore

mineral processing equipment and procedures. In

general, one would probably attempt to perform

the easy and relatively inexpensive processing steps

offshore, such as size separation and rough gravity concentration, to reduce the bulk of material

to be transported, then complete the processing on

land.

There are three broad categories of mineral processing technology:

1.

2.

3.

technology for unconsolidated deposits of

chemically inert minerals,

technology for unconsolidated or semiconsolidated deposits of chemically active

minerals, and

technology for consolidated deposits of minerals requiring crushing and size reduction.

Processing Unconsolidated Deposits of

Chemically Inert Minerals

Chemically inert minerals include gold; platinum; tin oxide (cassiterite); titanium oxides (ilmenite, rutile, and leucoxene); zircon; monazite;

diamonds; and a few others. These occur in nature as mineral grains in placers (see ch. 2) and are

often found mixed with clay, sand, and/or gravel

particles of various sizes. Since these minerals are

generally heavier than the silicate and other minerals with which they may be mixed, the use of mechanical gravity separation methods is important

in processing (figure 5-14), However, the initial step
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 187

Figure 5-14.—Technologies for Processing Placer Mineral Ores

Gravity

separation

Refining

v

Offshore screening, sizing, and gravity separation may be adopted to reduce the amount of material that must be brought to shore. Drying and magnetic and electrostatic separation steps will

most likely take place ashore.

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987.

in processing ores containing mineral grains of various sizes is usually size separation.

Size separation may be needed to control the size

of material fed to other equipment in the processing stream, to reduce the volume of ore to be concentrated to a minimum without losing the target

mineral(s), and/or to produce a product of equal

size particles. Separation is accomplished by use

of various types of screens and classifiers. Screens

—uniformly perforated (and sometimes vibrating)

surfaces that allow only particles smaller than the

aperture size to pass—are used for coarser materials.12 The size of screen holes varies with the ma-

‘‘Ibid
188 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

terial, production capacity of the dredge, and other

factors. For example, sand and gravel alone may

constitute the valuable mineral fraction. To be sold

as commercial aggregate, sand and gravel are generally screened to remove the undesirable very fine

and very coarse fractions.

One type of size separation device in common

use on dredges is the trommel. A trommel is simply a rotating cylindrical screen, large enough and

strong enough to withstand the shock and abrasion

of thousands of tons of sand and gravel sliding and

tumbling through it each hour. If the material is

mined by a bucket dredge, the material may be disaggregate by powerful water jets while it slides

downward through a rotating trommel. If the material is mined by a suction dredge, it may already

be disaggregated but may need dewatering before

screening. In either case gravity plays an important role, since the material must first be elevated

in order to slide downward through the screens.

Classifiers are used for separating particles

smaller than screens can handle. Classifiers separate particles according to their settling rate in a

fluid. One type in common use is the hydrocyclone.

In this type of classifier, a mixture of ore and water

is pumped under pressure into an enclosed circular chamber, generating a centrifugal force. Separation takes place as the heavier materials fall and

are discharged from the bottom while the lighter

particles flow out the top. Hydrocyclones are mechanically simple, require little space, and are inexpensive. Most offshore tin, diamond, and gold

mining operations separate material by screening

and/or cycloning as a first step in mineral recovery.

Following size separation, gravity separation

techniques are used to concentrate most of the

minerals in this category. By gravity, the valuable

heavier minerals are separated from the lighter, less

valuable or worthless constituents of the ore. Processing by gravity concentration takes advantage of

the differences in density among materials. Several

different technologies have been developed, including jigs, spirals, sluices, cones, and shaking tables. 13

Jigging is the action of sorting heavier particles

in a pulsating water column. Using either air pressure or a piston, the pulsations are imparted to an

‘ ‘Ibid

introduced ore-water slurry. This action causes the

heavier minerals to sink to the bottom, where they

are drawn off. Lighter particles are entrained in

the cross-flow and discharged as waste. Secondary

or tertiary jigs may be used for further concentration. Several different types of jig have been developed, including the circular jig, which has been

used extensively on offshore tin dredges in Southeast Asia. Jigs also have been used successfully offshore to process alluvial gold and diamonds. For

example, they have proved effective in eliminating 85 to 90 percent of the waste material from tin

ore (cassiterite) in Indonesia and from gold ore in

tests near Nome, Alaska.

Some jigs may be sensitive to the rolling and

pitching motion of a mining dredge at sea, depending in part on the severity of the motion and in part

on their location aboard the dredge (usually high

above the deck to use gravity to advantage), This

has not been a major problem on Indonesian offshore bucket dredges, although sea conditions there

are not as rough as in other parts of the world. Design of dredges for less rolling motion and for reduced sensitivity to wind forces (e. g., by placing

the processing plant and machinery below the

waterline) would alleviate this problem, Lower profile dredges could be designed without much difficulty, provided economic incentives existed to do

so.

A simple gravity device for concentrating some

placer minerals onshore is a riffle box for sluicing

material. Although neither well understood nor

very efficient, sluicing is the one of the oldest types

of processing technology for concentrating alluvial

gold or tin. In addition to their simplicity, sluices

are rugged, passive, and inexpensive, Although

sluices have not been used offshore, they might be

utilized to beneficiate ore of low-value heavy

minerals such as ilmenite or chromite.

Many other types of gravity separation devices

are used onshore to separate inert heavy minerals

from mixtures of ore and water. The most common are spirals (e. g., Humphrey’s spirals) and cyclones. Spirals (figure 5-1 5) are used extensively

to concentrate ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite,

chromite, and magnetite from silicate sands of

dunes and ancient shorelines. The effectiveness of

spirals mounted on platforms subject to wave motions is not well known, but spirals have been used
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies 189

Figure 5-15.—Operating Principles of Three

Placer Mineral Separation Techniques

 Spiral separator

b) Magnetic separator

Scraper

c) Electro-dynamic separator

‘ 0

Non-conductors Middlings Conductors

Gravity separation using spirals may be adapted for offshore

use in some circumstances. Magnetic and electro-dynamic

separation will most likely be done on land.

SOURCE: E G KeHey and D J Introduction to Mineral Processing

(New York John Wiley & Sons, 1982).

successfully for sample concentration on board ship.

In operation, an ore-water slurry is introduced at

the top of the spiral. As the slurry spirals downward, the lighter minerals are thrown to the outside by centrifugal force, while the heavy minerals

concentrate along the inner part of the spiral. The

heavy minerals are split from the slurry stream and

saved. Spirals have lower rates of throughput than

jigs. Moreover, more space would be required to

process an equal volume of minerals, and spirals

are unsuited for separating particles larger than

about one-quarter inch,

Another form of heavy mineral processing that

may have applications offshore is heavy media separation. This gravity separation technique uses a

dense material in liquid suspension (the heavy

medium) to separate heavy minerals from lighter

materials. The ‘‘heavies’ sink to the bottom of the

heavy medium, while lighter materials, such as silicates, float away. The heavy liquid is then recirculated. This technique has been used effectively

offshore to recover diamonds. However, it is expensive and its use may contaminate seawater.

Initial “wet” concentration at sea results in a

primary concentrate. Much of the technology for

size classification and gravity separation of minerals

appears to be adaptable for use at sea for making

primary concentrates without major technological

problems. For further preparation for sale, concentrates of heavy minerals are usually dried and separated on shore. For example, ilmenite and magnetite are considered impurities in tin ore and must

be eliminated. Producing heavy mineral concentrates for final sale may also involve further gravity separation, drying in kilns, and/or elaborate

magnetic and electrostatic separation operations.

Magnetic separation is possible for those minerals

with magnetic properties (figure 15-5). For example, magnetite may be separated from other heavy

minerals using a low-intensity magnetic separation

technique. Ilmenite or other less strongly magnetic

minerals may be separated from nonmagnetic minerals using a high-intensity technique. Separation

at sea of strongly magnetic minerals is possible, but

separation of minerals with small differences in

magnetic susceptibility may have to be done on

land. Magnetite has the highest magnetic susceptibility. In decreasing order of susceptibility are ilmenite and chromite; epidote and xenotime; apatite, monazite, and hematite; and staurolite.
190 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Conducting minerals may be separated from

nonconductors using electrostatic separation. Only

a few minerals are concentrated using this method,

but electrostatic separation is used very successfully

to separate heavy mineral beach sands, such as rutile and ilmenite from zircon and monazite. 14 Figure 5-15 illustrates how conducting and nonconducting minerals and “middlings” are split from

each other using an electro-dynamic separator.

During processing, the feed particles acquire an

electrical charge from an ionizing electrode. Conducting minerals lose their charge to the grounded

rotor and are thrown from the rotor’s surface. A

non-ionizing electrode is then used to attract conducting minerals further away from the rotor. Nonconductors do not lose their charge as rapidly and

so adhere to the grounded rotor until they do lose

their charge or are brushed off. Middlings may be

run through the electrostatic separator again. 15

Electrostatic separation is usually combined with

gravity and magnetic separation methods when separating minerals from each other.

Many of these technologies require adjustments,

depending in part on the volume and grade of ore

passing through the plant and on the ratio of input ore to output concentrate or final product. The

ratios of valuable mineral to ore mined are shown

in table 5-3 for some typical heavy minerals. The

amount of primary concentrate produced by jigs

on a dredge mining 30,000 cubic yards of gold ore

per day would be on the order of a few tons (depending on the other heavy minerals present); initial processing of 30,000 cubic yards per day of

ilmenite ore would yield a few hundred tons of primary concentrate.

The amount of machinery, space, and power

needed for producing a final concentrate or product varies widely for different minerals. Final separation and recovery of ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and

“Ibid.

151bid.

Table 5-3.—Ratio of Valuable Mineral to Ore

In ore mined In primary concentrate

Diamonds . . . . . . . 1:5,000,000 1:1 ,000

Gold, platinum . . . 1:2,000,000 1:1,000

Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1:1 ,000 1:100

Ilmenite, etc. . . . . 1:100 1:10

SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.

monazite require elaborate plants that occupy large

spaces and consume large amounts of energy.

These heavy minerals are first dried in long kilns,

then passed through batteries of magnetic and electrostatic separators. Experience using these technologies is mostly on land, and there do not appear to be any economic advantages to undertaking

final separation and recovery of these minerals offshore. Conversely, technologies for final recovery

of diamonds, gold, and tin occupy little space and

consume little power. Some techniques (e. g., shaking tables) require flat, level platforms. Final recovery of gold by amalgamation with mercury can

be easily done at sea if the mercury is safely contained. Final separation of diamonds from concentrates is done using X-rays.

Processing Unconsolidated or SemiConsolidated Deposits of Chemically

Active Minerals

Examples of unconsolidated or semi-consolidated

deposits of chemically active minerals include minerals found in such deposits as the Red Sea brines

and sulfide-bearing sediments on the Outer Continental Shelf. In general, the minerals of economic

interest in ore deposits of this type are complex sulfides of base metals such as copper and zinc, and

minor quantities of precious metals (mainly silver).

This type of mineral is generally concentrated

on land using flotation technology (figure 5-16).

Flotation concentration is based on the surface

chemistr y of mineral particles in solution. Methods vary, but all employ chemical reagents that interact with finely crushed sulfide particles to make

them selectively hydrophobic. The solution is aerated, and the hydrophobic minerals adhere to the

air bubbles and float to the surface (other mineral

particles sink to the bottom), A froth containing the

floated minerals is formed at the surface of the solution and is drawn off.16 Flotation concentrates are

collected on filters and dried prior to further pyrometallurgical processing (e. g., smelting) to separate individual metals.

Experimental flotation of metalliferous muds at

a pilot-scale plant in the Red Sea is the only experience using this process offshore. Since wind,

‘“Ibid.
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies 191

Figure 5-16.—Technologies for Processing Offshore Mineral Ores

Consolidated deposits of nodules, crusts, and massive sulfides require crushing and grinding

in addition to the screening required for brines and muds. Flotation is the primary technique

for separating oxides and sulfides of metals from waste material. These processes have not

yet been adapted for use offshore.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987

wave, and current conditions in the Red Sea are

not as severe as in the open ocean, these tests are

not conclusive regarding the sensitivity of flotation

methods to ship motion. Disposal of flotation reagents at sea may be a problem in some cases and

should be further investigated.

Processing Consolidated and

Complex Mineral Ores

Mineral deposits in this category include nodules, crusts, veins, pavements, and massive deposits, as of metalliferous sulfides or oxides. Process-
192 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

ing of these minerals is likely to require crushing

or grinding to reduce particle size, followed by

chemical separation methods. In some cases (i. e.,

for gold veins) fine grinding may liberate minerals

which then may be recovered using gravity separation alone. However, in most cases some flotation and/or other chemical processing is likely to be

required. The Bureau of Mines has experimented

with column flotation techniques for separation of

cobalt-rich manganese crust from substrate. Crust

separated in this manner, however, cannot simply

be concentrated by inexpensive mineral processing techniques. Most of these processes have not

been adapted for use at sea. Crushing and grinding circuits could be mounted on floating platforms

or on the seafloor, but unless the economic incentive to mine this type of seafloor deposit improves,

these techniques will not likely be used offshore in

the near future. The same comment applies to flotation and other chemical processing technologies.

OFFSHORE MINING SCENARIOS

To illustrate the feasibility of offshore mining,

OTA constructed five scenarios, each depicting a

prospective mining operation in an area where elevated concentrations of potentially valuable minerals are known to occur. The scenarios illustrate

factors affecting the feasibility of offshore mining,

including the physical and environmental conditions that may be encountered offshore, the capabilities of the available mining and processing technologies, and estimated costs to mine and process

offshore minerals. The scenarios selected include

mining of:

●

●

●

●

●

titanium-rich sands off the Georgia coast,

chromite sands off the Oregon coast,

gold off the Alaska coast near Nome,

phosphorite off the Georgia coast near Tybee

Island, and

phosphorite in Onslow Bay off the North

Carolina coast.

These shallow-water mineral deposits were selected

because they are judged to be potentially mineable

in the near term, unlike, for example, deposits of

cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts or massive sulfides, both of which would require considerable

engineering research and development.

For each scenario, the ocean environments are

considered to be acceptable for dredging operations,

dredging technologies are judged to be available

with little modification, and existing processing

technologies are considered adaptable for shipboard

use, although some development will be needed.

The greatest uncertainties arise from lack of data

on the nature of the placer deposits (except for

Nome, reserves have not been proven by drilling)

and from the lack of operating experience under

conditions encountered in the U.S. EEZ (i. e.,

waves and long-period swells).

OTA did not attempt detailed engineering and

cost analyses. Too little information is currently

available to accurately assess the profitability of offshore mining. For example, the grade of ore may

vary considerably throughout a deposit, but little

information about grade variability has been compiled yet at any site. Estimates of mining and processing costs can vary considerably depending on

the amount of information on which they are based.

Given that estimates cannot now be based on detailed information, OTA has attempted simply to

estimate the range within which costs are most likely

to fall. Rough estimates do not satisfy the need for

detailed feasibility studies based on comprehensive

data; however, they do provide criteria with which

to judge if recovery of large quantities of high grade,

valuable minerals on the seabed is likely to be

profitable or at least competitive with land-based

sources of minerals.

Similar scenarios for titanium, chromite, and

gold placers also have been developed recently by

the U.S. Bureau of Mines. 17 The scenarios are not

directly comparable, but, after allowing for different assumptions and uncertainty, the general conclusions reached are roughly the same. Tables 5-

9, 5-10, and 5-11 at the end of the chapter compare OTA and Bureau of Mines scenarios.

t ?,4n ~Tc.onomlc Rec.onIJalssanc(. [)f’.$c.]e(.tt,~ Hcai,}. .kfineral ~’iarer

Deposits in the U.S. Exclusi\e EC onomir Zone. Open File Report

4-87 (Washington. D. C.: U.S. Ilurcau 01 hlincs, January 1987),
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies 193

Offshore Titaniferous Sands

Mining Scenario

Location. —Concentrations of titaniferous sands

are known to occur on the seabed adjacent to the

coast of Georgia (figure 5-17). These sands constitute a resource of titanium oxide minerals (primarily ilmenite, but also lesser amounts of rutile and

leucoxene, (figure 5-18)) and associated light heavy

minerals. However, little detailed exploration has

been done in the area, so the extent and grade of

the resource is not precisely known.

Two mineral companies that mine onshore titaniferous sands in nearby northeastern Florida have

expressed interest in the area. In fact, in 1986, the

Minerals Management Service issued geological

and geophysical exploration permits to Associated

Minerals U. S. A., Ltd., and E.I. du Pont de Nemours

& Co. The companies have undertaken shallow coring, sub-bottom profiling, and radiometric surveys

in the area. The area of interest extends from Tybee Island in the north to Jekyll Island in the south,

a distance of about 85 nautical miles, and from State

waters to about 30 nautical miles offshore. The

proximity of onshore titanium mineral processing

facilities in northeastern Florida is a particular reason this scenario site was selected over other potential sites on the Atlantic Ocean continental shelf.

Operational and Geological Characteristics.—

Within this area, a typical mine site was selected

approximately 30 nautical miles offshore. Water

depths at this site average 100 feet. Northeasterly

winds tend to prevail from October to March. The

site is in the path of occasional ‘‘northeasters’ and

hurricanes, but wind, wave, tide, and current conditions are otherwise moderate. Wave heights of

6 feet are common during winter months, but

waves of 1 to 4 feet are more typical the rest of the

year. Infrequent severe storms may produce waves

in excess of 20 feet, typically from the southeast or

northeast. It is assumed that operations can be conducted 300 days per year.

The geological features of the site were identified primarily by sub-bottom profiling and include

buried stream channels and submerged shorelines.

A similar ancient shoreline target onshore in northeastern Florida would be 12 miles long, 1 mile wide,

and 20 feet thick. Little is known about any overburden at this time, so it is assumed that the deposit, like similar deposits onshore at Trail Ridge,

Florida, consists of unconsolidated heavy mineral

sands without significant overlying sediments.

The average concentration of total heavy minerals in the ore is assumed to be between 5 and 15

percent by weight, about half of which are economic

heavy minerals. This range includes the average

grade of the heavy mineral concentrations detected

in the few samples from the site that have been analyzed to date.

Mining Technology. —The most appropriate

technology for mining titaniferous minerals at the

selected site is considered to be a trailing suction

hopper dredge. This dredge is capable of operating in the open ocean at the mining site and of

shuttling to and from its shore base during the normal seas expected in this region. Trailing suction

hopper dredges have been widely used for sand and

gravel mining and for removing unconsolidated

material from harbors and channels. It is assumed

that the titaniferous sand is at most only mildly

compacted. The unconsolidated mineral sands are

sucked up the drag arms, which can adjust to vessel heave and pitch to maintain the suction head

on the seabed. A booster pump is installed in the

suction line, enabling the dredge to reach minerals

at the assumed bottom of the mineralized zone,

about 120 feet below sea level. If cutting force is

needed to loosen the compacted sand and clay,

high-pressure water jets and cutting teeth can be

added to the suction head. A dredge with a hopper capacity of 5,000 cubic yards is used. The

dredge is assumed to be of U.S. registry, built and

operated according to Coast Guard regulations, and

more expensive than a similar dredge built abroad.

All equipment is assumed to be purchased new at

1987 market prices.

At-Sea Processing. —The dredge is outfitted

with a wet primary concentration plant capable of

producing 450,000 tons per year of heavy mineral

concentrate for delivery to a dry mill on shore. The

efficiency of economic heavy mineral recovery is

assumed to be 70 percent for the wet plant and 87.5

percent for the dry plant. The final product concentrate supplies the raw material for a pigment

plant. It is assumed that no major technical problems are encountered in designing the primary con-
194 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 5-17.— Offshore Titaniferous Mineral Province, Southeast United States

J

 Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; Hathaway, and “Placer Deposits of Heavy Minerals in Atlantic Continental Shelf

Sediments,” Proceedings of the 18th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, TX, May 5-8, 

centration plant to compensate for operation on a and 5 percent. Larger pumps consuming more

moving vessel, and that the processing subsystems

do not require significant and/or expensive development work. The onboard processing plant produces the primary concentrate using conventional

particle size separation and gravity separation

equipment. Seawater is used in the gravity separation process. Production of 450,000 short tons

per year of primary concentrate implies mining

rates between 3.2 million and 9.5 million short tons

of ore per year, corresponding to ore grades of 15

power would be required to mine 5 percent ore at

the same rate as 15 percent ore.

Mining and At-Sea Processing Cycle.—The

mining and at-sea processing cycle consists of five

steps:

1. The dredge steams to the mining site,

2. it dredges material from the seabed,

3. it preconcentrates the ore and fills up the

hopper,
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 195

Figure 5-18.—Values of TiO2 Content of Common Titanium Mineral

Concentrates and Intermediates

I and Brown, “Offshore Mineral Placers: Processing and Related Considerations.”

contractor report prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment, November 
196 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

4. steams to the shore base, and

5. it discharges the preconcentrate from the

hopper.

Each of these cycles takes 4 days: 3 days for dredging and processing and 1 day for transit and offloading. Seventy-five such cycles per year can be made

using a trailing suction hopper dredge with a 5,000 -

cubic-yard hopper capacity. This allows 60 days

per year for drydocking, maintenance, and downtime due to weather or other contingencies. The

average distance from offshore deposits to the shoreside discharge point is estimated to be 100 miles.

The requirement to stop dredging and return to

port could be eliminated by loading shuttle barges

instead of filling the dredge hoppers. Other alternatives to the scenario probably would be evaluated by prospective miners who, for example, might

process to a higher concentrate grade offshore.

Capital and Operating Costs.—Total capital

requirements are estimated to range from $55 million to $86 million, depending on average ore grade

(ranging from 15 to 5 percent respectively). Capital costs include costs of the dredge, onboard wet

mill, onshore unloading installation, dry mill, and

working capital (table 5-4). Capital costs for both

the dredge and onboard wet mill decrease as the

ore grade increases because less mining (pumping)

capacity is required. Total operating costs are

higher for lower grade ore because more ore must

be mined by a larger dredge to produce the same

amount of concentrate. Annual costs to operate the

dredge, wet mill, and dry mill, and for general and

Table 5-4.—Offshore Titaniferous Sands Mining

Scenario: Capital and Operating Cost Estimates

Ore grade

50/0 10 ”/0 15%0

Capital costs (million $):

Dredge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. .$40 $36 $32

Offshore processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 18 14

Onshore processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 4

Working capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6 5

Total capital costs , ... ... ... ... .$86 $64 $55

Annual operating costs (million $):

Dredge and offshore processing ... .$17 $14 $12

Onshore processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2

General and administrative . . . . . . . . . 2 1 1

Depreciation expense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 11 10

Total operating costs ... ... ... .. .$37 $28 $25

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.

administrative expenses and depreciation are estimated to be from $25 million to $37 million, depending on the heavy mineral content(15 to 5 percent). Given these estimates for capital and

operating costs, breakeven revenue requirements

have been calculated to range from $170 to $250

per ton of marketable product.

Given the risks inherent in developing an offshore

deposit, the developers would expect higher returns

than for a conventional land-based mineral sands

operation and require a more rapid payback on investment. For example, under the 1986 tax law,

a 3-year payback would require revenues of between $420 and $280 per ton of product for ore

grades ranging from 5 to 15 percent. Since the current U.S. east coast price of ilmenite concentrate

is $45 to $50 per short ton, it is clear that the deposit would require appreciable concentrations of

other valuable minerals (e, g., rutile, zircon, and/or

monazite with values ranging from $180 to $500

per ton) to be profitable.

Offshore Chromite Sands

Mining Scenario

Location. —Concentrations of heavy mineral

sands containing primarily chromite, lesser amounts

of ilmenite, rutile, and zircon, and traces of gold

and other minerals occur in surface and near-surface deposits on the continental shelf off southern

Oregon (figure 5-19). Many reconnaissance surveys conducted by academic researchers have been

completed in the area, but no detailed mineral exploration has taken place. The largest heavy

mineral sand area appears to extend westward from

the mouth of the Rogue River and northward

toward Cape Blanco. A second area of chromiterich black sands is located seaward of the mouth

of the Sixes River. Additional small deposits occur on the continental shelf and on uplifted marine terraces between Coos Bay and Bandon. The

Rogue River deposits are approximately 75 miles

south of Coos Bay, the nearest deep-water industrial port, and 100 miles north of the port of Eureka, California.

No State or Federal exploration permits have

been issued in the area to the private sector. However, one company, Oregon Coastal Services, has

expressed interest in obtaining a permit to explore

for minerals in State waters.
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 197

Figure 5-19.— Offshore Chromite Sands,

Oregon Continental Shelf

Pacific

Ocean

SOURCE: Adapted from T Parmenter and R Bailey, The Oregon Ocean Book

(Salem, OR: Oregon Department of Land Conservation and Develop.

ment, 1985), p. 21

Operational and Geological Characteristics.—

The site selected for this scenario lies seaward of

the Rogue River, from 2 to 4 miles offshore. Water

depths in the vicinity of the mine site are between

150 and 300 feet. The main deposit is assumed to

be roughly 22 miles long by 6 miles wide and straddles the boundary between State and Federal

waters.

Summer waves, generally from the northwest,

are driven by strong onshore winds and range in

height from 2 to 10 feet. In winter, waves are

characteristically from the west or southwest and

average 3 to 20 feet. The most severe storms, which

occur from November through March, may occasionally produce wave heights in excess of 60 feet.

The severity of the wave regime off the coast of Oregon has been compared to that of the North Sea.

In addition to weather, a seasonal factor that may

affect mining activity is prior use of the area by sea

lions as a breeding ground and by salmon fishermen for sport and commercial fishing.

Coastal terrace deposits between Coos Bay and

Bandon, north of the scenario site, are likely analogs of potential continental shelf placers (see ch.

2). Most samples taken from these deposits have

contained from 6 percent to as much as 13 percent

chromite, usually concentrated in the bottom 3 to

15 feet of the stratigraphic section, although samples containing as much as 25 percent chromite

have been taken in some places .18

This scenario assumes that offshore placers contain similar grades of chromite and that the average grade is closer to 6 percent. Magnetic anomaly

studies associated with surface concentrations in the

scenario area suggest that the potential placer bodies

lie beneath a sediment overburden that ranges from

less than 3 feet to more than 100 feet thick. The

ore body thickness at the mining site is assumed

to be less than 25 feet.

Mining Technology. —This scenario assumes

that the chromite placers are largely unconsolidated

deposits and that a trailing suction hopper dredge

similar to the one used in the titanium sands scenario is applicable for mining. The dredge is

equipped with twin 3,400-horsepower suction

pumps, giving it a greater suction capacity than the

dredge used to mine titanium sands.

Dredging in rough seas at depths ranging from

150 to 300 feet will require a special design; however, it is assumed this need will not present greater

technical problems or costs than, for example,

building dredges or pipe-laying vessels for the North

Sea. The dredge is similar in its other characteristics to the hopper dredge described in the titanium

sands scenario.

At-Sea Processing. —High volumes of ore can

be brought to the surface at relatively low cost, but

transporting the material to shore is costly. Therefore, there is an incentive to enrich the ore as much

as economically and technically feasible prior to

transporting it to shore. This scenario assumes primary beneficiation at sea by a simple, low-cost process of screening and gravity separation. The system might incorporate devices such as cones, jigs,

spirals, or a very large sluice box. As in the titanium

I HI ,a\Tcrnc D, KU I1ll, CO1]C,K[. 01’ occano Kral)h\.. Oregon s[~~tt’

L’ni\crsity, OTA t$’orkshop on Pacific Nlinerals, Ncwporr. Oregon,

No\. 20, 1986.
198 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

sand mining scenario, the effect of vessel motion

on these devices needs to be evaluated. It is assumed

that 30 to 50 percent of the dredged ore will be kept

on the vessel and that the tailings will be continuously discharged by pipe back to the seafloor.

There are no at-sea processing plants of this type

in operation. Additional investigation is needed to

evaluate the feasibility and to determine the capital and operating costs of this system, but it is assumed that the development engineering required

will not entail major costs.

Mining and At-Sea Processing Cycle.—Increased suction capacity plus a shorter distance to

dockside and less elaborate processing at sea enable the dredge to deliver 5,000 tons of enriched

ore to shore per day (rather than every third day

as in the case of the titanium sands scenario). Under normal operating conditions, the dredge is assumed to take about 3 hours to fill to capacity. The

vessel then steams an average distance of 75 miles

for offloading at a shore facility. Transit time is estimated to average about 8 hours, offloading time

less than 5 hours; hence, the vessel would be able

to make one round trip per day. At dockside the

dredge would be offloaded using either a dry scraper

or its own pumps. Pumped transfer decreases offloading time. If this method is used, the ore is

pumped into a dewatering bin and from there transported by conveyor belt to a stockpile. It is assumed

that the mining and processing system can be designed so that mining and processing at sea can take

place 300 days a year. This would leave 65 days

for downtime due to bad weather or sea conditions,

for drydocking and maintenance, and for other unforeseen events. Under these assumptions, 1.5 million tons of chromite-rich concentrate are delivered

yearly to the offloading plant onshore.

Capital and Operating Costs.—Capital and

operating costs (table 5-5) were estimated for mining, at-sea processing, transportation, and offloading at a shoreside facility, but not for subsequent

processing on land. Capital costs amount to approximately $57 million for an operation that uses all

new equipment developed for the project and built

in the United States. These include a dredge ($40

million), shipboard primary beneficiation plant ($5

million), shoreside facility (about $5 million), and

design, engineering, and management ($7 million).

Annual operating costs are estimated to be approximately $20 million; this figure includes costs to

operate the dredge and shore facility and general

and administrative expenses.

Based on the above figures and assumptions, the

cost of delivering enriched chromite sand to a shorebased facility was calculated. In terms of dollars per

ton of beneficiated ore, the range is between $12.50

and $22. The lower cost assumes the use of a secondhand dredge. The higher cost includes a 20 percent internal rate of return which is assumed to be

a realistic goal in view of the uncertainties (especially operating time) that surround the project. (If

the yearly operating time were reduced to 150 days,

the costs of delivering concentrates would double

to between $25 and $44 per ton).

Table 5-5.—Offshore Chromite Sands Mining Scenario:

Capital and Operating Cost Estimates

Millions of dollars

Capital Costs:

Suction hopper dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $40.0

Shipboard primary beneficiation plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0

Shoreside facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0

Engineering procurement and management (15%) . . . . 7.5

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $57.5

New equipment Used equipment

(excluding profit (excluding profit

and risk) and risk)

Annual operating costs:

Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $17 $15

Shore facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2

General and administrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2

Annual total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $22 $19

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987,
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 199

Box 5-A.—Sand and Gravel Mining

Mining offshore sand and gravel is likely to be profitable at selected sites well before mining of most

other offshore minerals. Sand and gravel occurs in enormous quantities on the U.S. continental shelf. However, due to onshore sources of supply in many parts of the country, the low unit value of the resource, and

significant costs to transport sand and gravel long distances, profitable offshore sand and gravel mining is

likely to be restricted to areas near major metropolitan centers that have depleted nearby onshore sources

and/or have encountered conflicting land use problems.

Sand and gravel are currently being dredged in State waters in the Ambrose Channel between New York

and New Jersey. This operation, begun 2 years ago, is the only offshore sand and gravel mining currently

taking place in U.S. waters. The Great Lakes Dredge& Dock Co., the dredge operator, mines approximately

1.5 million cubic yards per year of high-quality fine aggregate from the channel. This aggregate is sold to

the concrete ready-mix industry in the New York/New Jersey area at an average delivered price of $11.50

per cubic yard. The Federal Government benefits from this operation because it enables the Ambrose Channel, which is a major navigation channel into New York Harbor, to be maintained at significant savings to

the government. In addition, both New York and New Jersey receive royalties of 25 cents per cubic yard

of aggregate mined.

Great Lakes Dredge & Dock uses one trailing suction hopper dredge in its operation. The dredge is authorized to mine to a depth of 53 feet below the mean low water mark. When full, the dredge proceeds to

a mooring point about one-half mile offshore South Amboy, New Jersey. The aggregate is then pumped to

shore via a pipeline. The company estimates that there is enough sand and gravel in the channel to operate

for 10 to 15 more years (longer if the channel is widened and/or deepened).

Sand and gravel mining has not yet occurred in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, but the Bureau of

Mines has tentatively identified two metropolitan areas, New York and Boston, where significant potential

exists for the near-term development of offshore sand and gravel deposits. * Local onshore supplies are fast

becoming depleted in these areas. The Bureau estimates that, for both areas, dredge and plant capital costs

would range from a low of about $21 million for a 1.3-million cubic-yard-per-year operation 10 nautical miles

from an onshore plant to a high of $145 million for a 6.7-million cubic-yard-per-year operation 80 nautical

miles from shore. Operating costs for a product that has been screened (i.e., sorted) are estimated to range

from about $3.30 per cubic yard for the smaller nearshore operation to $4.00 for the larger, more distant

operation. Estimates are based on 250 operating days per year for the dredge and 323 for the plant. Other

cities where offshore sand and gravel eventuality could be competitive include Los Angeles, San Juan, and

Honolulu.

● An Econozm”c Rcxonnaisaance of Sehxtcd Sand and Gavei Ikpoa’ts in the U.S. Exduu”w Eeanomic Zone, Open File Report 3-87 (Washington,

~: U.S. Bureau of Mines, January 1987).

There are no active facilities for processing chromite in the Pacific Northwest. Ferrochromium

plants and chromium chemicals and refractories

producers are concentrated in the eastern half of

the country. However, one company, Sherwood

Pacific Ltd., was recently formed for the purpose

of constructing and operating a chromium smelter

in Coos Bay, Oregon. Coos Bay has a deep draft

ship channel, rail access, land, and a work force.

Initial raw material for the smelter is expected to

come from onshore deposits in southern Oregon

and northern California.

The costs per ton of concentrate projected in this

scenario allow only small margins to make and distribute a finished product, currently worth about

$40 per ton. Hence, it is clear that chromite alone

would not be worth recovering. Unless the price

of chromite were to increase or byproducts such as

gold or zircon could be economically recovered, the

costs projected in this scenario do not justify economic chromite mining in the near future.

Offshore Placer Gold Mining Scenario

Location.—Gold-bearing beach sands were discovered and mined at Nome, Alaska, in 1906. Mining gradually extended inland from the current

shoreline to old shorelines now above sea level. By
200 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

1906, about 4.5 million ounces of alluvial gold had

been mined from a 55-square-mile area. Early

miners recognized that the Nome gold placers were

formed by wave action and that additional deposits, formed when sea levels were lower, should be

found in the adjacent offshore area (figure 5-20).

Two U.S. companies, ASARCO and Shell Oil

Co., sampled offshore deposits near Nome in 1964

and recovered alluvial gold. By 1969, proven reserves offshore of approximately 100 million cubic

yards of ore had been established. The rights to

these reserves were acquired in 1985 by Inspiration Resources, which then began a pilot mining

and testing program. This program was followed

by mining tests with a bucket ladder dredge in 1986.

All operations to date have taken place within 3

miles of shore in waters under the jurisdiction of

the State of Alaska, although gold resources have

been identified out to about 10 miles. The future

offshore gold mining operation is examined in this

scenario, based on a number of assumptions.

Operational and Geological Characteristics.—

Nome is a small town near the Arctic Circle on Norton Sound, a large shallow bay open to the west.

Water depths in the bay do not exceed 100 feet.

Ten miles offshore water is only 60 feet deep. Goldbearing sediments are a maximum of 30 feet thick

and consist of bedded sands, gravels, and clays

alternating with occasional beds of cobbles and

boulders. These sediments were sampled from the

ice out to about 11⁄2 miles from the coast, Gold has

been found further offshore, but reserves have not

yet been fully delineated. Current mining sites are

located less than 1 1⁄2 miles offshore in water depths

averaging 30 feet and in formations 6 to 30 feet

thick.

Only between June and October is Norton

Sound ice-free and accessible to floating vessels.

During the winter, thick pack ice forms over the

Sound. Waves reportedly do not exceed periods of

7 seconds, but occasional sea-swells with longer

periods may come from the west or southwest. Predominant winds are from the north and northeast.

Currents and longshore drift are westward. Maximum tides are 6 feet.

Mining Technology.--The Bima, a bucket ladder dredge built in 1979 for mining tin offshore Indonesia, was selected to mine the offshore gold

placers. The Bima was brought to Nome in July

1986 for preliminary tests. It was modified in Seattle

and is scheduled to begin operation in July 1987.

The Bima was designed and built abroad as a seagoing mining vessel. Its hull is 361 feet long, 98

feet wide, and 21 feet deep. The entire vessel is of

steel construction and weighs about 15,000 short

tons, including the dredging ladder and machinery. Freeboard is 10 feet and draft 15 feet with the

ladder retracted.

The Bima is not self-propelled. It must be moved

to and from the mining site by a tugboat. On site,

the dredge is kept in position by five mooring lines

attached to 7-ton Danforth anchors. This anchoring arrangement allows the dredge to swing 600 feet

from side to side and to advance while digging. The

anchors are positioned and moved by a special auxiliary vessel.

A 15,000-horsepower diesel-electric powerplant

is used to operate the bucketline, the ore processing plant, the anchor winches, and the auxiliary

systems. There is fuel storage on board for 21⁄2

months of operation.

The Bima’s dredge ladder and bucketline were

originally designed to operate in 150 feet of water.

This scenario assumes that the dredge ladder has

been shortened, so that the dredge is able to mine

from 25 to 100 feet below the water line at the rate

of 33 cubic yards per minute or approximately

2,000 cubic yards per hour. The Bima was designed

to enable the mass of the ladder and bucketline to

be decoupled from the motions of the hull by an

automated system of hydraulic and air cylinders

that act like very large springs. This feature keeps

the buckets digging against the dredging face on

the seabed while the hull may be heaving or pitching due to the motions of passing waves. During

the trials of the Bima in Norton Sound from July

to October 1986, it was not necessary to activate

the system.

At-Sea Processing. —The Bima is equipped with

a gravity processing plant to make a gold concentrate at the mining site. The throughput capacity

of the plant is 2,000 cubic yards per hour, The plant

consists of two parallel inclined rotary trommels 18

feet in diameter and 60 feet long. After removal

of any large boulders, ore brought up by the dredge

bucket slides down the trommels under the spray
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies 201

Figure 5-20.— Nome, Alaska Placer Gold District

.

X Mined gold 30 water o 5 miles

placers depth I 1 I

Pliocene

beach

‘/

0 2 miles

Explanation

❑ Alluvium Glacial drift ❑ Beach sediments ❑ Marine silt and clay

❑ Stratified rocks of unknown type ❑ Bedrock

Generalized geologic profile of Nome beaches.

SOURCE Adapted from E H U S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1374
202 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

BIMA Bucketline Dredge Photo credit: 

of powerful jets of seawater. The water jets are used Material retained by the trommel is distributed

to break up the clay and force sand and gravel in a seawater mixture to three circuits of jigs, besmaller than three-eighths inch to pass through the ginning with six primary circular jigs 24 feet in ditrommel. Material coarser than three-eighths inch ameter. The concentrates from the circular jigs are

is discharged over the stern. then fed to crossflow secondary and tertiary jigs.
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 203

The jig concentrates are further refined on shaking tables before transport to shore for final gold

separation and smelting into bullion. It is expected

that about 22 pounds of gold concentrate will be

produced by mining and processing approximately

50,000 tons of ore per day, The actual amounts of

concentrate produced will depend on the quantity

of heavy minerals associated with the gold at each

location.

Environmental Effects.—The ore processing

plant on the Bima returns 99.9 percent of the processed material to the seabed as tailings. Since the

tailings do not undergo chemical treatment, local

turbidity caused by particles that may remain in

suspension is likely to be the most significant environmental impact. During pilot plant tests in 1985,

Inspiration Resources found that turbidity could

be minimized by discharging fine tailings through

a flexible pipe near the seabed. Other potential

environmental impacts could occur if diesel fuel is

spilled, either as it is being transferred to the Bima

or as a result of accidental piercing of the hull.

Operating Conditions.—The Bima operates

only between June and October (five months per

year) because ice on Norton Sound prohibits operations during the winter months. Thus, without

breakdowns or downtime due to weather and other

causes, a theoretical yearly production of about 7.5

million cubic yards of ore is possible. During tests

in 1986, Bima operated only a small fraction of the

time available. This was due more to the nature

of the trials than to downtime related to winds and

waves. Assuming a mining efficiency (bucket filling) of 75 percent and an operating efficiency of

80 percent (allowing for time to move and downtime due to weather), yearly production is limited

to 4.5 million cubic yards. If gold grades of 0.012

to 0.016 ounces per cubic yard of ore are assumed,

the yearly gold production would be between 1.75

and 2.20 short tons (before any losses due to processing and refining).

The Bima will have a crew averaging 12 persons

per watch, 3 watches per day. Personnel are transported to and from Nome daily by helicopter. The

operation also requires extensive maintenance, supply, and administrative facilities onshore. These facilities will be manned by an additional 46 persons

during the operating season. During the winter

months, the Bima will be laid up in Nome harbor,

and most of the operating personnel will be on

leave.

Capital and Operating Costs.—Capital and

operating cost estimates (table 5-6) are based on

a number of assumptions and, like the other

scenarios in this report, must be considered first

order approximations. The estimates rely in part

on published information that the Bima gold mining project will have a life of 16 years and will recover about 48,000 troy ounces of gold per year

at operating costs of less than $200 per ounce.

The Bima was constructed at a cost of $33 million in 1979. It is assumed that its purchase in 1986

as used equipment (sold because of the fall in the

Table 5-6.—Offshore Placer Gold Mining Scenario:

Capital and Operating Cost Estimates

Millions of dollars

Capital costs:

Exploration and pilot plant mining tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 3

Used dredge (BIMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Dredge transport and insurance from Indonesia to Nome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Shipyard modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Onshore facilities and infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Auxiliary vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Total capital costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $17

Annual operating costs:

Fuel and lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1.5

Personnel and overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0

Maintenance and spares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5

Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0

Annual operating costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $7.0

SOURCE” Office of Technology Assessment, 1987
204 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

price of tin) is on the order of $5 million. Also assumed is that other capital costs, including ancillary facilities onshore; pilot-plant mining tests in

1985 and trials in 1986; auxiliary vessels for

prospecting and for tending anchors; shipyard

modifications and alterations to the processing

plant; and the cost of shipment of the Bima from

Indonesia to Nome and to and from the shipyard

near Seattle will amount to another $10 million to

$15 million. Total capital costs are thus assumed

to be between $15 million and $20 million.

Annual operating costs for fuel, maintenance, insurance and administration, and personnel and

overhead are estimated (to an accuracy of 25 percent) to be $7 million. At a production rate of

48,000 ounces per year, a cash operating cost on

the order of$150 to $175 per ounce is implied. At

a mining rate of approximately 4.5 million cubic

yards per year, direct costs would amount to $1.55

per cubic yard.

Assuming the price of gold to be $400 per troy

ounce, the projected pre-tax cash flow on a production of 48,000 troy ounces per year would be

approximately $12 million (after subtracting operating costs) on an investment of $17 million. Although this figure does not include debt service,

it nevertheless indicates that the Bima offshore gold

mining project at Nome shows good promise of

profitability if the operators are able to maintain

production. This scenario illustrates that offshore

gold mining is economically viable and technically

feasible using a bucketline dredge under the conditions assumed.

Offshore Phosphorite Mining Scenarios:

Tybee Island, Georgia and Onslow Bay,

North Carolina

Two different phosphorite mining scenarios were

considered by OTA. The first, located off Tybee

Island, Georgia, was developed by ZellarsWilliams, Inc., in 1979 for the U.S. Geological Survey. The second was developed by OTA in the

course of this study. Although the two scenarios differ in location and in the assumptions concerning

onboard and onshore processing of the phosphorite

minerals, breakeven price estimates of the two cases

are well within overlapping margins of error.

Both scenarios should be considered little more

than rough estimates of costs based on hypothetical mining conditions and technology. In some

cases—particularly with the OTA scenario—

assumptions are made about the adaptability of onshore flotation and separation techniques to at-sea

conditions. Not only would additional technological development and testing be needed to adapt existing technology for onboard use, but even the feasibility of secondary separation and flotation

processing at sea would also probably need further

assessment and testing.

The actual costs of capitalizing and operating an

offshore mining operation can vary significantly

from OTA’s estimates. However, in both scenarios,

the results suggest that further evaluation—particularly to better define the potential resources

and to consider processing technology-might be

worthwhile.

While further assessment of the potential for mining phosphorite minerals offshore may be warranted, the overall condition of the domestic onshore phosphate industry cannot be ignored when

evaluating the feasibility of offshore operations. The

future of the U.S. phosphate mining industry seems

bleak in the face of increased low-cost foreign production. Some fully depreciated mines are currently

finding it difficult to meet foreign competition. New

phosphate mines, either onshore or offshore, will

likely find it difficult to compete with foreign operations.

If exceptionally rich phosphate resources are discovered offshore, or if offshore mining and processing systems can reduce costs through increased

productivity or offsetting land use and environmental costs, the commercial prospects for offshore

development might improve. However, higher

phosphate prices would also be needed to make the

economic picture viable, and most commodity

analysts do not think higher prices are likely. Table 5-12 compares Tybee Island and Onslow Bay

scenarios.

Tybee Island, Georgia

Location. —Onshore and offshore phosphorite

deposits are known to occur from North Carolina

to Florida. The potential for offshore mining of

phosphorite in EEZ waters adjacent to the north-
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies . 205

ern coast of Georgia was examined in some detail

in a 1979 study by Zellars-Williams, Inc. , for the

Department of the Interior. To illustrate the technical and economic feasibility of offshore phosphorite mining, OTA has drawn heavily from Zellars-Williams work.

The Zellars-Williams study considers a 30-

square-mile area located about 12 miles offshore

Tybee Island, Georgia, not far from the South

Carolina border and in the same general area considered in the titanium scenario (figure 5-17). Only

scattered, widely spaced samples have been taken

in the vicinity, and none within the scenario area

itself. These samples and some seismic data suggest the occurrence of a shallow phosphorite deposit

in the area, but much more sampling is required

to fully evaluate the deposit. The mine site is attractive for several reasons:

●

●

●

●

water depths are uniform over the entire block,

with a mean depth of 42 feet;

the area is free of shipwrecks, artificial fishing reefs, natural reefs, rock, and hard bottom;

the area is close to the Savannah Harbor entrance but not within shipping lanes for traffic entering the harbor; and

an onshore plant site is available with an adequate supply of river water for process use, including washing of sea salts.

Operational and Geological Characteristics.—

Average windspeed during the year at the site is

about 7 miles per hour with peaks each month up

to 38 miles per hour. Winter surface winds are

chiefly out of the west, while in summer north and

east winds alternate with those from the west. Severe tropical storms affect the area about once every

10 years and usually occur between June and midOctober. The most severe wave conditions result

from strong fall and winter winds from the north

and west, but the proposed mining site is sheltered

by land from these directions. Waves of 12 feet or

more occur about 2.5 percent of the year while 4-

foot waves occur 57 percent of the year. The maximum spring tidal range is about 8 feet. Current

speeds are low, about 3 to 4 miles per day. Heavy

fog is common along the coast, and Savannah experiences an average of 44 foggy days a year.

Phosphorite ore occurring as pebbles and sand

at the mine site is part of what is known as the

Savannah Deposit. The site straddles the crest of

the north-south trending Beaufort Arch, which suggests that the top of the phosphatic matrix will be

closest to sea level in this area. The ore body lies

beneath 4 feet of overburden. It is assumed that

the ore body is of constant thickness over a reasonably large area and that the mine site contains 150

million short tons of phosphorite. The average

grade of the ore is assumed to be 11.2 percent phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5

).

Mining Technology. —An ocean-going cutter

suction dredge with an onboard beneficiation plant

is selected for mining. The dredge is equipped with

a 125-foot cutter ladder, enabling it to dredge to

a maximum depth of 100 feet below the water surface, more than enough to reach all of the mine site

deposit. The dredge first removes the sandy overburden in a mine cut and places it away from the

cut or in a mined-out area. Phosphate matrix then

is loosened by the rotating cutter, sucked through

the suction pipe, and brought onboard the dredge.

The dredge is designed to mine approximately

2,500 cubic yards of phosphate matrix per hour.

It is estimated that approximately 450 acres of phosphate matrix are mined each year. Mining cuts are

1 mile long and 800 feet wide.

Processing Technology.—Onboard processing

consists of simple mechanical disaggregation of the

matrix followed by size reduction. Oversize material is screened with trommels and rejected. Undersize material (mainly clays) is removed using

cyclones. The undersize material is flocculated

(thickened to a consistency suitable for disposal) and

pumped to the sea bottom.

On shore, the sand size material is subjected to

further washing and sizing. Tailings and clays are

returned to the mine site for placement over the

flocculated clays. Phosphate is concentrated to 66

percent bone phosphate of lime (BPL) by a conventional flotation sequence. The wet flotation concentrate is then blended and calcined to 68 percent

BPL (approximately 30 percent P2O5).

It is assumed that, initially, 2.5 million short tons

per year of phosphate rock are produced. Eventually, the amount produced would increase to the

optimum rate of 3.5 million tons. It is also assumed

that only 4 cubic yards of ore would need to be

dredged per ton of final product.
206 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Mining and At-Sea Processing Cycle.—Mining is assumed to take place 80 percent of the available time—292 days or about 7,000 hours per year.

The beneficiated ore is loaded continually on 5,500 -

ton capacity barges for transport to the onshore

processing plant. Barge transport is deemed necessary for both economic and pollution control reasons. A tug picks up one barge at a time, taking

it to a mooring point just outside the channel at

the Savannah River entrance. A push boat then

takes a four-barge group about 20 miles upstream

to the processing facility. After the ore is discharged,

the barges are reloaded with tailings sand and

returned to the mooring point. The tug then returns

the barge to the mining area, initially to discharge

tailings and then to be taken to the dredge and left

to be filled with feed.

Capital and Operating Costs.—Capital and

operating cost estimates for the Zellars-Williams

scenario (table 5-7) have been updated to reflect

changes in plant, equipment, wages, and other cost

factors. The revised figures are expressed in 1986

dollars. Capital and operating costs include costs

for dredging and primary concentration, transportation of beneficiated ore to port, onshore processing to 66 percent BPL, calcining to 68 percent BPL,

contingency, and working capital.

The Zellars-Williams scenario and associated

costs are regarded as a ‘‘best-case’ situation. 19 In

I gMore information about the Zellars - Williams and other phos -

Table 5-7.—Offshore Phosphorite

1986 dollars, the operating costs to mine and wash

the ore and to transport the primary concentrate

to an onshore processing plant amount to about

$4.60 per short ton. Onshore processing would cost

about $10 per short ton, and a depreciation expense

of almost $10 per ton must be added to this figure.

Hence, a ‘‘breakeven’ price for calcined concentrate would be close to $25 per short ton. Calcined

concentrate, however, is currently selling for only

$19 to $25 per short ton, depending on grade and

whether the product is sold domestically or exported. Furthermore, given uncertainties such as

costs for mitigating environmental impacts, the

acceptability of at-sea disposal of flocculated clays,

and the uncertain effectiveness of both dredging and

processing technology in the offshore environment,

investors would probably require a discounted cash

flow return larger than the 16.5 percent return indicated in the Zellars-Williams study. The breakeven price does not include additional requirements

for profit and risk,

The largest component of total capital cost and

of total operating cost is for onshore processing of

the primary concentrate to 66 percent BPL, and

the second largest cost component is for calcining

to 68 percent BPL. Savings might be possible if an

existing onshore processing plant could be used for

flotation and/or calcining or if flotation at sea bephoritc studies may be found in the OTA contractor report ‘ ‘Offshore

Phosphorite Deposits: Processing and Related Considerations, by

William Harvey. November 1986.

Mining, Tybee Island, Georgia: .

Capital and Operating Cost Estimates

Millions of dollars

Capital costs:

Dredging and primary concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $17

Transport to port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Processing to 66 percent BPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Calcining to 68 percent BPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Contingency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Working capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $185

(million $/year) ($/ton product)

Operating costs:

Dredging and primary concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 9 $2.50

Transport to port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.10

Processing to 66 percent BPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 6.20

Calcining to 68 percent BPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.50

Contingency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0.70

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $52 $15.00

SOURCE: Zellars-Williams, Inc., “Outer Continental Shelf Hard Minerals Leasing: Phosphates Offshore Georgia and South Carolina,” report prepared for U.S. Geological Survey, May, 1979 Figures updated by OTA contractor, William Harvey
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 207

comes technically and economically feasible. While

there is no existing facility within a reasonable distance of the Savannah Deposit, phosphorite ore located off the coast of North Carolina (Onslow Bay)

potentially could be processed at the existing onshore facility near Moorhead City.

The following scenario, developed by OTA, examines the feasibility of mining the Onslow Bay

deposits, of using onboard flotation to upgrade the

ore to 66 percent BPL, and of using the existing

facility at Moorhead City for calcining to 68 percent BPL.

Onslow Bay, North Carolina

Location.—A high-grade offshore phosphorite

resource is described by Riggs20 and others on the

continental shelf adjacent to North Carolina. The

resource is located at the southern end of Onslow

Bay 20 to 30 miles southeast of Cape Fear (figure

5-21). A Federal/State task force was established

in 1986 to investigate the future of marine mining

offshore North Carolina. The task force has hired

Development Planning & Research Associates to

study the feasibility of mining Onslow Bay phosphorite; however, no private companies have expressed an immediate interest in mining offshore

phosphorite in this area.

The Miocene Pungo Formation is a major sedimentary phosphorite unit underlying the northcentral coastal plain of North Carolina. It is mined

extensively onshore. The seaward extension of the

Pungo Formation under Onslow Bay has been studied using seismic profiling and vibracore sampling

methods. The site selected for this scenario is where

the Frying Pan Phosphate Unit of the Pungo Formation outcrops offshore in a band 1 to 21⁄2 miles

wide and about 18 miles long.

Operational and Geological Characteristics.—The site is characterized by open ocean conditions consisting of wind waves from the northeast and long period swell. Winds gusting above

30 knots occur less than 15 percent of the time. Currents are less than 1 knot and tidal influence is negligible. Hurricanes and associated wave conditions

occur on an average of 10 days per year.

The phosphorite formation consists of fine,

muddy sands covering an area of 45 square miles.

Overburden consists of loose, fine, sandy sediment

varying in thickness from O to 8 feet. Underneath,

the phosphorite sand has a thickness between 1 and

10 feet. Water depth averages about 80 feet; hence,

the total mining depth is not expected to exceed

98 feet. The overburden contains an average of 6.3

percent P2O5. The phosphorite unit contains between 4.8 and 22.9 percent P205

, with an average

of 12.4 percent by weight .21 Laboratory analysis

of phosphate concentrates indicates the presence of

no other valuable minerals.

Mining Technology. —A trailing suction dredge

with an onboard beneficiation plant is selected as

the most appropriate technology for the water depth

and geological characteristics of the deposit. It is

assumed that the phosphorite unit and overburden

are sufficiently unconsolidated to be mined by suction dredging methods without the need for a cutter head. Only water jets and passive mechanical

teeth are used. The dredge and plant are housed

in a specially designed ship-configured hull. The

vessel is not a self-unloading hopper dredge and

has only a small storage capacity on board. The

beneficiated ore is discharged onto barges or small

ore carriers which are continuously in attendance

behind the mining vessel and which shuttle back

and forth to the unloading point near the shore

processing plant. Dredging capacity is about 2,000

cubic yards per hour; 75 percent dredging efficiency

is assumed. The suction head is kept on the seabed

by a suction arm that compensates for the motion

of the vessel in ocean swell. The vessel is selfpropelled, dredges underway, and is equipped with

precision position-keeping instrumentation.

The above configuration is preferred to hopper

dredging because either a very large single hopper

dredge or several smaller hopper dredges would be

needed to meet the mining production requirements.

Processing Technology.—At-sea processing is

assumed to consist of:

● conventional mechanical disintegration and

screening to eliminate oversize material,

“ Ibid.
208 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 5-21.—Offshore Phosphate District, Southeastern North Carolina Continental Shelf

 p. H Snyder, M.D. and “Geologic Framework of Phosphate Resources in 

Bay, North Carolina Continental Shelf, ” Economic Geology, VOI 80, 1985, p, 720.
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies ● 209

● cycloning to reduce undersize material (e. g.,

clays), and

● flotation to reject silicates.

Rejected material is returned to the sea floor. The

assumption that flotation can be adapted to shipboard operation requires verification by development and testing studies, the costs of which are provided for under the capital cost estimates below.

The use of an existing (and, therefore, already

capitalized) onshore calcining plant near Moorhead

City, North Carolina, some 80 miles north of the

mine site, is also assumed.

Assuming that P2O5 makes up 12.4 percent (by

weight) of the Frying Pan unit and 6.3 percent of

the overburden (both of which are mined), the

mined feed to the at-sea processing plant contains

11.2 percent P2O5 by weight. A total of 6.9 million short tons of ore are mined each year at the

dredging rate of 2,000 cubic yards per hour, yielding a shipboard concentrate of about 1.7 million

tons for feed to the calcining plant onshore. This

yield assumes that shipboard ore flotation upgrades

the P2O5 content to 30 percent.

Mining and At-Sea Processing Cycle.—It is

estimated that six barges, each with a capacity to

carry 6,550 cubic yards of beneficiated ore, and two

tugs will be required to conduct efficient and nearly

continuous loading while the mining vessel is on

station. The time required to load three barges,

transit to shore, unload, and return to the mining

vessel is expected to be 3 days. The mining vessel

is assumed to operate 82 percent of the time, or

300 days per year.

Capital and Operating Costs.—The capital and

operating cost estimates (table 5-8) are based on

the assumption that new equipment is provided to

supply beneficiated ore to an existing shore-based

calcining plant. The capital costs of this shore-based

plant are not included in the following estimates

that may vary by as much as a factor of 2 or more.

Estimated annual operating costs are $20 per

short ton. The estimated costs do not include capital recovery or the profit and risk components that

would be required to attract commercial investors

to an untried venture. Capital recovery alone over

20 years for a $71 million loan at a 9 percent interest rate would add an additional $8 per short ton

of product, The current market price of comparable phosphate rock is about $21 per short ton.

Hence, the potential for mining phosphorite in

Onslow Bay would not be immediately attractive

to commercial investors.

Table 5-8.—Offshore Phosphorite Mining, Onslow Bay, North Carolina:

Capital and Operating Cost Estimates

Millions of dollars

Capital costs:

Detailed exploration, metallurgical testing and feasibility studies . . . . . . . $ 4

Mining and beneficiation vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Transportation to shore (tugs and barges with capacity to deliver 20,000

cubic yards every 3 days) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Loading, unloading, and storage installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Total capital costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $71

(million $/year) ($/ton product)

Operating costs:

Mining $ 9 $ 5.00

Processing to 66°A bone phosphate of lime

(BPL) offshore. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 7.00

Transport and handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.00

Calcining to 68 percent BPL (31 percent phosphorous

pentoxide) onshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5.00

Total operating costs $34 $20.00

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987
210 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 5-9.—Scenario Comparisons: East Coast Placer

Bureau of Mines (January 1987) OTA

Deposit kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ilmenite, rutile, zircon, etc. in old shorelines

Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approx. 5% economic heavy minerals by

weight

Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .100 million short tons

Distance to shore unloading

point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 nautical miles

Maximum dredging depth .. ..150 feet

Annual mining capacity—

tonnage dredged. . . . . . . . ..2.5 to 5.0 million short tons

Mining system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic built new hopper dredge with an

onboard new beneficiation plant

Mining system operating

days . ...................25 0

Shore processing plant . . . . . . New, to produce saleable heavy mineral

products

Capital costs (million $):

Dredge . .................25.9 to 49.7

Plant and other . ..........16.3 to 24.5

Total . ...................42.2 to 74.2

Direct cash operating

costs $U.S. per short ton

dredged . . . . . . . . . . . . .....4.55 to 3.79

Comments (OTA’s) ● Technically feasible but economically

marginal for heavy mineral grades

assumed

● No estimate of accuracy of scenario

● Costs most sensitive to distance from

shore

Ilmenite, rutile, zircon, etc. in old shorelines

5 to 15% total heavy minerals (economic %

heavy mineral not specified)

Not specified

100 nautical miles

120 feet

3.2 to 9.5 million short tons

Domestic built new hopper dredge with

an onboard beneficiation plant

300

New, to produce saleable heavy mineral

products

55 to 86

4.72 to 2.2

Q Accuracy of scenario not estimated

● Costs most sensitive to heavy mineral

grade

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.
Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies 211

Table 5-10.—Scenario Comparisons: West Coast Placer

Bureau of Mines (January 1987) OTA

Deposit kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chromite with minor titanium, zircon, and

gold

Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . >6% Cr2O3 + .0048 oz. Au per short ton

Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .50 million short tons

Distance to shore unloading

point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 nautical miles

Maximum dredging depth .. ..150 feet

Annual mining capacity—

tonnage dredged. . ........5,000,000 short tons

Mining system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic built new hopper dredge

Mining system operating

days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..250

Shore processing plant . . . . . . New, to produce saleable mineral products

Capital costs (million $):

Dredge . .................41. 4

Plant and other . ..........44.3

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85.7

Direct cash operating

costs $U.S. per short ton

dredged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.42

Comments (OTA’s) ● Technically feasible but economically

marginal for heavy mineral grades and

prices assumed

● No operating experience

● No estimate of accuracy

Chromite with insignificant amounts of

ilmenite, rutile, and gold

6°/0 Cr2O3

Not specified

75 nautical miles

300 feet

4,500,000 short tons

Domestic built new hopper dredge

300

New, to produce saleable mineral products

40.0

17.0

57,0

4.00

● Technically feasible but economically

marginal for heavy mineral grades and

prices assumed

Ž No operating experience

• No estimate of accuracy

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987

Table 5-11 .-Scenario Comparisons: Nome, Alaska Gold Placer

Bureau of Mines (January 1987) OTA

Deposit kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Gold Placer

Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..0.6 gram per yard3

Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35,000,000 yard3

Distance to shore unloading

point . ...................0.5 to 5 miles

Maximum dredging depth .. ..80 feet

Annual mining capacity—

tonnage dredged. . ........1,632,000 yd3

Mining system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Used seagoing bucket line dredge with full

gravity processing

Mining system operating

days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Shore processing plant . . . . . . Minimal for final cleaning of gold

concentrates

Capital costs (million $)

Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plant and other . . . . . . . . . . .

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $9.1

Direct cash operating costs

$U.S. per yard3 mined .. ...2.00

Comments (OTA’s) ● Technically feasible and appears

economically profitable

Gold Placer

0.35 to 0.45 gram per yard3

80,000,000 yard3

0.5 to 10 miles

90 feet

4,500,000 yd3

Used seagoing bucket line dredge with full

gravity processing

150

Minimal for final cleaning of gold

concentrates

5

10-15

15-20

1.55

. Technically feasible and appears

economically profitable

SOURCE” Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987
212 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 5-12.—Scenario Comparisons: Onslow Bay and Tybee Island Phosphorite

Zellars-Williams (Tybee Island) (updated 1986) OTA (Onslow Bay)

Deposit kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pebbles and sand

Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11.1 percent P205

Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .150 million short tons

Distance to shore unloading

point . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......30 miles

Maximum dredging depth .. ..100 feet

Annual mining capacity—

tonnage dredged. . . . . . . . ..2.5-3.5 million short tons

Mining system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ocean-going cutter suction dredge with

onboard screening and cycloning

Mining system operating

days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 days

Shore processing plant . . . . . . Washing and sizing, flotation, calcining

Capital costs (million $)

Dredge & offshore

processing ... ... ... ... .$ 17

Transportation to shore . . . . 26

Onshore processing . . . . . . . 113

Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Total ... ... ... ... ... ... ..$185

Cash operating costs $U.S.

per short ton ... ... ... ... .$ 25

Comments (OTA’s) ● Cash operating cost is break-even; Does

not include profit and risk.

● Estimate considered “best

case. ”

● Estimate may be off by

factor of two or more.

Sands

11.2 percent P2O5

Not specified

80 miles

98 feet

6.9 million short tons

Trailing suction hopper dredge; onboard

screening, sizing, and flotation

300 days

Calcining only

$

$

$

●

●

●

41

16

—

14

71

28

Cash operating cost is break-even; Does

not include profit and risk.

Does not include capital costs of existing

onshore calcining plant.

Estimate may be off by factor of two

or more

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987
Chapter 6

Environmental Considerations
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........215

Similar Effects in Shallow and Deep Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...222

Surface Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........................222

Water Column Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................222

Benthic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................223

Alteration of Wave Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......224

Seasonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................224

Different Effects in Shallow and Deep Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..226

Surface Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................,.226

Water Column Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................226

Benthic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................,,226

Shallow Water Mining Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........,.227

Deep Water Mining Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............236

DOMES: The Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study . . . . . . . . . . . ......,.236

Follow-Up to DOMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................239

Environmental Effects From Mining Cobalt Crusts . . . . . . . . . . ...............240

Gorda Ridge Task Force Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..244

Boxes

Box Page

6-A. ICES—International Council for Exploration of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . ......228

6-B. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....,,..229

6-C. Project NOMES.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................230

6-D. New York Sea Grant Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...231

6-E. EPA/COE Criteria for Dredged and Fill Material . ......................232

6-F. Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study (DOMES) . .................,.237

6-G. Cobalt Crust Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............243

6-H. Gorda Ridge Study Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........245

Figures

Figure No. Page

6-1. The Vertical Distribution of Life in the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . .................216

6-2. Impacts of Offshore Mining on the Marine Environment . ..............,.217

6-3. Spawning Areas for Selected Benthic Invertebrates and Demersal Fishes. ....220

6-4. Composite of Areas of Abundance for Selected Invertebrates Superimposed

With Known Areas of High Mineral Potential. . .......................,.221

6-5. The Effect of Discharge Angle and Water Current on the Shape and Depth

of Redeposited Sediments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . , . . .235

6-6. Silt Curtain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..,236

Tables

Table No. Page

6-1. Environmental Perturbations from Various Mining Systems . ...,...,......234

6-2. Summary of Environmental Concerns and Potential Significant Impacts of

Deep-Sea Mining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................238
Chapter 6

Environmental Considerations

INTRODUCTION

Mineral deposits are found in many different

environments ranging from shallow water (sand,

gravel, phosphorites, and placers) to deep water (cobalt crusts, polymetallic sulfides, and manganese

nodules). These environments include both the

most biologically productive areas of the coastal

ocean as well as the almost desert-like conditions

of the abyssal plains. (See figure 6-1. )

Given this broad spectrum, it is hard to generalize about the effects of offshore mining on the marine environment. However, a few generic principles can be stated. 1 As long as areas of importance

for fish spawning and nursery grounds are avoided,

surface and mid-water effects from either shallow

or deep water offshore mining should be minimal

and transient. Benthic effects (i. e., those at the

seafloor) will be the most pronounced for any mining activity in either shallow or deep water. Animals within the path of the mining equipment will

be destroyed; those nearby may be smothered by

the ‘‘rain of sediment’ returning to the seafloor.

Mining equipment can be designed to minimize

these effects. Barring very extensive mining sites

that may eliminate entire populations of benthic

organisms or cause extinctions of rare animals, negative impacts to the seafloor are reversible. Most

scientists believe that shallow water communities

would recover rapidly from disturbance but that

recolonization of deep sea areas would be very slow.

Because little offshore mining is going on now,

the degree of environmental disturbance that any

particular commercial operation might create is difficult to characterize. Even areas that are dredged

frequently do not have the same level of disturbance

as a continuous mining operation. Nevertheless,

U.S. dredging experience is a useful gauge of the

potential for environmental impacts. In shallow

nearshore waters, a few sand, gravel, and shell mining operations in the United States and Europe indicate possible impacts. In addition, results of research in the United States and abroad offer insights

on the effects of offshore mining. These research

efforts include:

●

●

●

●

●

The

the International Council for Exploration of

the Sea (ICES) Report of the Working Group

on Effects on Fisheries of Marine Sand and

Gravel Extraction—box 6-A,

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Dredge Material Research Program (DMRP)—box 6-B,

the New England Offshore Mining Environmental Study (NOMES)—box 6-C,

Sea Grant Studies of Sand and Gravel in New

York Harbor—box 6-D, and

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study (DOMES)—box 6-F.

Gorda Ridge Draft Environmental Impact

Statement, and the Cobalt Crust Draft Environmental Impact Statement (see box 6-G) summarize

related research as well.

Similarities among the mining systems used for

deep water (2,500- 16,000 feet) and shallow water

(less than 300 feet) suggest that the same general

types of impacts will occur in both environments.

Any mining operation will alter the shape of the

seafloor during the excavation process, destroy

organisms directly in the path of operations, and

produce a sediment plume over the seafloor from

the operation of the equipment. When the mined

material is sorted and separated at the ship, some

percentage will be discarded—very little in the case

of sand and gravel, a great deal for many other

seabed minerals—resulting in a surface ‘‘plume’

that will slowly settle to the bottom (see figure 6-

2). The duration and severity of plume effects on

the surface and water column depend on the grainsize of the rejected material. Sand (i. e., particle sizes

0.06 mm-1.0 mm. ) settles quickly; silts (.001-.06

‘These conclusions are for mining alone. If any at-sea processing

occurs, with subsequent chemical dumping, guidelines may be totally

different

‘These sediment plumes are the cqu ivalent of the dust clouds

produced by similar operations on land.

215
216 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations . 217

Figure 6-2.—impacts of Offshore Mining on the Marine Environment

1

■ ✎

 .

. .

 ‘ . . . . . . - . , . , . . .

, . . . . . . . . . .

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.

72-672 0 - 87 -- 8
218 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

mm. ) and clays (finer than .06 mm. ) remain in the

water column for a much longer time.

It is not scientifically or economically possible to

develop very detailed baseline information on the

ecology of all offshore environments in the near future; the consequences of a variety of mining scenarios cannot be precisely predicted. However, presumably environmental impact statements (EIS)

will be prepared to identify site-specific problems

prior to the commencement of mining operations.

Environmental impacts should also be monitored

during an actual mining operation. Areas where

offshore mining is most likely to pose an environmental risk can be identified now or in the near

future using existing data. (e. g., see figure 6-4

showing areas of high biological productivity superimposed on a map, produced by the Strategic

Assessment Branch of NOAA, depicting areas of

high mining potential. ) For shallow water environments, areas considered sensitive because of unique

plant or animal species, spawning or nursery areas,

migration pathways, fragile coastline, etc., should

be prohibited from mining activities (see figure 6-

3); this approach is being pursued in the United

Kingdom and Canada and is one of the prime recommendations of the International Council for Exploration of the Seas (ICES) Working Group.

Analogues in natural environments that simulate disturbances on the scale of a mining effort

should be investigated. For example, insight into

the response of the deep-sea to a mining operation

can be gained from studying deep-sea areas exposed

to natural periodic perturbations such as the

HEBBLE3 (High Energy Benthic Boundary Layer

Experiment) area.

In addition, when mining does proceed in either

shallow or deep water, at least two reference areas

should be maintained for sampling during the operation: one sufficiently removed from the impact

area to serve as a control, and one adjacent to the

mining area.

3D. Thistle 1981, ‘‘Natural Physical Disturbances and Communities of Marine Soft Bottoms, ” Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 6: 223-228, and

B. Hecker, “Possible Benthic Fauna and Slope Instability Relationships, ” Marine Slides and Other Mass Movements, S. Saxov and

J. K. Nieuwenhuis (eds. ), Plenum Publishing Corp., 1982.

Shallow water effects are better understood than

deep water effects because nearshore areas have

been studied in detail for a longer time. A great

deal is known about the environment and plant and

animal communities in shallow water areas. But

there has been no commercial mining and much

less is known about ecology in deep-sea areas where

manganese-cobalt crusts, manganese nodules, and

polymetallic sulfides occur. However, there appears

to be remarkable uniformity in the mechanisms that

control deep-sea environments, so that information

gleaned from one area in the deep-sea can be used

to make predictions about others; shallow water

environments on the other hand, differ significantly

from site to site.

One area of shallow water research that requires

attention is coastline alteration. Sand, gravel, and

placer mining in nearshore areas may aggravate

shore erosion by altering waves and tides. A sitespecific study would have to be done for each shallow water mining operation to ensure wave climates

are not changed. New theories about wave action

suggest that, contrary to previous scientific opinion, water depth may be a poor indicator of subsequent erosion. The relative importance of different kinds of seafloor alterations on coastline

evolution needs to be clarified. For example, what

is the effect of a one-time, very large-scale sediment

removal (e. g., at Grand Isle, Louisiana, for beach

replenishment over a several mile area) versus

cumulative scraping of a small amount over a very

long period (such as decades).

The information most needed to advance understanding of the deep-sea is even more basic. The

research community needs more and better submersibles to adequately study the deepsea benthos.

Currently, there is a 2-year time-lag between research grant approval and available time on one

of the two U.S.-owned deepsea submersibles available to the scientific community. Deep-sea biota

need to be identified and scientifically classified. Up

to 80 percent of the animals obtained from the few

samples recovered have never been seen before.4

It will be impossible to monitor change in animal

communities without systematic survey of these

populations. Research funding is needed to develop

‘B. Hecker, Lament-Doherty Geological Observato~, OTA Workshop on Environmental Concerns, Washington, D. C., Oct. 29, 1986,
the taxonomy of deepsea creatures. Improvements

in navigational capabilities are needed; in order to

conduct ‘ ‘before and after’ studies, it is important

to return to the exact area sampled.

A compendium of available studies and the data

produced on both shallow and deep water environments is sorely needed. Unfortunately, a great deal

of research on environmental impacts to offshore

areas, performed for particular agencies and institutions, has never appeared in peer-reviewed literature. These studies may be quite useful in describing both the unaltered and altered offshore

environment and may be directly applicable to proposed mining scenarios. An annotated bibliography summarizing all the information that went into

the compilations of MMS Task Forces (see boxes

6-G and 6-H), DMRP, DOMES —see box 6-F,

NOMES—see box 6-C, and Information from the

Offshore Environmental Studies Program of the

Department of Interior developed in conjunction

with developing EISS for Oil and Gas Planning

Areas would be invaluable. The combined research

budgets represented by these efforts is hundreds of

millions of dollars. Such data collection could not

be duplicated by the private and academic sectors

in this century. New research efforts—which tend

to be quite modest in comparison—would benefit

from easy access to this wealth of information.

An important effort to collect available biological and chemical data and screen them for quality

control is underway in the Strategic Assessment

Branch of NOAA. Since 1979, NOAA has been
220 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 6-3.—Spawning Areas (June-September) for Selected Benthic invertebrates and Demersal Fishes

Number of species

This computer-generated map of the Bering, Chukchi, Beaufort Seas area of Alaska shows how information about various species

can be combined to develop pictures of offshore areas (in this case, spawning areas) where mining activities may be detrimental.

SOURCE: Strategic Assessment Branch, NOAA,

Small crangonid shrimps (Crangon communis, C. dalli,

C. septemspinosa)

Northern Pink Shrimp (Panda/us borealis)

Sidestripe Shrimp (Pandalopsis dispar)

Humpy Shrimp (Pandalus goniuris)

Pandalid shrimp (Pandalus tridens)

Opossum shrimp (Mysis relicta)

Korean Hair Crab (Erimacrus isenbeckii)

Red King Crab (Paralithodes camtschatica)

Golden King Crab (Lithodes aequispina)

Blue King Crab (Paralithodes platypus)

Bairdi Tanner Crab (Chionoecetes bairdi)

Pacific Cod (Gadus macrocephalus)

Walleye Pollock (Theragra chalcogramma)

Yellowfin Sole (Limanda aspera)

Alaska Plaice (Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus)

Greenland Turbot (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides)

Rock Sole (Lepidopsetta bilineata)

Arrowtooth Flounder (Atheresthes stomias)

Flathead Sole (Hippoglossoides elassodon)

Pacific Halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis)
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations . 221

Figure 6-4.–Composite of Areas of Abundance for Selected Invertebrates Superimposed With

Known Areas of High Mineral Potential

Known Potent ial

2

3

Composite of Areas of Abundance for Selected Benthic Invertebrates

Number of Species

■ -1; ❑ - 2,3; ● -4,5; ■ -6,7,8

NOTES: Map constructed by areas of abundance (i.e., major adult areas and major adult concentrations) frOm maps of species indicated Boundaries have

been smoothed Areas depict the number of Individual species with high abundance; they do not necessarily reflect the distribution of total biomass

Species included: Small Crangonid Shrimp (Crangon communis, C. dalli), Large crangonid shrimp (Argis dentata, Sclerocrangon

boreas), Northern Pink Shrimp, Korean Hair Crab, Red King Crab, Golden King Crab, Blue King Crab, Bairdi Tanner Crab, Opilio

Tanner Crab, Chalky Macoma, Greenland Cockle, Iceland Cockle.

SOURCE: Strategic Assessment Branch, NOAA

compiling databases on coastal areas and the Ex- used to identify potential conflicts among the mulclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (see Ch. 7 for more tiple uses of resources with given offshore areas (see

information on this program). These data are be- figures 6-3 and 6-4).

ing used to develop a series of atlases and can be
222 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

SIMILAR EFFECTS IN SHALLOW AND DEEP WATER

Surface Effects might lead to changes in productivity or changes

The surface plume created by the rejection or in species composition.

loss of some of the mined material or the disposal

of unused material could cause a number of effects

on the phytoplankton (minute plant life) community and on primary production.5 In the short term,

reduction of available light in and beneath the

plume may decrease photosynthesis. Nutrients

originally contained in the bottom sediments but

introduced to the surface waters may stimulate

phytoplankton productivity. Long-term plume effects from long-term continual mining operations

5A. T. Chan and G. C. Anderson, “Environmental Investigation

of the Effects of Deep-Sea Mining on Marine and Primary Productivity in the Tropical Eastern North Pacific Ocean, Marine Mining, vol 3. ( 1981), No. 1/2, pp. 121-150.

Water Column Effects

High particulate concentrations in the water

column can adversely affect the physiology of both

swimming and stationary animals,6 altering their

growth rate and reproductive success. Such stresses

may lead to a decrease in the number of species,7

a decrease in biomass (weight/unit area), and/or

‘D. C. Rhoads, and D. K. Young, “The Influence on Sediment Stability and Community Structure, ” of Marine Research, No. 28 (1970), pp. 150-178. 7

R. W. Grigg and “Some Ecological Effects of Discharged Wastes on Marine Life, California Fish and Game, No.

56 (1970), 145-155.

Photo credit: U.S. Geological Survey

A surface plume of turbidity is produced when a dredge discharges material overboard. The extent, duration, and negative

impacts of such a plume depend on the size and composition of the rejected material. Larger particles will settle out

quickly and the plume will rapidly disperse. Very fine sediments may remain suspended for several days.
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations ● 223

changes in seasonal and spatial patterns of organisms.8 Eggs and larvae in the mining area will be

unable to escape. Most adult fish-the prime commercial species in the water column—are active

swimmers and would be able to avoid the area of

high particulate concentrations. Nonetheless, a

large-scale, long-term mining operation will produce a ‘ ‘curtain’ of turbidity (cloudiness due to

particulate) in the water column which might interfere with normal spawning habits, alter migration patterns, or cause fish to avoid the mining area

altogether.

Heavy metals, e.g., copper, zinc, manganese,

cadmium, and iron, may be released into the water

column in biologically significant forms from some

mining operations. The quantities of dissolved metals generally will be quite low, but current hypotheses suggest that small spatial and temporal differences in metal concentrations regulate the kinds of

plankton found9 10. Metals could, therefore, cause

changes in species composition; such changes have

been verified for copper both in the laboratoryll

and at sea. 12 Trace metals may be as important as

macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicon)

in controlling species composition and productivity

in the marine environment, If so, then any largescale disruptions in the natural metal balance due

to mining activities could alter marine food webs.

However, our understanding of the role of metals

in unpolluted marine environments is currently

constrained by the difficulty of measuring such minute quantities.

———

‘A. Shar and H.F. Mulligan, “Simulated Seasonal Mining Impacts

on Plankton, International Revue Gesamte Hydrobiologie, 62(4)

1977, pp. 505-510.

9S

. A. Huntsman and W. G. Sunda, ‘‘The Role of Trace Metals

in Regulating Phytoplankton Growth with Emphasis on Fe, Mn, and

Cu, “ The Physiologiczd Ecology of Phytoplankton, 1. Morris (cd. )

(Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1981), pp. 285-328.

I°F, A. Cross and W.G. Sunda, “The Relationship Between Chemical Speciation and Bioavailability of Trace Metals to Marine

Organisms—A Review, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Utilization of Coastal Ecosystems: Planning, Pollution, and

Productivity, Nov. 21-27, 1982 (Rio Grande, Brazil: 1985).

I I w H, Thomas and D, L. R. Siebert, ‘‘Effect of copper on the

Dominance and the Diversity of Algae: Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment, Bul/etin of Ibfarine Science, No. 27 (1977), pp.

23-33.

IZW, G, Sunda, R .T. Barber, and S. A. Huntsman, ‘‘ Phytoplank -

ton Growth in Nutrient-Rich Seawater: Importance of CopperManganese Cellular Interactions, “Journal of Marine Research, No.

39 (1981), Pp. 567-586.

Benthic Impacts

Little is known about the dynamics of animal

communities on the seafloor. There are, however,

several possible effects of concern. Animals within

the mined area will be destroyed. Large-scale

removal of bottom sediments will alter the topography and therefore could affect currents and substrate characteristics, which in turn affect species

composition. 13 Benthic plumes from mining devices

will cause sedimentation on the bottom-dwelling

organisms and eggs in the vicinity. Surface plumes

from rejection of some of the mined material will

eventually settle over a much wider area and cover

animals with a thin layer of sediment. Silt deposits can smother benthic organisms and inhibit

growth and development of juvenile stages. 14-19

While the first new colonizing organisms in a mined

area probably will be those with the highest dispersal, the direction of succession and final composition of the community is difficult to predict and is

likely to be affected by grain size and suitability of

the deposited sediment for colonization by benthic

invertebrates.

The areas affected by mining will tend to be

smaller than those affected by commercial fishing

(especially bottom-trawling operations), which also

removes large numbers of organisms and may disturb large sections of the seafloor. However, marine mining impacts may be more intense than

those of fisheries.

13J .S. Gray, “Animal-Sediment Relationships, in Oceanograph,v

and Marine Biology-An Annuaf Review, H. Barnes (ed. ), No. 12

(1974), pp. 223-262.

‘+W. B. Wilson, “The Effects of Sedimentation Due to Dredging

Operations on Oysters in Copano Bay, Texas’ (MS. thesis, Texas

A&M University, 1956).

15R. S. Scheltema, “Metamorphosis of the Veliger Larvae of Nassarius Obsoletus (Gastropod) in Response to Bottom Sediment, Biological Bulletin, No. 120 (1961), pp. 92-109.

16G. Thorson, “Some Factors Influencing the Recruitment and

Establishment of Marine Benthic Communities, NetherlandsJournal of Sea Research, No. 3 ( 1966), pp. 267-293.

17Grigg and Kiwala, ‘ ‘Some Ecological Effects of Discharged Wastes

on Marine Life.

I as, B, Sai]a, S, D. Pratt, and T.T. Polgar, Dredge Spoil ~ispos~

in Rhode Island Sound, University of Rhode Island Marine Technical Report No. 2, 1972.

19P, S, Meadows and J. 1. Campbell, ‘‘ Habitat Selection by Aquatic

Invertebrates, Advances in Marine Biology, No. 10 (1972), pp.

271-382.
224 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Photo credit” A Crosby Longwell, National Marine Fisheries Service

by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers suggests that

concern with water depth alone may not be sufficient to avoid beach erosion21 22 and that detailed

on-site modeling should be considered in pre-planning analysis. For example, the U.S. Army Corps

of Engineers of the New Orleans District built a

beach and dune on Grand Isle, Louisiana for erosion control in 1983. The project required 2.8 million cubic yards of sand obtained by digging two

large borrow holes one-half mile offshore (about

twice this amount was actually dredged to achieve

the design section). Shortly after completion, cuspate sand bars began to form on the leeward side

of the dredged holes and the beach began to erode

adjacent to the newly formed bars. During the winter and spring of 1985, heavy storms exacerbated

the areas of beach loss adjacent to the cuspate bars

(e.g., see opposite page) .23 This unexpected response of beach formation and erosion as a result

of altered wave patterns around the borrow areas

illustrates the importance of site-specific assessment

before mining large volumes of sediment from the

seafloor.

Atlantic mackerel eggs sorted out of plankton from

surface waters of the New York Bight.

Seasonal

Alteration of Wave Patterns

Mining in shallow water may change the form

and physiography of the seafloor. Wave patterns

may be altered as a result of removing offshore bars

or shoals or digging deep pits. When changes in

wave patterns and wave forces affect the shoreline,

coastal beaches can erode and structures can be

damaged. The best example of these dangers occurred in the United Kingdom in the early 1900s

when the town of Hallsands in Devon was severely

damaged by wave action following large scale

removal of offshore sandbars to build the Plymouth

breakwater (see photograph). Coastal erosion is

now the first consideration in the United Kingdom

before mining takes place; dredging is limited to

areas deeper than 60 feet. This criterion is based

on studies that imply sediment transport is unlikely

at depths greater than 45 feet; the additional 15 feet

were added as an extra precaution .20 Current work

ZIJR, w, Drlnnan and D.C, Bliss, The U.K. Experience on the Effects of Offshore Sand and Grave] Extraction on Coastal Erosion and

the Fishing Industry j Nova Scotia Department of Mines and Energy,

Open File Report 86-054.

During certain times of the year, e.g., when eggs

and larvae are abundant, the effects of offshore mining may have a more negative impact on the ocean

community than at other times. Juvenile stages of

fish and shellfish are transported by water currents

and therefore are less able to actively avoid adverse

conditions. They are generally more susceptible to

high concentrations of suspended sediments than

swimming organisms that can avoid such conditions.

For example, striped bass larvae in the Chesapeake

Bay develop more slowly when particulate levels

are high. 24 Therefore, restricting offshore mining

J

21 ~an pope, u, S. Army Corps of Engineers T OTA Workshop on

Environmental Concerns, Washington, D. C., Oct. 29, 1986.

22R.J. Hallermeier, A Profile Zonation for Seasonal Sand Beaches

from Wave Climate, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Reprint 81-3

(Fort Belvoir, VA: Coastal Engineering Research Center, April 1981).

23A.J. Combe and C. W. Soileau, “Behavior of Man-made Beach

and Dune, Grand Isle, Louisiana, ” Coasrzd Sediment ’87, 1987, p.

1232.

z4.4, H, Au]d and J. R. Schubel, ‘‘ Effects of Suspended Sediment

on Fish Eggs and Larvae: A Laboratory Assessment, Estuarine and

Coastal Marine Science, No. 6 (1978), pp. 153-164.
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations ● 225

Photo credit’ Jay US. Army Corps of Engineer

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers of the New Orleans District built a beach and dune on Grand Isle, Louisiana for beach

erosion control, recreation, and hurricane wave damage protection (Aug. 14, 1984).

The two offshore borrow areas from which the sand was obtained, were of sufficient width, depth, and proximity to the

shore to modify wave climate. Over the next 3 years, cuspate sand bars formed in the lee of the borrow pits while erosion occurred adjacent to these bars (Aug. 9, 1985).

s

A series of hurricanes between 1984-85 severely eroded areas immediately adjacent to and between the cuspate bars

destroying total beach and dune fill over one-seventh of the project length (Oct. 28, 1985). Plans to restore and modify

the project to improve its resistance to damage in future hurricanes are essentially complete.
226 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

seasonally as environmental concerns warrant may marine species dependent on a particular substrate

protect biota during sensitive stages of devel- type (e. g., salmon and herring).25

opment.

Permanently changing the topography of the 25S,J. de Groot, “The Potential Environmental Impact of Marine

Gravel Extraction in the North Sea, ” Ocean Management, No. 5

seafloor may disrupt the spawning patterns of some (1979), pp. 233-249.

DIFFERENT EFFECTS IN SHALLOW AND DEEP WATER

While the potential environmental impacts of

mining operations in shallow water are similar to

those in deep water, the effects may be more obvious in shallow areas and may have a more direct

effect on human activities. Many of the organisms

on the continental shelf and in coastal waters are

linked to humans through the food chain; decreased

animal productivity may have an adverse economic

effect as well as an undesirable environmental effect in these nearshore areas (see figure 6-2).

Surface Effects

Surface plumes are of more concern in nearshore

shallow water areas than they are in deeper areas.

In the open ocean, plankton productivity is lower

and populations extend over huge geographic

scales. The effects of a localized mining operation

on the surface biota, therefore, will be less in the

offshore situation. Visual and aesthetic effects from

mining operations and waste plumes also will be

less apparent far offshore.

Water Column Effects

High metal concentrations can reduce the rate

of primary production by phytoplankton and can

alter species composition and succession of

phytoplankton communities26 Several factors act

simultaneously to reduce the likelihood of adverse

effects from metals released during mining operations in shallow water. Water over the continental

shelf contains higher concentrations of particulate

matter (and organic chelating agents) which convert the dissolved (ionic) metals into insoluble forms

that are unavailable to plankton27 While no studies

have yet identified metal contamination of the water

column to be a serious consequence of seabed min26Thomas and Siebert, ‘‘Effect of Copper. ‘‘

27 Huntsman and Sunda, “The Role of Trace Metals. ”

ing, the potential for metal persistence is greater

in the deep-sea.

Benthic Effects

Coastal waters are subject to continual wave action and seasonal changes, and the species found

here are adapted to such conditions. The fine particulates stirred by mining operations may be similar to sediment resuspended by strong wave action

in shallow water. In coastal areas, surface-living

forms have been found to tolerate 2 inches of sediment deposition, sediment-dwelling animals (infauna)

10 to 12 inches, and deeper burrowing bivalves 4

to 20 inches. 28 On the other hand, animals accustomed to the relatively quiescent deep ocean environment may be less resilient to disruption of their

habitat or blanketing by particulates. Since deepsea animals live in an environment where natural

sedimentation rates are on the order of millimeters

per thousand years, they are assumed to have only

very limited burrowing abilities. Thus, even a thin

layer of sediment may kill these organisms. *g In

general, if the resident fauna on an area of the shallow seafloor are buried, the community will generally recover more quickly than in the deep-sea.

Populations of animals directly within the mining path will be destroyed. Dredged areas in shallow seafloor are buried, the community will recover

more quickly than in the deep-sea.

Zsconsoljdated Gold Fields Australia Ltd. and ARC Marine Ltd.,

Marine Aggregate Project, Environmental Impact Statement, vol. 1,

February 1980.

zgP. A. Jumars and E.D. Gallagher, ‘‘Deep-Sea Community Structure: Three Plays on the Benthic Proscenium, The Environment

of the Deep Sea, Rubey Volume 11, W.G. Ernst and J.G. Morin (eds. )

(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 1982); and P.A, Jumars, “Limits in Predicting and Detecting Benthic Community Responses to Manganese Nodule Mining, ” Marine Mining, vol 3. (1981), No. 1/2, pp. 213-229.
CH. 6—Environmental Considerations . 227

Photo credit: Paul Rodhouse, British Antarctic Survey

Mussels, like many benthic marine organisms, filter

their food. Sediments discharged from dredging

vessels or stirred up by mining activities may clog

feeding and respiratory surfaces of these animals or

completely bury populations.

cies. 30 31 Animal populations in fine-grained sediments appear to recover more rapidly than those in

coarse-grained sediments, which may require up to

3 years for recovery. 32 Recolonization rates in the

deep sea are not known with any certainty, but they

appear to be long—on the order of years—in areas

not subject to periodic disturbance. 33-36 Deep-sea

benthic communities are areas of high species diversity, few individuals, slow recolonization rates, and

questionable resilience. Shallow water benthic communities may have either high or low diversity, usually with large numbers of individuals, fast recolonization, and resilience to physical disturbance.

 T Derailed . .

Technical Report prepared for Army Corps of Engineers Office, Chief of Engineers, Washington, D. C., December 1978. 3

*D. Thistle, “Natural Physical Disturbances and Communities of

Marine Soft Bottoms, Marine Program No. 6

(1981), 223-228. 32 Saucier et al., p. 75.

 et a]. , of Deep Sea Dredging,

Report to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, November 1986. 34C. R. Smith, ‘ ‘Food for the Deep Sea: Utilization, Dispersal, and

Flux of Nekton Falls at the Santa Catalina Basin Floor, ” Deep-Sea

Research, vol. 32, No. 

 F, ‘ ‘Slow Recolonization of Deep-Sea Sediment, Nature, No. 265 ( 1977), pp. 618-619.

“J. F. “Diversity and Population Dynamics of 

Organisms, No. 21 (1978), pp. 42-45.

SHALLOW WATER MINING EXPERIENCE

Since little mining has taken place offshore of the

United States37, any discussion of the environmental impacts must rely heavily on the European

experience. This experience is summarized in the

documents of the International Council for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES—see box 6-A). Additionally, the very extensive experience of U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers in lifting, redepositing,

37 gravel mining in the Ambrose Channel of New York Harbor and a gold mining operation off Nome,

Alaska, (see 5).

and monitoring sediments from dredging operations provides insights into the effects of shallow

water mining. In particular, the 5-year Dredged

Material Research Program (DMRP) (see box 6-

B) attempted to cover all types of environmental

settings offshore, The information gathered is relevant to the activities involved in mining sand and

gravel or placer deposits. Finally, there are two

regional efforts—The New England Offshore Mining Environmental Study (NOMES) (see box 6-

C), and Sea Grant studies in New York Harbor
228 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations ● 229

(see box 6-D) that examined naturally occurring

populations of organisms on the seafloor in the

northeastern United States where shallow water

mining operations are likely to take place. Guidelines have been established by EPA and the Corps

of Engineers (see box 6-E) for testing the impacts

of dumping dredged material which may, in turn,

provide information about effects of concern from

rejected mining material.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers reports suggest that concerns about water quality degradation

from the resuspension of dredged material are, for

the most part, unfounded. Generally, only minimal chemical and biological impacts from dredging and disposal have been observed over the shortter m

38. Most organisms studied were relatively insensitive to the effects of sediment suspensions or

turbidity. Release of heavy metals and their upMR, A. Geyer (cd.), Marjne Environmental Pollution, Dumping

and Mining, Elsevier Oceanography Series 27B (Amsterdam-Oxford,

New York: Elsevier Science Publishing Co., 1981).

take into organism tissues have been rare. The conclusion of the Dredged Material Research Program

(DMRP) is that biological conditions of most shallow water areas—areas of high wave action—

appear to be influenced to a much greater extent

by natural variation in the physical and chemical

environment than they are by dredging or drilling.

The NOMES and Sea Grant studies corroborate

the Corps of Engineer’s finding, that in shallow

water, there is much natural variation in both the

distribution and abundance of species on the unaltered seafloor; these latter studies conclude that

it is impossible to generalize about the effects of

mining on all shallow water environments given the

tremendous variability from site to site. This conclusion suggests that, if a mined area is compared

with an unmined area, changes due to the dredging might not be statistically detectable because

either:

● the mining really had a minimal impact, or

● the tremendous variability between sites masked

the changes that occurred at the mining site.

Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations 231

column appears to cause only local and minor reductions in plankton productivity. The abundance

and types of species found on the bottom also

change.41 When the substrate type is changed due

to the dredging activities (e. g., removal of gravel -.

or a sand layer on top of ‘bed-rock) then adverse

effects may be persistent .42 The benthic commu-

‘lS.J. de Groot, Bibliography of Literature Dealing with the Effmts of Mm”ne Sand and Gravel Extraction on Fisheries (The Netherlands: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Marine

Environmental Quality Committee, 1981); de Groot, “The Potential Environmental Impact of Marine Gravel Extraction in the North

Sea. ”

4zIntemation~ Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Second Report of the ICES Working Group on Effects on Fisheries of Marine

Sand and Grave] Extraction, Cooperative Research Report No. 64,

nities that are established in the area after removing the top layers may differ significantly from the

prior communities.43

Of great concern to the European community

is the potential detrimental effects of mining on

commercial fisheries. Removal of gravel in herring

(Charlottenlund, Denmark: ICES, April 1977); International Council for the Exploration of the h, Marine Environmental Quality Committee, Report of the ZCES Working Group on Effmts on Fishen’es

of Marine Sand and Gravel Extraction, (Charlotterdund, Denmark:

ICES, 1979).

43A. p. Cressard ~d C. P. Augris, ‘‘French Shelf Sand and Gravel

Regulati~s, Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference,

OTC 4292, 1982.
232 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

spawning areas or on sandbanks where sand eels

hide at night adversely affects these fisheries44

.

While direct negative effects of dredging on adult

fish stocks has not been clearly demonstrated, these

concerns remain. To protect fishing interests, ICES

proposed a “Code of Practice. ’45 Elements of this

code have been adopted by France and the United

Kingdom. The code requires that the exact boundaries of the mining area and the amount and thickness of the sediment layer to be removed be specified. In addition, the expected condition of the

seabed after completion of dredging operations

must be described, including the amount of gravel

remaining to enable herring to spawn.

441t i5 st~ notICIIOWI why herring select a specific spawning ground

or what the selection criteria are for sand eel (Ammodytes) in their

choice of a specific bank in which to dig.

451ntemation~ Councti for the Exploration of the Sea.

From the U.S. and European work discussed

above, it appears that there are three ways to minimize the environmental effect of mining operations

in near-shore areas, namely:

1.

2.

3.

identify and avoid environmentally sensitive

areas with regard to biota, spawning areas,

migration, currents, coastline erosion, etc.;

where mining does occur, use dredging equipment that minimizes destruction of the bottom as well as production of both surface and

bottom particulate benthic plumes; and

effectively restore the site to its original premining condition—mine and ‘‘reclaim’ the

area by smoothing seafloor gouges and replacing removed sediment with a similar type and

grain-size. (Note: While this option may be

feasible in certain cases, it is expensive and

energy-intensive. Because little information
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations 233

Photo credit’ Southern California Coastal Research Project Authority

Coastal regions are the most biologically productive

areas of the ocean. Because offshore mining is most

likely to occur here first, care must be taken to avoid

areas important for fisheries.

exists on reclamation, this option will not be

considered below.

Information from many existing environmental

studies 46-51 can be combined to characterize the

 of Oceanography and 

Assessment, Ocean Assessments Division, Strategic Assessments

Branch, Coastal and Ocean Zones, Strategic Assessment: Data 

The atlases consist of maps a range of topics on physical and

biological environments (geology, surface temperatures, and aquatic

 I ing marine resources (species of fishes,

birds, and mammals); economic activities (population distribution and

seafood product ion); environmental quality (oil and grease discharge);

and jurisdictions (political boundaries and environmental quality management areas) The Eastern United States (125 maps) was 

 by the Department of Commerce in 1980; it is now out-of-print.

The Gulf of Mexico ( 163 four-color maps) was printed by the

 Government Printing Office in 1985. The Bering, and

 Seas ( 127 maps) will be printed early in 1987 The

 Coast and of Alaska is scheduled for 1988 publication.

areas of prime ecological concern. Dredging and

mining operations can then avoid prime fish and

shellfish areas especially during times of reproduction and migration. The OTA Workshop on Environmental Concerns stressed that a compendium

of such information should be developed; currently,

there are many sources of data52 housed in different agencies or institutions, but it is difficult to compare or combine them.

Historically, the dredging industry has emphasized increasing production rather than reducing

sediment in the water column or minimizing damage to the environment. Information on particulate levels and other effects caused by different

dredge designs exists (see table 6-l). U.S. Army

Corps of Engineers field studies indicate that the

butterhead dredge produces most of its turbidity

near the bottom, as does the hopper dredge withA national atlas of 20 maps the health and use coastal waters

of the U.S. is also being produced by The first arc. 

Disposal Sites, Systems, Oil Production. Dredging 

ties, and NOAA’s National Status and Trends Program Future maps

arc scheduled on hazardous waste sites, marine mammals, fisheries

management areas, and other similar topics.

 Department of the Fish and 

 Services ‘ ‘Gulf Coast al User’s

Guide and Information ‘‘ August ‘‘ Pacific Coast Ecological Inventory, User’s Guide I ion Base, October ;

and ‘ ‘Atlantic- Coast Ecological Inventory, Guide and 

mat ion Base,

 Ecosystems Aria]}, (MESA), New 

Atlas Monograph Series, New York Bight Project, New 

Grant Institute, Albany, 1975, especially Monographs 13-15 (’ ‘Plankton Systematic and Distribution Malone, ‘‘ Fauna by

 Pearce and D. and “Fish Distribution” M.D. 

lein and A. 

 of the Interior, Minerals Management 

ice, ‘‘ Proposed 5-Year Outer Continental Oil and Gas Leasing

Program, Mid-1987 to Mid-1992, ” Final Impact Statement, Volumes I and January 1987. There are 22 planning areas

for oil and gas within the U.S. For each area, 

ion bas been collected on biological geologic and ical

conditions, physical oceanography, and soc ic ions.

About $400 million has gone into the Environmental Studies Program

since 1973. Hundreds of paper-s and reports been published as

a result; these are listed and summarized in En Studies

 OCS Report 86-0020, U.S. Department of Interior,

Minerals Management 

 Freeman ‘ 

States Atlantic Coast, Fish, Fishing and Fishing Facilities,

prepared for the U.S. Department of Commerce, Seattle, WA, 

1976.

 Scripps Institution C)ceanog r aphy, California 

Oceanic Fisheries In\’estimations A-027. The distributions

of species in the California Current Region are mapped in a 30-volume

atlas series. This series is one of the few long-term monitoring 

of a large region; records from 1949 to the present clay.

 the cited here, there arc many 

and local studies.
234 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 6-1.—Environmental Perturbations from Various Mining Systems

Mining method Seabed Water column

Mining Mining Fragmentation/ Turbidity Suspended Dissolved

approaches systems collection Excavation plume Resedimentation Subsidence particulate substances

Scraping Drag line dredge ● ● ● ● ●

Trailing cutter

suction dredge ● ● * ● * ● * ●

Rock cutter section

dredge ● ● ● ● ●

Crust-miner ● ● * ● ●

Continuous line

bucket ● ● ● ● ●

Clams shell bucket ● ● * ● ●

Bucket ladder

dredge ● ● ● ● ●

Bucket wheel

dredge ● ● * ● * ● * ●

Excavating Anchored suction

dredge ● ● * ● * ● * ●

Cutterhead suction

dredge ● ● ● ● ●

Drilling and blasting ● *

Tunneling Shore entry ●

beneath Artificial island entry ●

seafloor

Fluidizing Slurrying ●

(sub-seafloor) Leaching

“ Applicable or potentially applicable.

“ ● Relative major perturbation.

SOURCE: Errvirorrrnental Effects Llocumerrt prepared by U.S. Department of the Interior Regulatory Task Force for Leasing of Minerals Other than Oil, Gas, and Sulphur

In the Outer Continental Shelf, unpublished draft, October 1986.

out overflow. The bucket dredge and the hopper

dredge with overflow, however, produce suspended

sediments throughout the water column. The modified dustpan dredge appears to suspend more solids

than a conventional butterhead dredge .53

A typical bucket dredge operation produces a

plume of particulate extending about 1,000 feet

downcurrent at the surface and about 1,600 feet

near the bottom .54 In the immediate vicinity of the

operation, the maximum concentration of sediment

suspended at the surface should be less than 500

mg/l and should rapidly decrease with distance.

Water column concentrations generally should be

less than 100 mg/l.55 When mining stops, the turbidity plume will settle rapidly.

The dispersion of a turbidity plume can be effectively altered by the configuration of the pipe5sFor more information on dredge designs, see Ch. 4.

WW, D, Barnard, P&jctjon and Control of Dredged Material Dispersion Around Dredging and Open Water Pipeline DisposaJ Operations, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report DS-78-13, August 1978.

55 Sediment suspended by a dredge is similar to the amount of disturbance produced by a small-scale storm.

line at the point of discharge (see figure 6-5).56 Pipeline angles that minimize water column turbidity

(e.g., with a 90-degree angle) produce mud mounds

that are thick but cover a minimum area. Conversely, those that generate the greatest turbidity

in the water column disperse widely and produce

relatively thin mud mounds of maximum areal extent .57

Many parameters, such as particle settling rates,

discharge rate, water depth, current velocities, and

the diffusion velocity, all interact to control the size

and shape of the turbidity plume. As water current speed increases, the plume will grow longer.

As the dredge size increases or particle settling rates

decrease, the plume size will tend to increase58. Finally, with lower rates of dispersion or particle setMJ. R. Schubel et al. , Field Znvescigations of the Nature, Degree,

and Extent of Turbidity Generated by Open Water Pipeline Disposal

Operations , U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,

Technical Report, Vicksburg, MS, D-78-30, July 1978.

57A gener~ ~]e of thumb is that, as the height of the redeposited

mound decreases by a factor of two, the areal coverage increases by

a factor of two. But as the mound height decreases, the amount of

wave-induced resuspension of the surface material will also decrease.

5gIn addjtjon, as the diffusion ve]ocity increases fOr a given current

velocity, the plume becomes longer and wider, while the solids concentrations in the plume decrease.
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations ● 235

Figure 6-5.—The Effect of Discharge Angle and Water Current on the Shape and Depth of Redeposited Sediments

Vertical discharge Horizontal discharge

If mining ships discharge unwanted sediments through a vertical pipe (left portion of diagram) seafloor deposits will cover

a smaller area but to a greater depth than if a horizontal discharge pipe is used (right side of diagram) which results in a large

but thin “footprint” of sediments. The movement of water current (bottom of diagram) will similarly expand the area of the

seafloor blanketed by sediment but decrease the depth of the deposit overall.

SOURCE: Modified from W. Barnard, “Prediction and Control of Dredged Material Dispersion Around Dredging and Open Water Pipeline Disposal Operations,” U.S.

Army Corps Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report DS 7S-13, August 1979.

tling or an increase in water depth, the length of extends vertically from the water surface to a specitime required for the plume to dissipate after the fied depth around the area of discharge. At present,

disposal operation has ceased will increase. silt curtains have limited usefulness; they are not

recommended for ( ‘operations in the open ocean,

One method for physically controlling the dis- in currents exceeding one knot, in areas frequently

persion of turbid water is a ‘‘silt curtain. ” (see fig- exposed to high winds and large breaking waves,

ure 6-6). A silt curtain is a turbidity barrier that or around hopper or butterhead dredges where fre-
236 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 6-6.—Silt Curtain

, PIPELINE

BOTTOM SEDIMENT

SOURCE: Modified from US. Army Corps of Engineers, ‘(Executive Overview and

Detailed Summary, ” Synthesis of Research Results, DMRP Program,

U.S. Army Corps Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,

MS, Technical Report DS 78-22, December 1978.

quent curtain movement would be necessary. ’59

Once environmental effects are better defined, engineering techniques can be developed to address

them. For example, Japanese industry has developed a system that may reduce turbidity in the

surface layers of the water column when sediment

is discarded. Air bubbles entrained in the water

during dredge filling and overflow exacerbate the

surface turbidity plume associated with hydraulic

hopper dredging. A system, called the “AntiTurbidity Overflow System” employed by the

Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Company,

Ltd., (IHI) reportedly separates air from the water

prior to overflow. According to IHI data, the result is a clear water column and, presumably, a

smaller area of fine sediment at the dredge site

caused by particles that settle rapidly.

SgBarnard, PmdiC[;on and Control of Dredged Material Dispersion,

p. 87.

DEEP WATER MINING STUDIES

In the deep-sea, the abundance of animal life decreases with increasing depth and distance from

land. Deep-sea animals are predominantly restricted to the surface of the seafloor and the upper few inches of the bottom. Species, especially

smaller-sized organisms, are incompletely catalogued at present, and little information is available on their life cycles. The density of animals is

low but diversity may be high. In these regions,

the low total number of animals is thought to reflect the restricted food supply, which comes from

either residues raining into the deep sea from above

or from in situ production. 60

All estimates of the environmental impacts of

deepsea mining draw heavily on information from

the Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study

(DOMES), the only systematic long-term research

program conducted in very deep water. Justification for extrapolating from these deep-sea sites to

others rests on the hypothesis that, in general, the

abyssal ocean is a much more homogeneous environment than shallow water environments.

DOMES: Deep Ocean Mining

Environmental Study

DOMES was a comprehensive 5-year (1975-80)

research program funded by NOAA. The goal was

to develop an environmental database to satisfy the

National Environmental Policy Act requirements

to assess the potential environmental impacts of

manganese nodule recovery operations. G

* During

the first phase of DOMES, the environmental conditions in the designated manganese nodule area

of the Pacific Ocean (i. e., the DOMES area) were

characterized to provide a background against

which mining-produced perturbations could be later

compared. These baseline studies were carried out

at three sites that covered the range of environmental parameters expected to be encountered during mining (see box 6-F).

The mining scenario presumed removal of nodules from the deep seabed by means of a collector

(up to 65 feet wide) pulled or driven along the

seabed at about 2 miles per hour. Animals on the

60 Deep. Wa biomass often correlates with primaIy productivity above;

areas beneath low productivity subtropical waters may be an order

of magnitude lower in biomass per unit area than at high latitudes.

GIU. S. Department of Commerce, NOAA OffIce of Ocean Minerals

and Energy, Deep Seabed Mining, Final Programmatic Environmental

Impact Statement, vol. 1, (Washington, D. C.: Department of

Commerce, September 1981).
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations 237

Box 6-F.—Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study (DOMES)

The objectives of the first phase of the DOMES program were:

1.

2.

3.

to establish environmental baselines at three sites chosen as representative of the range of selected environmental parameters likely to be encountered during nodule mining,

to begin to develop the capability to predict potential environmental effects of nodule mining, and

to contribute to the information base available to industry and government for development of appropriate environmental guidelines.

Field work associated with the studies included upper water layer measurements of currents, light penetration, and plant pigments and the primary productivity, abundance, and species composition of zooplankton

and nekton. Temperature, salinity, suspended p articulate matter, nutrients, and dissolved oxygen were measured throughout the water column. Current measurements were also made in the benthic boundary layer.

Abundance and distribution of benthic populations and characteristics of the sediments and pore water were

determined. In addition, the seasonal and spatial variability of chemical and biological parameters at four

oceanographic depth zones were studied:

1. the surface mixed layer,

2. the pycnocline,

3. the bottom of the pycnocline to 1,300 feet, and

4.1,300 to 3,300 feet—were characterized for future comparison with measurements made during actual

mining activities.

The second phase of the DOMES project focused on refining predictive capabilities through analysis of

data acquired during pilot-scale tests of mining systems. Two successful pilot-scale mining tests were monitored in 1978, one using both hydraulic and air-lift mining systems, and one using air-lift only. Each test

saw hundreds of tons of manganese nodules brought from water depths of 13,000 to 16,400 feet to the surface.

These tests established the engineering feasibility of deepsea mining, provided the first opportunity to observe

actual effects of operations such as those envisioned for the next decade, and allowed comparisons of those

effects with earlier estimates of mining perturbations. During these tests, discharge volumes, particulate concentrations, and temperature were measured from each mining vessel; limited studies were made of the surface and benthic plumes; and biological impact assessments were made. The second phase of DOMES consisted of monitoring actual pilot-scale mining simulation tests. Its objectives were:

● to observe actual environmental effects relevant to forecasting impacts, and

● to refine the database for guideline development.

SOURCE: U.S. Dqwtmem of Commerce, NOM, Of&e of Ocean Mineral s and Energy Deep Seabed Mining, Final Programmatic Envinmmcntal ImP&ct Swcnlcnt, vol. 1, September 19s1.

seafloor directly in the mining path or nearby would

be disturbed by the collector and the subsequent

sediment plume. In addition, when the nodules

reached the mining ships, the remaining residue

(consisting of bottom water, sediments, and nodule fragments) would be discharged over the side

of the ship, resulting in a surface discharge plume

that might also cause adverse impact.

The Final Programmatic Environmental Impact

Statement concluded that of 20 to 30 possible negative impacts (see table 6-2) from deepsea mining,

only 3 were of sufficient concern to be investigated

as part of the 5-year research plan required by the

1980 Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act .62

bZpub]ic Law 96-283.

The first of the three important impacts occurs

at the seabed. First, the collection equipment will

probably destroy benthic biota, an impact which—

as in the case of shallow water mining—appears

to be both adverse and unavoidable, The degree

of disturbance depends upon the kinds of equipment used and the intensity of mining. The affected

biota include animals such as sea stars, brittle stars,

sea urchins, sea cucumbers, polychaete worms, and

sea anemones. NOAA did not identify any benthic endangered species in the area that may be affected by bottom disturbance, Most benthic animals in the DOMES area appear to be tiny detritus

feeders that live in the upper centimeter of sediment and are fed by organic material that falls from

upper waters. A worst-case estimate is that the ben-
Table 6-2.—Summary of Environmental Concerns and Potential Significant impacts of Deep-Sea Mining

iii

●

Potential significance of biological impact

Disturbance Potential biological impacts Probability of Overall

Initial conditions Physico-chemical effects (remaining concerns in italics) occurrence Recovery rate Consequence significance

collector ●

●

●

Scour and compact Destroy benthic fauna in amount

sediments near collector track

Light and sound Attraction to new food supply

Certain Unknown c Adverse Unavoidable*

(uncertain

significance)

None

Unknown”

Unknown

Unknown*

None

None

None

Unlikely Unknown

(probably rapid)

Uncertain

Benthic plume Increased sedimentation ●

rate and increased suspended matter (“rain of

fines”)

Effect on Benthos

—Covering of food supply

—Clogging of respiratory surfaces of filter feeders

—Blanketing

Increased food supply for

benthos

Trace metals uptake by

zooplankton

Lower dissolved oxygen

for organisms to utilize;

mortality from anaerobic

conditions

Likely

Likely

Unknownc

(probably slow)

Unknownc

(probably slow)

Adverse

Adverse

Certain

Unlikely

Unlikely

Unlikely

Unknown c

(probably slow)

Rapidd

Adverse

Possibly beneficial

No detectable

No detectable

effect

●

● Nutrient/trace metal

increase

9 Oxygen demand

Rapid

Rapid

Surface discharge

Particulate ● Increased suspended ●

particulate matter

Effect on zooplankton

—Mortality Unlikely Rapidd No detectable

effect b None

No detectable None

effectb

Locally adverse Low*

Possibly beneficial None

—Change in abundance and/or

species composition

—Trace metal uptake

—Increased food supply due to

introduction of benthic biotic

debris and elevated microbial

activity due to increased substrate

Effect on adult fish

Effect on fish larvae

Unlikely Rapidd

Rapidd

Rapidd

Unlikely

Unlikely

Unlikely

Uncertain (low)

Unlikely

Unlikely

Certain

Very low

Very low

Very low

Very low

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Rapidd No detectable

effectb

Uncertain

None

Low*

None

Low

Low

None

None

None

None

Uncertain

(probably rapid)

Oxygen demand Low dissolved oxygen for Rapid

organisms to use

Effect on primary productivity

No detectable

effect

Unknown (probably

undetectable)

Locally adverse

s

●

●

Surface discharge ●

Dissolved substances

●

●

Pynocline accumulation Uncertain

(probably rapid)

Rapidd Decreased light due to

increased turbidity

Increased nutrients

Decrease in primary productivity

Rapidd

Increase in primary productivity

Change in phytoplankton

species composition

Inhibition of primary

productivity

Embolism

No detectable

effect b

No detectable

effect b

No detectable

effect b

No detectable

Rapidd

Increase in dissolved

trace metals

Supersaturation in

dissolved gas content

Rapid

effectb

qnciudes characteristics of the discharge and the mining system.

bBas~ on experiment~meuurements conducted under DOMES.

Cyears t. tens Of years or 10n9er.

‘Days to weeks.

Uncertain =Some knowledge exists; however the validity of extrapolations is tenuous.

Unknown =Very little or no knowledge exists on the subjects; predictions mostly based on conjecture.

● Areas of future research.

SPM =Suspended Particulate Matter.

SOURCE: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy, Deep Seabed Mining, Final Programmatic Envlronmenta/ /mpact Statement, vol. 1

(Washington, DC: September 1963), p. 126.
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations ● 239

thic biota in about 1 percent of the DOMES area,

or 38,000 square nautical miles, may be killed due

to impacts from first generation mining activities.

Although recolonization is likely to occur after mining, the time period required is not known. No effect on the water-column food chain is expected.

The second important type of impact identified

is due to a benthic plume or ‘‘rain of fines’ away

from the collector which may affect seabed animals

outside the actual mining tract through smothering and interference with feeding. Suspended sediment concentrations decrease rapidly, but the

plume can extend tens of kilometers from the collector and last several weeks after mining stops. No

effect on the food chain in the water column is expected due to the rapid dilution of the plume. However, mining may interfere with the food supply

for the bottom-feeding animals and clog the respiratory surfaces of filter feeders (such as clams and

mussels). Such effects will involve biota in an estimated 0.5 percent or 19,000 square nautical miles

of the DOMES area.

The third impact identified as significant is due

to the surface plume. Under the scenario, a 5,500 -

ton-per-day mining ship will discharge about 2,200

tons of solids (mainly seafloor sediment) and 3 million cubic feet of water per day. The resulting surface discharge plume may extend about 40 to 60

miles with a width of 12-20 miles and will continue

to be detectable for three to four days following discharge. As the mining operation is supposedly continuous (300 days per year), the plume will be visible virtually all the time. Surface plumes may

adversely affect the larvae of fish, such as tuna,

which spawn in the open ocean. The turbidity in

the water column will decrease light available for

photosynthesis but will not severely affect the

phytoplankton populations. The effect will be well

within the realm of normal light level fluctuations

and will resemble the light reduction on a cloudy

day.

Follow-Up to DOMES:

Research by the National Marine Fisheries Service, under NOAA’s five-year plan, concluded that

the surface plume was not really a problem due to

rapid dilution and dissipation. This study identified another potential adverse effect that previously

had not been considered—that of thermal shock to

plankton and fish larvae from discharge at the surface of cold deep water. 63 However, except for mortality of some tuna and billfish larvae (the two commercially important fish) in the immediate vicinity

of the cold water (4-100 C) discharge, adverse effects appear to be minimal.

Continued study of surface plumes suggests that

discharged particulate will not accumulate on the

pycnocline. 64 Because new measurements show

much of the material discharged settled more slowly

than previously thought, the plumes will cover more

area.

In June 1983, Expedition ECHO I collected 15

quantitative samples of the benthic fauna in the vicinity of DOMES site C (150 N, 1250 W). These

samples were collected for a study of potential impacts on the benthic community of a pilot-scale test

mining by Ocean Mining Associates, carried out

5 years earlier. Fauna from the immediate test mining area were compared with fauna from an area

63W. M. Matsumoto, Potential Impact of Deep Seabed Mining on

the Larvae of Tuna and BiWishes, SWFC Honolulu Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service/NOAA, prepared for NOAA Division of Ocean Minerals and Energy, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-44,

Washington, D. C., 1984.

“J.W. Lavelle and E. Ozturgut, “Dispersion of Deep-Sea Mining Particulate and Their Effect on Light in Ocean Surface Layers,

Marine Mining, VOI 3. (1982), No. 1/2, pp. 185-212.

Photo credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admlnlstration

The box core sampler is a standard tool for studying

ocean bottoms. This particular sample, containing

manganese nodules, is from the DOMES area. Box

cores provide a relatively intact picture of the sediment

and animals in the top layers of the seafloor.
240 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

far enough away to have been undisturbed. Disturbance to the seafloor was either not extensive

enough to produce a statistically detectable difference in community structure from unaltered areas,

or recovery had taken place within 5 years. 65 Conclusions were that the test mining was not indicative of an actual mining operation. Future research

will include some short-term (30-day) sedimentation studies to try to characterize the response time

of benthic animals to plume effects. 66

Recommendations for future research include:

●

●

●

studying a much larger mining effort or other

similar impact on the benthos,

sampling at the same sites previously sampled

to develop trends over time, and

evaluating data to detect differences at a community level, not at individual or species

levels.

Environmental Effects From

Mining Cobalt Crusts

The environmental baseline data that DOMES

collected and the conclusions it drew about potential impacts of nodule mining are somewhat applicable to mining cobalt crusts. The environmental

setting described from the DOMES area has much

in common with proposed crust sites. DOMES stations span the central and north Pacific basins and

are in areas meteorologically similar to the Hawaiian and Johnston Island EEZs. The environment

studied was typical of the tropical and subtropical

Pacific in terms of water masses, major currents,

and vertical thermal structure. Species recorded in

the water column of the DOMES area are all characterized as having broad oceanic distributions. The

settings differ primarily with respect to topography

and bottom type. The crusts occur on the slopes

of seamounts with little loose sediment, while the

nodule mine sites occur on plains carpeted with

thick sediments. The two areas consequently differ in their potential for resuspension of sediments.

Baseline benthic biological data collected in the

DOMES study area are less analogous to the crust

sites than are the water column pelagic data. The

—

‘

3 Spiess et al., Environmental Effects of Deep Sea Dredging.

66)7d Myers, NOAA,Pers, Comm. , OTA Workshop on Environmental Concerns, October 1986.

chief depth range of interest for crust mining is

2,500 to 8,000 feet. Bottom stations sampled in the

DOMES area varied in depth from 14,000 to

17,000 feet. Communities would be different because of the substrate as well as the depth. The

DOMES sites consist of soft sediments interspersed

with hard manganese nodules; the crusts are hard

rock surfaces with little sediment cover. The communities actually living on the manganese nodule

hard surfaces may resemble the fauna on the crust

pavement because the substrate composition is very

similar.

Plume Effects

As part of the Manganese Crust EIS Project,

mathematical models were constructed to simulate

the behavior of surface and benthic discharges. 67

This effort was based upon extensive modeling of

dredged material discharge dispersion conducted

for the Army Corps of Engineers’ Dredged Material Research Program.68 69 

Surface Plume.—The DOMES data indicate

that a mining plume will increase suspended particulate matter in the water by a factor often. This

would effectively halt photosynthesis about 65 feet

closer to the surface of the water than normal.

The results of field measurements made during

the DOMES program were extrapolated to commercial-scale discharges and it was estimated that

the surface plume could reduce daily primary production by 50 percent in an area 11 miles by 1 mile

and by 10 percent over an area as large as 34 miles

by 3 miles. The shading effect will only persist until the bulk of the mining particulate settle, usually within a period of less than a day. Since it takes

phytoplankton 2 to 3 days to adapt to a new light

regime, the short-term shading effect of particulates is not likely to affect the light-adaptation char67E. K. Noda & Associates and R.C .Y. Koh, ‘‘Fates and Transport Modeling of Discharges from Ocean Manganese Crust Mining, ’

prepared for the Manganese Crust EIS Project, Research Corporation the University of Hawaii, Hono]u]u, HI, 1985.

G8B. H, Johnson, 1 ’74* ‘ ‘Investigation of Mathematical Models for

the Physical Fate Prediction of Dredged Material, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Hydraulics Laboratory, Technical Report D-74- 1, March 1974.

WM, G. Brandsma and D.J. Divoky, 1976, “Development of Models

for Prediction of Short-term Fate of Dredged Material Discharged in

the Estuarine Environment, ” Tetra Tech, Inc., Pasadena, CA, Contract Report D-76-5, May 1976.
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations ● 241

Photo credit: Barbara Lament-Doherty Observatory

Brittle stars and corals, shown here at 2,000-foot water depth, are two common kinds of animals living on hard substrates

in the deep sea.

acteristics of the phytoplankton. No other poten- The crust mining surface plume will contain more

tial effects (including increased production due to solids in less water than the nodule mining surface

nutrient enrichment or heavy metal toxicity) could plume, but the crust particles are larger and settle

be demonstrated.70 out faster. Thus, the area of reduced primary prodApplication of the DOMES conclusions to the uctivity probably would be approximately 50 percent smaller than that predicted for the nodule sce- crust mining scenario requires some modifications. nario, a very short-term localized impact. 71

Bottom Plume. —A bottom plume would be

 Department of Commerce, Seabed generated from the movement of the mining equipProgrammatic Environmental Impact Statement. Minerals Management Service, Statement: Proposed Marine

Mineral Lease Sale in the Hawaiian Archipelago and Johnston 

land Exclusive Economic Zone, Honolulu, HI, (1987), 208. Department of the Interior, . .
242 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

ment on the bottom and, in an emergency, from

release of materials in the lift pipe. Ten hours after suspension, most material will be redeposited

within 65 feet of the miner track, but only 1 percent of the smallest particles will be redeposited after

100 hours. From the test mining data, the researchers calculated that about 90 percent of the resuspended material would be redeposited within 230

feet of the miner track, and the maximum redeposition thickness would be a little more than half an

inch thick near the centerline of the track. 7*

The crust scenario envisions recovery of about

two-thirds of the ore volume of the nodule scenario

but assumes a much thinner range of overburden.

Peak base-case crust miner redeposition thicknesses

were about one-thousandth of an inch. 73 There is

a highly significant difference between the two mining scenarios. The ‘‘worst case’ scenario for crust

mining, 74 would result in less than 1 percent of the

maximum deposition in the nodule mining scenario.

From the DOMES baseline data (average of 16

macrofaunal individuals/ft2) and an assumed nodule mining scenario, Jumars75 calculated that a nodule miner would directly destroy 100 billion individuals. In comparison, data from a case study done

at Cross Seamount (see box 6-G) indicate that passage of the crust miner over 11 mi2 per year would

directly destroy from 100,000 to 10,000 macrofaunal organisms at 2,600 and 7,800 feet respectively. The DOMES and Cross Seamount databases differ in that infaunal organisms (those

actually living within the sediments) were not sampled in the Cross Seamount reconnaissance. However, the crusts provide little sediment for organisms to inhabit. Nevertheless, it appears that the

number of macrofaunal organisms destroyed in the

crust mining scenario is orders of magnitude less

(one-millionth to one ten-millionth) than in the nodule scenario. 76

72J.W. Lavelle et al. “Dispersal and Resedimentation of the Benthic Plume from Deep-Sea Mining Operations: A Model with Calibrations , Marine Mining, vol. 3 (1982), No. 1/2, pp. 185-212.

T3U S Depanment of the Interior, Minerals Management Serv- . .

ice, p. 197.

T4M ining at the sh~]owest depth and superimposition of sUrfaCe

and bottom plume footprints.

75Jumars, “Limits in Predicting and Detecting Benthic Community Responses.

T6U S Depa~ment of the Interior, Minerals Management Serv- . .

ice, p. 240.

The severity of the impacts on populations in

areas adjacent to the miner track would be determined by the intensity of the disturbance, i.e.,

proximity to the track, and the type of feeding behavior characteristic of the population. As in the

case with shallow water mining, highly motile organisms such as fish, amphipods, and shrimp would

be most able to avoid localized areas of high redeposition and turbidity. Once conditions become tolerable, these organisms could venture into the mined

area to feed on the dead and damaged organisms.

The area mined may be invaded by opportunistic species with dispersal capabilities greater than

those of the original resident species. Reestablishment of the original community has been postulated to take a very long time, perhaps decades or

longer.

Temperature

Comparing the ambient surface water temperature in the lease areas with a temperature of 4 to

10 degrees C for the bottom water released at the

surface, there is reason to believe that eggs and larvae coming into direct contact with the cold discharge water could be affected adversely; such effects should be limited to the area immediately

beneath the ship’s outfall.77

To estimate the annual loss of tuna larvae and

the impact of this loss on adult fish biomass, it was

assumed that all tuna eggs and larvae coming into

direct contact with the cold water discharge could

die. At least 46,000 skipjack tuna and 15,000 yellowfin tuna could be lost annually due to thermal

mortality. These values would be about four times

larger if the mining ship acts as a fish aggregating

device by concentrating tuna schools in the immediate vicinity.

The loss of adult fish biomass due to death of

larvae would be a very small fraction (less than 1

percent) of the total annual harvest of these species in the central and eastern North Pacific. The

crust mining scenario assumes a surface plume volume about 60 percent that of the nodule mining

scenario, and the effects of thermal mortality of larval fish would be reduced proportionately.

77 Matsumoto, “Potential Impact of Deep Seabed Mining. ” Contact of larvae with cold water could cause the development of deformed

larvae.
Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations ● 243

Threatened and Endangered Species

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)78

prohibits ‘‘attempts’ to harass, pursue, hunt, etc.,

listed species. The ESA also prohibits significant

environmental modification or degradation to the

habitat used by threatened and endangered species,

as well as any act that significantly disrupts natural behavior patterns.

7816 U.S.C. 1531

Living within the general proposed lease area of

the cobalt crusts are the endangered Hawaiian

monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi), the endangered humpback whale Megaptera novaea gliae),

the threatened green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas),

an occasional endangered hawksbill (Eretmochelys

imbricata), the threatened loggerhead (Caretta

caretta), the endangered leatherback (Dermochelys

coriacea) and the threatened Pacific ridley

(Lepidochelys olivacea) sea turtles. However, in
244 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Photo credit: U. S. Geological Survey

Deep-sea Hydrothermal vent communities consist of exotic life forms such as these giant tube worms and crabs

from the East Pacific Rise.

recognition of these species’ presence, the more

densely populated areas have been excluded from

leasing.

Gorda Ridge Task Force Efforts

In 1983, a draft Environmental Impact Statement was circulated by the Minerals Management

Service in preparation for a polymetallic sulfide

minerals lease offering in the Gorda Ridge area.

Much of the discussions of potential environmental

impacts drew from the DOMES work because there

was little site-specific information to summarize.

In response to concerns that there was too little information to adequately characterize the effects of

any prospecting or mining operation, the Gorda

Ridge Task Force was set up to augment the draft

EIS.

The major research efforts focused on characterization of the mineral resources and led to the

discovery of large deposits in the southern Gorda

Ridge. However, a series of reports was also prepared by the State of Oregon under the Task

Force’s oversight summarizing the state of scientific information relating to the biology and ecology of the Gorda Ridge Study Area. The reports

included information on the benthos, 79 nekton,80

 Boudrias and G. L. Taghon, The of Scientific 

 Relating to Biological and Ecological Processes in the Region

of the Ridge, Northeast Pacific Ocean: State of Oregon, Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, Portland, OR,

Open File Report O-86-6, February 1986.

 and D. L. Stein, The of Scientific Information

Relating to the Biology and Ecology of the Ridge Study Area,

Northeast Pacific Ocean: State of Oregon, Department of

Geology and Mineral Industries, Portland, OR, Open File Report

O-86-7, February 1986.
Ch. 6–Environmental Considerations ● 245

Box 6-H.-Gorda Ridge Study Results

Plankton

Most work on the study area is now 10-20 years old. No information exists on feeding ecology, secondary

production, and reproduction. The phytoplankton community is dominated by diatoms. Many estimates of

phytoplankton abundance were made in the 1960's;1 they indicate productivity in this region is low (e.g., chlorophylla concentration ranges from 0.1-0.8 mg/m3 throughout the year).

Nekton

Only one species-albacore (Thunnus alalunga) is commercially fished in the Gorda Ridge Lease area.

Larvae and juvenile form of other commercially important species (the Dover and Rex sole) occur within

the area. These larvae are far west of the shelf and slope areas where the adult populations live, and their

survival and input to the commercial fishery population is unknown. While occurrences of species of fish,

shrimps, swimming mollusks (cephalopods), and mammals with the Gorda Ridge area are fairly well-known,

their abundances, reproduction, growth rates, food habits, and vertical and horizontal migratory patterns are not.

Benthos

Little is known about the benthos of the Gorda Ridge area. Until recently, these rocky environments were

avoided by benthic ecologists because of the difficulty in sampling them. Photographic surveys from the submersibles Alvin (1984) and Sea Cliff (1986) as well as from a towed-camera vehicle behind the S..P. Lee (1985)

provide most of the benthic information for this area. The Gorda Ridge rift valley animals appear to be primarily

filter feeders and detritus feeders. Soft sediment and rocky epifaunal communities appear to differ in species

composition; however, quantitative data from controlled photographic transects across the Ridge and taken

close to the substrate (3-6 ft. off the bottom) are needed to permit identification of smaller organisms. Nonvent areas may represent several types of environment with some areas of high particulate organic material

concentrated by topographic features juxtaposed with off-axis rocky surfaces.

IS.G. Ellis, and J.H. Garbcr, T&c State of Scientific hdbmiation Relating to the IWogy and Ecology of the Goxia Ridge Study Area, iVomhcast

Pa&c Oceao: PIan4ton, Open-File Report 0-S6-S, State of Orcgon, Dqwtmcnt of Geology mid Mineral 1ndustri- (Portland, OR: February 19S6).

plankton, 81 seabirds,

82 and epifaunal and infaunal

community structure.

83 The information contained

in these reports was collected h-em a variety of

sources such as peer-reviewed journals, government

81S G . ,Ellis and J. H. carb~r, The State of Scientific Information

Relating to the Biology and Ecology of the Gorda Ridge Study Area,

Northeast Pacific Ocean: Plankton, State of Oregon, Department of

Geology and Mineral Industries, Portland, OR, Open-File Report

O-86-8, February 1986.

WILD, Krasnow, The State of Scientific Information Relating to

the Biology and Ecology of the Gorda Ridge Study Area, Northeast

Pacific Ocean: Seabirds, State of Oregon, Department of Geology

and Mineral Industries, Portland, OR, Open File Report O-86-9, February 1986.

UA, C, Carey, Jr,, D. L. Stein, and G. L. T’aghon, An~ySis of Benthic Epifaumd and Znfaunal Community Structure at the Gonia Ridge,

State of Oregon, Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, Portland, OR, Open File Report 0-86-11, July 1986.

investigators, and active researchers, as well as less

traditional sources such as fishing records, etc. The

reports are useful compendia identifying what baseline information exists for biota at and near the proposed lease area and what missing information

needs to be developed before the effects of a mining operation can be fully characterized (see box

6-H).

While active vent sites such as the Gorda Ridge

area often contain lush communities of unique species, the MMS has decided it will not lease such

areas for mining should they be encountered .8A

Thus, their discussion is not included here.

B4ThuS far, none have been found on the Gorda Ridge sites.
Chapter 7

Federal Programs for

Collecting and Managing

Oceanographic Data
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................249

Management of Data Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............250

Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....251

Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........................251

Organization.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................252

Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................253

Survey and Charting Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............254

USGS: The GLORIA Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............254

NOAA: The Bathymetric Mapping Program . .............................255

Other Data Collection Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....256

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . ........................256

U.S. Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...263

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..265

U.S. Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..266

State and Local Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............267

Academic and Private Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................267

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267

Classification of Bathymetric and Geophysical Data . .........................268

Earlier Reviews of Data Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....271

OTA Classification Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273

Observations and Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ........276

Box

Box Page

7-A. Major Producers and Users of EEZ Data. . . . . . . . . . . . ...................250

Figures

Figure No. Page

7-1, Regional Atlases of the EEZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........258

7-2. MMS Seismic Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....264

7-3. Sea Beam Bathymetry of Surveyor Seamount. . . . . . . .....................269

Table

Table No. Page

7-1. Funding for EEZ Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............254

.
Chapter 7

Federal Programs for Collecting and

Managing Oceanographic Data

INTRODUCTION

Several Federal agencies have responsibility to

survey and collect data on the ocean. They are:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS),l

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),2

U.S. Coast Guard (USCG),3

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA),4

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE),5

Minerals Management Service (MMS),6

the Bureau of Mines (BOM),7 and

] 43 U.S. C, 31 (a) and (b), The Organic Act of 1879, as amended;

16 U.S. C. 1451-1456, Public Law 94-370, The Coastal Zone Management Act Amendments of 1976; 43 U. S.C. 1865, Public Law 95-372,

The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments of 1978; 30

LT. S.C. ]419 et seq., Public Law 96-283, The Deep Seabed Hard

Mineral Resources Act of 1980; 43 U.S.C. 1301, Public Law 92-532,

The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972; and

Proclamation #5030, 48 Fed. Reg. 10605, Mar. 10, 1983.

2

33 U. S.C. 883 et seq. , The Act of Aug. 6, 1947, as amended; 84

Stat 2090, Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 4 of 1970—

Establishment of NOAA; 33 U. S,C. The National Ocean Pollution

Planning Act of 1978; 16 U.S. C. 1451-1456, Public Law 94-370, The

Coastal Zone Management Act Amendments of 1976; 43 U.S.C. 1847,

Public Law 95-372, The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments of 1978; 30 U. S.C. 1419, Public Law 96-283, The Deep Seabed

Hard Mineral Resources Act of 1980; 16 U. SC. 1432, 33 U.S. C.

1441, Public Law 92-532, The Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972; 16 U .S .C. 1801 et seq., Fishery Conservation

and Management Act of 1976, and Proclamation No. 5030, 48 Fed.

Reg. 10605, Mar. 10, 1983.

3

43 U. S, C, 1865, Public Law 95-372, The Outer Continental Shelf

I.ands Act Amendments of 1978.

4

33 U .S. C. 1251 et seq. , Public Law 95-217, The Clean Water Act,

as amended; 33 U. S.C. 1401, et seq., Public Law 92-532, The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972.

5

4, Public Law 93-577, Federaf Non-Nuclear Energy Research and

Development Act of 1974; 301, Public Law 95-91, EnerLgy Organization Act

C43 U.S. C. 1131-1356, Public Law 83-212, Public Law 93-627 and

Public Law 95-372, The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953

as amended; 43 U. S.C. 1301-1315, Public Law 83-31, The Submerged

Lands Act; 33 U.S. C. 1101-1108, Public Law 89-454, The Coastal

Zone Management Act of 1972; 43 U.S.C. 4321 ,4331-4335,4341-4347,

Public Law 91-190, The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969;

Proclamation No. 5030, 48 Fed. Reg. 10605, Mar. 10, 1983, Exclusive F,conom ic Zone of the United States of America.

7

30 U.S. C. 21 (a), Public Law 91-631, The Mining and Minerals

Policy Act of 1970; 30 U.S. C. 1602, 1603, Public Law 96-479, The

National Materials, and Minerals Policy, Research, and Development

Act of 1980.

● the U.S. Navy. a

Some of the designated agencies do not maintain

active research programs in the Exclusive Economic

Zone (EEZ). Of those collecting data, some are involved in survey activities while others conduct

more localized research. The agencies conducting

broad-scale exploration of the EEZ are NOAA (the

Department of Commerce) and USGS (the Department of the Interior). Several agencies and public

and private laboratories collect EEZ information

ranging from site-specific mineral analyses to assessments of biological resources and various physical

and chemical parameters of the oceans; these data

collectors include NOAA (four groups),9 MMS,

BOM, USGS, the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA), the U.S. Navy, private

industry, and academic and private laboratories

(see box 7-A). All of their data must be archived

and accessed.

Exploration and development of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone is not proceeding economically

or efficiently under current programs. There is no

systematic mechanism for data collection, with the

exception of plans to ‘ ‘map’ the EEZ (by USGS

using the GLORIA side-looking sonar system and

NOAA using multi-beam systems). The NOAA

and USGS efforts will provide the first survey of

the vast territory contained in the EEZ; these

projects, however, are plagued by budget problems,

and completion is uncertain. The many other stages

of research necessary before development of U.S.

seabed resources can take place (e. g., comprehensive three-dimensional mineral assessment, development of rapid sampling technologies, etc. ) are

largely either unplanned or proceeding in a piecemeal fashion.

810 ~’.s,c, 7203 and 10 USC. 5 ~ 51.

‘Nationaf Ocean Service, including the Strategic Assessment Branch

and Charting and Geodetic Services; National Marine Fisheries Senice; the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Sem.-

ice, including the National Geophysical Data Center and the National

Oceanographic Data Center; and the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research.

249

72-672 0 - 87 -- 9
250 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

MANAGEMENT OF DATA RESOURCES

Effective data management is a critical part of

any systematic survey or research effort,10 but management of EEZ data has been elusive. There are

several aspects to the problem. Many different

groups (Federal laboratories and agencies, State geologists, academic research laboratories, and industry) collect, use, and/or archive many kinds of data

from the EEZ. Data of many kinds and different

quantities are collected. Consistent reporting formats are not necessarily used. These problems will

worsen as sensors (e. g., satellites, multi-beam echo-

 management is defined as the process of planning, collecting, processing, and analyzing for primary use (e. g., for research);

and storing, archiving, and distributing the acquired data for secondary users.

sounders, and multi-channel seismic reflection

recorders) produce data at faster rates. Realization

of the scope of this data management problem is

growing.ll 12 13

 ‘There are problems with the way data are currently managed.

The distribution, storage, and communication of data currently limit

the efficient extraction of scientific results . . .‘ National Research

Council, Data Management and Computation, Volume Issues and

Recommendations (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1982).

‘

z

’’ Given the lack of long-term interest in managing the national environmental data archive in academia and the private sector, the

Federal government must be responsible for maintaining this national

asset . . . “ National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere,

An Assessment of the Roles and Missions of the Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, unpublished report, 1987, p. 71; “ . . . Current NOAA data management systems and policies need

to be carefully reexamined. . . . If urgent steps are not taken, . . . the

utility of the data centers, a national asset, will continue to
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data ● 251

There are several possible constraints to an effective EEZ data management program. They are:

● technology— hardware/software,

● conceptual —how should the data be managed,

● organization —capacity for collecting and archiving data, and

● economic—adequate funding.

Technology

Computer, software, and recording technologies

have advanced dramatically during the past few

years and are expected to continue to advance rapidly. Technologies for collecting, aggregating,

transmitting, and accessing data are not limiting.

None of the key data managers queried by OTA14

thought the rate of EEZ data acquisition would exceed the capacity of, or tax, existing high-density

magnetic tape storage. The promise of optical laser disks a few years hence could make digital data

storage easily manageable. Storage of analog data,

or actual physical and chemical samples (e. g., sediment cores), remains a substantial problem. However, these are physical space problems as opposed

to data management problems per se. If all data

could be converted to digital form, technology opdecline. ” Ibid., p. 63; “ . There are three principal requirements

that are integral to this issue: ( 1 ) steadily upgraded computer systems

are needed to manage the expanding rate of data acquisition; (2) complicated data management decisions must be made regarding (a)

amount and type of data to archive and (b) optimal format for future

use; and (3) a more responsive and efficient mechanism for the continued delivery of valuable and timely data products . . . must be

found. Ibid.

‘

3

’ ‘The quantity of geophysical data obtained with public funding

has increased dramatically in the past few decades. These data are

used not only by the scientific community, but are also important to

the general public for use by engineers, lawyers, and insurance actuaries as examples. Collected often at enormous expense, they represent a national resource that must be managed carefutly to ensure they

are presemed and available when needed. Because of a substantial

increase in the amount and complexity of geophysical data being collected and in the demands for them, the management policies and

procedures that have been developed are no longer adequate. ” National Research Council, Policy Issues Concerning Geophysical Data,

A Draft Report prepared by the Geophysics Study Committee for the

Geophysics Research Forum, February 1986.

I’Roy L. Jenne, Head Data Support Section, National Center for

Atmospheric Research; Michael Chinnery, Director, National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC); Michael Loughridge, Chief, NGDC

Marine Geology and Geophysics Division; Gregory Withee, Director, National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC); Robert Locherman, Information Services Division, NODC; Edward Escowitz, Office of Marine Geology, USGS; D. James Baker, Director of JOI,

Inc.; Ross Heath, Oregon State University.

tions for storage, maintenance, and dispersal are

not limiting.

Conceptual

Data management has been the subject of many

exhaustive studies. 15 While the volume of information collected from the EEZ does not nearly approach the volume of space data collected by satellites, many of the principles and recommendations

for handling space data are applicable to the EEZ

as well. These principles include:

. involvement of scientists in data collection programs from inception to completion,

● peer-review of data management activities by

the user community,

● proper documentation of all data sets that have

been validated, and

. adequate financial resources allocated early in

each project for database management and

computation activities. 16

There are also important differences in data obtained in the EEZ and data taken from space. Unlike satellite information, much of the EEZ data has

not been collected in digital form and cannot be

easily archived or manipulated. EEZ data also vary

in geographic scales and degree of detail (a 60-kmwide GLORIA swath v. a 200-m-wide SeaMARC

CL swath) and may consist of different measures,

e.g., water current measurements, sediment depth,

and bedrock type. Researchers would like to be able

:sFour studies ~~aining to data management have been produced

by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences alone (Washington, DC: National Academy Press): ‘ ‘Geophysical Data Interchange Assessment, 1978; “Solar-Terrestrial Data Access, Distribution, and Archiving, 1984; ‘ ‘Geophysical Data Centers:

Impact of Data-Intensive Programs, ” 1976; and “Policy Issues Concerning Geophysical Data, (in review). From other groups: “Research Data Management in the Ecological Sciences, Proceedings of

the 1983 Integrated Data Users Workshop, Nov. 1-2, 1983, USGS,

Reston, VA (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN); “Frontiers in

Data Storage, Retrieval and Display, ” Proceedings of a Marine Geology and Geophysics Data Workshop, Nov. 5-7, 1980 (Boulder, CO:

National Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial Data Center, 1980); and

Proceedings of Marine Geologp”caf Data Management Workshop, May

22-24, 1978 (Boulder, CO: NOAA, 1978). Several papers by Roy

L. Jenne, Head, Data Support Section, National Center for Atmospheric Research, include: “Strategies to Develop and Access Large

Sets of Scientific Data, ” 1980 and “Data Archiving and Management, 1986.

1 cNation~ Research Council, Space Sciences Board, Data ~an -

agement and Computation, Volume 1: Issues and Recommendations

(Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1982).
252 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Banks of disk-drive units retrieve and store information at USGS headquarters in Reston, Virginia.

to superimpose many kinds of features, e.g., sitespecific mineral samples on bathymetric maps that

include information about the physical and chemical properties of an area. Aggregation of such disparate data sets makes EEZ data management particularly difficult.

Missing components in the current EEZ data

programs are interagency/intergovernmental approaches, regional databases/datacenters, and private-public cooperatives. Activities that require attention include acquisition of wider ranges of data

sets, preparation of comprehensive inventories of

public domain data sets, quality control of existing data sets, and reformatting data sets so that they

can be integrated for interdisciplinary research. An

inventor-y of available data is needed along with an

assessment of its adequacy.

Organization

The nucleus for a comprehensive data management system exists. A joint USGS/NOAA Office

for Research and Mapping in the Exclusive Economic Zone17 is being created to coordinate the

plans and activities of these two major government

agencies concerned with the EEZ and to provide

a focus for activities of other government agencies

and private academic and industrial institutions. 18

Many interagency agreements exist that provide

for and/or encourage the transfer of geophysical and

 to be released in 1987.

 the functions of this office will be to ‘‘develop a 

National EEZ plan to include goals, priorities, resources, and

short/long term strategies. An annual report will be made to Congress outlining yearly activities, significant results, and recommendations.
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data ● 253

oceanographic data from the collecting agencies

such as USGS, MMS, and the Department of Defense (DoD) to the two major NOAA national data

centers— the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) in Washington, D. C., 19 and the National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) in Boulder, Colorado .20

Data collected by the academic community under

the auspices of the National Science Foundation

(NSF), Division of Ocean Sciences, should be ultimately submitted to the national centers. The Division’s Ocean Data policy specifies that lists of all

data collected under its sponsorship (primarily marine geology and geophysics data) ‘ ‘be submitted

to the appropriate NOAA/NESDIS [National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service]

national data center within 30 days of the completion of each cruise, that surface and mixed-layer

temperature and salinity data ‘‘be submitted in real

time” (i.e., within 48 hours of the observation),

and that longer term data be submitted within 2

years. This policy seeks to ensure an appropriate

balance between the needs of NSF researchers and

secondary users. Producers, managers, and secondary users of oceanographic data have responded

well to this policy; unfortunately, there is no mechanism for mandating transfer of the actual data at

the completion of a grant period. Incentives to suppliers, such as reimbursement for the cost of copying data, formatting it in a standard way, and other

hardware/software expenses would greatly facilitate

archiving of data. The details of the NSF requirements are now under review, and a revised data

policy is expected in early 1988. At the request of

U.S. academic research scientists,21 NSF agreed to

explore with other Federal agencies whether the

NSF ocean data policy could serve as the basis for

19FOr ~xamp]e, an inform~ working agreement specifies that the

Bureau of Land Management require its contract researchers to pro-

\’ide all data for archival in NESDIS centers ( 1978) and that the National Science Foundation require that appropriate data collected by

researchers working under NSF Ocean Sciences sponsorship be provided to ,NESDIS centers as part of contract fulfillment (1 982).

‘20 For Cxamp]e, Marine Geological and Geophysical Data Management Agreement, NOAA and USGS, April 1985; and Geological and

Geophysical Data Dissemination Agreement, MMS and NOAA, May

1985. Other interagency understandings (with NSF, NOS, and DOD)

are rooted in policy, precedent, and unilateral instruction but are not

spelled out in formal interagency agreements.

ZIAs part of p]anning for data management actiirities in support of

the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Study (TOGA) and the World

Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE).

development of a government wide ocean data policy. NSF has convened two meetings of agency experts to consider this question, This effort could

result in a draft ocean data policy presented to each

of the interested agencies for their review and adoption by the beginning of the 1988 fiscal year.22

Funding

Since fiscal year 1980, the base funding for

NODC23 and NGDC24 has diminished in real dollars. At the same time, the workloads of both

centers have increased, Estimates indicate that the

digital data storage requirements for NODC will

triple in the next 5 years and will double for NGDC.

Based on general operating budgets for some national data centers and funds spent for data collection operations by the Federal agencies, it is estimated that funds for storage are less than 1 percent

of the funds spent on data collection. Some estimate that this proportion should be in the range

of 5 to 10 percent. In contrast, the geophysical

prospecting data industry commonly invests 10 to

200 percent of the costs of collecting marine data

in processing and archival ;25 the actual percentage

varies depending on the cost of data acquisition—

about 200 percent in the Gulf of Mexico where costs

are low and 10 percent in less accessible regions

such as the Beaufort Sea. As a result of chronically

low funding, national data centers have been able

to preserve only a small fraction of the collected

data, and many important data sets have been lost.

Some fraction of this loss is likely due to the data

collector and primary user not planning for or considering secondary use. But funding agencies must

also bear some responsibility for ensuring that data

are properly preserved and maintained. An appropriate amount of data management money should

be included in grants— and not at the expense of

funding for the research that collects the data.

ZZL Brown, Nat iona] Science Foundation, pers. com. to Richard

Vetter, OTA contractor, Apr. 13, 1987.

Z3NODC funding: Fiscal year 1982 ($4.5 million), Fiscal year 1983

($4.6 million), Fiscal year 1984 ($4. 1 million), Fiscal year 1985 ($4.1

million), Fiscal year 1986 ($3.8 million), Fiscal year 1987 ($3.6 million.

24 N’C,DC funding: Fisc~ Vear 1980 ($3.1 million), Fiscal yem j 981

($3. 1 million), Fiscal year 1982 ($3.1 million), Fiscal year 1983 ($3.0

million), Fiscal year 1984 ($2.8 million), Fiscal year 1985 ($2. 7 million), Fiscal year 1986 ($2.6 million).

zjCar] SaY,it, western Geophysical Compan}r, pem. com. to Richard

\’ettcr, OTA contractor, Nov. 25, 1986,
254 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

According to NGDC, “If funding agencies abdicate their responsibility for the processing of data

to a stage usable by others and the long-term preservation of the data, they have in fact created a burden for the scientific community and create the possibility of non-productive and redundant collections

of data. "26 When secondary usage is not planned

Z6M. S. Loughridge, “Frontiers in Data Storage, Retrieval, and

Display, Proceedings of the Marine Geology and Geophysics Data

Workshop, Nov. 5-7, 1980 (Boulder, CO: National Geophysical and

Solar-Terrestrial Data Center, 1980), p. 145.

for, it either takes large expenditures to “reconstitute’ the data, or the data never become available

to the secondary user.27

Z7A simple Iibrav function can prevent data duplication. NGDC

has a data base called GEODAS (Geophysical DAta System) which

identifies where data have been collected and by whom. The new user

is then faced with copying and converting the data.

SURVEY AND CHARTING EFFORTS

NOAA’s National Ocean Service (NOS) and the

USGS Office of Energy and Marine Geology are

the civilian organizations with primary responsibilities related to acquisition and processing of

bathymetric and geologic data within the U.S.

EEZ. While source data should be archived in a

national database (NGDC), the evaluation of data

quality and processing of the data into maps and

charts, digital or analog, is a responsibility which

must continue as a part of the NOS and USGS missions. Effectively, NOS and USGS produce the

Federal assessment of the best geographic depiction of these data. It is important that both agencies acquire the capability to establish and maintain these data sets in digital form. Without such

efforts each individual user would have to judge

data quality and process a myriad of data sets which

would be a costly endeavor.

In 1984, USGS and NOAA signed a Memorandum of Understanding28 to conduct joint mapping

and survey efforts in the EEZ. Funds appropriated

to USGS and NOAA have been increasingly reprogrammed to support this research over the last

3 years. Total EEZ exploration funds in the Federal agencies were $9 million in 1984, $12 million

in 1985, and about $16 million in 1986 (table 7-l).

Eighty percent of the money for EEZ exploration

is within USGS and NOAA budgets; the GLORIA

and multi-beam survey programs consume virtually all of this funding.

ZeCooperative program for bathymetric survey by NOAA and

USGS, signed by both J. Byrne and D. Peck, April 1984.

Table 7=1.-Funding for EEZ Programs

Fiscal year

(million dollars)

Agency 1984 1985 1986

Department of Commerce:

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 4.4 a 5.0

Department of the Interior;

U.S. Geological Survey . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 5.1 8.4

Minerals Management Service . . . 2.7 1.8 1.6

Bureau of Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 0.2 1.2

Total funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 11.5 16.2

aA seaBearnsystem wss purch~ed for an addhlonal $2 mllliOn.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987

USGS: The GLORIA Program

The USGS GLORIA mapping program is intended to provide a complete and broad overview

of the U.S. EEZ (see ch. 4). Currently, about 30

percent of the EEZ29 has been surveyed with

GLORIA. At the present rate, the entire U.S. EEZ

will be covered by the end of 1996, The time lag

between surveying and publication of maps is about

1 1⁄2 years. 30 USGS intends to distribute GLORI A

data to the public through NGDC; however, none

has yet been archived. All of the swath data are digital and stored on magnetic tape. These data must

be combined with navigational information to be

of full value.

29 About one million square nauticai IIlih.

30T0 date, the EEZ off the west coast (California, Oregon, Washington), in the Gulf of Mexico, and off Puerto Rico/U. S. Virgin Islands has been mapped. The West Coast Atlas was published in March

1985 on the second anniversary of the EEZ declaration, The Gulf of

Mexico Atlas will be published in August 1987.
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data ● 255

Photo credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

The NOAA ship Surveyor is equipped with the Sea Beam system for detailed bathymetric mapping of the EEZ.

USGS considers the GLORIA program a ‘ ‘showcase’ success and is committed to its completion.

However, recent budget cuts will at least delay if

not permanently inhibit the project. The Office of

Energy and Marine Geology had a budget of $24

million for marine geology in 1986. This is the total EEZ expenditure within USGS, which includes

$18 million for salaries and overhead. The entire

operating expenses budget of this office is spent on

the GLORIA survey (see table 7-l). Only modest

funds are expended on other activities, e.g., analyzing mineral contents of vibracores.31 All Geological Framework studies were discontinued in 1982,

also because of budget constraints. USGS has a contract through 1991 with the British Institute of

 spend percent 

analyzing mineral core samples. At this rate, the backlog of 1,000 cores

will take 10 to 15 years to complete; plans to procure more cores from

areas identified as economically promising based on this screening have been discontinued due to lack of funds.

Oceanographic Sciences (IOS) which operates the

GLORIA equipment. If USGS cannot meet the

terms of the contract, a significant financial penalty will be imposed and USGS could lose the

GLORIA system. Although the United States is

developing similar technologies, no system with the

swath width of GLORIA will be available in the

foreseeable future if the current system is returned

to IOS.

NOAA: The Bathymetric Mapping Program

The National Ocean Service of NOAA is producing very detailed bathymetric maps of the EEZ

using multi-beam or swath echo-sounders in conjunction with precise navigational positioning (see

ch. 4). A bathymetric map can be constructed

within 6 months of collecting multi-beam data, in

striking contrast to the years needed to produce

maps and charts manually. Individual field surveys
256 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

are typically processed in 3 weeks or less, provided

no major system problems are encountered. Two

mapping systems developed by the General Instrument Corp. are the Sea Beam system and the

Bathymetric Swath Survey System (BS3

) used

aboard ships of the NOAA fleet. A more modern

version of BS3 called Hydrochart II is now available from General Instrument. Japan has deployed

the first system. NOAA intends to use Hydrochart

11 or its equivalent on the U.S. east coast and to

upgrade BS3 to the same system. Swath data are

now classified (see the last section in this chapter).

NOAA has operated multi-beam survey ships

since the mid to late 1970s. The EEZ swath mapping program began in 1984 and covered about 150

square nautical miles. During 1985, about 1 1⁄2 shipyears were logged covering about 6,400 square nautical miles. In 1986, approximately 2 ship-years

completed another 14,000 square miles. By the end

of 1986, NOS had 3 ships in operation acquiring

swath data, and about 1 percent of the total U.S.

EEZ had been mapped. NOS staff estimate that

it will take about 143 ship-years to survey the entire EEZ and that about 150,000 reels of magnetic

tape will be required to store the entire set of original data. To date, about 6,000 magnetic tape reels

of swath data have been recorded and stored. The

storage problem is significant though not insurmountable. NOS is currently evaluating the possibility of using optical disk technology for longterm storage of EEZ bathymetric data. NOAA intends to archive all original data as a source database for use by other researchers. NOS will process the data into two gridded data sets:

1.

2.

Both

Metric data in the UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) projection to construct bathymetric maps, and

English (feet or fathom) data in the Mercator projection to construct nautical charts.

gridded data sets will be processed into digital

graphics for use in electronic chart systems and the

construction of map and chart hard copy graphics.

In conjunction with the swath data, other ancillary data are collected by ships. These data include

3.5 and 12 kilohertz underway bottom-profiling systems and surface weather observations .32

Since 1980, the budgets for mapping, charting,

and geodesy programs in NOAA have shrunk 10

to 20 percent (unadjusted dollars). Ship support

funds also have been reduced over this period. Currently, EEZ multi-beam efforts represent about 10

percent of the NOAA surveying and mapping activities. Bathymetric surveys are not a line item in the

NOAA budget; the level of effort increases at the

expense of traditional mapping and charting activities.33 NOAA is increasing multi-beam survey efforts in 1987 to 418 sea-days at a cost of about $6.1

million .34 35 Eventually, NOAA plans to apply similar technologies within nearshore regions using experience gained with the offshore systems.

gtMore detai] on the NOS bathymetric mapping program may be

found in the report of the December 1984 EEZ Bathymetric and Geophysical Survey Workshop, NOAA, March 1985.

jjThree ships formerly assigned to charting now do mu]t i-beam

surveys.

g+ Estimated from cost of ship-days in 1984-86.

35 Appropriated $1, 1 million for an additional multi-beam system.

OTHER DATA COLLECTION PROGRAMS

The National Oceanic and The National Ocean Service

Atmospheric Administration

General Physical Oceanography Programs.—

In addition to the extensive program of bathy- NOS is the major NOAA group systematically colmetric mapping using multi-beam systems (de- lecting physical and geological data from the EEZ.

scribed above), NOAA collects In addition to the relatively recent swath mapping No AI”@+C@,C

9

‘P~\ *V 70 and synthesizes biological, program, NOS collects and maintains tidal data

$ ,.. ~~ chemical, and physical characW

along the U.S. coastline. NOS has funded the de-

<

~ ~ teristics of the ocean environment. velopment of a state-of-the-art database manage4

z $ Through NESDIS, NOAA con- ment system for much of these data as part of its

c

‘o C+* Cfi trols the major data centers for ‘ ‘next-generation water level measurement sys4’WNT @

co++

EEZ data (NGDC and NODC). tern. ” Insufficient funds have been provided to put
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data . 257

all of the old data into this system, and some old

strip charts and hand tabulations continue to be

used. NOS also maintains wave data, but there is

now no adequate archival system. Within the NOS

Office of Oceans and Atmospheric Research, the

Sea Grant Program and the two regional laboratories 36 collect data as well. These efforts tend to

be more in the mode of exploratory short-term data

collection rather than multi-year systematic surveys.

The Strategic Assessment Branch.—The Strategic Assessment Branch (SAB) of the NOAA Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment conducts comprehensive, interdisciplinary assessments

of multiple resource uses for the EEZ to determine

marine resource development strategies which will

benefit the Nation and minimize environmental

damage or conflicts among users .37

SAB is producing a series of four regional atlases

(see figure 7-1) whose maps combine the physical,

chemical, and biological characteristics of resources

and their environments with their economic, environmental quality, and jurisdictional aspects. The

four atlases cover:

● the U.S. East Coast;

● the Gulf of Mexico;

● the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort

Seas; and

● the U.S. west coast and Gulf of Alaska.

The maps cover a range of topics on physical and

biological environments (geology, surface temperatures, aquatic vegetation . . .), more than 300 species of living marine resources (invertebrates, fishes,

birds, mammals . . .), economic activities (population distribution, seafood production . . .), environmental quality (release of oil and grease discharge, bacteria . . .), and jurisdictions (political

boundaries, environmental quality management

areas . . .). In addition, each map is also in digital

form in a computer data system with supporting

software that provides the capability to prepare

composite maps for combinations of species, life history, etc.

38 This capability may be used by visiting investigators.

J~The pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory and the Atlantic

Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory.

STC N ,.E~er D ,J, Basta, T, F. I.aPointe, and M .A. Warren, ‘‘New

Oceanic and Coastal Atlases Focus on Potential EEZ Conflicts, ”

Oceans 29 (3), 1986, pp. 42-51.

SL7TWCI examp]e~ are shown in ch. 6, figures 3 and 4.

About 200 copies of the U.S. East Coast Atlas

of 125 maps were published in 1980.39 The Gulf

of Mexico Atlas (163 four-color maps) was printed

in 1985; the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas

Atlas (127 maps) will be printed late in 1987. The

West Coast and Gulf of Alaska Atlas is scheduled

for 1988 publication.

A ‘ ‘national” atlas of 20 maps on the health and

use of coastal waters of the United States is also

being produced. The first five maps published were:

Ocean Disposal Sites, Estuarine Systems, Oil Production, Dredging Activities, and NOAA’s National Status and Trends Program. Future maps

are scheduled on hazardous waste sites, marine

mammals, fisheries management areas and other

similar topics.

Other SAB activities include an economic survey of outdoor marine recreation, a national coastal

pollutant discharge inventory, a national estuarine

inventory, a national coastal wetlands database, and

a shoreline characterization.

National Marine Fisheries Service

The work of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) is done by 5 regional offices, 4 fisheries research centers, and 20 laboratories. The

NMFS mission is: 1) to carry out national and international conservation and management of living marine resources, 2) to encourage the utilization and development of U.S. domestic fisheries

and fisheries resources, and 3) to conduct bioenvironmental and socioeconomic research. Work

that results in the production of EEZ oceanographic

data is largely carried out by the laboratories of the

four fisheries centers. Some NMFS data are made

available to and become part of the NODC archives.

The NMFS has an automatic data processing

Telecommunications Long-Range Plan, initiated

in 1981. Currently, there is active interaction between the Seattle and Miami centers and among

the North East Region laboratories. The Office of

Management and Budget has approved funds to

provide for a major upgrade of the system during

fiscal years 1988 and 1989. Most of the “traffic”

consists of data on catch efforts, socioeconomic facsgNow out-of-print.
258 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 7-1.— Regional Atlases of the EEZ

our atlases prepared by the Strategic Assessment Branch of NOAA depict environmental, economic, and jurisdictional information useful for regional assessment of EEZ resources.

SOURCE: National Oceanic and Atmospherlc Administration.
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data ● 259

Underway Geophysics Collected in the EEZ

As the concentration of these ship tracks shows, a significant amount of geophysical information has been collected

in the EEZ; however, much more mapping, sampling, and resource assessment remains to be done.

Source: National Geophysical Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

tors, and administrative matters. NMFS biologicalenvironmental data (i. e., oceanographic data) are

mainly of regional interest and are shared within

a region by more conventional means, such as direct exchange of “hard” or paper copy.

The National Geophysical Data Center

The mission of the National Geophysical Data

Center (NGDC) is “to acquire, process, archive,

analyze and disseminate solid earth and marine

geophysical data . . .; to develop analytical, . . .

and descriptive products; and to provide facilities

for World Data Center A. ’40 Its Marine Geology

and Geophysics Division (one of four divisions) cov-

 Data System A was established as part of the International Geophysical Year 1956-57 to foster data exchange between countries. World Data System A coordinates information from ‘‘free’ world

countries; World Data System B, from Soviet bloc countries.

ers most of the work of interest to the EEZ. The

archives of this Division include some 10 million

track miles of marine geophysical data, about 25

percent of which is in the U.S. EEZ. About half

of the requests for data come from private industry. The next largest requesting groups are academia and the Federal Government.

Funding for NGDC activities has declined

slightly from fiscal year 1981 through fiscal year

1987 while its archives and responsibilities have

steadily increased. Future projections suggest an

increase in data storage requirements of 600 percent (presuming only high-density magnetic tapes

are used for storage) from fiscal years 1986 to 1992.

NGDC data are processed and made available

to a worldwide community of clients through series

of ‘Data Announcements’ on topics ranging from
260 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

common depth point seismic reflection data for specific regions of the U.S. continental shelf, to core

descriptions for special areas, to high-resolution

seismic reflection data, to magnetic and gravity

data, to the latest data sets from the deep sea drilling

project, to ice-gouge data. These announcements

provide users with detailed information on the characteristics of the particular data set being offered,

including related data sets, costs, and available

formats.

The Marine Geology and Geophysics Division

has two interactive systems for accessing worldwide

marine geophysical data and geological data in the

sample holdings of the major U.S. core repositories.

Using software developed by the Division, a user

can specify geographic area, type of geophysical

measurement, sediment/rock type, geologic age,

etc., and receive inventory information at a computer terminal. First operational in June 1978, these

two systems are used primarily by Division personnel, but there has been experimental use at remote

terminals by the staffs of Scripps Institution of

Oceanography and other core repositories under

data exchange agreements with NGDC and other

Federal agencies. NGDC hopes to make three other

data sets similarly accessible for users:

1. multi-beam echo-sounder data from NOS and

other collecting institutions,

2. side-looking sonar data, and

3. digital multi-channel seismic reflection data

if demand and funding warrant.

NGDC staff states that most users of Division data

do not need “on-line”41 access; NGDC typically

satisfies most inquiries by performing tailored

searches of the data for the requestor.

Types of EEZ data held by NGDC are Marine

Geological Data Bases, Bathymetry and Marine

Boundary Data Bases, and Underway Geophysical Data. In terms of numbers of reels of data stored

and in rates of acquisition in bytes42 per year, the

Underway Geophysical Data sets dominate the

NGDC inventory (97 percent). Most of the data

sets are collected in digital form and stored on magnetic tape.

+1 Interactive access to the data.

4ZOne byte is the amount of computer memory used to store one

character of text.

Marine Geological Databases.—There are four

major categories in the geological databases: Marine Core Curator’s (MCC), Marine Minerals

(MM), Digital Grain Size (DGS), and Miscellaneous

●

●

●

●

Geology Files (MGF).

All of the data sets are digital, aggregated, and

stored on magnetic tape except for the MGF.

The amount of MGF data stored is on 20 reels

of magnetic tape. The sum of the other categories is about 14x106 bytes, half of which are

DGS data. All sets combined are on 23 reels

of magnetic tape.

The average delay between sampling and reporting is 10 years for DGS and MGF data

and 2 and 5 years respectively for MCC and

MM data. All four categories are provided on

request.

All data are acquired from academic or government laboratories ranging from 90 percent

academic for MCC to 90 percent government

for DGS. The sum of the acquisition rates for

MCC, MM, and DGS is about 140 kilobytes

per year (100 kilobytes per year for GDS) with

MGF acquiring about 1,000 stations per year.

Future uses are expected to increase by about

1 percent per year for MCC and GDS, 2 percent per year for MM, and 5 percent per year

for MGF.

Problems Handling Geological Data.—Marine

sediment and hard-rock analyses present unique

data management challenges. Unlike bathymetry,

for example, data volume presents no real obstacle to geological data storage and retrieval. The

problem lies in the descriptive, free-form, nonstandard nature of the data. There are nearly limitless varieties of analyses performed on sediment and

hard-rock samples, each analysis requiring suitable

documentation to make the data usable. Decisions

must be made as to which types of analyses merit

creation of a database and, for each type of data

selected, which analyses or measurements should

be stored. These decisions require input from the

marine geological scientific community to be combined with data management practices to produce

databases that satisfy user requirements. The nonstandard form of marine geological data also makes

compilation of data very labor-intensive. Much of

the data must be hand encoded from descriptive

data reports and other sources and entered into the
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data . 261

computer, in contrast to geophysical data which are

collected digitally in a relatively uniform manner.

Bathymetry and Marine Boundary Databases.—There are four kinds of data sets included

in this category: NOS Hydrographic Surveys

(NOS/HS), NOS Multi-beam EEZ Bathymetry

(NOS/MB), Gridded Global Bathymetry (GGB),

and Marine Boundary (MB).

● The most valuable EEZ data sets in this group

are those from the National Ocean Service.

All NOS hydrographic surveys that are available in digital form are archived and merged

into an accessible database at NGDC. All four

data sets (except NOS/MB) are collecting data,

are all in digital form, and all are unedited.

NOS/MB data are aggregated, and NOS/HS

data are reformatted to be accessible by location. (The NOS/MB data are ‘‘on hold’ as

a result of classification. ) All data sets are on

magnetic tape.

● The time lag for reporting NOS/HS data is

about 2 years. All but the NOS/MB data are

made available to others on request.

● The NOS/HS data are acquired at about 42

megabytes per year from the NOS. GGB was

a one-time data acquisition from academic and

DoD sources.

● Annual increases in uses for NOS/HS and MB

data are estimated at 5 percent and GGB at

15 percent. (There is no EEZ multiple-beam

bathymetry on file at NGDC because of data

classification, and no acquisition is planned.

NGDC does plan to index the location of survey tracklines so that operators of multi-beam

systems can avoid duplication. )

Problems with Bathymetric and Boundary

Data. —Transmission of survey data between NOS

and NGDC has been irregular over the years, primarily because the digital versions of surveys have

not been important to the nautical charting effort

at NOS. Over the last 3 years, NGDC has made

a consistent effort to obtain and catalog a large

backlog of surveys stored at NOS headquarters.

Availability of other bathymetric data sets depends

on DoD classification policies. Marine boundary

data are available, though they need to be centralized to be readily accessible. NGDC has the U.S.

EEZ boundary points (produced by NOS) and the

outer continental shelf lease area boundary points

(produced by USGS). NOS is compiling and distributing a detailed set of boundary points for the

U.S. coast; these data have not been submitted to

NGDC.

Underway Geophysical Data.—Four kinds of

underway data are included in this category:

Underway Marine Bathymetry (MB), Underway

Marine Seismic Reflection (MSR), Underway Marine Magnetics (UMM), and Underway Marine

Gravity.

●

●

●

●

About 25 percent of the Underway Geophysical Data are taken in the EEZ. Data are increasing in all sets. Except for MSR, most of

the data are in unaltered digital form stored

on magnetic tape. The MSR data are 45 percent on paper, 40 percent on microfilm, and

15 percent on magnetic tape. While 85 percent of the MSR data are analog, the MSR

digital archive alone totals about 3,000 reels

of low-density tape. The remaining 3 digital

sets total about 5 million records on 10 highdensity reels, about half of which are MB.

The average delay from sampling to reporting for all sets is about 5 years, All data are

made available upon request.

The combined rate of accumulation of data for

all sets is about 100 megabytes per year.

Future use for all sets is estimated to increase

at about 25 percent per year.

Problems and Successes with Underway Data.

—An internationally accepted format for underway

geophysical data is in general use. Flow of data to

NGDC has been good from the Minerals Management Service, U.S. Geological Survey, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, Lamont-Doherty Geological Laboratory,

and the University of Texas at Austin. Other institutions’ performances in submitting data have been

spotty because they have not practiced centralized

long-term data management. A considerable amount

of data from some institutions has been lost or dispersed in laboratories.

The National Oceanographic Data Center

The mission of the National Oceanographic Data

Center (NODC) is to acquire, archive, manage,

and make oceanographic data available to secondary users. NODC has served in this capacity since
262 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Photo credit: W. Westermeyer

Marine analysts examine instrumentation aboard

the dredge Mermentau.

its formation in 1961 and probably now has the

world’s largest unclassified collection of oceanographic data.

About 95 percent of the EEZ data obtained are

in digital form, the rest is in analog form. All of

the data are stored on magnetic tape and comprise

about 650,000 stations, equivalent to about 135

reels of magnetic tape or about 4 gigabytes. The

time-lag from sampling to reporting ranges from

1 to 5 years. The rate at which data are acquired

is about 650 megabytes per year, due mainly to inputs from a few high data-rate devices such as current meters.

NODC has been pivotal in the development of

several data management activities that involve data

that is entirely, or at least mainly, taken in the EEZ:

Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program (OCSEAP).—OCSEAP is a

comprehensive multi-disciplinary environmental

studies program initiated by BLM to provide environmental information useful in formulating

Alaskan oil and gas leasing decisions. Starting from

a modest $100,000 data collection program in 1975,

OCSEAP had assembled by the end of 1984 over

2,500 data sets covering more than 100,000 stations

and consisting of more than 4 megabytes. During

the early stages of this program, a great deal of effort was devoted to the development of data formats and codes that would support the needs of investigators and be compatible for preprocessing and

converting to digital form prior to submission to

NODC.

National Marine Pollution Information System (NMPIS).—NMPIS is essentially an annually updated catalog of thousands of marine

pollution-related projects carried out or supported

by dozens of Federal agencies. The catalog includes

types of projects, types of data and/or information

covered, geographic distribution, quantity of

data/information, means of access, costs, and principal contacts.

Marine Ecosystems Analysis (MESA) Project. —MESA is a cooperative program between

NOAA and the Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) to conduct baseline marine environmental

measurements primarily in the New York Bight,

New York; and Puget Sound, Washington, areas.

This program, which began in 1978 and completed

its data collection phase by 1983, resulted in more

than 2,000 marine environmental data sets consisting of over 200,000 stations. NODC now holds

these data in appropriate files in the National

database.

Strategic Petroleum Reserve/Brine Disposal

Program. —This NOAA program began in 1977

to provide assessment information to the Department of Energy (DOE) on environmental effects

of brine discharge into the Gulf of Mexico. Baseline marine environmental measurements from

monitoring efforts at discharge sites consisting of

over 87,000 stations have been archived by NODC.

California Cooperative Fisheries Investigations (CALCOFI). —The CALCOFI program,

largely supported by the State of California, makes

oceanographic observations in conjunction with

fisheries studies at a grid of stations in the California Current region off the California coast. Begun

in 1949, this program has produced physical/chemical oceanographic data consisting of more than 370

data sets of over 16,500 stations which are now held

by NODC.

New Efforts Underway at NODC Involving

EEZ Data. —A cooperative agreement has been
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data 263

signed between NOAA’s National Ocean Service

(NOS) and NODC to develop an Alaska regional

marine database in Anchorage, Alaska, at the Office of Marine Assessment Ocean Assessment Division. NODC and NOS are both providing copies of their data holdings in the Alaska EEZ region

and will provide routine updates every six months.

Database maintenance will be done in Anchorage,

and a full database copy will be available at the

Ocean Assessment Division there and at NODC.

Consideration is being given to creating Level

II satellite data sets for the EEZ at NODC. While

massive global satellite data archives are available

from the Satellite Data Services Division of the National Climatic Data Center, investigators require

easier data access than is now possible. NODC is

presently archiving and distributing data from the

U.S. Navy Geodetic Satellite which provide full

EEZ coverage as part of the satellite Exact Repeat

Mission.

Prototype Coastal Information System Using

a Personal Computer. —In 1986, NOAA developed a prototype coastal information system for the

Hudson-Raritan Estuary. The system is designed

for use by regional planners, environmental

specialists and managers, and citizen groups with

access to an IBM compatible personal computer.

Information is accessed by file directory, menu, and

glossary and provides output as map sections and

vertical profiles with a wide variety of properties

ranging from temperature through water depth.

Problems with NODC Data.—Data quality is

a continuing concern for both NODC and researchers using NODC data. To address this issue, a series of ‘Joint Institutes’ between NODC and various research laboratories has been initiated. These

institutes are located on-site at the laboratories.

Data are collected, pre-processed, and checked for

quality by the program’s principal investigator(s)

or their staff(s) before being provided to NODC

for archival. One such “Joint Institute” for subsurface thermal data from the Tropical Ocean

Global Atmosphere Study (TOGA) program is now

operating at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, and others are planned, depending on resources, for other programs at the University of Hawaii and the University of Delaware.

Another problem is the large number of organizations collecting marine environmental data in

varying formats, employing various levels of quality

control. This situation makes it both expensive and

difficult to manage resulting data to the satisfaction of an equally large user community. NODC

does not have financial or staff resources to routinely reformat and uniformly quality control every

data set received for archival.

U.S. Department of the Interior

Minerals Management Service

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) carries out programs to implement the EEZ proclamation through its Office of Strategic and International Minerals.

The programs include: formulating a mineral leasing program

for non-energy minerals; establishing joint Federal-State task

forces in support of preparation

of lease sale EISs through cooperative agreements;

providing support for data-gathering activities of

other Federal and State agencies and universities;

and developing regulations for prospecting, leasing, and operations for Outer Continental

Shelf/EEZ minerals.

The MMS administers the provisions of the

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA)

through regulations codified in Title 30 of the Code

of Federal Regulations. The regulations govern permitting, data collection and release, leasing, and

postlease operations in the outer continental shelf.

The regulations prescribe:

●

●

when a permit or the filing of a notice requires

geological and geophysical explorations to be

conducted on the outer continental shelf; and

operating procedures for conducting exploration, requirements for disclosing data and information, and conditions for reimbursing industry for certain costs.

Prior to 1976, common depth point (CDP) seismic data were primarily acquired by the government through nonexclusive contracts or as a costsharing participant in group shoots. As the cost of
264 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

acquiring these data increased, the concept of obtaining the data as a condition of permit was developed. Starting in 1967, the MMS has reimbursed industry permitters for reproduction costs

of acquired CDP seismic data. Recent costs for such

data have averaged about $600 per mile. The MMS

now holds about 1 million miles of such data, of

which about 260,000 miles was acquired before fiscal year 1976 and could continue to be held as proprietary indefinitely. Data acquired after 1976 are

held as proprietary by the petroleum industry for

a period of time. MMS is about to propose a rule

increasing the hold on such geological data from

10 to 20 years. Additionally, the agency is considering prohibiting the release of any geophysical data

until the new rule goes into effect .43 The effect of

this new policy would be to shut off most industrycollected data from reaching the public for another

decade. Approximate amounts of CDP data remaining in MMS archives for the years 1977

through 1985 are shown in figure 7-2.

Ninety-five percent of the CDP data are collected

in digital form, with the remainder analog. Of the

WT. Holcomb, NOAA/NGDC, Apr. 24, 1987, and D. zinger,

MMS Reston, Apr. 27, 1987, personal communications to OTA.

Figure 7-2.— MMS Seismic Data

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Year

portion stored by MMS, 95 percent are stored on

Mylar film with the remainder on magnetic tape.

Except as noted above, none of the data are available to the general public. Industry is the source

of all of the data and MMS expects future acquisition rates to continue at about the same rate as the

past few years. These data are acquired as a condition of offshore geological and geophysical permits issued under the terms of the OCSLA. There

are no problems obtaining the data, so long as

MMS has the funds to reimburse the permittee for

the duplication costs. MMS also collects physical

oceanographic data, which accounts for about 25

percent of the MMS Environmental Studies program. These data are obtained by MMS contractors; MMS contracts now specify that data obtained

under contract are to be provided in digital form

to the NODC.

U.S. Geological Survey

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is the dominant civilian Federal agency that collects marine

o

geological and geophysical data.

++~~; **P+. USGS conducts regional-scale Qv+ &*

2

*’*A investigations aimed at under4’ \$’

*S

3* standing and describing the gen-

~“+

G@* ● A eral geologic framework of the &

‘(%};A~ S● ()+ continental margins and evaluating energy and mineral resources. About 60 percent of the EEZ data collected

are in digital form. The ‘ ‘raw’ field data are usually stored for some lengthy period for possible direct access. About two-thirds of the data must be

merged (aggregated) with other data (usually navigation data) in order to be of value. The total

amount of EEZ data collected to date is stored on

about 50,000 reels of magnetic tape and is being

accumulated now at about 200 reels per year. The

time lag from collection to reporting is about three

years for publication in a scientific journal and

about one year for a seminar or an abstract at a

meeting.

Future acquisition of EEZ data is expected to increase approximately 10 percent per year, mainly

because new equipment allows more information

to be collected per ship mile. In the past, all USGS

data were copied and sent to NGDC. This policy

continues except for digital seismic data; only summaries of these data are sent. NGDC then an-
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data . 265

nounces the availability of such data sets and, if

demand warrants, the data are then sent to NGDC.

Bureau of Mines

While the Bureau of Mines (BOM) does not actively collect and archive EEZ data, BOM is a

prime user of information collected by other groups. Programs

related to the EEZ include development of technologies that

will permit recovery of mineral

deposits from the ocean floor,

studies of beneficiation and processing systems, economic analyses of mineral extraction, and assessment of worldwide availability

of minerals essential to the economy and security

of the United States.

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) flies a number of satellites carryelevation. From these measurements, a-number of

important properties of the ocean can be estimated,

including biological productivity, surface wind velocity, bottom topography, and ocean currents. All

of these satellites obtain some small but significant

percentage of their data while over the EEZ. The

bulk of the ocean program data archived by NASA

is located at the National Space Science Data Center at the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt,

Maryland, and at the NASA Ocean Data System

centered at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,

California. Scientific analysis of the data is performed by researchers at the two laboratories and

at universities around the country.

Both laboratories are currently collecting EEZrelated data. About 80 to 100 percent of the data

are digital with spatial scales of hundreds to thousands of yards and temporal scales of hours to days.

Most of the data are stored in raw form on 27,000

reels of high-density magnetic tape. The time lag

between data sampling and reporting is between

one and two years; these data are available to

others. NASA acquires data at the rate of about

1012 to 1013 bytes per year, which is expected to increase significantly in the future.

NASA has developed pilot data management systems that have successfully demonstrated concepts

such as interactive access to data previewing and

ordering. These programs allow users to actually

view the data available; the programs will not be

fully operational before the early 1990s.

The “NASA Science Internet” (NSI) program

was created in 1986 to coordinate and consolidate

the various discipline-oriented computer networks

used by NASA to provide its scientists with easier

access to data and computational resources and to

assist their inter-disciplinary collaboration and communication. NSI is managed by the Information
266 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Systems Office within NASA’s Office of Science

and Applications. The Ames Research Center in

Sunnyvale, California, is responsible for technical

implementation of NSI. NSI services include consolidating circuit requests across NASA disciplines,

maintaining a database of science requirements,

disseminating information on network status and

relevant technology, and supporting the acquisition of network hardware and software.

Science networks with the NSI system include

the Space Physics Analysis Network, the Astronomy Network (Astronet), the network for the Pilot Land Data System, and the network planned

for the earth science program. Currently, these networks support approximately 150 sites accommodating 2,000 scientists. Growth in use has been

20 to 40 percent each year across all science disciplines. NSI will coordinate links between NASA

networks and networks of other agencies as well,

such as NOAA, USGS, and NSF.

The West Coast Time Series project converts raw

satellite data to ocean chlorophyll concentrations

and sea surface temperatures (useful for studies of

biological productivity and ocean circulation) in formats agreed to by the scientific user community,

and provision has been made for efficient data distribution.

Problems Handling NASA Data.—Users say it

is difficult to obtain complete and timely responses

to requests for satellite data.44 This problem appears

to be due to lack of funds to develop and operate

efficient data archival and distribution facilities for

secondary users.

It is currently impossible to get satellite data archives to copy very large data sets—thousands of

tapes— so the ‘ ‘archive’ is basically a warehouse

of information with limited distribution capacity.

U.S. Navy

The U.S. Navy has a global marine data collection program that is among the largest in the world.

Data collection by the Navy is not necessarily fottThis problem Was mentioned by many other agencies and educational institutions and is outlined in the 1982 NRC report Data Management and Computation, Vol. 1.

cused in the U.S. EEZ; therefore it is difficult to

estimate how much of the Navy’s data relate to the

EEZ. The Navy’s marine data collection includes

bathymetry, subsurface currents, seismic profiles,

bottom samples, visibility, some water chemistry

and biology, vertical profiles of physical properties

(such as temperature, conductivity, and sound velocity), acoustic character, magnetics, gravity, and

some side-scan sonar and bottom photography.

Most of the data are either classified or under controlled distribution to the Department of Defense

or its contractors.

Some data are collected, corrected, and filtered

before being archived at the Naval Oceanographic

Office; in most cases, the original/raw data are also

retained. Analog data are stored in their original

form. Most of the data are stored on magnetic tape,

some on floppy disks, and some on paper records.

Some unclassified oceanographic data are forwarded

to NODC, principally through the Master Oceanographic Observation Data Sets, and some unclassified geological/geophysical data, including unclassified bathymetric data, sediment thicknesses, and

magnetics are forwarded to NGDC. The Navy is

a significant user of unclassified data obtained principally from NODC and from academic laboratories working under Office of Naval Research contracts. Future use of data is expected to remain at

about the present level with no particular focus on

the EEZ.

Currently, the U.S. Geological Survey’s GLORIA

data are not subject to classification. NOAA multibeam depth data, however, are sufficiently detailed

that they are now classified as confidential by agreement of the National Security Council, and the

Navy has recommended that this classification be

upgraded to secret. Although the NOS is continuing to collect multi-beam data, the NOS data are

being treated as classified (see next section). No Sea

Beam data are currently being forwarded to NGDC

from any source, and thus no such data are released

in response to requests from foreign countries.

The Navy’s Office of Naval Research supports

a set of unclassified basic research contracts (mainly

with academic institutions) that obtain data in the

EEZ. Some of these are: Coastal Dynamics (to improve prediction of coastal ocean environmental
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data ● 267

conditions), Coastal Transition Zone Oceanography (to advance understanding of upper ocean dynamics in regions influenced by the proximity of

a coastal boundary), and Sediment Transport

Events on Shelves and Slopes (to understand the

underlying physics of and develop a new predictive capability for sediment erosion). Small amounts

of unclassified Navy EEZ data are provided to the

NOAA national data centers.

State and Local Governments

Most, if not all, coastal States are collecting and/

or managing EEZ data. Though a major share of

their needs is being met by national centers, most

must obtain some data from other sources (industry, academic laboratories, and their own facilities).

To determine the amount and characteristics of

EEZ data being collected and/or managed by

coastal States, OTA sent questionnaires to the State

geologists (members of the Association of American

teen

●

●

●

State Geologists) of the 23 coastal States. Sixreplied. Analysis of the responses revealed that:

Roughly 75 percent of State data exist in analog form. Only one (the Oregon Department

of Geology and Mineral Industries) collects

most of their data in digital form. Approximately 80 percent of the data are stored on paper only.

The most usual time lag between sampling and

reporting was 1 year, ranging from 1 month

to 3 years.

Without exception, those who have data make

it available to others. Most of this activity is

in response to individual requests.

Problems Handling State Data.—Even where

State digital data sets exist, transfer to other users

has been difficult because of lack of a standard format. The greatest need expressed by the States is

for the establishment of a system to insure a regular exchange of information and to encourage the

coordination of activities on local, regional, and national levels.

Academic and Private Laboratories

The academic laboratories vary widely in size,

scope, and sophistication. They range from the 10

major oceanographic institutions which are members of the Joint Oceanographic Institutions45 to

the hundreds of smaller coastal and estuarine laboratories. Many of them maintain their own data

archives. Those undertaking research sponsored by

the NSF Division of Ocean Sciences and and/or

located near the five NODC liaison offices (at

Woods Hole, Massachusetts; Miami, Florida; La

Jolla, California; Seattle, Washington; and Anchorage, Alaska) routinely provide their data to NODC

and/or NGDC. About 20 percent of NODC's present archive has come from the academic and private laboratories and recently the annual percentage acquired from them is even greater—42 percent

in 1985 and 35 percent in 1986. NODC staff credit

the National Science Foundation’s Ocean Sciences

Division’s ocean data policy as a contributing cause

to this increase.

Academic and private laboratories respond to the

‘ ‘market place ‘‘ in their handling of unclassified

oceanographic data. Thus, the solution to data

management problems lies with those who control

the market, mainly the Federal agency sponsors of

academic research. Effective processing of data collected on academic ships may depend on inclusion

of funds in the research project specifically for the

purpose of data reduction. In NSF, the Division

of Ocean Sciences budgets for this activity, but the

Division of Polar Programs does not.

Some of the smaller laboratories have minimal

involvement in either using or producing EEZ data.

Networks for regional data exchange would help

to alleviate this barrier.

Industry

Private industry has been a relatively minor

source of data for the national archives, amounting to only 4 percent of the total NODC data. However the present annual percentage for NODC increased abruptly to 6 percent in 1985 and then to

14 percent in 1986. NODC staff attributes this increase to recent practices by some government

agencies contracting for oceanographic survey work

(e.g., MMS) to specify that unclassified data be

provided to data centers.

4~SCrippS institution of Oceanography, Woods Hole OCeanOgrwhlC

institution, University of Washington, University of Miami, LamontDoherty Geological Observatory, Texas A&M University, University of Rhode island, Oregon State University, Hawaii Institute of

Geophysics, and the University of Texas.
268 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

OTA surveyed 10 industrial organizations (primarily geophysical firms) actively collecting and/or

utilizing EEZ data, with these results:

●

●

●

About 75 percent of the companies contacted

collect all or part of the EEZ data that they

use, and almost all of the data are digital.

Predominately, the stored data are unaltered

and on magnetic tape.

One major geophysical prospecting company

far outstripped the combined total of stored

data by all other companies—1014 bytes—

amounting to a total of about 2 million reels

of magnetic tape. The other companies ranged

from a few reporting hundreds of reels of magnetic tape to the remainder utilizing only a few

tens of reels.

Most of the companies make their data available only through purchase. A few reported

providing data to national data centers, especially those collecting data for a Federal agency

under contract.

● Estimates of future increase or decrease of use

were highly variable and were indicated as being sensitive to future economic conditions,

particularly in terms of variability of costs of

EEZ resources (e. g., oil).

Problems Handling Industry Data.—Government agencies frequently replicate data that private

companies have ‘‘in-house. Such duplication of

efforts is extremely costly. Some industry spokespersons believe that Federal survey programs are

unfairly competitive with industry surveys. On the

other hand, private industry often retains details

related to their surveys as proprietary information.

Federal access to details creates an awkward situation in that once survey data are in Federal hands,

they can be accessed by others through the Freedom of Information Act. A centralized index of industry surveys similar to the NGDC GEODAS

(Geophysical DAta System) system is needed so

researchers will know what private sector data exist, thereby avoiding potential duplication.

CLASSIFICATION OF BATHYMETRIC AND GEOPHYSICAL DATA

Multi-beam mapping systems, e.g., Sea Beam

and the Bathymetric Swath Survey System—BS3,

can produce bathymetric maps of the seabed many

times more detailed than single beam echo sounding systems (figure 7-3, for example). This new generation of seabed contour maps approaches—and

sometimes exceeds—the accuracy and detail of land

maps and provides oceanographers a picture of the

deep ocean floor not available a scant decade ago.

Prior to 1979, before the first NOAA research vessel

Surveyor was equipped with Sea Beam, the U.S.

oceanographic community only had available lowresolution bathymetric maps that were suitable for

navigation and general purposes but lacked the detail and precision needed for science.

Some marine geologists and geophysicists consider the development of multi-beam mapping systems to be their profession’s equivalent of the invention of the particle accelerator to a physicist or

the electron microscope to a biologist. Now that the

technological threshold for sensing the intricate details of the landforms beneath thousands of feet of

ocean water has been overcome, oceanographers

believe that tremendous strides can be made in exploring the seabed and understanding the processes

occurring at great ocean depths.

The convergence of two advanced technologies—

multi-beam echo sounders and very accurate

navigational systems—provides the basis for extremely detailed maps of the seabed that are spatially accurate in longitudinal and latitudinal position on the earth’s surface as well as precise in determining the depth and landforms of the undersea

terrain. Multi-beam systems, when used in conjunction with the satellite-based Global Positioning System, can produce charts from which either

surface craft equipped with the same shipboard instruments or submarines with inertial navigation

and sonar systems can navigate and accurately position themselves. 46 If geophysical information, e.g.,

gravity and magnetic data, is superimposed over

the mapped region, its value for positioning and

navigation is further enhanced. A 1987 workshop

of Federal, private, and academic representatives

+bR. Tyce, J, M il]er, R. Edwards, and A. Silver, ‘‘Deep OCean

Pathfinding-High Resolution Mapping and Navigation, ” Proceedings of the Oceans ’86 Conference (Washington, DC: Marine Technology Society, 1986), pp. 163-168.
Ch. 7–Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data 269

Figure 7-3.—Map of the Surveyor Seamount Straddling the Juan de Fuca Ridge Produced

With Sea Beam Bathymetry

Two halves of

Surveyor Seamount

The contours depict water depth in meters. The split in the mountain was caused by seafloor spreading. This map shows

only 2 percent of the data (about 400,000 data points) obtained by Sea Beam. The detailed features obtained with Sea

Beam encouraged scientists to study this area more closely; evidence of recent volcanism has unexpectedly been found.

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
concluded that NOAA should acquire geophysical

data that would not hinder the timely acquisition

of the bathymetric data.47 Classification stymied

NOAA’s effort to form a cooperative arrangement

with industry and academia. Thus, to date, NOAA

has not acquired gravity or magnetic data.

While the capability to identify subsurface terrain features and accurately determine their position is a boon to scientists seeking to locate and explore geological features on the seafloor, it presents

a potentially serious security risk if used by hostile

forces. Because of the security implications, the

U.S. Navy, with the concurrence of the National

Security Council’s National Operations Security

Advisory Committee, initiated actions to classify

multi-beam data and restrict its use and distribution.

 OTA Workshop on Data Classification was held Jan. 27,

1987, at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, under the auspices of

the Marine Policy and Ocean Management Center.

Modern undersea warfare requires that submarines, once submerged, remain submerged to

avoid detection. When submarines operate globally,

this long-term submergence presents significant

navigational problems. Inertial guidance systems

and other navigational gear must be occasionally

updated with precise locational information if the

submarine’s position is to be determined accurately.

One means for doing this is by fixing terrain features on tie ocean bottom and triangulating within

them to determine the vessel’s position. With

detailed’ bathymetric maps and precise geodesy,

modern acoustical detectors and onboard computers

are capable of precisely fixing a submarine’s position without having to surface and risk detection.

Little imagination is needed to understand the security implications of high-resolution bathymetry.

Bathymetric data may also affect other aspects of

undersea warfare, including acoustical propagation

and mine warfare countermeasures.

In 1984, NOAA centered its bathymetric data

collection in the NOAA ships Surveyor (equipped
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data ● 271

with a Sea Beam system) and the Davidson (equipped

with BS3) and announced long-range plans to systematically map the U.S. EEZ. NOAA’s plans for

comprehensively mapping the EEZ at a high resolution—depth contours of 10-20 meters, and geodetic precision of 50-100 meters—have been challenged by the Navy, and the two agencies have

since entered into protracted negotiations in search

of a workable solution, but in the summer of 1987

significant problems remained unresolved .48

Marine scientists and private commercial interests are concerned that the Navy may classify

NOAA bathymetric and geophysical data. Whenever data classification is at issue, the reasons for

the security restrictions themselves are considered

sensitive, thus opportunities are limited for public

review of the need and extent of restrictions or for

consultation to identify possible compromises to balance security risks and scientific needs. In general,

both the oceanographic community and private industry have not been involved in the negotiations

between NOAA and the Navy to the degree that

the non-government interests believe they should

be, given their stake in the outcome of the classification decision. Even some scientists within NOAA

feel alienated from the process.

Earlier Reviews of Data Classification

In 1985, the Director of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy requested

that the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) review the National Security Council’s position that

public availability of broad-coverage, high-resolution bathymetric and geophysical maps of the EEZ

would pose a threat to national security; NAS was

asked to explore plausible means to balance national

security concerns with the needs of the academic

and industrial communities. In the course of its

study, the NAS Naval Studies Board found it impossible to “quantify” national security benefits

gained from classification or the possible benefits

that could be realized by the U.S. scientific and industrial users if such data were to be freely available to the public.

4sLetter from Anthony J. Calio, Administrator, NOAA, to Rear

Admiral John R. Seesholtz, Oceanographer of the Navy, Feb. 3, 1986;

and reply from Seesholtz to Calio, Mar. 14, 1986. An extensive exchange of correspondence followed between Calio and Seesholtz

through Nov. 6, 1986.

Because of the difficulty it encountered in evaluating the benefits and risks associated with classifying bathymetric and geophysical data, the Naval

Studies Board restricted its inquiry to whether the

unrestricted release of accurately positioned, highresolution bathymetric data could result in any new

and significant tactical or strategic military threats.

It did not assess the needs of the oceanographic and

geophysical research community for the data, nor

did it assess the ocean mining industry’s need for

such surveys. The Naval Studies Board concluded

that “map matching, i.e., locating one’s position

by matching identifiable features on the seafloor

by using precise bathymetry from broad regional

coverage, could afford potentially hostile forces a

unique and valuable tool for positioning submarines within the U.S. EEZ.

While the Naval Studies Board supported the

Navy’s position with regard to classifying and controlling ‘‘processed’ survey data, it did not favor

classifying raw data until they are processed into

a form that provides full geodetic precision and

large area coverage. As a further measure, the

Board suggested that each processed map be reviewed for distinctive navigational features that

would make it valuable for precise positioning and

that the sensitive data be ‘‘filtered’ as necessary

to permit its use in unclassified maps. The Board

further recommended that the sensitive data be

made available on a classified basis to authorized

users and that raw data covering a limited area be

released without security restrictions for the pursuit of legitimate research .49

A second review of the Navy’s data classification policy regarding multi-beam data was also undertaken by the National Advisory Committee on

Oceans and Atmosphere (NACOA) at the request

of NOAA in 1985. NACOA generally supported

the Naval Studies Board’s conclusions, and found

the national security argument for classifying highresolution bathymetric data made by the Navy

more ‘‘compelling’ than the counterargument

made by the academic community for free exchange

of scientific information. 50 NACOA therefore rec49Nav~ StudleS Board, IVationa) Secun”ty lmpkations of U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone Survey Data, (Washington, DC: National Research Council, Mar. 25, 1985), p. 6.

JONation~ Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere,

NACOA Statement on the Classification of Multibeam Bathymetric

Data (Washington, DC: National Advisory Committee on Oceans

and Atmosphere, Jan. 17, 1986), p. 4.
272 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

ommended that only ‘‘controlled selective dissemination’ of NOAA’s multi-beam data be allowed.

Analyzing the two public reports of the Naval

Studies Board and NACOA, OTA found that neither group, in reaching its conclusions, appears to

have fully weighed the risks, costs, and implications

of withholding most high-quality bathymetric maps

from the academic community and the private sector. Furthermore, neither report seems to acknowledge the extent that multi-beam technology has

proliferated throughout the world among the academic, commercial, and government entities of

both friendly and potentially hostile nations. As

multi-beam survey data becomes more widely available, secure navigation is possible without NOAA

data. Many foreign countries, including the Soviet

Union, are now operating multi-beam survey systems. Additionally, there has been no restriction

placed on data produced by U.S. academic research

vessels operating Sea Beam systems. Finally, neither report discusses the possible inconsistency between the restricted use of broad-coverage, highresolution bathymetry by U.S. scientists and the

private sector and the U.S. position regarding international principles of freedom of access for scientific purposes in other nations’ EEZs and foreign

scientists’ access to the U.S. EEZ.

NOAA’s Survey Plans—Navy’s Response

After the release of the Naval Studies Board and

NACOA reports in March 1986 and June 1986 respectively, the positions of NOAA and the Navy

on multi-beam classification diverged rather than

converged toward a solution. In response to the

Navy’s opposition to allowing NOAA to proceed

with comprehensive unclassified multi-beam coverage of the EEZ that might serve as an atlas of

the seabed, NOAA proposed to abandon its comprehensive long-range plan and substitute a series

of smaller-scale targets for multi-beam surveys.

These smaller-scale targets included:

●

●

●

specific sites in water depths greater than 200

meters;

continuous coverage surveys in limited areas

of concern, e.g.in estuarine areas and for ,

navigational safety in depths of 200 meters or

less;

widely-spaced reconnaissance swaths over the

extent of a seabed feature;

● detailed investigation of areas up to 20 nautical miles square; and

. international waters outside the U.S. EEZ consistent with international law in a manner similar to multi-beam surveys made by the domestic and foreign academic fleets .51

The Navy formed a working group to addres s

NOAA’s proposal. The working group concluded

that:

1,

2.

3.

4.

5.

Surveys in waters shallower than 200 meters

along the U.S. coastline are particularly sensitive and should be restricted and classified.

Bathymetric data on survey sheets that allows

positions to be fixed to less than one-quarter

nautical mile should be classified secret; therefore, based on tests showing that a significant

proportion of NOAA’s multi-beam surveys

fall into this category, the Navy proposed that

all multi-beam data be collected, processed,

and held at the secret classification.

Navigation and bathymetric data either must

be shipped separately to secure onshore facilities, or if combined (which NOAA does t o

maintain quality control), it must be handled

under secret classification.

Areas outside the U.S. EEZ that NOAA proposes to survey may still be sensitive since they

could pose a threat to allies and therefore

should come within the classification scheme.

Small “postage stamp” (20 by 20 nautical

miles) surveys also should be considered classified. The Navy did allow that accurate and reliable unclassified nautical charts with appropriate contour spacing can be produced from

the classified database to support NOAA’ s

nautical charting mission. 52

The Navy is continuing to work on filtering techniques that would distort (degrade) the shape and/or

the location of seabed features. Distortion would

reduce the usefulness of a survey sheet for vessel

positioning but would allow NOAA to distribute

survey sheets in unclassified form to all users. Efforts to date have not produced a filter that c a n

s I Letter from Anthony J. Calio, Administrator, National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, to Rear Admiral John R. Seesholtz,

Oceanographer of the Navy, Feb. 3, 1986.

sZLetter from Rear Admiral John R. Seesholtz, Oceanographer of

the Navy, to Anthony J. Calio, Administrator, National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration, Oct. 6, 1986.
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data ● 273

satisfy both the security demands and positional criteria established by the Navy while still providing

oceanographers and the private sector with sufficiently detailed information to be useful. The

prospects of developing a mutually acceptable filter seem remote.

OTA Classification Workshop

In collaboration with the Marine Policy and

Ocean Management Center of the Woods Hole

Oceanographic Institution, OTA convened a workshop in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, in January

1987. Academic and government oceanographers

and industry representatives who attended delved

further into the impacts and dislocations that data

classification might impose on user groups. Workshop participants were asked to:

● focus on the costs and risks of classification to

scientific and commercial interests,

● relate the loss of information and/or commercial opportunities in the EEZ to the economic

and scientific position of the United States,

. consider the consequences of data classification on U.S. foreign policy related to the need

for access to other Nations’ EEZs for oceanographic research, and

● identify factors that could affect the operational

integrity of a Navy classification system.

Costs and Risks to Scientific and

Commercial Interests

Marine geologists and geophysicists believe that

it is impossible to evaluate what the loss might be

to the U.S. oceanographic community as a result

of classifying multi-beam data until a sufficiently

large area is surveyed and mapped to discover what

scientifically interesting features might be detected

as a result of high-resolution bathymetry. The relatively small sampling that has been made available

to date receives high praise from the academic

community and government oceanographers who

anticipate significant breakthroughs in understanding the conformation of the seabed if general-coverage multi-beam data are made available from the

EEZ.

To advance oceanographic science, some scientists believe that they must be able to detect and

characterize individual geological seafloor features

with dimensions as small as 100 meters. Only multibeam mapping systems provide sufficient resolution to achieve that goal in waters exceeding 200

meters in depth, although optical systems and sidescanning sonar can provide useful information

about such features. Should broad-coverage, highresolution bathymetric surveys and geophysical data

be either abandoned or excessively restricted, geologists and geophysicists are concerned that they

would be denied fundamental information important to their professions, according to those attending the OTA workshop.

Both NOAA’s and the National Science Foundation’s (NSF) charters require them to share and

publicly disseminate scientific data among nongovernmental users. Oceanographic data collected

under the aegis of NSF’s Division of Ocean Sciences is required to be made public after two years

through a ‘‘national repository, e.g., the National

Geophysical Data Center (NGDC). As a consequence of classification of multi-beam data, there

is a possibility that neither NOAA nor NSF would

support or undertake large-scale seabed mapping

efforts. NOAA has reserved the option of terminating all multi-beam surveys if it is not permitted to

conduct unclassified surveys in the U.S. EEZ and

elsewhere. 53 Should NOAA forsake broad coverage multi-beam surveys worldwide, the Navy itself would likely lose a valuable source of strategic

and tactical bathymetric data from both the U.S.

EEZ and elsewhere that could strengthen the U.S.

fleets’ operational position.

One anticipated indirect long-term impact that

could result from restrictions on the collection, processing, and dissemination of multi-beam bathymetric data is a move away from academic emphasis

on marine geology and a slowdown in progress in

understanding the seafloor and geological processes.

Ocean mining interests foresee setbacks in extensive mineral surveying within the U.S. EEZ if

NOAA is restricted in its unclassified mapping program. Some industry representatives believe that

seabed mining holds a special position of national

importance, and, therefore, even if classification

procedures were imposed, ocean miners should be

given access to the classified, “undegraded,” highresolution bathymetric data. Yet, while Federal

53 Ibid.
274 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

agencies with properly cleared personnel will have

access to the multi-beam data, it is uncertain

whether or not private firms can have similar access. Some firms can handle classified data, but

others cannot. Firms that can access such data

would have a significant advantage in the bid process. It remains to be seen as to whether or not industry will tolerate such a disparity.

Since the NOAA mapping program is currently

the only one affected by the threat of classification,

it remains possible for individuals to contract with

domestic and foreign firms to conduct multi-beam

surveys in the U.S. EEZ. International law does

not preclude the conduct of such surveys within the

EEZ. Permission is required only when surveys fall

within the Territorial Sea. A West German survey ship has already conducted surveys within the

U.S. EEZ in cooperation with U.S. industry.

Broad-coverage bathymetric surveys would be expensive, and, given the many other uncertainties

facing the domestic ocean mining industry, e.g.,

unstable minerals markets, high cost of capital, and

regulatory uncertainties, it is unlikely that mining

ventures would commit the necessary funds to contract for such reconnaissance multi-beam surveys,

thus reducing the likelihood that mine sites would

be developed successfully. Security restrictions on

multi-beam data will affect a number of other

undersea activities as well, e.g., submersible operations, modelling, identification of geological hazards, cable and pipe routing, fishing, etc.

Through July of 1987, there were no classification restrictions placed on multi-beam bathymetry

collected and processed by the academic fleet. However, the Navy has given no assurances that academic data will not be classified in the future. With

the exception of surveys made of the Aleutian

Trench in the Pacific Ocean and Baltimore/Wilmington Canyons in the Atlantic Ocean, seldom

do academic vessels undertake broad bathymetric

coverage; rather, they tend to concentrate on

smaller specific units of the seafloor. Most of the

surveys made by the academic fleet have been made

outside the U.S. EEZ. On the other hand, if funds

were made available, it may be possible to mount

a cooperative broad-scale mapping effort among at

least three world-class oceanographic research vessels in the U.S. academic fleet that are equipped

with multi-beam systems to provide high-quality

data with atlas coverage.54

Impacts on U.S. Economic and

Scientific Position

Commercial interests represented at the OTA

workshop in Woods Hole suggested that restrictive

classification procedures could chill the development

of new echo sounding technology, since domestic

civilian markets for such instruments would probably disappear. Should this situation arise, foreign

instrument manufacturers are likely to displace

U.S. firms in international markets, and the predominance established by the United States in the

1950s and 1960s would give way, with the leading

edge of acoustical sounding technology (much of

which was sponsored by the Department of Defense) being transferred overseas. To some extent,

this has already happened. There is also a risk that

as other nations allow unclassified multi-beam

bathymetric maps to be produced within their EEZ,

U.S. ocean mining firms, most of which are multinational, might find it advantageous to locate mining ventures in foreign economic zones and abandon efforts in the U.S. EEZ. At a minimum,

classification may drive U.S. firms into multinational agreements in order to acquire needed data

within the U.S. EEZ.

International scientific competition is fierce. This

fact is seldom fully appreciated by those unfamiliar

with the science establishment. Oceanographers attending the OTA Woods Hole workshop were uniform in their belief that U.S. marine geologists and

geophysicists would be put at a disadvantage with

their foreign colleagues who may not be limited by

data classification. This might tend to lure U.S.

researchers to focus their efforts elsewhere in the

world where there are fewer constraints on the use

and exchange of multi-beam and geophysical data,

thus depriving the United States of the benefit of

research within its own EEZ.

There was general agreement at the OTA Woods

Hole workshop that, if faced with the alternative

s+ The research vessel Thomas Washin~on operated by Scripps Institution of Oceanography and the research vessels Robert Conrad

and Atlantis 11 operated by Lament-Doherty Geological Observatory

and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution respectively.
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data 275

of having high-resolution multi-beam data that has

been “degraded” or “distorted” by filters and algorithms, the oceanographic community would prefer to continue using the best “undoctored, ” unclassified data available even if it were of lower

resolution. If the choice of having high-resolution

multi-beam bathymetric data over a small area is

weighed against broad coverage with filtered data,

most oceanographers prefer limited coverage and

high-resolution.

Foreign Policy Implications of

Data Classification

In proclaiming the establishment of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in 1983, President

Ronald Reagan carefully specified that the newly

established ocean zone would be available to all for

the purpose of conducting marine scientific research. 55 The President’s statement reaffirms a

long-held principle of the United States that it maintained throughout the negotiations of the Law of

the Sea Convention (LOSC): notwithstanding other

juridical considerations, nations should be free to

pursue scientific inquiry throughout the ocean.

Although signatories to the LOSC granted the

coastal states the exclusive right to regulate, authorize, and conduct marine research in their exclusive

economic zones, the United States—a non-signatory to the LOSC—continues to support and advocate freedom of scientific access. 56 Thus, although

other nations may impose consent requirements on

scientists entering their EEZs if they view such surveys as counter to their national interest, the United

States has no such restrictions.

While oceanographers are generally pleased with

the U.S. open door policy for scientific research in

the EEZ, those attending the OTA Woods Hole

workshop see potential problems if the Navy establishes precedence for classifying high-resolution

bathymetric maps for national security reasons. If

the Navy continues to prevail in its position on the

sensitivity of multi-beam data, then the United

States might find it necessary to prohibit or control the acquisition and processing of similar data

by foreign scientists. Such action would, for pracssst~t~~c~t by the president accompanying the proclamation establishing the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, Mar. 10, 1983, p. 2.

Scunited Nations Law of the Sea, Part XIII, Sec. 3, Art. 246.

tical purposes, repudiate the President’s announced

policy of free access to the EEZ for scientific research.

Should multi-beam bathymetry in the U.S. EEZ

be classified, many oceanographers believe that

other countries would follow suit or retaliate against

U.S. scientists by placing similar restrictions on the

collection and processing of data within their EEZs.

To date, no foreign multi-beam data has been submitted to NGDC. Other countries are waiting to

see how the security issue is resolved within the

U.S. The consequences for marine geological and

geophysical research on a global scale could be severe as a result of removing a significant portion

of the world’s seafloor from investigation. The withdrawn areas would include much of the continental margins that are scientifically interesting and

may also contain significant mineral resources.

Will Classification Achieve Security?

Although the National Security Council and the

Navy may effectively derail NOAA’s plans for comprehensive coverage of the U.S. EEZ by highresolution multi-beam mapping systems, the action

in no way assures that such data can not be obtained by a potential hostile through other means.

Broad-coverage multi-beam data could be collected

and processed by non-government sources, and accurate, unclassified bathymetry could be acquired

for strategic and tactical purposes. It is also possible that foreign interests could gather such data and

information either covertly under the guise of marine science or straightforwardly in the EEZ under the U.S. policies related to freedom of access

for peaceful purposes—although the latter approach

might prove politically difficult.

The Navy, on the other hand, considers that any

action it may take to gather bathymetric information using its own ships is by definition not conducting marine scientific research, but conducting

‘‘military surveys for operational purposes’ which

are therefore not subject to coastal State jurisdiction as are civilian scientific vessels gathering the

same kind of information. 57 Because the Navy con57(’Navy Oceanography: Priorities, Activities and Challenges, ”

speech presented by Rear Admiral John R. Seeshohz, Oceanographer of the Navy, Center for Oceans Law and Policy, University of

Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, Oct. 24, 1986.
276 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

siders its operations using multi-beam bathymetric systems to be “hydrographic surveying” rather

than scientific research, it remains possible for other

foreign navies to make the same claim to gain access to the U.S. EEZ for similar purposes.

Over 15 vessels are known to be equipped with

multi-beam mapping systems worldwide, not including those of NOAA and the Navy. Multi-beam

mapping systems, while expensive to purchase and

operate, are not a technology unique or controlled

by the United States. Multi-beam technology is

shared by France, Japan, United Kingdom, Australia, Federal Republic of Germany, Finland, Australia, Norway and the Soviet Union. (Canada is

now in the process of purchasing a system. ) While

several multi-beam systems were purchased from

U.S. manufacturers, other countries, e.g., Federal

Republic of Germany (two companies), Finland,

and Norway, developed their own systems.

Multi-beam technology is not new. The first Sea

Beam unit outside a U.S. Navy vessel was installed

on an Australian naval vessel the HMS Cook, in

1976 and the second on the French vessel Jean

Charcot in 1977. The technology is over 20 years

old. While oceanographers are reluctant to consider

Sea Beam as “obsolete” or “outmoded, ” they

note, however, that better technology has been developed and is available in the world market.

Export licenses have been denied to U.S. manufacturers of multi-beam systems for sale to Brazil

and Korea for security reasons, but comparable

echo sounding equipment is available from foreign

sources. U.S. restrictions on the export of multibeam systems put U.S. equipment manufacturers

at a disadvantage. Since foreign multi-beam manufacturers exist, current U.S. policy on technology

transfer does not effectively limit the availability

of these systems to foreign purchasers. Foreign

firms have interpreted U.S. policy to mean that

they are not restricted from collecting multi-beam

data in the U.S. EEZ. Moreover, operating only

within the domestic market, U.S. manufacturers

find it difficult to remain competitive.

Private commercial firms have recently announced their intent to enter the multi-beam service market, offering contract arrangements for acquiring, logging and processing high-resolution

bathymetric data; and perhaps to recover geophysical data as well. It is apparent that restricting and

controlling the acquisition and dissemination of

high-quality bathymetric data will become more difficult in the future as its commercial value increases.

Just as geophysical surveying firms have been

formed to respond to the offshore petroleum industry’s need for seismic survey data, so too may

bathymetric survey firms respond to an increased

demand for multi-beam data. New survey systems

that combine wide swath bathymetric measurements with side-scan sonar imagery, e, g.,

SeaMARC, are also available in the commercial

fleet.

Some oceanographers believe that a large amount

of unclassified bathymetric data and charts of sufficient precision and accuracy to be used for strategic and tactical purposes are already in the public

domain and that much of it may have to be classified if subjected to the Navy’s positioning tests. For

example, many of NOAA’s single-beam surveys

that are run with precise electronic control and close

line spacing for charting coastal areas and harbor

approaches have resolution comparable to multibeam surveys and are currently in the public domain. A considerable amount of similar commercial data has also been collected and is available for

sale. A potential adversary would only need selected

data sets to complicate a warfare situation.

The current move to classify bathymetric data

is not the first time data restrictions have been imposed on the oceanographic community. From the

end of World War II in 1945 to well into the 1960s,

some bathymetric data collected in deep ocean areas

by the single-beam systems were also classified. One

difference between now and then is that earlier surveys were either made by Navy vessels or procured

by Navy contract; there was no drain on civilian

research and survey budgets, hence little proprietary claim for access to the data could be made by

civilian interests.

Observations and Alternatives

Dealing from its position of power regarding

security matters, the Department of Defense appears not to have opened the doors of inquiry wide

enough to allow adequate involvement of the scientific and commercial communities. Even in its

dealings with NOAA, the Navy leaves an impres-
Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data ● 277

sion among civilian officials that it can maintain

its control by not sharing important information

germane to the issue, such as technical limits of its

requirements. At the same time, the Navy appears

to be skeptical about the scope of claims made by

civilians on their need to access multi-beam data.

Whether facts or perceptions, the current debate

is rife with concerns that must be overcome if a

mutual solution is to be reached.

While much of the current debate has centered

on Sea Beam data because of NOAA’s plans to extensively map the EEZ, the Navy has proposed to

restrict other multi-beam surveys and geophysical

monitoring as well, e.g., magnetic and gravity data.

Proposals have been made that NOAA collect geophysical data concurrently with bathymetric data.58

Such multiple sensing could enhance the scientific

usefulness of bathymetric surveys, and it also could

increase the usefulness of data for positioning submarines.

Thus far, scientific and commercial interests have

resisted the proposed use of mathematical filters to

distort the shape and location of subterranean features. One option they have discussed is the establishment of secure processing centers to archive

bathymetric and geophysical data. Appropriately

—.-—

sBNation~ oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, ~cporf of the

NOAA Exclusi\e Economic .Zme Bath,wnetrir and Geoph>’sicai SunqV

tt’orkshop, Dec. 11-12, 1984, p. 2 .

cleared researchers could then have access to classified data and secure processing equipment to meet

scientific and commercial needs. A similar option

would be to allow secure facilities to be located at

user installations. A significant amount of classified material is handled by civilian contractors under supervision of DOD. Similar arrangements

may be possible with appropriately cleared users

of bathymetric/geophysical data. However, a major problem exists in that we are now in a ‘ ‘digital

world, and secure processing of digital data is both

expensive (site security) and restrictive (no networking of computers). Universities and firms typically

have linked computers and may have to submit to

the added expense of additional systems to handle

these data. Other innovative means to manage the

difficult problems of balancing national security

with data access may be possible.

Acceptable resolution of the debate over classifying multi-beam bathymetric data will require more

candor and a better exchange of information on all

sides of the issue. The Navy appears to have done

an insufficient job of communicating its needs and

reasons for classification. On the other hand, the

scientific community also has had difficulty in articulating its reasons for needing high-resolution

bathymetry and in backing them with solid examples. Satisfactory solutions will only come by including in the classification debate those with a stake

in the academic and commercial use of bathymetric and geophysical data.
Appendixes
Appendix A

State Management of Seabed Minerals

State Mining Laws

All States bordering the territorial sea have statutes

governing exploration and mining on State lands, including offshore areas under State jurisdiction. The statutes range from single-paragraph general authorizations, equally applicable on land or water, to detailed

rules specifically aimed at marine exploration and mining. Some States provide separate rules for petroleum

and hard minerals. These laws are outlined in table A-1,

which only includes laws affecting mining activities. The

States also have water quality, wildlife, coastal zone

management, administrative procedure, and other laws

that might affect seabed resource development.

There are large differences among the State mining

laws, making a typical or model mining law difficult to

describe. A review of the coastal States’ mining laws

does reveal some common characteristics that suggest

different ways to achieve each objective.

Scope:

Many States do not separate onshore from offshore

development, thus providing a single administrative

process for all mineral resources. At least four States

(California, Oregon, Texas, and Washington) distinguish oil and gas from hard minerals.

Exploration:

Most States have general research programs, carried

out by geological survey offices or academic institutions.

Some States provide for more detailed state prospecting in areas proposed for leasing. Private exploration

generally requires a permit.

Area limits are unspecified in most statutes. Landoriented statutes tend to require smaller tracts, Alaska

limits permits to 2,560 acres but allows a person to hold

multiple permits totalling up to 300,000 acres.

Prospecting permits may be general or for designated

tracts. Alaska, California, Texas, and Washington grant

exclusive permits while Delaware, Florida, and Oregon

do not. Permits may also specify the type of mineral being sought.

California and Washington grant a preference-right

lease to prospectors making a discovery. Delaware and

Oregon do not. Other States, including Alaska, Maine,

New Hampshire, and Texas, allow all or part of the explored area to be converted to a mining lease upon discovery of commercial deposits.

Exploration results must be reported to the State but

their confidentiality is protected for the duration of the

prospecting permit and any subsequent lease. Massachusetts requires survey results to be made public prior

to the hearing concerning the granting of a lease.

The duration of prospecting permits is generally 1 or

2 years with renewal terms ranging from 1 year to indefinite. Alaska provides a 10-year prospecting term.

Annual rents range from $0.25 per acre in Texas and

Washington, to $2.00 per acre in California, and $3.00

per acre in Alaska. Maine has a sliding scale, increasing from $0.25 per acre in the first year to $5.00 per

acre in the fifth.

Mining Lease or Permit:

Some States grant preference-right leases or allow

conversion. Competitive bidding is the general basis for

awarding leases with a cash bonus, or royalty, or both

being the bid variable. California also allows bidding

on ‘‘net profit or other single biddable factor. Some

States grant leases noncompetitively, conducting an

administrative review of individual lease applications.

Public hearings are usually required under all of these

systems.

Most States do not specify area limits for mineral

leases. Where conversion is allowed, a prospector may

only convert as much land as is shown to contain workable mineral deposits or as much as he can show himself capable of developing. Where limits are specified,

they range from 640 acres (Washington) to 6,000 acres

(Mississippi). States limiting the acreage covered by

each lease generally do not limit the number of leases

that a single person may hold.

Lease terms range from 5 years (Virginia) to 10 years

(Delaware, Georgia, North Carolina, Oregon) to 20

years (Alaska, California, Texas, Washington). Renewal

is available, usually for as long as minerals are produced

in paying quantities. Leases are generally assignable in

whole or in part, subject to State approval.

Most States require a minimum rent, credited toward

a royalty based on production. Minimum annual rents

range from $0.25 per acre in Delaware to $3.00 per acre

in Alaska. Minimum royalties vary from 1/16 of production in Texas to 3/16 in Mississippi. Louisiana provides different royalties for different minerals, ranging

from 1/20 to 1/6 of production. Some States provide for

payment in kind.

The use of leasing income varies

other purposes, it may be allocated to

greatly. Among

the general fund,

281

72-672 0 - 87 -- 10
Table A-1.—State Mining Laws

Environmental Current or Statutes and

State Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses

—

past activity Comments regulations

Alabama . . . . . . . . . . Department of Not specified. Competitive bid- Bids must be Not specified. Oil and gas Ala. Code f9-l5-

Conservation & Ieases. No hard 18 (1980).

Land Resources,

State Lands Division

Alaska. . . . . . . . . . . . Department of

Natural Resources, Lands

Division

California . . . . . . . . . State Lands

Commission

Exclusive permit

up to 5,200

acres, 10-year

term. $3.00 per

acre for first two

years, $3.00 per

acre each successive year.

300,000-acre

limit on permits

held by one

person.

Exclusive permit

on unexplored

land, two-year

term, renewable

for one year. Annual rental of

$2.00 per acre.

ding, tracts up

to 5,200 acres.

May be granted

noncompetitively to

holder of prospecting permit

for as much

land as is shown

to contain workable deposits,

not to exceed

100,000 acres.

Known mineral

lands offered by

competitive

bid/cash bonus,

annual rent

$3.00 per acre

with credit for

expenditures

benefiting property. 20-year

term, renewable.

Holder of prospecting permit

entitled to

preference in obtaining a lease.

Known mineral

lands leased by

competitive bid

on cash bonus,

royalty rate,

profit share or

other single

biddable factor.

Minimum annual

rent $1.00 per

acre. Twentyyear term,

renewable for

10-year terms.

No size limit.

made in the public interest.

Approval from

Fish and Game

Dept. required

All leases must

comply with

environmental

impact report requirements.

When not otherwise limited by

law, nonexclusive use of

unoccupied submerged lands

shall not be denied to any citizen or resident.

Leases may not

“substantially

impair the public

rights to navigation and fishing

or interfere with

the trust upon

which the lands

are held. ”

minerals.

Pilot mining for

gold in marine

placers off

Nome took

place in 1985

and 1986. Fullscale mining is

planned for

1987. Formerly

extensive dredging of shell deposits for cement, now

exhausted. No

current commercial activity

other than oil

and gas.

A few prospecting permits have

been issued, but

no discoveries

have been reported. Some interest in sand

and gravel, but

no active

mining.

Alaska Stat.

$38.05.250

(1984). Alaska

Admin. Code tit.

11 ch. 62 (Jan.

1981).

Cal. Pub. Res.

Code $$6371 and

6890 to 6900

(West 1977)

(supp. 1985). Cal.

Admin. Code tit.

2552200 to

2205.
Table A-1.—State Mining Laws-Continued

Environmental Current or

State Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity

Connecticut . . . . . . . Department of

Environmental

Protection,

Water Resource

Unit

Delaware. . . . . . . . . . Department of

Natural Resources and

Environmental

Control

Florida . . . . . . . . . . . Department of

Natural Resources, State

Lands Division

and Bureau of

Geology

Not specified.

Non-exclusive

permit, two year

term, renewable.

No preferential

right to lease.

Nonexclusive

use agreement

and geophysical

testing permit

required. Oneyear term,

renewable for

second year.

Permit required

for taking material from tidal or

coastal waters.

Payment required if material used for

commercial purpose. Hearing

required unless

environmental

impact not significant. Bond

for damage.

Feasibility of

leasing determined after a

public hearing.

Competitive

bid/cash bonus.

Primary term of

10 years, continued for as

long as production takes place.

Maximum area

six square miles.

Minimum royalty

12.5%, with

credit for rent

paid. Minimum

rent $.25 per

acre. Production

must begin

within three

years of discovery of paying

quantity of

minerals.

Lease required

for exploration

and development, competitive bid/cash

bonus.

“due regard for

the prevention

and alleviation

of shore erosion, the protection of necessary shellfish

grounds and fin

fish habitats, the

preservation of

necessary wildlife habitats.”

Prior to inviting

bids, state must

consider

whether leasing

would create air,

water, or other

pollution.

Coastal waters

managed primarily for natural

conditions and

propagation of

fish and wildlife.

Adverse activities allowed only

if there is no

reasonable alternative and adequate mitigation

is proposed.

Must consider

development of

adjoining uplands, rights of

riparian owners,

navigation facilities.

State must consider any detriment to people

owning property

or working in

the area, interference with

residential or

recreational use,

esthetic and

scenic values of

coast, interference with commerce and navigation. State

may allow reasonable, nonconflicting uses

of lease area.

Recreation, fishing, and boating

are primary

uses. Compatible secondary

uses may be allowed if they do

not detract from

or interfere with

primary uses.

None at present

time.

Some oil and

gas exploration

is starting.

Some inquiries

but no activity

with hard

minerals.

Sand and shell

extraction on a

small scale. A

mineral survey

of Gulf waters is

underway.

Statutes and

Comments regulations

Corm. Gen. Stat.

Ann. $$22a-383

to 22a-390 (West

1985).

Very detailed Del. Code Ann.

statute. Re- tit. 7 ch. 61

quires consider- (1983).

ation and

balancing of

conflicting interest.

Recent applica- Fla. Stat. Ann.

tions for oil, 5253.45 (West,

gas, and mineral 1975). Fla. Adexploration per- min. Code ch.

mits prompted a 16C-26, 16Q-21,

adoption of ma- & 18-21.

rine prospecting

rules in early

1987.
Table A-1.—State Mining Laws—Continued

Environmental Current or Statutes and

State Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity Comments regulations

Georgia. . . . . . . . . . . State Properties

Commission

Hawaii. . . . . . . . . . . . Land Management Division,

Board of Land

and Natural Resources

Louisiana . . . . . . . . . Department of

Natural Resources, Mineral

Resources

Office

State may enter

into contract for

exploration without competitive

bidding. State

inspects or surveys land it

desires to lease.

Permit required.

No minerals may

be removed beyond quantity

needed for testing and analysis.

Logs and assays

turned over to

State but kept

confidential. Information may

be released if

permitee does

not apply for a

lease within six

months.

State undertakes

inspection, including geophysical and

geological surveys in areas

proposed for

leasing,

Competitive bid,

minimum royalty

is 1/8 of production, Minimum

annual rent rises

from $.10 per

acre in the first

year to $1.00 per

acre in the

fourth and subsequent years.

Primary lease

term is 10 years.

Granted at public auction following public

hearing. Term of

65 years or less

at Board’s discretion. Mining

to commence

within three

years of signing

lease, but lease

may allow for an

additional period

during which

lessee is required to spend

money on research and development to

establish economical mining

and processing

methods for the

deposit. Not

more than four

square miles per

lease, but no

limit on number

of leases held

by one person.

Offered by competitive bid.

As far as practicable, prevent

pollution of

water, destruction of fish, oysters, and marine

life.

Leases must

“comply with all

water and air

pollution control

laws”

Not specified.

As far as practicable, prevent

obstruction of

navigation.

Applications for

mining leases

shall be disapproved if the

State determines

that the existing

or reasonably

foreseeable future use would

be of greater

benefit to the

State than proposed mining.

Not specified.

Some extraction

on inland waterways but none

offshore.

No present

ocean mining

within State

jurisdiction. The

draft EIS for a

proposed marine

mineral lease

sale was issued

by a StateFederal Manganese Crust

Work Group in

early 1987.

Sand for beach

nourishment, soliciting sulphur

leases. Interest

in salt domes,

mainly for

sulphur-bearing

cap rocks. Some

commercial interest in placer

deposits of eastern delta.

Ga. Code Ann.

$50-16-43 (1965).

Hawaii Rev. Stat.

ch. 182 (1968)

1986 Hawaii

Sess. Law 91

(Ocean and Submerged Lands

Leasing).

La. Rev. Stat.

Ann. $$30:121 to

30: 179.14 (West

1975) (supp.

1966).
Table A-1.—State Mining Laws—Continued

Environmental

State

Current or Statutes and

Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity Comments regulations

Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . Maine Geological Survey

Maryland. . . . . . . . . . Maryland Geological Survey,

Coastal and Estuarine Branch

Massachusetts . . . . Department of

Environmental

Quality Engineering

One-year term,

renewable for

five years. Annual rent rises

from $.25 per

acre in the first

year to $5.00 per

acre in the fifth.

Annual report of

exploration results required,

kept confidential

for term of

permit.

Not specified.

License and

public hearing

required. Duration and cost

not specified.

Exploration

claim may be

converted to

lease after public hearing. Royalty set case by

case, “reasonably related to

applicable

royalty rates

generally prevailing. ”

Permit required

for removal and

sale of material

Lease required,

reviewed at public hearing. A

thorough and

reliable survey

of the resources

and environmental risks is

required. Survey

to be made public at least 30

days before

hearing.

Post bond to reclaim area and

to protect

against damage

to property outside lease area.

Must follow requirements of

State wetlands

act.

Mining prohibited in shellfish areas or in

shellfish and finfish spawning,

nursery, or feeding grounds.

Mining prohibited where

hazardous

wastes have

been dumped.

Not specified

Not specified.

May not unreasonably interfere with navigation, fishing, or

conservation of

natural resources.

No present mining. A copper

mine extending

into the sea

stopped production about 10

years ago.

Coastal waters

being surveyed

to 100 meter isobath. Detailed

mineral studies

may begin next

year after general survey is

complete.

Shell removal in

Chesapeake

Bay. Past dredging in Baltimore

harbor resulted

in sale of sand

and gravel. Currently mapping

sediment distribution on continental shelf.

May look at

heavy minerals if

initial findings

warrant. Some

spot checking

for sand and

gravel in Bay,

anticipating

need to replace

on-land sources

supplanted by

development.

No mining at

present, some

beach nourishment projects.

Nearly all

coastal waters

are protected as

ocean sanctuaries. Area potentially available for mining

is around Boston harbor

where a 1972-

1973 survey indicated a high

concentration of

sand and gravel.

Coastal zone restrictions may

make seabed

mining difficult.

No statute directly regulates.

State uses wetlands and

coastal zone

statutes to set

terms for permit.

Me. Rev. Stat.

tit. 12, $$549 to

558A (1985).

Mass. Gen.

Laws Ann. ch.

12 $j54 to 56

(West 1981).

Mass. Admin.

Code tit. 310 ch.

29 (1983).
.

Table A-1.—State Mining Laws—Continued

Environmental Current or Statutes and

State Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity Comments regulations

Mississippi. . . . . . . . Department of

Natural Resources, Bureau

of Geology,

Mineral Lease

Division

New Hampshire. . . . Department of

Resources and

Economic Development

New Jersey . . . . . . . Tidelands Resource Council

Permit required.

Data must be

provided to

State but remains confidential for ten

years.

Prospecting permit required.

One-year term,

renewable.

Not specified.

Territorial waters

are surveyed

and divided into

96 lease blocks

up to 6,000

acres in size.

Competitive

bid/cash bonus.

Minimum royalty

of 3/16 of minerals extracted.

Duration not

specified in

statute.

Prospector who

discovers a deposit may mine

upon filing a

claim and obtaining a permit.

Lease terms (duration, royalty,

special conditions) to be determined upon

application for

lease.

License required

to remove sand

or other material

from state

waters. Council

determines duration and compensation.

Leases are

renewable.

Riparian owners

have priority for

leases adjacent

to shore.

Exploration in Not specified

wildlife management areas or

Mississippi

Sound or tidelands subject to

review by Wildlife Conservation

Department. 2

percent of royalties are dedicated to management of waters,

land, and wildlife and to cleanup of pollution

from exploration

or extraction.

Permit may be Not specified.

denied if area is

unsuitable for

mining for environmental reasons or the

reclamation

plans or pollution prevention

measures are insufficient.

Not specified. Not specified.

Oil and gas

leases, no hard

mineral activity

No commercial

activity. Survey

work is being

done in State

and Federal

coastal waters.

Sand and gravel

being dredged at

edge of Ambrose Channel.

Mining statute

directed at onshore activity.

Payments go to

school trust

fund

Miss. Code Ann.

Ij$29-7-l to 29-7-

17 (1965).

N.H. Rev. Stat.

Ann. ch. 12-E

(1961).

N.J. Stat. Ann.

f\12:3-12, 12:3-21

to 12:3-25.
Table A-1.—State Mining Laws—Continued

Environmental Current or Statutes and

State Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity Comments regulations

New York . . . . . . . . . Land Resources

Division, Office

of General

Services

North Carolina. . . . . Department of

Natural Resources and

community development

Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . Division of State

Lands

Not specified. License required, royalty

paid to State

based on production

Not specified. Not specified. Sand and gravel

removal in lower

New York harbor

has been in

abeyance since

1984. The State

is in the final

stages of preparing a 10- year

program for renewed sand and

gravel dredging.

The

environmental

impact statement for a blanket water quality

certificate is

nearly complete.

This would allow

the State to

lease under a

long-term management program rather than

react to applications case by

case.

N.Y. Pub. Lands

Law j22 (McKinney 1986).

Not specified.

Non-exclusive

permit, no preferential right to

discovered

minerals. Twoyear term, renewable. Drilling

records must be

filed with state.

Full exploration

record may have

to be filed as a

condition of

granting a lease.

‘Within designated boundaries for definite

periods of time

. . . upon terms

and conditions

as may be

deemed wise

and expedient

by the State . . .“

Ten-year term,

renewable. Hearing required if

significant public interest is affected.

Public hearing

to determine if

inviting bids

would be in the

public interest.

Competitive

bid/cash bonus.

Minimum royalty

1/8 of gross production. Minimum annual rent

of $.50 per acre,

credited toward

any royalty due.

Ten-year term,

renewed for as

long as production takes place.

Drilling must begin within five

years and production must begin within three

years of discovery.

A permit may be

denied if it will

have “unduly adverse effects on

wildlife or fresh

water, estuarine,

or marine fisheries,” or if it

will violate air or

water quality

standards.

Fish and Wildlife Department

must be consulted prior to

permit or lease.

State must consider scenic

values, air or

water pollution,

danger to marine life or

wildlife.

All leases or

sales made subject to rights of

navigation.

State must consider any detriment to people

working, living,

or owning property in the area,

interference with

residential or

recreational use,

or interference

with commerce

or navigation.

Moratorium on

mining in State

waters since

1979. Recent request to explore

for sand and

gravel denied

due to water

quality concerns. Task

force being

formed to study

feasibility of

phosphate

mining.

Survey of ocean

resources recently completed. Intensive

survey of Gorda

Ridge (Federal

waters) summer

of 1986. No mining activity.

Proceeds from

sales go to

Dept. of Natural

Resources for

administrative

costs and for

development

and conservation of State’s

natural resources.

Administrative

rules for commercial offshore

oil, gas & sulphur surveys

adopted June

1986. Rules for

hard minerals &

academic research are being

prepared.

N.C. Gen. Stat.

5$74-50 to 74-68,

143 B-389, 146-8

(1985).

Or. Rev. Stat.

$273.551 and

274.705 to

274.860 (1981).
Table A-1.—State Mining Laws—Continued

Environmental Current or Statutes and

State Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity Comments regulations

Rhode Island . . . . . . Coastal Re- Not specified.

sources Management

Council

South Carolina . . . . Land Resources Not specified.

and Conservation Commission

Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . General Land Of- Exclusive permit

fice, Petroleum up to 640 acres.

and Mineral De- One-year term,

velopment renewable for up

to four additional years.

Minimum annual

rent of $.25 per

acre. Quarterly

report required,

information remains confidential for as long

as prospecting

or mining permit

is held.

Permit from

Council required.

Lease required.

Minimum royalty

of 1/8 of production.

Proposed lease

must evidence

discovery of a

commercial deposit and offer

terms comparable to the best

lease in the

area. Primary

term of 20 years

and for as long

thereafter as

minerals are produced in paying

quantities. First

year rental at

least $2.00 per

acre. Subsequent years,

$1.00 per acre

against a minimum royalty of

1/16 of value of

minerals produced. Monthly

royalty report required.

The Rhode lsIand Coastal Resources Management Program

classifies State

waters and

coastal areas,

establishing permitted uses and

development

procedures for

each type of

area.

All leases are

subject to conservation laws.

Lease may include any provisions considered “necessary

for protection of

the interests of

the State.”

See Environmental Protection.

Not specified.

Not specified.

No present activity.

No mining or exploration at

present time.

There are known

phosphate deposits in shallow water, but

no commercial

interest at

present.

No hard mineral

activity. No

known resources

other than oil

and gas in state

waters.

The Council has

authority over all

development in

State waters and

over land development which

relates to or

may conflict

with or damage

the coastal environment. Mining

is prohibited on

beaches and

dunes and in

tidal waters and

in salt ponds.

R.I. Gen. Laws

tit. 46, ch. 23

(1985).

S.C. Code Ann.

tit. 10, ch. 9 (Law

Co-Op. 1976).

Tex. Nat. Res.

Code ch. 53

(1986). Tex. Admin. Code tit. 31

$$13.31 to 13.36

(1979).
Table A-1 .—State Mining Laws—Continued

Environmental Current or Statutes and

State Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity Comments regulations

Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . Marine Re- Not specified. Permit required

sources Com- for removal of

mission material. Lease

term five years,

renewable.

Royalty not less

than $.20 nor

more than $.60

per cubic yard

of material

removed.

Washington . . . . . . . Department of Lease required, Twenty-year

Natural Re- two year term, term, renewable.

sources renewable. An- First four years

nual rent of $.25 are prospecting

per acre. Con- or exploration

vertible to period.

mining contract.

Holder of

prospecting

lease has preference to mining

contract. Lease

no less than 40

acres nor more

than 640 acres,

no limit on number of leases per

person.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987,

Not specified. No lease may interfere with public rights to fishing, fowling, or

taking of shellfish. Seasonal

dredging limitations may be imposed to lessen

adverse effects

on fisheries.

Work must be If land to be

“consistent with mined has algeneral conser- ready been

vation prin- Ieased for

ciples. ” another purpose,

lessee is to be

compensated for

any damage

caused by mining or

prospecting.

No current mining. Ongoing research reveals

good possibility

of commercial

titanium-bearing

minerals in State

and Federal

waters.

Some prospecting in black

sands area at

mouth of the

Columbia River.

The State is preparing a subaqueous minerals

management

plan and is combining field research with a

legislative program to meet future development needs.

Va. Code $j62.1-

3 and 62.1-4

(1986). Subaquaeous Guidelines, Va. Marine

Resources

Comm. (1986).

Wash. Rev. Code

Ann. ff79.01.616

to 79.01.650

(1985) Wash. Admin. Code ch.

332-16 (1977).
290 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

to education, to administration of the mining program,

to resource conservation, to management and research

programs, to the agency having management responsibility for the leased property, and to local governments.

Many States require work to proceed at a minimum

rate. Some simply require ‘‘diligence’ or a ‘‘good faith

effort’ or may specify a time limit for starting production (3 years in Delaware and Hawaii, 4 years in Washington). Other States require minimum expenditures

for development or improvements ($2.50 per acre annually in Washington). In Hawaii, the lease may provide for an initial research period during which the lessee is required to undertake research and development

to establish economic mining and processing methods

for the mineral deposit.

Environmental Protection:

Environmental regulations may require preparation

of an environmental impact analysis for each project.

Some States prepare a blanket analysis as part of a comprehensive management program, anticipating individual applications. Many statutes identify special areas

to be protected or avoided. These include shellfish beds

and spawning, nursery, or feeding grounds (Connecticut, Georgia, Massachusetts, and Virginia), areas that

are part of the beach sand circulation system, and areas

where hazardous wastes have been dumped (Massachusetts). Environmental review also requires coordination

with other agencies and statutes. Among these are fish

and wildlife departments, air and water quality laws,

and coastal zone management agencies.

Conflicting Uses:

Some States identify certain uses as primary or protected, and conflicting uses are prohibited or restricted.

Fishing and navigation rights are most commonly mentioned as protected. Virginia may impose seasonal

dredging limitations to protect commercially or recreationally important fisheries. Florida gives priority to

maintaining natural conditions and propagation of fish

and wildlife. Recreation, fishing, and boating are primary uses, Rhode Island State waters are classified by

use (from conservation areas to industrial waterfronts)

with permitted activities and development spelled out

for each class. Connecticut, Delaware, and Oregon require that impacts on upland property owners or users

be considered. Hawaii would not allow mining if the

existing or reasonably foreseeable use of the property

would be of greater benefit to the State. Delaware and

Oregon require scenic values to be considered. Pipelines, cables, and aids to navigation are protected by

minimum setbacks. Setbacks from shore are specified

in some cases, Florida requires oil and gas leases to be

at least 1 mile offshore. Other leases are prohibited from

the 3-foot low water depth landward to the nearest paved

road. Massachusetts prohibits mining in nearshore areas

that supply beach sediments, generally to the 80-foot

depth contour.

Public Participation:

About half the States require published notice of a

proposed lease, either in a statewide newspaper or in

the affected county or both. About one-quarter of the

States require a public hearing before granting a lease.

Two require a hearing prior to granting a prospecting

permit. Massachusetts requires an applicant to disclose

‘‘reliable information as to the quantities, quality and

location of the resource available . . .“

Regulation and Enforcement:

All States reserve the right to inspect the work site

and the prospecting or mining records. Exploration results, development work, and materials mined and sold

must be reported. Reporting periods vary from monthly

to annual.

The States generally require bonds or insurance to

cover faithful performance of the contract, reclamation

of the site, and cleanup of pollution resulting from exploration or mining and to indemnify the State against

claims arising from the project.

Permits or leases may be revoked for failure to diligently pursue exploration or mining, for failure to meet

reporting requirements, or for failure to pay rents or

royalties. Revocation is generally an administrative act

by the managing State agency and is subject to administrative or judicial appeal. Revocation may be partial,

allowing the operator to keep production sites not in

default.

Current Activities

There is little offshore mining in State waters at the

present time. Sand, gravel, and shell are the only materials currently with significant commercial markets.

Existing operations include sand and gravel dredging

on the New York and New Jersey sides of Ambrose

Channel in lower New York harbor, sand and shell extraction in Florida, shell extraction in Chesapeake Bay,

and a pilot gold dredging project off Nome, Alaska. In

addition, there are non-commercial beach nourishment

programs using offshore sand. The absence of other

activity is variously attributed by State officials to a lack

of mineral resources, a lack of information about any

resources that may exist, or to the higher cost of ocean

mining compared to onshore mining of the same material.
App. A—State Management of Seabed Minerals ● 291

The general lack of mining activity means that few

of the statutes have been actually tested. But there are

several States where recent exploration has spurred a

review of existing laws. The Virginia legislature established a Subaqueous Minerals and Materials Study

Commission. Now in its third year, the Commission’s

mandate is ‘ ‘to determine if the subaqueous minerals

and materials of the commonwealth exist in commercial quantities and if the removal, extraction, use, disposition, or sale of these materials can be adequately

managed to ensure the public interest. The commission is preparing recommendations for systematic exploration of seabed resources (supplementing the present

cooperative effort by the Minerals Management Service, Virginia Division of Mineral Resources, and the

Virginia Institute of Marine Science), a subaqueous

minerals management plan, and statutory changes

(some already adopted) to guide future development.

Public debate over a 1984 permit for seismic studies

in the Columbia River prompted Oregon to review its

laws. In particular, there was concern with protecting

established fishing and navigation interests, maintaining the quality of the marine environment, and providing adequate public input into what had been an inhouse agency review process. The Division of State

Lands adopted administrative rules for commercial offshore oil, gas, and sulphur surveys in June 1986. It is

now preparing administrative rules covering geologic

and geophysical surveys by commercial hard mineral

prospectors and for academic research. A recent change

in Oregon State law permits the Division of State Lands

to enter into exploration contracts whereby a prospector would have a preference right to develop and recover

minerals should the State move to actually permit ocean

mineral development.

Florida adopted marine prospecting rules in January

1987 to cope with a growing number of applications to

explore for oil, gas, and other minerals in State waters.

The North Carolina Office of Marine Affairs is beginning a long range project to develop a marine resources management program.

Conclusion

While the States are for the most part inexperienced

in managing seabed minerals, they have the ability to

develop effective programs. Knowledge and resources

from established coastal zone management, water quality, and hydrocarbon development can be readily

tapped. Expertise is also available from academic marine science programs and State geological survey

offices. As projects continue, the States have used them

as a basis for reviewing their existing management programs and for making improvements.

Since 1983, the Minerals Management Service has

been funding State marine minerals research under an

annual cooperative agreement with the Texas Bureau

of Economic Geology of the University of Texas at Austin. All of the coastal States and Puerto Rico have participated in this program at various times since it began. State research projects focus on both petroleum and

hard minerals and range from general surveys of a

State’s seabed to detailed geologic studies and economic

evaluations of specific mineral occurrences. Some of the

research extends into Federal waters. The agreement

for the fifth year of this program (fiscal year 1987) is

now being prepared. Funding has been approximately

$550,000 annually, with about 18 States participating

each year.

While a State’s role in the Exclusive Economic Zone

has yet to be defined, State-Federal task forces have been

formed for areas where promising deposits have been

found. The task forces’ mission is to appraise the commercial potential of the deposits and to oversee the preparation of environmental impact statements for leasing

proposals. Such task forces have been formed with Hawaii (cobalt-rich manganese crusts), Oregon and California (polymetallic sulfides in the Gorda Ridge), North

Carolina (phosphorites), Georgia (heavy minerals), and

the Gulf States (sand, gravel, and heavy minerals off

Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, and Louisiana). The

functioning of these task forces may provide a needed

test of Federal-State cooperation.

If sand and gravel and other nearshore deposits are

likely to be the first to be developed, it is also likely that

operations will overlap State and Federal jurisdiction.

Even activities entirely in Federal waters may concern

the States because of environmental effects extending

beyond the mining site, economic and social effects of

onshore support facilities, or effects on local fishing,

navigation, and recreational interests. Proposed mining operations would benefit from a system of compatible Federal and State requirements. Federal support for

work by the States can take two paths: continued support for field research to gain better knowledge of marine resources, and support for legislative efforts to develop consistent systems for environmentally sound and

economically feasible seabed mining.
Appendix B

The Exclusive Economic Zone and

U.S. Insular Territories

U.S. Territorial Law

In addition to the waters off the 50 States, the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) includes the waters contiguous to the insular territories and possessions of the

United States.: This inclusion is significant in that the

islands include only 1.5 percent of the population and

0.13 percent of the land area of the United States*, but

30 percent of the area of the EEZ.3 This appendix discusses the legal relationship between the United States

and these islands, with attention to the power of the U.S.

to proclaim and manage the EEZ around them.

The general principle of Federal authority has been

that, “In the Territories of the United States, Congress

has the entire dominion and sovereignty, national and

local, Federal and State, and has full legislative power

over all subjects upon which the legislature of a State

might legislate within the State . . "4 This claim of

complete power has been modified for some islands by

statutes and compacts granting varying degrees of autonomy to the local population. The discussion below

classifies the islands into three categories distinguished

by the degree of Federal control and local self-government. The first group (A) includes eight small islands,

originally uninhabited, which are under the direct management jurisdiction of Federal agencies. The second

group (B) includes American Samoa, Guam, and the

Virgin Islands. These islands are largely self-governing

but subject to supervision by the Department of the Interior. The third group (C) includes Puerto Rico and

the Northern Marianas whose commonwealth status

gives them the full measure of internal self-rule where

Federal supervisory power is greatly reduced.

Group A

Palmyra Atoll. —Claimed by both Hawaii and the

United States early in the 19th century, Palmyra was

annexed to the U.S. with Hawaii in 1898. The Hawaii

Statehood Bill excluded Palmyra (as well as Midway,

Johnston Island, and Kingman Reef) from the territory

‘Proclamation No. 5030, 3 C. F.R. 22 ( 1984), mprintecf in 16 U. S.C. A. 1453

(1985). /

‘U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1986,

6 (1985).

‘C. Ehler and D. Basta, “Strategic Assessment of Multiple Resource-Use

Conflicts in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, ” OCEANS ’84 Conference

Proceeding, 2 (NOAA Reprint, 1984).

4Simms v. Simms, 175 U.S. 162, 168 ( 1899).

of the new State.5 The island is privately owned and

uninhabited. By executive order it is under the Department of the Interior’s jurisdiction.6

Johnston Island. —Claimed by the United States and

Hawaii in 1858, Johnston Island was annexed to the

U.S. in 1898. In the late 1950s and early 1960s the island was the launch site for atmospheric nuclear tests.

A caretaker force maintains the site and operations center for the Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA), which is

responsible for the island. About 500 U.S. Army personnel are on Johnston, preparing a disposal system for

obsolete chemical weapons stored there. Entry is controlled by DNA.7

Kingman Reef. —This island was annexed by the

United States in 1922. Most of it is awash during high

water. The island is under the U.S. Navy’s jurisdiction,8

but no personnel or facilities are maintained on it.

Midway Islands. —Annexed in 1867, Midway has

been managed by the U.S. Navy since 1903.9 The Midway Naval Station was closed in 1981, leaving a naval

air facility as the only active military installation.

Wake Island. —Wake has been claimed by the

United States since 1899. Initially assigned to the U.S.

Navy, Wake was transferred to the Department of the

Interior (DOI) in 196210 and is now administered by

the Air Force under special agreement with DOI. 11

Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands.—Originally

claimed under the Guano Act of 1856,12 these islands

were formally annexed by the United States in 1934.

They were assigned to DOI 2 years later.13 Briefly colonized during the 1930s by settlers from Hawaii, the

islands have been uninhabited since World War II.

Comment.–Johnston, Midway, and Wake Islands

and Kingman Reef have been declared Naval defense

areas and Naval airspace reservations. They are subject to special access restrictions, some of which are suspended but which may be reinstated without notice.

5Pub1ic Law 86-3 $2, 73 Stat. 4 ( 1959).

bExecutive Order No, 10967, 26 Fed. Reg. 9667 (1961).

7

32 C.F. R. 761 .4(c)(1985).

‘Executive Order No. 6935, Dec. 29, 1934,

‘Executive Order No. 11048, 27 Fed, Reg. 8851 ( 1962), superseding Executive Order No. 199-4, Jan. 20, 1903.

IOExecutjve Order No. 11048, 27 Fed. Reg 8851 ( 1962).

1137 Fed. Reg. 12255 (1972).

)248 IJ. S,C. 1411 to 1419 (1982).

IJExecutive order No. 7368, 1 Fed. Reg. 405 ( 1936).

I*32 C.F, R. 761 (1985).

292
App. B—The Exclusive Economic Zone and U.S. Insular Territories ● 293

The Federal District Court of Hawaii has jurisdiction over civil and criminal matters arising on the eight

islands in this group. 15

Group B

American Samoa.—U. S. interest in the islands of

American Samoa dates back to the middle of the 19th

century, and for a time there were conflicting claims

with the United Kingdom and Germany. These claims

were settled by a treaty in which Germany and the U.K.

renounced all of their rights and claims to the islands

east of 171 degrees west longitude in favor of the United

States. ’G On April 17, 1900, sovereignty over Tutuila,

Aunu’u, and their dependent islands was ceded to the

U.S. by their chiefs. The Manu’a islands were similarly

ceded on July 14, 1904.17 The cessions were formally

accepted by Congress in 1929.18 The United States extended sovereignty over Swains Island (originally

claimed under the Guano Act) and added it to American Samoa in 1925.19

The act accepting sovereignty over Samoa states that

until Congress provides otherwise, ‘‘all civil, judicial,

and military powers shall be vested in such person or

persons and shall be exercised in such manner as the

President of the United States shall direct. ’20 The U.S.

Navy administered American Samoa21 until authority

was transferred to DOI in 1951.22 The islands are largely

self-governing under a constitution adopted in 1966,

with DOI exercising only general supervision. The constitution is subject to amendment by Congress .23 While

the cessions, constitution, and statutes of Samoa protect traditional local government and land tenure, all

are silent as to any use of the sea beyond the 3-mile territorial limit (tidal and submerged lands have been

transferred to the territorial government24). The cessions

required respect for local property rights and recognition of the traditional authority of the chiefs over their

towns, while ‘‘all sovereign rights thereunto belonging’

were granted to the United States. Article 1, Section 3

of the American Samoa constitution declares it to be the

policy of the government ‘‘to protect persons of Samoan

ancestry against alienation of their lands and the destruction of the Samoan way of life and language . . "

IJ48 U S C 644a (1982).

I Convention for [he Adjustment of Questions Relating to Samoa, Dec. 2,

1899, United States—Germany—Great Britain, 31 Stat. 1878

I TThe ~e~~ion~ am reproduced in the historical documents section of the American Samoa Code Annotated.

1845 Stat 1253, 48 U .S. C 1661 ( 1982).

Ig43 Stat $357, 48 U .S.C 1662 ( 1982).

2048 U.S C. 1661(c) ( 1982)

21 Executive order No. 125-4, Feb 19, 1900.

2zExecutive Order No. 10,264, 16 Fed. Reg 6419.

2348 U S C 1662a ( 1982).

2448 U S C. 1705 ( 1982)

The American Samoa code implements this policy, preserving ‘‘customs not in conflict with the laws of American Samoa and of the United States . . "25

Guam.— Spain took possession of Guam along with

the other Mariana Islands in the 16th century. The

treaty ending the Spanish-American war ceded Guam

to the United States. 26 Article VIII of the treaty ceded

crown lands to the U.S. Government and guaranteed

protection of existing municipal, church, and private

property rights. The U.S. Navy administered the island

until 1949 when DOI took over.27 Since then, Guam

has been governed under the Organic Act of 1950, as

amended. 28

The governor and legislature are locally elected and

are responsible for most matters of internal governance.

DOI’s role is to provide “general administrative supervision. ” The Department is most active in the areas of

budget, capital improvements, and technical advice.

Congress reserves the power to annul local legislation.

A proposed constitution failed to win popular approval

in 1979. Since that time, efforts have been redirected

toward settling the island’s status before another constitutional convention is called. Guam residents strongly

favored commonwealth status in a 1982 referendum and

a proposed commonwealth act will be presented to the

voters in Guam on August 8, 1987.29

Virgin Islands.—The U.S. Virgin Islands were

ceded to the United States by Denmark in 1916.30 The

rights to crown property were transferred to the U.S.

Government, while municipal, church, and private property rights were preserved. Other than a few exceptions

named in the treaty, Denmark guaranteed the cession

to be “free and unencumbered by any reservations,

privileges, franchises, [or] grants . . "

The U.S. Virgin Islands are self-governing under the

Organic Act of 193631 and the Revised Organic Act of

1954, as amended.32 The popularly elected legislature

and governor have authority over local matters but Congress retains the power to annul insular legislation .33

Matters of Federal concern are ‘ ‘under the general

administrative supervision of the Secretary of the Interior. DOI’s role is mainly administration and auditing of Federal funds appropriated for the islands.

2jAm, Samoa Code Ann, $1.0202 ( 1983).

‘cTreaty of Peace, Dec. 10, 1898, United States-Spare, 30 Stat 1754

27 Execut,Y,e Order NO. 10077, 14 Fed. Reg 5523 ( 1949)

Zscodified at 48 USC. 1421 et seq ( 1982)

29Guam commission on Se] f. Determina[ ion, ‘ ‘The Draft Guam Commonwealth Act” (June 11, 1986)

SoConlrention for cession of the Danish West Indies, Aug. 4, 1916, United

States—Denmark, 39 Stat. 1706.

!148 U ,S, C. 1391 et ‘er? (1982 )

3248 U .S. C. 1541 et seq. ( 1982)

334fJ U S,C 1574(c) ( 1982)
294 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Like Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands are authorized

to draft their own constitution .34 The most recent of several proposed constitutions was turned down by voters

in 1981. At the present time, the issues of a constitution and status are in abeyance.

Comment.— All three of these territories enjoy a large

measure of self-rule, but under the territorial clause of

the Constitution35 their governments are, in effect, Federal agencies exercising delegated power. Neither the

initial cessions nor any subsequent grant of local power

have insulated the islands from highly discretionary Federal authority.

The Executive Branch, acting through the Department of the Interior, maintains fiscal and other supervisory powers. Congress retains the right to approve and

amend local constitutions or to annul local statutes. It

appears that nothing in domestic law would impede the

establishment and development of EEZs around these

islands.

Group C

Puerto Rico. —Spain ruled Puerto Rico from 1508

until 1898. The island was ceded to the United States

by the Treaty of Paris under the same terms and conditions as Guam.36 After nearly 2 years of military rule,

the island was administered under Organic Acts passed

in 190037 and 1917.38 In 1950 Congress passed the Puerto

Rican Federal Relations Act ‘‘in the nature of a compact so that the people of Puerto Rico may organize a

government pursuant to a constitution of their own

adoption. ’39 This Act provided for the automatic repeal of those sections of the 1917 Act pertaining to local

concerns and the structure of the island’s government.

The repeal was effective upon adoption and proclamation of the constitution in 1952, and Puerto Rico then

‘‘ceased to be a territory of the United States subject

to the plenary powers of Congress . . "40 The government of Puerto Rico no longer exercises delegated power,

and its constitution and laws may not be amended by

Congress.

The Puerto Rico constitution establishes the commonwealth and declares that ‘‘political power emanates from

the people, to be exercised according to their will within

the terms of the compact between them and the United

States. "

41 “Commonwealth” is an undefined term and,

as noted above, the ‘‘compact’ is not a comprehensive

3+PubliC LaW 94-584, 90 Stat. 2899 ( 1976), as amended by Public Law 96-

597, 94 Stat. 3479 (1980).

93u, s, Const, art. IV, $3.

3%ee note 26, above.

3TThe Foraker Act, ch. 191, 31 Stat. 77 (1900).

38The Jones Act, ch. 145, 39 Stat. 951 (1917).

3gCh, 446, 64 Stat. 319 (1950).

*“United States v. Quinones, 758 F.2d 40, 42 (1985).

+Ip, R, Const. art. I, $1.

agreement but the residue of the 1917 Organic Act from

which the irrelevant provisions have been stripped. It

has remained for the courts to struggle toward clarification of this status.

Puerto Rico is subject to the U.S. Constitution but

“like a state, is an autonomous political entity, ‘sovereign over matters not ruled by the Constitution."42

Federal laws “not locally inapplicable” have the same

force and effect in Puerto Rico as in the States.43 Federal statutes may exempt Puerto Rico or may include

it on terms different from the States .44 Relations between

the courts of Puerto Rico and the Federal courts are the

same as those for State courts .45 The principles of deference and comity apply to Federal court review of Puerto

Rico’s legislative, executive, and judicial acts.46

For all of its State-like attributes, commonwealth status is inherently ambiguous. Congressional power to

treat the island differently leaves Puerto Rico uncertain

as to its participation in important Federal programs.

Court cases resolving specific issues do not provide a

coherent, overall definition of the scope of local authority. What President Johnson called a ‘‘creative and flexible’ relationship47 has come to be viewed as an unsatisfactory, interim arrangement. While disagreeing on

the form of the ultimate relationship, all of Puerto Rico’s

political parties agree that a clear outline of the island’s

powers vis-à-vis the Federal Government is essential .48

There are no legal obstacles to such a change. On the

island’s side, ‘‘the Constitution of the Commonwealth

of Puerto Rico does not close the door to any change

of status that the people of Puerto Rico desire . . "49

On the Federal side, there have been repeated executive50 and congressiona151 declarations that the choice

of status remains with the people of Puerto Rico.

Statehood would give Puerto Rico equal standing

with the other States in whatever management regime

Congress establishes for the EEZ. Independence would

+ZRodri~ez V. popular Democratic Party, 457 U.S. 1, 8 ( 1982) (quoting

Mora v. Mejias, 115 F. Supp 610, 612 [D. P,R, 1953]).

4348 U.S, C. 734 (1982).

tt~arrjs V, Rosat-io, 446 U.S. 651 (1980) (per curiam) (overturning a ruling

that lower A.F. D.C. payments in Puerto Rico violate the equal protection

guarantees of the Fifth Amendment under the territorial clause. ‘ ‘Congress may treat Puerto Rico differently from States so long as there is a

rational basis for its actions.

*$48 IJ, !j, C, 864 (1982).

+eRodriguez V, popular Democratic Party, supra, at 8; Hernandez-Agosto

v. Romero-Barcelo, 748 F.2d 1, 5 (lst Cir, 1984).

~TStatement in Response to the Report of the United States—Puerto Rico

Status Commission, 2 Weekly Comp, Pres, Dec. 1034 (Aug. 5, 1966),

~gp, F~k, ed., ~~e political Status of Puerto Rico (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1986); Puerto Rico’s Political Future: A Divisive Issue with Many

Dimensions (GAO Report GGD-81-48, Mar. 2, 1981).

+gPuerto Rico socj~jst parry v. Commonwea/ds, 107 p. R. Dec. 590, 606

(1978).

q Week]y Comp, Pres. Doc, 1034 (Aug. 5, 1966) (Johnson); 12 WeeUY

Comp. Pres. Dec. 1225 Uuly 7, 1976) (Ford); 13 Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc,

1374 (Sept. 17, 1977) (Carter); 18 Weekly Comp. Pres. Dec. 19 (Jan. 12, 1982)

(Reagan).

31S, Con, Res, 35, 93 Stat. 1420 ( 1979).
App. B—The Exclusive Economic Zone and U.S. Insular Territories ● 295

give the island full control and sovereignty. Under the

present system, the island’s local power does not include

rights in the EEZ. The Popular Democratic Party’s proposed modifications to the compact include local authority over the use of natural resources and the sea.52

The Northern Mariana Islands.—These islands

were colonized by Spain in the 16th century and transferred to Germany in 1899. Japan seized Germany’s Pacific possessions in 1914 and was given a mandate over

them by the League of Nations in 1920. The Marianas

were taken by the United States during World War II.

In 1947, the United States was granted a trusteeship

over the former Japanese mandated islands .53 As permitted by the charter of the United Nations, the

Trusteeship Agreement recognized both the strategic interests of the United States and the political, economic,

and social advancement of the inhabitants .54 Status negotiations with the Northern Marianas resulted in the

establishment of a commonwealth ‘‘in political union

with the United States. "55 The other three island groups

of the Trust Territory became free associated states. 56

When the U.S. EEZ was proclaimed, the Marianas

were included in the zone ‘ ‘to the extent consistent with

the Covenant and the United Nations Trusteeship

Agreement. ’57 Article 6(2) of the Trusteeship Agreement requires the United States to ‘‘promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants” by regulating the use of natural resources,

encouraging the development of fisheries, agriculture,

and industries, and protecting the inhabitants against

the loss of their lands and resources. The Covenant is

silent as to management of ocean resources but provides

for a constitution to be adopted by the people of the

Northern Mariana Islands and submitted to the United

States for approval on the basis of consistency with the

Covenant, the U.S. Constitution, and applicable laws

and treaties. 58 The constitution was adopted locally on

52pucrto R ,=0 po]iticaJ Future, supra n 48, 45

“’trusteeship Agreement for the Former Japanese N4andated Islands, July

18, 1947, 61 Stat. 3301, T. I A S, No 1665 [hereinafter ‘ ‘Trusteeship

Agreement

MU N Charter, chapter XII, Trusteeshi p Agreement, arts. 1, 5, 6.

55conVcnant t. Establish a Comrncsnweafth of the Northern Mariana Islands

m Po] it ical Union with the United States, Feb. 15, 1975, 90 Stat. 263 [hereinafter “Covenant”]

5eAs such, they are Independent countries in which U. S interest is mostiy

llm]ted to security matters The Compacts provide that the states conduct foretgn affairs in their own names, including ‘ ‘the conduct of foreign affairs relating to law of the sea and marme resource matters, including the harvesting,

conservation, exploratmn or exploitation of lwing and non-11 ~.ing resources from

the sea, seabed, or sub-soil to the full extent recognized under international

law. ” Compact of Free Association Federated States of Micronesia and Republic of the Marshall Islands and Palau, Jan. 14, 1986, 99 Stat, 1770, art. II,

$121 [hereinafter ‘ ‘Compact’ This provision puts the three states outside the

scope of the U. S Exclusive Economic Zone Proclamation No 5564, note 60,

below, effectuated the Compact with the Federated States of Micronesia and

with the Republlc of the Marshall Islands. The Compact with The Republic

of Palau is undergoing the local rat ificatlon process

$Tproc]amation No. 5030, supra note 1.

58 Covenant, art. 1 I.

March 6, 1977, and proclaimed effective on January 9,

1978 by President Carter. 59 Unlike the Covenant, the

constitution contains two provisions relevant to the EEZ.

Article XI (Public Lands) declares submerged lands off

the coast to which the Commonwealth may claim title

under U.S. law to be public lands to be managed and

disposed of as provided by law. Article XIV (Natural

Resources) provides, in Section 1, that “[t]he marine

resources in waters off the coast of the Commonwealth

over which the Commonwealth now or hereafter may

have jurisdiction under United States law shall be managed, controlled, protected and preserved by the legislature for the benefit of the people.

U.S. interest in the Northern Marianas under the

Trusteeship Agreement was administrative, not sovereign. The change to U.S. sovereignty required United

Nations approval to be implemented. On May 28, 1986,

the United Nations Trusteeship Council concluded that

U.S. obligations had been satisfactorily discharged, that

the people of the Northern Marianas had freely exercised their right to self-determination, and that it was

appropriate for the Trusteeship Agreement to be terminated. 60 On November 3, 1986, President Reagan

issued a proclamation ending the trusteeship, fully establishing the Commonwealth, and granting American

citizenship to its residents. 61 As a U.S. territory, the

Northern Marianas are now subject to U.S. law in the

manner and to the extent provided by the Convenant.

The Exclusive Economic Zone and

U.S. Territorial Law

Under our system, the authority of Congress over the

territories is both clear and absolute. This authority

originates in the constitutional grant to Congress of the

“Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and

Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property

belonging to the United States. ” Any restriction on this

power would come from the terms under which a territory was initially acquired by the United States or from

a subsequent grant of authority from Congress to the

territory. As shown above, the present territories have

no explicitly reserved or granted power to manage the

EEZ. It has also been shown that Congress may treat

the territories differently from the States as long as there

is a rational basis for its action.

The territorial clause has two purposes: to bring civil

authority to undeveloped frontier areas and to promote

their political and economic development. Its goal is the

achievement, through statehood or some other arrangement, of a clear and stable relationship between the terSgprocjamatlon No 4534, 42 Fed. Reg. 56593 ( 1977).

W T. C . Res. 2183 (LIII)( 1986)

~1 proclamation No 5564, 51 Fed. Reg 40399 ( 1986)
296 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

ritory and the rest of the Union. In the past, Federal

control over territorial affairs was tolerable because

eventual statehood would bring equality of treatment

and constitutional limitations on Federal power. There

are grounds for suggesting that the present territories

do not fit the pattern of earlier ones and that they are

“poorly served by a constitutional approach based on

evolutionary progress toward statehood. "62 Rather than

being frontier areas settled by Americans who later petitioned their government for statehood, the present territories joined the U.S. with developed cultures of their

own and may wish to preserve their uniqueness by remaining apart from the Union of States. Proposals to

develop the EEZ, like other Congressional action under the territorial clause, should recognize their special

position.

International Law Considerations

The EEZ is based on international law’s recognition

of a coastal state’s right to manage resources beyond

the Territorial Sea. President Reagan based the proclamation on this international principle and stated that

the ‘ ‘United States will exercise these sovereign rights

and jurisdiction in accordance with the rules of international law. "63 This section examines how international law may bear on the EEZ around U.S. territories.

The primary sources of international law are treaties

and international custom. 64 The former is explicit and

documented while the latter is deduced from actual practice. This review will focus on three areas relevant to

territories: the United Nations Charter and resolutions

pertaining to non-self-governing territories, the United

Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and the

practice of other countries with respect to their overseas territories.

The United Nations Charter and Resolutions

Article 73 of the United Nations Charter calls on

member states to recognize that the interests of the inhabitants of non-self-governing territories are paramount. Members are to ensure the political, economic,

social, and educational advancement of the territories

and to promote constructive measures for their development. In addition, members accept a responsibility

‘‘to develop self-government, to take due account of the

political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them

in the progressive development of their free political institutions, according to the particular circumstances of

blL~ibOWitZ united .$ta(es Feder~iSrn; The States and the Territories, 28

Am. U.L, Re’v, 449, 451 (1979),

sJproclamation No, 5030, supra n. 1.

s+ Restatement (revised) of Foreign Relations Law of the United States 102

(Tent. Draft No. 6, 1985).

each territory and its peoples and their varying stages

of advancement. "65

Two General Assembly resolutions amplify the

United Nations’ view of territories. Resolution 1514

calls for immediate steps to transfer all powers to the

people of trust and non-self-governing territories “in

accordance with their freely expressed will and desire. "66

Resolution 1541, passed a day later, establishes principles for determining when a territory reaches “a full

measure of self government. "67 Three options are recognized: independence, free association with an independent state, and integration with an independent

state. The United Nations has formally recognized the

free association status of Puerto Rico68 and of the Northern Marianas.69 The United States provides annual

reports to the United Nations concerning American

Samoa, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and they

have been the subject of occasional visiting missions

from the United Nations. Their status, along with other

non-self-governing territories has been reviewed annually by the General Assembly. The most recent resolutions are typical in calling on the United States and the

territories to safeguard the right of the territorial people to the enjoyment of their natural resources and to

develop those resources under local control.70 Significantly, the resolution concerning Guam urges the

United States ‘‘to safeguard and guarantee the right of

the people of Guam to the natural resources of the Territory, including marine resources within its exclusive

economic zone . . "

These documents do not, of their own force, require

action on the part of the United States. The Charter

and the resolutions provide the international norms under which the United States and the territories may

mutually decide the terms of their relationship. There

is an obligation on the part of the United States to promote the development of the territories while protecting their free choice of political status. This obligation

is not inconsistent with the view of the territorial clause

as promoting the political and economic development

of the territories.

The United Nations Convention on

the Law of the Sea

The United States has not signed the United Nations

Convention on the Law of the Sea because of objections

to its deep seabed mining provisions. Nevertheless, the

6SU.N, Charter, art. 73(b).

WG. A, Res 1514, 15 U.N. GAOR Supp. 16, at 66 (1960).

STG.A. Res. 1541, 15 U.N. GAOR SUpp. 16, at 29 (1960).

WG, A, Res. 748 (VIII)( 1953).

‘WC. Res. 2183 (LIII)(1986).

70G .A, Res, 41/23 (Question of American Samoa), G.A. Res. 41/24 (Question of the United States Virgin Islands), G.A. Res 41/25 (Question of Guam),

41 GAOR.%lpp. 53 (1986).
App. B—The Exclusive Economic Zone and U.S. Insular Territories 297

United States “will continue to exercise its rights and

fulfill its duties in a manner consistent with international

law, including those aspects of the Convention which

either codify customary international law or refine and

elaborate concepts which represent an accommodation

of the interests of all States and form a part of international law. The presidential statement accompanying the EEZ proclamation contains similar language. 72

The body of the Convention contains only one reference to territories. Article 305(1) provides that self-governing associated states and internally self-governing territories ‘ ‘which have competence over the matters

governed by this Convention including the competence

to enter treaties in respect of those matters’ may sign

the convention. Accompanying Resolution III declares

that in the case of territories that have not achieved a

self-governing status recognized by the United Nations,

the Convention’s provisions ‘‘shall be implemented for

the benefit of the people of the territory with a view to

promoting their well-being and development. The

former provision recognizes that territories may achieve

a degree of autonomy allowing them to participate in

international matters. The Cook Islands and Niue,

states associated with New Zealand, have signed the

Law of the Sea Treaty under Article 305( 1).73 Resolution III restates the commitments of Article 73 of the

Charter and of Resolutions 1514 and 1541. Article

305(1) and Resolution III both reiterate international

norms compatible with U.S. territorial management.

Practices of Other Countries

Where there is no treaty or other explicit source, international law may be ascertained from ‘‘the customs

and usages of civilized nations. "74 A 1978 study reviewed the law and practice of six nations with respect

to their overseas territories. 75 The study found as a general rule that metropolitan powers with overseas territories or associated states: 1) have either given the population of the overseas territory full and equal

representation in the national parliament and government or 2) have given the local government of the overseas territory jurisdiction over the resources of the EEZ.

The first category includes Denmark (Faroe Islands and

Greenland), France (overseas departments and territories), and Spain (Canary Islands). The second category

T] D~Cl~~~t,O~~ M~& upon signature of the Final Act at Montego Bay,

Jama]ca, on Dec. 10, 1982–United States of America. (Quoted in Theutenberg, The Evolution of the Law of the Sea, 223 [Dublin: Tycooly International

Publishing, 1984]).

7ZScarement On United States oceans Policy, 19 Weekly Cornp. pr’es. DOC

383 (1983).

73sta[u~ Repfl, u N convention on the Law of the Sea, ST/LEG/SER E 14

at 701 (1985).

“The Paquete Habana, 175 U S 677, 700 (1900),

75T Franck, Con(ro] of Sea Resources by Semi-Autonomous States (Washington, DC Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1978)

includes the United Kingdom (Caribbean Associated

States), New Zealand (Cook Islands and Niue), and the

Netherlands (Netherlands Antilles). While small, this

study includes all instances of overseas territories having no, or token, representation in the metropolitan government. The study concludes that the United States

represents the sole significant exception to the rule.

American territories have neither full representation nor

local control of the EEZ.

While some information in the 1978 study is no longer

current (for example, the Caribbean Associated States

are now fully independent nations), its conclusion still

seems correct. British practice, as exemplified by the

recent declaration of an exclusive fisheries zone around

the Falkland Islands, is for the national government to

establish policy and for the territorial government to implement it. Thus, the Falkland’s government will decide on the optimum level of fishing, issue licenses, and

establish and collect fees and taxes. London will provide advice and technical assistance. 76

The practice of the Netherlands is similar. Matters

of broad policy are decided in the Hague, with consideration given to the preference of the Antilles. Exploration and management are in the hands of the Antilles,

and the benefits from production would go to the islands. 77

The Territories Under International Law

Though relatively recent, the EEZ is a generally accepted concept of international law. The United States

based its proclamation on international law and declared

its intent to follow that law in managing the zone. The

declarations of the United Nations, the Law of the Sea

Convention, and the practice of other nations are not,

of themselves, mandatory upon the United States. Taken

as a whole, however, they outline international norms

for the treatment of territories. These norms suggest that

if territories are not fully integrated (and represented)

in the national government, their natural resources

should be managed for the benefit of the local population.

Territorial Laws Affecting the EEZ

Geography, history, and culture bind the territories

to the sea. All of them have adopted laws pertaining to

activities in the ocean. These range from coastal zone

management and water quality laws akin to those

adopted by the States to broad claims of jurisdiction

amounting to local EEZs.

TsCon\rersation with Robert Embleton, Second Secretary, British Embassy,

Washington, D C , Dec. 10, 1986

7TConI,erSatlon with Harold Henriquez, Netherlands Antilles Attache, Embassy of the Netherlands, Washington, D C., Dec. 10, 1986
298 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

American Samoa’s water quality standards provide

for protection of bays and open coastal waters to the 100

fathom depth contour. A permit is required for any

activity affecting water quality in these areas. 78

The U.S. Virgin Islands coastal zone management

program extends ‘‘to the outer limit of the Territorial

Sea” (3 nautical miles). Its environmental policies call

for accommodating ‘‘offshore sand and gravel mining

needs in areas and in ways that will not adversely affect

marine resources and navigation. ’79 A permit to remove

material is required and may not be granted unless such

material is not otherwise available at reasonable cost.

Removal may not significantly alter the physical characteristics of the area on an immediate or long-term basis. The Virgin Islands government collects a permit fee

and a royalty on material sold.

The U.S. Virgin Islands and American Samoa do not

assert their jurisdiction beyond the 3 nautical miles of

Territorial Sea granted to them .80 The other three selfgoverning territories have taken steps to assure themselves greater control of their marine resources.

By a law adopted in 1980, Guam defines its territory

as running 200 geographical miles seaward from the low

water mark. Within this territory, Guam claims ‘ ‘exclusive rights to determine the conditions and terms of

all scientific research, management, exploration and exploitation of all ocean resources and all sources of energy

and prevention of pollution within the economic zone,

including pollution from outside the zone which poses

a threat within the zone. "81 In a letter accompanying

the bill, the governor stated that, ‘‘[a]s a matter of policy, the territory of Guam is claiming exclusive rights

to control the utilization of all ocean resources in a 200-

mile zone surrounding the island. "82 Possible conflicts

with Federal law were recognized, but the law was approved ‘‘as a declaration of Territorial policies and

goals. Section 1001(b) of the proposed Guam Commonwealth Act includes a similar claim to an EEZ.83

Puerto Rico claims “[o]wnership of the commercial

minerals found in the soil and subsoil of Puerto Rico,

its adjacent islands and in surrounding waters and submerged lands next to their coasts up to where the depth

of the waters allows their exploitation and utilization,

in an extension of not less than 3 marine leagues . . "84

This continental shelf claim extends beyond Puerto

Rico’s Territorial Sea. It combines the principles of adjacency and exploitability codified in the 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf.85 A statement of motives

7BAm, Samoa Admin. Code $$24.0201 to 24.0208 ( 1984).

WV. I, Code Ann. tit. 12, $906(b)(7) (1982).

80 See note 24, above.

81Guam Code Ann. $402 ( 1980).

Ezxd, , Compfler’s Comment.

%3ee note 29, above.

a~p, R. Laws Ann. tit. 28, $111 ( 1985).

8$15 U, fj, T, 471, T. I.A, S, No. 5578, 499 U. N.T. S. 311.

accompanying the 1979 amendments to Puerto Rico’s

mining law explains the Roman and Spanish law antecedents for government trusteeship of minerals. It also

points out that Section 8 of the Organic Act of 1917

placed submerged lands under the control of the government of Puerto Rico and gave the island’s legislature the authority to make needed laws in this field ‘‘as

it deems convenient. The legislature concluded that

‘‘after 1917, the Federal Government has no title or

jurisdiction over the submerged lands of Puerto Rico.

The title is vested fully in Puerto Rico. It is up to the

Legislature to determine the extent of said jurisdiction. "86

The most comprehensive territorial management program is that of the Northern Mariana Islands. The

Commonwealth’s Marine Sovereignty Act of 1980 establishes archipelagic baselines, claims a 12-mile Territorial Sea, and declares a 200-mile EEZ.87 The Submerged Lands Act applies from the line of ordinary high

tide to the outer limit line of the EEZ. It requires licenses

and leases for the exploration, development, and extraction of petroleum and all other minerals in submerged

lands.88 The latter statute has been implemented by

detailed rules and regulations.

These claims are based on the statutory law of the

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands which confirmed

the earlier Japanese law ‘‘that all marine areas below

the ordinary high watermark belong to the government." 89 A subsequent order of the Department of the

Interior transferred public lands, among them submerged lands, to the constituent districts of the Trust

Territory, including the Northern Mariana Islands. go

In addition, Section 801 of the Covenant provides for

transfer of the Trust Territory’s real property interests

to the Northern Marianas no later than the termination of the trusteeship.

There is some question as to whether the conditional

inclusion of the Northern Marianas in the U.S. EEZ

Proclamation (’‘to the extent consistent with the Covenant and the United Nations Trusteeship Agreement’

implies recognition of local claims. There is also a question as to whether U.S. territorial law would permit this

local claim to survive the transition to U.S. sovereignty.

The Supreme Court has held that ownership of submerged lands is vested in the Federal Government as

‘‘a function of national external sovereignty, essential to national defense and foreign affairs. 91 When the

trusteeship over the Northern Marianas ended, the

United States extended its sovereignty over the islands

861979 p,R, Laws 279, 281.

aTCommonwe~th of the Marianas Code, tit. 2, $1101-1143 ( 1984).

sscommonwe~th of the Marianas Code, tit. 2, $1211-1231 (1984).

agTrust Territory Code, tit. 67, $2 (1970).

goDepafiment of the Interior Order 2969 (Dec. 28, 1974)

91 United Stafes V, California, 332 U.S. 19, 34 (1947).
App. B—The Exclusive Economic Zone and U.S. Insular Territories 299

and became responsible for their foreign affairs and defense. The situation of the Northern Mariana Islands

may be comparable to that of Texas, which was admitted to the Union after having been an independent country. When it joined the United States, Texas relinquished its sovereignty and, with it, her proprietary

claims to submerged lands in the Gulf of Mexico. 92

In 1985, the Northern Mariana Islands Commission

on Federal Laws suggested that Congress convey to the

Marianas submerged lands to an extent of 3 nautical

miles ‘‘without prejudice to any claims the Northern

Mariana Islands may have to submerged lands seaward

of those conveyed by the legislation. ’93 The Commission recognized that there are strong arguments for and

against the Northern Marianas’ continued ownership

of submerged lands after termination of the trusteeship,

but it pointed out that it “makes little sense” for the

United States to transfer title to the islands, only to have

that title revert to the United States under the doctrine

gz~nlre~ sra~es v, Texas, 339 U.S. 707 ( 1950).

g$second Interim Report tO the Congress of the United States, 172. The Commission is appointed by the President under Section 504 of the Covenant to

make recommendations to Congress as to which laws of the United States should

aPPIY to the Commonwealth and which should not,

of United States v. Texas .94 The Commonwealth is still

negotiating with the Executive Branch over the acceptance or modification of its marine claims.

Territorial Ocean Laws

The history and culture of the territories are intertwined with the ocean. Some of them have acted to assert their own claims to manage ocean resources beyond

the territorial sea, although their authority to do so is

uncertain under U.S. territorial law. The present situation is one of latent conflict which could become active when marine prospecting or development is proposed. Should the United States decide that Federal

jurisdiction is exclusive, an explorer or miner may be

greatly delayed while Federal and territorial authorities

argue their positions in court. A Congressional resolution of this conflict would require action using the plenary powers of the Constitution’s territorial clause,

tempered by the goals of American and international

territorial law, and the political and economic development of the territories and their people.

“Id. , 178, 179.
Appendix C

Mineral Laws of the United States

The five legal systems discussed below illustrate the

changes in national minerals policy over the past century. One major shift was from a policy of free disposal,

intended to foster development of the frontier, to a leasing policy intended to provide a return to the public and

to foster conservation by controlling the rate of development. A second change resulted in a balancing of mineral values against other values for the land in question.

Thus, the Mining Law of 1872 requires only that the

land be valuable for minerals, but the leasing laws allow a lease only after a prospector shows that the land

is ‘‘chiefly valuable’ for the mineral to be developed.

The leasing laws, and, to a greater extent, the Outer

Continental Shelf Lands Act also require consideration

of economic and environmental impacts, State and local concerns, and the relative value of mining and other

existing or potential uses of the area. A third change

was a recognition that different types of minerals could

best be developed under different management systems.

The hardrock minerals remain under a system that rewards the prospector’s risk-taking, the fuel resources are

leased under a system that takes national needs and priorities into account, and common construction materials are made readily available under a simplified sales

procedure. When creating a legal regime for the mineral

resources of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the

United States can benefit from long experience under

several diverse systems.

The experimental nature of much of today’s exploration and recovery equipment and the gaps in our

knowledge of the physical and biological resources of

the EEZ indicate that it may take years of research and

exploration before an informed decision to proceed with

commercial exploitation can be made. A legal system

must reasonably accommodate the risk being taken by

the mineral industry under these circumstances. At the

same time, the system must also accommodate important public interests and ensure a fair market value for

the public resources. The law must also consider the national and State interests in ocean development and define the respective Federal and State roles.

Onshore Mineral Management

Federal onshore minerals are managed under three

principal legal systems: the Mining Law of 1872, the

Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 and related leasing laws,

and the Surface Resources Act of 1955 (table C-1). The

laws do not apply uniformly to all Federal lands, and

a mineral may be subject to different rules in different

places, including some cases where there appears to be

no applicable law at all.

The Mining Law of 1872

The Mining Law of 1872 is applicable to “hardrock”

minerals in the public domain in most States. Like other

laws of its era, it was intended to expand development

of the Western States by making Federal lands available to persons who occupy and develop them. It adopted a system that was developed under State law and local

custom between the start of the California gold rush in

1849 and passage of the first mining law in 1866.

All valuable mineral deposits and the lands in which

they are found are free and open to exploration, occupation, and purchase. State mining laws and customs

of the mining districts are recognized to the extent that

they do not conflict with Federal law. The Mining Law

outlines the requirements for locating, marking, and

evaluating claims; sets a $100 minimum for annual expenditures on labor or improvements; and provides for

transfer of ownership to the miner when these conditions are met. Depending on the type of deposit, payment of $2.50 or $5.00 per acre is required. The

Government receives no royalties or other payments for

the minerals.

In its original form, the Mining Law allowed for the

greatest individual initiative and the least Government

regulation. Over the years, its operation has become

more restricted. First, the Government has withdrawn

extensive areas from the operation of the Mining Law

when they were needed for other purposes (military

reservations, national parks, dam and reservoir sites,

etc.). Second, certain minerals were excluded from the

law and made available under other programs. Third,

mining operations are subject to environmental and

reclamation requirements and varying degrees of review

and approval by the surface management agency. Prior to issuance of a patent, a claimant’s use of a mining

claim is limited to that required for mineral exploration,

development, and production. Nonconflicting surface

uses by others may continue.

Mineral Leasing Acts

Concern over resource depletion and monopolization

in the early years of the 20th century lead to withdrawals

of coal, oil, phosphate, and other fuel and nonmetallic

minerals from entry under the Mining Law. In 1920

Congress passed the Mineral Leasing Act, making these

300
Table C-1.-Comparison of Federal Mineral Statutes

Entry and patent system Mineral leasing systems Materials sale system Continental shelf leasing system Deep seabed system

Law and General Mining Law of 1872 Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 Materials Act of 1947 (30 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Deep Seabed Hard Minerals

Applicability (30 U.S.C. 22 etseq.): hard rock

minerals in the public domain

in all States except Alabama,

Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota,

Missouri, Oklahoma (except

ceded Indian lands), and Wisconsin. Withdrawals and reservations make specified

areas unavailable or conditionally available.

Initiative Miner

Prospecting “Free and Open”

Establishing Discovery of a valuable deTenure posit within limits of claim.

Marking and recording claim

as required by Federal and

State law.

Maintaining

Tenure

Area Limits

$100 worth of labor or improvements annually on each

claim until a patent is issued.

Lode claims: 1500 feet x 600

feet. Placer claims: 20 acres or

up to 160 acres for an association claim. No limit on the

number of claims that a person may locate.

(30 U.S.C. 181 et seq.): coal,

oil, oil shale, gas, gilsonite,

phosphate, potash, and sodium in the public domain and

disposed lands in which

mineral rights were retained.

Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired Land (30 U.S.C. 351 et

seq.): above minerals and sulphur in acquired lands. Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1946

(60 Stat. 1097): all other

minerals in acquired national

forests and grasslands.

Miner or the Department of

the Interior

By permit or license from the

Department of the Interior.

Prospecting permits not issued for oil or gas.

Entering into a lease. Noncompetitive lease to first qualified applicant where mineral

potential is unknown. Preference-right lease to prospector who discovers a valuable

deposit. Competitive bid for

leases in known mineral

areas.

Compliance with terms of

lease, including payments,

diligent exploration and development, safety, resource conservation, and environmental

protection.

Coal: size of individual lease

determined by Secretary of

the Interior, 46,080 acres in

any one State, 100,000 acres

nationwide. Sodium: 2,560

acres in any one lease, 5,120

acres in any one State, may be

raised to 15,360 acres if necessary for economic mining.

Phosphate: 20,480 acres nationwide. Oil or gas: 640 acres

per lease unit, 246,080 acres in

any one State except Alaska

where the limit is 300,000

acres in each of two leasing

districts. Oil shale orgilsonite:

5,120 acres. SU/phUc in Louisiana and New Mexico, 640

acres per lease. Potash: 2,560

acres per lease.

U.S.C. 601-604): “common varieties” of sand, stone, gravel,

cinders, and clay on public

lands. Surface Resources Act

of 1955(30U.S.C.611-615): excludes above minerals from

the scope of the General Mining Law.

Miner

Not applicable

Disposal by sale. Use of a site

may be communal or nonexclusive. Miner does not acquire a property right.

Not applicable

Not applicable

Act (43 U.S.C. 1331-1356): all

minerals in the submerged lands

of the outer continental shelf beyond the territorial waters of the

50 States.

Miner or the Department of the

Interior, pursuant to a 5-year

leasing program.

Lessee’s exploration plan, subject to approval by the Department of the Interior.

Entering into a lease granted after competitive bidding.

Compliance with terms of lease,

including payment, rate of production, safety, protection of

fish, wildlife, and environment.

Oil or gas: 5,760 acres unless a

larger area is necessary to comprise a reasonable economi c

production unit. Sulphur and

other minerals: size determined

by the Secretary of the Interior.

Resources Act (30 U.S.C. 1401-

1473): manganese nodules on

the deep seabed outside the

continental shelf or resource

jurisdiction of any nation.

Miner

By license from the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration.

Obtaining a permit upon demonstrating financial and technological capability.

Diligent development, minimum expenditures, maintaining recovery for the duration

of the permit.

Size and location chosen by

miner. Must comprise a logical mining unit.
Table C-1.—Comparison of Federal Mineral Statutes—Continued

Entry and patent system Mineral leasing systems Materials sale system Continental shelf leasing system Deep seabed system

Term An unpatented mining claim

may be held indefinitely.

Assignability An unpatented mining claim

may be leased, sold, mortgaged, or inherited.

Payment $2.50 or $5.00 per acre patent

fee.

Coal: 20 years and as long

thereafter as coal is produced

annually in commercial quantities. Phosphate and Potash:

20 years and for as long thereafter as lessee complies with

terms and conditions of lease.

Oil and gas: 5 years for competitive and 10 years for noncompetitive leases and for as

long thereafter as there is production in paying quantities.

Oil shale: indeterminate

period. Sodium: 20 years with

a preference right to renew for

additional 10 year periods.

All or part of a lease may be

assigned with Department of

Interior permission.

Minimum rents and royalties

established by statute, actual

rates set by competitive bid.

Coal: rent set by regulation

(currently $3.00 per acre), minimum royalty of 12.5 percent

for surface mines, may be less

for underground mines, cash

bonus. Phosphate: minimum

rent $.25 per acre in the first

year, $.50 in the second year,

and $1.00 per acre in the third

and subsequent years, credited against a minimum royalty of 5 percent of gross value

of output. Oil and gas: minimum annual rent $.50 per acre,

rising to $1.00 per acre after

oil or gas in paying quantities

are discovered, minimum royalty of 12.5 percent, cash bonus. Oil shale: minimum annual rent of $.50 per acre,

credited against a royalty set

by the Secretary. Rent and

royalty may be waived for the

first 5 years to encourage production. Sodium and potash:

minimum rent $.25 per acre in

the first year, $.50 in the second year and $1.00 in the third

and subsequent years credited against a minimum royalty of 2 percent of gross value

of production.

Not applicable

Not applicable

Fair market value of material

taken. No charge to governmental and nonprofit entities.

Oil and gas: 5 years (10 years if

Secretary finds that a longer

period is necessary to encourage development) and for as

long thereafter as oil or gas is

produced in paying quantities.

Sulphur: 10 years and as long

thereafter as sulphur is

produced in paying quantities.

Other minerals: prescribed by

Secretary.

A lease may be assigned with

Department of Interior permission.

Oil and gas: competitive bidding

in which the royalty rate, cash

bonus, work commitment, or

profit share or any combination

of them maybe the biddable factor. Minimum royalty of 12.5 percent. Sulphur: competitive bid

on cash bonus, minimum royalty

of 5 percent of gross value of

production, rent prescribed by

Secretary. Other minerals: competitive bid on cash bonus;

royalty and rent prescribed by

Secretary.

20 years and for as long thereafter as minerals are recovered annually in commercial

quantities.

A permit or license may be

transferred with NOAA approval.

Administrative fee to cover

the cost of reviewing and

processing applications. Tax

of 3.75 percent on imputed

value of resources removed

pursuant to permit.
Table C-1.-Comparison of Federal Mineral Statutes—Continued

Entry and patent system Mineral Ieasing systems -. Materials sale system Continental shelf Ieasing system deep seabed system

Allocation of Not specified

Income

Conflicting Uses Exclusive possession of the

surface limited to use for mining purposes. Non-conflicting

surface uses by others may

continue.

Environmental Not specified

Protection

On public domain: 50 percent

to State, 40 percent to reclamation fund, 10 percent to

U.S. Treasury. /n Alaska: 90

percent to State. On acquired

land: in the same manner as

other income from the affected lands (varies by management agency).

Coal leases must be compatible with a comprehensive land

use plan considering the effects on the surrounding area

or community. All leases on

acquired land require the consent of the surface management agency and are subject

to conditions assuring that

the primary purpose for which

the lands were acquired is

maintained. No leasing in national parks or monuments or

in incorporated municipalities.

Coal leases may not be

granted without consideration

of environmental impacts.

Otherwise, not specified.

In the same manner as other

income from the affected

lands (varies by management

agency).

Consent of surface management agency required. Excludes land in national parks

and monuments and Indian

lands.

Disposal of materials can’t be

detrimental to the public interest.

Credited to miscellaneous

receipts of the U.S. Treasury.

Leasing program must consider

economic, social, and environmental values and potential impacts on fisheries, navigation,

and other resources of the outer

continental shelf.

The leasing program must consider the environmental value of

renewable and nonrenewable resources and the environmental

impact of exploration and development. The timing and location

of leasing must balance the potential for environmental damage, the potential for the discovery of oil and gas, and the

potential for adverse impacts on

the coastal zone. Detailed environmental studies required prior

to leasing. Monitoring continues

during the term of the lease to

identify and measure changes in

environmental quality.

Fee credited to miscellaneous

receipts of the U.S. Treasury.

Tax credited to Deep Seabed

Revenue Sharing Trust Fund.

Permits and licenses are exclusive as against any U.S. or

reciprocating State citizen.

Activities may not unreasonably interfere with freedom of

the seas, conflict with any international obligation of the

U. S., lead to a breach of the

peace, or pose a safety

hazard.

NOAA must prepare an environmental impact statement

when issuing a permit or

license. Stable reference

areas are to be established by

international agreement. All

permits and licenses are conditioned on protection of the

environment and conservation

of resources.
Table C-1.—Comparison of Federal Mineral Statutes—Continued

Entry and patent system Mineral leasing systems Materials sale system Continental shelf leasing system Deep seabed system

State and Public Activities are subject to State Statute may not be construed

Involvement and local laws not inconsist- as affecting the right of State

ent with the laws of the United or local governments to reguStates. late or tax lessees of the

United States. Land use plans

for coal leasing are to be prepared in consultation with

State agencies and the public.

Proposed coal leases in national forests must be submitted to the governor of the

affected State for review. If

the governor objects, leasing

is delayed for six months

while the Secretary reconsiders the lease on the basis

of the governor’s comments.

Disposals from land withdrawn in aid of a State, municipality, or public agency

can be made only with the

consent of the State, municipality, or agency.

State civil and criminal laws not

inconsistent with Federal law

apply to those areas of the continental shelf which would be

within the State if its boundaries

extended seaward. The Secretary shall enforce safety, environmental, and conservation

laws in cooperation with the

States. State comments are to

be invited and considered when

gas and oil leasing programs are

prepared and when proposed

lease sales and development

and production plans are being

reviewed. State recommendations are to be accepted if the

Secretary determines that they

provide a reasonable balance between the national interest and

the well-being of State citizens.

Activities affecting land or water

use in the coastal zone of a State

having a coastal zone management plan require State concurrence.

Public notice and comment

(including hearings) are required when permits and

licenses are issued, transferred, or modified.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.
App. C—Mineral Laws of the United States ● 305

deposits available only through prospecting permits and

leases. This move was a major departure from earlier

policy, replacing free entry and disposal with a discretionary system. As initially adopted, prospecting permits could be issued to the first qualified applicant wishing to explore lands whose mineral potential was

unknown. Discovery of a valuable deposit entitled the

prospector to a preference-right lease to develop and produce the mineral if the land was found to be chiefly valuable for that purpose. Known mineral lands could be

leased by advertisement, competitive bid, or other methods adopted by the Secretary of the Interior.

Prospecting permits are no longer available for oil,

gas, or coal. Lands known to contain these substances

may be leased only by competitive bid. Non-competitive

leases may be issued to the first qualified applicant for

lands outside the known geologic structure of a producing oil or gas field. The Secretary has broad discretion

to impose conditions for diligence, safety, environmental

protection, rents and royalties, and other factors needed

to protect the interest of the United States and the public welfare.

Like the Mining Law of 1872, the Mineral Leasing

Act of 1920 is applicable only to the public domain (for

the most part, land which has been retained in Federal

ownership since its original acquisition as part of the

territory of the United States). The Mineral Leasing Act

for Acquired Land was enacted in 1947 and made the

fuel, fertilizer, and chemical minerals in acquired land

available under the provisions of the Leasing Act of

1920. Permits and leases on acquired land (mostly national forests in the Eastern States) can be issued only

with the consent of the surface management agency and

must be consistent with the primary purpose for which

the land was acquired. Hardrock minerals in acquired

national forests and grasslands are available under similar conditions.

Materials Sales System

The Materials Act of 1947 made “common varieties’

of sand, stone, gravel, cinders, and clay in Federal lands

available for sale at fair market value or by competitive

bidding. The Surface Resources Act of 1955 removed

these materials from entry and patent under the General Mining Law. The miner does not acquire a property right to the source of these materials, and the use

of a site may be communal or nonexclusive. Governmental and nonprofit entities are not charged for material taken for public or nonprofit purposes.

Offshore Mineral Management

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act

The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA)

was adopted in 1953 and provides for the leasing of

mineral resources in submerged lands that are beyond

State waters and subject to U.S. jurisdiction and control (table C-1 ). The law’s primary focus is on oil, gas,

and sulphur but Section 8(k) authorizes the Secretary

of the Interior to lease other minerals also occurring in

the outer continental shelf.

Oil and gas leases are granted to the highest bidder

pursuant to a 5-year leasing program. The program is

based on a determination of national energy needs and

must also consider the effects of leasing on other resources, regional development and energy needs, industry interest in particular areas, and environmental sensitivity and marine productivity of different areas of the

continental shelf. The size, timing, and location of proposed lease sales and lessees’ proposed development and

production plans are subject to review by affected State

and local governments. Recommendations from State

and local governments must be accepted if the Secretary determines that they provide for a reasonable balance between the national interest and the well-being

of local citizens. A flexible bidding system is provided

in which the royalty rate, cash bonus, work commitment, profit share, or any combination of them may be

the biddable factor.

A comprehensive program is not required for

minerals other than oil and gas, and bidding for leases

is limited to the highest cash bonus. It is unclear to what

extent the law’s coordination and environmental protection provisions apply to these other minerals.

Leases under OCSLA are not explicitly limited to U.S.

citizens by the statute, but such a limitation has been

imposed by regulation. See 30 CFR 256.35(b).

Deep Seabed Hard Minerals Resources Act

The fifth legal system was adopted in 1980 as an interim measure pending the entry into force of a law of

the sea treaty binding on the United States. The Deep

Seabed Hard Minerals Resources Act (DSHMRA) applies to the exploration for and commercial recovery of

manganese nodules in the seabed beyond the continental shelf or resource jurisdiction of any nation. In contrast with the other laws, where the United States asserts jurisdiction based on territorial control, DSHMRA’s
306 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

jurisdiction is based on the power of the United States

to regulate the activities of its citizens outside its territory.

Licenses for exploration and permits for commercial

recovery are granted by the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration for

areas whose size and location are chosen by the applicant. The applicant must prove financial and technological capability to carry out the proposed work, and

the designated area must comprise a ‘‘logical mining

unit. The Administrator is required to prepare an environmental impact statement prior to granting a license

or permit. To help gauge the effects of mining on the

marine environment, stable reference areas are to be

established by international agreement. Permits and

licenses are conditioned on protection of environmental

quality and conservation of the mineral resource.

Because the United States does not claim ownership

of the seabed or minerals involved, DSHMRA does not

require rent or royalties. Only an administrative fee,

sufficient to cover the cost of reviewing applications, is

charged. In addition, a 3.75 percent tax on the value

of the resource recovered is levied. Proceeds of the tax

are assigned to a trust fund to be used if U.S. contributions are required once an international seabed treaty

is in effect.

All commercial recovery must be by vessels documented under U.S. law. At least one U.S. vessel must

be used to transport minerals from each mining site.

Land processing of recovered minerals must be within

the United States unless this requirement would make

the operation uneconomical. Minerals processed elsewhere must be returned to the United States for domestic use if the national interest so requires.

Before the United States ratifies an international

seabed treaty, DSHMRA calls for reciprocal agreements

with nations that adopt compatible seabed regulations.

The agreements would require mutual recognition of

the rights granted under any license or permit issued

by a reciprocating state. The United States has signed

agreements with France, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and West Germany.
Appendix D

Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries

This appendix summarizes the seabed mining laws

of 10 countries. Not all of these countries have declared

Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs); thus, their laws may

be based on continental shelf or territorial claims. These

statutes illustrate the range of choices available for developing marine minerals. The general comparison that

follows analyzes the various provisions shared by many

of the statutes, but three provisions in particular are of

primary interest for assessing the U.S. seabed mining

regime:

1. allocating the right to mine,

2. payment for the right to mine, and

3. the division of responsibility between national and

state or provincial authorities.

Allocating the right to mine includes selecting the

location and size of a mining site and choosing a mine

operator. In all of the countries surveyed, the initiative

for prospecting or mining lies with the applicant, who

must prove technical and financial capacity for carrying out the proposed work. Competing applications for

the same area are generally assigned on a first-come basis, but Australia, for one, is considering work-program

bidding or cash bidding for cases where some competition is needed. The applicant-initiative system is modified

by general requirements for shoreline and environmental protection, area and time limits, and project-specific conditions imposed after an application is

reviewed.

Payment for the privilege to mine may include application fees, rents, royalties on the value of recovered

minerals, a tax on gross or net income, or a combination of these. The rate of payment may be set by law

or negotiated on a case-by-case basis. Some countries

provide for periodic adjustment based on economic conditions or the market for the mineral being recovered.

In addition to paying for the minerals removed, miners

may be required to spend funds each year for exploration or development. Spending above the minimum annual requirement may be credited to future years, while

spending less may require paying the difference to the

government or forfeiting the right to prospect or mine.

The United States appears to be the only country which

has a cash competitive bidding process to award leases

in offshore areas.

Three of the countries included in this review—Australia, West Germany, and Canada, have a federal system of government. Australia is developing a system of

joint authority over the continental shelf beyond the territorial sea; the states or territories have jurisdiction over

the territorial sea. In West Germany, the states regulate activities within territorial waters while the national

government has exclusive jurisdiction over the continental shelf beyond the territorial limit. Canada has not yet

enacted offshore mining legislation, but the Ministry of

Energy, Mines, and Resources is drafting a proposed

statute. A division of authority between the national and

provincial governments will be part of the new law.

Australia

Laws

●

●

●

Australia claims a 3-mile territorial seal Under the

Coastal Waters (State Powers) Act of 1981, onshore

mining legislation in the states of New South Wales,

Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia,

and the Northern Territory can be applied offshore.

Activities would be regulated according to standard terms, including environmental conditions.

Western Australia is currently revising a model

State Minerals (Submerged Lands) bill, particularly in regard to registration and transfer of leases.

A version to be circulated to the States and Commonwealth may be ready in early 1987. Although

some states are concerned that they cannot process company applications, offshore state legislation

will most likely not be enacted before 1988.2

In 1967, Australia passed a continental shelf act,

based on Geneva provisions, for petroleum. In

1981, the Submerged Lands Act, which has a “degree of complementarily” with petroleum legislation3

, was passed to cover other seabed minerals.4

However, the complementary state legislation necessary to implement it has not been passed yet.5

Australia has not declared an EEZ.6

Jurisdiction

● Territorial waters: The adjoining state/territory has

jurisdiction over minerals development.7

● Continental shelf: Offshore activities are administered by a Joint Authority, including a CommonI Law of the Sea Bulletin, December 1983, No. 2, Off Ice of Special Representative of the Secretary-General for the Law of the Sea, United Nations (83-

35821), p. 13.

‘Letter from David Truman, Assistant Secretary, Minerals Policy Branch,

to OTA, Oct. 3, 1986.

‘Letter from the Australian Department of Resousres and Energy to OTA

through Science and Technology Counselor J .R. Hlubucek, Australian Embassy, May 28, 1987,

‘Letter from Geoffrey Dabb, Legal Counsel, Australian Embassy to OTA,

Oct. 6, 1986.

‘Truman, op. cit.

bLaw of the Sea Bulletin, 1983, op. cit , p. 4.

7Hlubucek, op. cit,

307
308 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

wealth Minister for Resources and Energy and a

State Mines Minister. a The adjoining State Minister supervises day-to-day administration and

serves as an industry contact. The Commonwealth

minister is consulted on important issues and has

the final authority in cases of disagreement. g

Permit Process

● Exploration: If a company wishes to explore for

minerals (defined to include sand, gravel, clay,

limestone, rock, evaporates, shale, oil-shale, and

coal, but not petroleum10) in the ocean, it must apply to the Designated Authority (a State Minister

charged with the responsibility by that State’s

Parliament 11) for an exploration permit. If the area

of the application is on the seaward side of the outer

limit of the territorial sea, the Joint Authority decides whether or not to grant the permit. 12 The application must be accompanied by a work and expenditure plan, and information regarding the

technical qualifications of the applicant, and technical advice and financial resources available to the

applicant.

● Exploitation: Same14

Terms

● Exploration: A fee of $3,000 (Australian dollars)

is charged for an application to explore any number of blocks less than 500 (A block is bounded by

adjacent minutes of longitude and latitude). The

permit lasts for 2 years, and gives the right to explore and take samples of specified minerals.15 A

permit can be renewed 4 times, for up to 2 years

each time, for up to 75 percent of the area in the

permit being renewed. An application must be accompanied by a report on past and projected work

and expenditures and a fee of $300.16

● Exploitation: Application for a production license

is done in a manner very similar to that for an exploration permit. Once granted, it lasts for 21

years. An annual rent of $100 per block is charged.

Royalty rates are set by the Joint Authority; the

value of the exploited mineral may be considered

in setting the rate.

17 Within the territorial sea,

‘1981 Minerals (Submerged Lands) Act, Section 8.

‘Hlubucek, op. cit.

101981 Minerals (Submerged Lands) Act, Section 3.

1 i Hlubucek, op. cit.

121981 Minerals (Submerged Lands) Act, Section 23.

131 bid., Section 24.

I+ Ibid., Sections 31 and 32.

t$Ibid,, Sections 26 and 27.

lbIbid, , Sections 28 and 29.

I TIbld,, Sections 31 ’35.

royalties are shared with the Commonwealth. 18 An

application for a permit renewal must be accompanied by a $300 fee. 19

There is no competitive allocation mechanism

in the unproclaimed Minerals (Submerged Lands)

Act as it stands. However, at the recent meeting

of Commonwealth and State officials, it was agreed

that provisions should be made for competitive allocation. Generally, permits will be allocated on a

first-come basis. In cases where some competition

is needed, competitive allocation will generally use

a work program bidding system, but provision for

a cash bidding approach is being considered.

The Minerals (Submerged Lands) Act does not

contain a royalty regime. At the officials’ meeting,

it was agreed that the endorsement of Ministers

would be sought for the adjacent state to apply their

onshore royalty regime to minerals won from the

sea bed within the outer limit of the territorial sea.

For minerals won from the sea bed on the seaward

side of this limit, the commonwealth intends to apply a profits-based royalty. State royalties vary with

the state and the mineral concerned, and in some

cases profits-based royalties may be used, in other

cases ad-valorem royalties or set tonnage rate royalties may be set. However, this does not preclude

the states from opting for a profits-based royalty.

Conditions

Unreasonable interference with navigation, fishing,

conservation of resources, and other lawful operations

is prohibited.20 Environmental assessment is generally

the concern of the adjacent state. However, where mining impinges on commonwealth functions, assessment

may be required by the appropriate commonwealth authority (there are arrangements to ensure that the assessments can be carried out jointly in most cases).

Section 105 further delineates regulations which the

Governor General may promulgate under this law, concerning matters such as safety and conservation. 21

Activities

Australia has explored for tin, monazite, phosphorite,

rutile, and zircon .22 Private companies have been granted

exploration licenses under current state onshore mining acts for aggregate and mineral sands off the coast

‘

8 H1ubucek, op. cit.

191981 Minera]s (Submerged Lands) Act, Section 36.

*“Ibid., Section 75.

‘l Ibid.

22P. Ha]e and P. Mcbren, “A Preliminary Assessment of Unconsolidated

Mineral Resources in tbe Canadian Offshore, The Canadian &fining and

A4etallurgicaf Bulletin, September 1984, p, 10,
App. D—Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries ● 309

of New South Wales. Production licenses have also been

issued for dredging limestone off the Queensland and

Western Australian coasts. Permit applications have

been received for areas off the Western Australia and

Northern Territory coasts for which the minerals have

not been

Public

tation is

Laws

specified”.

sector involvement in exploration and exploinot expected .23

Canada

● Canada claims a 12-mile territorial sea.

● Continental shelf: Legislation was passed in June,

1969, as the Oil and Gas Production and Conservation Act.

● Canada has not declared an EEZ, but it does have

a 200-mile fisheries zone. 24

● Currently, regulations for offshore mining could

be promulgated under the Public Lands Grants

Acts (The Ministry of Energy, Mines, and Resources has jurisdiction south of 60°; the Ministry

of Indian and Northern Affairs has jurisdiction

north of 60 O). However, the Ministry of Energy,

Mines, and Resources is in the process of drafting

legislation which would be specifically applicable

to offshore mining of hard minerals; the objective

is to develop an ‘ ‘adequate basis in law’ for ocean

mining. The law will address administration and

management, disposition of mineral rights, royalties, and environment and fisheries. Plans call for

the legislation to be written by the end of 1987; the

Cabinet will make the final decision as to whether

the new legislation should be introduced in Parliament. The recent Mineral and Metals Policy of

Canada officially announced the Government intent to establish a legal and regulatory regime to

maximize benefits from offshore mining. It seeks

to develop ‘‘a simple, uniform, cooperative management system for mining development activities across

all areas of the Canadian Continental Shelf. ’25

Jurisdiction

The Canadians hope to formulate a regulatory

scheme that can be applied regardless of who has jurisdiction over mining activities. However, the desired

mechanism is one of cooperation with the provinces.

The Canadians take a ‘‘single window approach’ to

regulation, allowing companies to apply to a single gov-

---- — 2312aw, of t he Sea BuUetin, 1983, Op. Clt., P 11

Z+”rhe Tcrrltorla] sea and Fishing Zones Act, as amended, 1979.

ZsThe Mlnera] and .Metals Policy of the Government of Canada, Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources, May 1987, p 8

ernment agency for exploration and/or exploitation permits. The rationale for this approach is that a simpler,

stream-lined permitting process will encourage industry activity.

Permit Process

Ž Exploration: Companies must submit a proposal

to the appropriate agency. This agency in turn follows the environmental assessment and review

process which allows the contact agency to communicate with the Departments of Environment,

Fisheries and Oceans, and Transport for project

approval. However, the contact agency has final

authority to approve or disapprove the project.

This approach reflects the Canadian desire to treat

environmental concerns as mandatory concerns

and of equal importance with economic development. Thus,

ronment are

planning.

Conditions

Environmental

potential negative effects on the envireviewed at an early stage of project

conditions are considered through the

Environmental Assessment and Review Process.

The government sees itself as “facilitator” of entrepreneurial interests. As facilitator, it has two main

functions: 1) to eliminate structural barriers, i.e. by creating a regulatory scheme (since the lack of one is seen

as a barrier to activity), and 2) to provide fundamental

information about ocean mining.

Activities

Currently, mining activity is “on hold. ” The government will not prevent anyone from exploring, but

is not issuing any mining permits. However, the government is suggesting companies submit mining applications, to protect any ‘ ‘first in line’ advantage when

applications are processed. In the past, sand and gravel

were mined in the Beaufort Sea to construct oil drilling

platforms. Permits issued for this activity were subject

to requirements equivalent to obtaining land use

permits.

France

Laws

● France claims a 12-mile territorial sea. 26

● France declared its rights over the continental shelf

on December 30, 1968.27

lsLaW, of the Sea Bulletin, 1983, Op Clf. , p. 31.

27cont1nental Shelf I~w, Dec. 30, 1968 (no 68- 1181)
310 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Ž France declared an EEZ on July 16, 1976. The law

states that the provisions of the Continental Shelf

law are applicable to the EEZ.

Jurisdiction

● Continental shelf: The central government appears

to have complete jurisdiction over the continental

shelf. The application of the continental shelf law

is to be set by decree of the Conseil d’Etat.28 The

Directeur des Mines and the Directeur des Carburants, supervised by the Conseil General des

Mines, administer French mining laws. All are located within the Ministere du Developpement Industriel et Scientifique.29

Permit Process

● Exploration or exploitation: Permits must be accompanied by a work program, submitted 45 days

in advance of the proposed activity. The program

is reviewed by a commission, including representatives from the Ministries of Economy and Finances, Telecommunication, and Maritime Policy.

The chief of mines may solicit the opinion of these

representatives in writing; however, if anyone objects to the proposal, the representatives must convene.30

Terms

Ž Exploration: Nonexclusive prospecting permits are

issued. 31 [Details regarding duration, rights, size

and fees are unknown. ]

● Exploitation: There are three types of mining titles: 1) previsional authorization pending the grant

of a concession, 2) a mining concession, and 3) exploitation permit. Concessions are free and last in

perpetuity. Permits are valid for 5 years, renewable for 2 more 5-year terms; a small indemnity

must be paid to the owner of the surface area and

the grantee is responsible for any damages resulting from his activities. 32 A fixed royalty fee per metric ton is required for all minerals exploited; the

value of the particular metal is taken into consideration. A Finance Law fixes the rate, as well as

a formula for dividing revenues between central

and local authorities33

281bid, , Afiiclc 38.

29N, Ely, fjummv of Mining and Petroleum Laws of the World, Bureau

of Mines Information Circular, 1974, U.S. Department of the Interior, Part

5, Europe, IC, 8613.

JO~cree of May 6, 1971 (no. 7 1-360), Articles 7 ad 8

31 N E]y, Op. cit.

321bid,

s~Continental Shelf Law, 1968, op. cit. Articles 21 and 23).

Conditions

Equipment must comply with special safety and maritime regulations. 34 The continental shelf law does not

appear to specify other conditions.

Activities

France’s activities have been limited to sand and

gravel exploration and mining.35

Federal Republic of Germany

Laws

● The FRG claims a 3-mile territorial sea.36

● The FRG declared its rights over the Continental

Shelf on January 20, 1964 and issued provisional

regulations of rights on July 24, 1964.37

• The FRG has not declared an EEZ .38

Jurisdiction

● Territorial waters: Jurisdiction in German laws

may be split one of three ways: 1 ) the federal government has exclusive jurisdiction, 2) the federal

government makes the laws and the coastal states

enforce them, 3) the federal government sets a

framework and the coastal states make the laws.

Offshore mining in territorial waters fits into category 2.39

● Continental shelf: The federal government has exclusive jurisdiction. 40

Permit Process41

● Exploration and exploitation: Permits are awarded

by the Chief Mining Board of Clausthal-Zellerfeld

(for the technical and commercial aspects of mining) in conjunction with the German Hydrographic

Institute (for the use and utilization of the waters

and airspace above the continental shelf) .42 Permits

are awarded on a discretionary, informal basis,

sometimes considering factors such as a company’s

3

*N Ely, Op. at.

wp, H~e and P. McLaren, op. cit.

~cLaw of the Sea Bulletin, 1983, op. cit., p. 34.

~TContinent~ Shelf Declaration, Jan. 20, 1964, and the Act on provisional

Determination of Rights Relating to the Continental Shdf, July 24, 1964

(amended Sept. 2, 1974).

J8Law of the Sea Bufletin, 1983, Op. cit.

~9Mr. Max &h&n, Transportation Oflice, FRG Embassy, personal communication to OTA, Aug. 12, 1986.

+ocontinent~ Shelf Declaration, 1964, op. cit., p. 37.

~lThe following detai~ on process, terms, and conditions apply to the Continental shelf.

+zAct on provision~ Determination of Rights Relating to the Continental

Shelf, July 24, 1%4; amended Sept. 2, 1974,
App. D—Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries 311

reputation for cooperativeness with the government. This approach derives from a historical tradition in which the King had personal authority

over all mining operations. Competitive bidding

is not used because it is seen as discouraging mining activity .43

Terms

Exploration: Permits are valid for 3 years, with extensions possible up to 5 years, if the Act referred

to in Article 16, paragraph 2 of the Continental

Shelf Declaration, has not yet come into force when

the original permit expires.

Exploitation: Royalty payments to the Chief Mining Board of Clausthal-Zellerfeld are required

‘‘where the competitive position of enterprises engaged in mining in German territorial waters would

otherwise be substantially affected. The amount

is to be based on mining dues which would ‘ ‘customarily be payable at the point in German territorial waters nearest to the place of extraction.

Royalty payments are transferred according to the

Act of Article 16, paragraph 2.

[Details regarding exclusive and sampling rights,

size and fees are unknown. ]

Conditions

Permits may be issued subject to conditions and restrictions and may be subject to cancellation. The law

does not specify what issues those conditions might address, although safety and technical aspects are among

those considered .44

Activities

Exploration has revealed that German waters have

limited amounts of oil and gas and some coal .45 The status of an application for the exploration of the continental shelf, filed by a consortium of companies, was uncertain as of 1980.46 No exploration is currently taking

place, as no finds are expected .47

Sand and gravel extraction

is an established industry in

within the territorial seas

the Baltic.48

Japan 

Laws

●

●

●

Japan claims a 12-mile territorial sea.49

Japan does not claim a continental shelf or an

EEZ. 50

Japan has no comprehensive legislation dealing

with offshore mining. The Mining Law, Quarry

Law, and Gravel Gathering Law apply to offshore

mining, depending on the type of mineral to be exploited. The Mining Law regulates activities on the

continental shelf. The applicability of the other two

laws outside the territorial waters has not been examined in detail .51

Jurisdiction

The government of Japan exercises jurisdiction over

off-shore mining under the above-mentioned laws.52

Permit Process

Under the Mining Law, application for permits for

offshore mining are submitted to the Director-General

of Ministry of Trade and Industry (MITI) regional

bureau.

For quarrying, permits are granted by the DirectorGeneral of MITI regional bureau. Entrepreneurs register with the Governor of the prefecture, or with the

Director-General of MITI regional bureau if their operations extend over more than one prefecture.

For gravel-gathering, issuance of permits is regulated

on the prefectural level. Entrepreneurs register with the

Governor of the prefecture, or with the Director-General

of MITI regional bureau if their operations extend over

more than one prefecture. 53

Terms

A fixed fee is assessed for each unit of aggregate

mined .54 Permits for exploration and exploitation are

issued separately under the Mining Law. One permit

covers both exploration and exploitation under the

Quarry Law and the Gravel Gathering Law.

Duration: Permits for exploration are valid for two

years with two possible extensions; no limit in duration

for permits for exploitation (Mining Law). Permits are

valid up to 20 years with possible extensions (Quarry

*JM. Kehden, op cit

“M Kehden, op. cit

“Ibid,

*cMarlne Aggr~ate Project, EIS, VO1. 1, February 1980, Consolidated Cold

Fields Australia Ltd and ARC Marine Ltd

“M. Kehden, op. cit

48 Marine Aggrqate prOJect, oP. clt.

+gLaw of the Sea Bulletin, 1983, op. cit., p. 39.

$OIbid,

s) Letter from Kaname Ikeda, Science Office, Embassy of Japan, to OTA,

June 15, 1987.

‘

z Ibid.

3JIkeda, op clt

5~Ibid,
312 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Law). No specific provisions (Gravel and Gathering

Law).

Maximum permit area: 35,000 ares (Mining Law);55

no specific provisions (Quarry Law, Gravel Gathering

Law).

Permits are exclusive (Mining Law, Quarry Law) .5’

Conditions

Factors which are considered in deciding on the issuance of permits are: health and sanitary considerations,

unreasonable interference with other industrial uses, and

compliance with public welfare.

Factors which are considered in regulating mining

activity are: whether a firm is part of an association,

exclusivity, fishing rights, location (minimum distance

from shore and minimum water depth), conflicting uses,

prohibited areas (seaweed ‘ ‘plantations’ and drag net

areas), buffer zones (sometimes greater than 500m between zones), mining methods (must be sand pump or

clam shell), quantity, duration of license, uses, and market area.57

Activities

Activity is limited to sand and gravel, 94 percent of

which occurs in Kyushu and offshore the Seto Operations.58 There is also some iron sand mining in the

Prefecture of Shimane.

Netherlands 59

Laws

●

●

●

The Netherlands recently expanded its territorial

sea to 12 miles. A law for sand and gravel extraction within this area exists. By 1988 or 1989, this

law will be extended to the continental shelf, based

on the provisions of the 1958 Geneva Convention.

The Netherlands Continental Shelf Act applies only

to oil and gas.

The Netherlands has no declared EEZ, because the

government does not consider the EEZ to be customary international law yet.

553,5 square kilometers.

5sIkeda, op. cit.

57T, u~ami, K, Tsumsakl, T. Hirota, et al., ‘‘Seafloor Sand Mining in Japan, ” in “Proceedings of Marine Technology ‘79—Ocean Energy’ Marine

Technology Society, Washington, DC, pp. 176-189.

‘81bid.

sgThis information was obtained through interviews with Mr. Wim J. Van

Teeffelen, Assistant Attache for Science and Technology, Royal Netherlands

Embassy, and Mr. Henk Van Hoom from the Ministsy of Transportation and

Waterworks, Directorate for the North Sea.

Jurisdiction

● Territorial waters: The central government has

jurisdiction since provinces in the Netherlands have

little power. The Ministry of Transport and Public Works issues permits for mining within the 12-

mile zone.

● Continental shelf: The central government has

jurisdiction. The Department of Treasury issues

permits.

Permit Process

Exploration and exploitation: If a company wishes

to extract sand, it approaches the appropriate government agency with its request. As long as a company does

not violate any of the informal conditions and criteria,

it is granted a permit. Since few companies are interested and potential mining areas are plentiful, companies do not have to bid competitively for mining permits.

Terms

● Exploration: [Details on duration, exclusivity and

sampling rights, size, and fees are unknown.

● Exploitation: Royalties must be paid. [Details on

rates, duration, exclusivity, size, and fees are

unknown. ]

Conditions

Currently, informal policy criteria guide the agency’s

decisions to issue permits. In the Netherlands, one learns

from childhood about the importance of preserving the

coastal and ocean environment. The most important

consideration is distance from the coastline of the proposed activity (must be no closer than 20 km to the

coast); since the Netherlands is 2/3 below sea level, it

is crucial to prevent coastal erosion. Some areas, such

as the Waddensea area in the north, are off limits even

though a great deal of sand is available, for environmental reasons (wetlands, seals, and nursery grounds

for North Sea fish). Conflicts with pipelines, the environment, and fisheries are also considered; these conflicts are rare, however, because activity is limited. A

third consideration is the type of technology the company proposes to use. (i. e., thin layer dredging or deep

hole dredging; the former is currently preferred)

The Ministry of Transport and Public Works is currently working to formalize these policy criteria, which

center around environmental concerns. The Ministry

is examining the environmental consequences of mining in different areas. This will guide the choice of future mining sites and types of technologies.
App. D—Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries ● 3 1 3

Activities

Only sand and gravel, and mostly the former, is currently being extracted. No other economic minerals are

expected to be found in Dutch waters. Few companies

are involved and not much expanded activity in the future is anticipated unless land mining becomes very restricted.

Sand is extracted either from areas where it is naturally abundant or from shallow channels in the North

Sea which need to be dredged anyway to allow large

ships through (e. g., on the approach to Amsterdam).

Activity takes place fairly close to shore because of transport requirements.

Norway

Laws

Territorial sea and continental shelf: Norway

passed, on June 21, 1963, Act No. 12, relating to

Scientific Research and Exploration for and Exploitation of Subsea Natural Resources other than Petroleum Resources. On June 12, 1970, a Royal Decree was issued, setting provisional Rules for the

Exploration for Certain Submarine Natural Resources other than Petroleum.

Norway declared an Exclusive Economic Zone on

December 17, 1976.60

Jurisdiction

Under the Act of June 21, 1963, the King has the

authority to issue exploration and exploitation permits

and make regulations, in regard to both territorial seas

and the continental shelf. 61

Permit Process

Unknown

Terms

● Exploration: The Ministry of Industry may grant

two year licenses for exploration of certain submarine natural resources. An application must include

a description of the method of proposed exploration. The license does not give exclusive rights or

guarantee exploitation rights. 62

‘“Act of Dec 17, 1976, Economic Zone of Norway.

“Act No. 12, June 21, 1963, Sclentlfic Research and Exploration for and

Exploitation of Subsea Natural Resources other than Petroleum Resources

6’Royal Decree, June 12, 1970, provisional Rules concerning Exploration

for Certain Submarme Natural Resources other than Petroleum In the Nor-

~egian Continental Shelf, etc

Conditions

Exploration: Activities must avoid disturbing shipping, fishing, aviation, marine fauna or flora, submarine cables, etc. 63

Thailand

Laws

Thailand has a 12-mile territorial sea. 64

Thailand has declared a continental shelf. 65

Thailand has not declared an EEZ.66

Offshore mining is governed by the Minerals Act

B.E. 2510, 1967, as amended by the Minerals Act

No. 2, 1973 and the Minerals Act No. 3, 1979.

This act also covers onshore mining.67

Jurisdiction

The government has exclusive ownership of all minerals ‘‘upon, in or under the surface of public domain

and privately owned land. The Minerals Act is administered by the Department of Mineral Resources within

the Ministry of Industry. 68

Permit Process

Unknown for both exploration and exploitation

Terms

● Exploration: There are three types of permits:

1. The local District Mineral Resources Officer, on

2

behalf of the central government, can issue a

one-year nonrenewable prospecting license for

a prescribed fee. The mineral of interest and the

area to be prospected must be specified.

Exclusive Prospecting Licenses are granted by

the Minister of Industry, although applications

are filed with the District Officer. The license

is usually valid for 1 year, but for no more than

2. It is exclusive and non-transferable. The maximum permit area is 500,000 rai ( 1 rai is about

2/5 acre).

—

b31bid.

G4Law of the Sea Bulletin, 1983, op. cit. , p 82.

c51bid.

csIbid., p, 63.

67C-U, RuangSuy,an (Department of Mineral Resources, M inist r}’

of Industry, Thailand), ‘ ‘The Development of Offshore Mineral Resources in Thailand, ‘‘ in International Symposium on the INew Law

of the Sea in Southeast Asia, D, Johnston (ed. ) (Dalhousie Ocean

Studies Programme: 1983), pp. 83-87.

bBIbid.

72-672 0 - 87 -- 11
314 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

3. A Special Prospecting License is granted if the

project requires substantial investment and special technology. The maximum permit area is

10,000 rai, but there is no limit on the number

of permits for which one may apply. Permits are

valid for 3 years, and may be renewed for no

more than 2 years. A certain amount of activity

is required. 69

Exploitation: Mining leases and concessions are issued by the Minister of Energy. An application

must be made in a prescribed form and certain fees

are required. The maximum mining area is 50,000

rai.70 A prospector is entitled to a concession upon

making a mineral discovery and showing financial

ability. Royalty rates are fixed by the government

and may vary by mineral and area. An annual rent

may also be required. Concessions are for a 75-year

term.

Conditions

Environmental considerations are minor. The country does not have comprehensive environmental legislation. 71

Activities

Tin is the

of Thailand

place since

20,000 tons

onshore had

main mineral being extracted from the Gulf

and the Andaman Sea; activity has taken

1907. In 1976, onshore production was

while offshore was about 8,300. By 1980,

only risen to 22,200 tons while offshore had

jumped to 23,700.72

United Kingdom

Laws

● A bill to extend the territorial sea from 3 to 12 miles

has recently been passed.73

● The United Kingdom claimed its continental shelf

in 1964.74

● The United Kingdom has not declared an EEZ.

Jurisdiction

● Territorial waters: Proprietary rights to the bed of

the Territorial Sea form a part of the Crown EsWbid.

701bid.

“D, Johnston, Ocean Studies Programme, Dalhousie University, Halifax,

Canada, personal communication to OTA, Aug. 15, 1986.

72C. U, Ruangmvan, op. Cit,

7JLetter from the Foreign and Commonwealth office of the United Kingdom, London, England to OTA through R. L. Embleton, British Embassy,

May 15, 1987.

7~Law of the Sea Bulletin, 1983, op. cit.

tate. Under the Crown Estate Act of 1961 the Crown

Estate Commissioners are charged with the management of the Estate which includes the rights to

license mineral extraction on the Territorial Seabed

but excluding oil, gas, and coal.

Continental shelf: Rights to mining of minerals

other than oil, gas, and coal on the continental shelf

are granted to the Crown by the Continental Shelf

Act, 1964. The Commissioners have the power to

grant prospecting and dredging licenses.75

Permit Process

Exploration: Since experience has shown that

prospecting usually does not conflict unacceptably

with other ocean uses, no formal government consultation process is required to obtain a permit.

However, the Crown Estate Commissioners do inform the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and

Food (MAFF) before issuing a license and the

MAFF, after consultation with regional officials,

will notify the company of potential objections.

Bulk sampling requires separate authorization by

the Commissioners. The MAFF may propose

changes (e. g., in time, place or extraction method)

in order to protect fisheries. 76

Exploitation: Applications to the Commissioners

are first sent to Hydraulics Research Limited to advise whether there is likely to be any adverse effect

on the adjacent coastline. Only if their advice is

favorable does the application proceed, and it is

then forwarded to the Minerals Division of the Department of the Environment (DOE)77 The DOE

oversees the ‘‘Government View’ procedure which

includes consultation with other Government departments and agencies dealing with coast protection, fisheries, navigation, oil and gas, and defense

interests. If any department has a substantive objection, it may discuss it informally with the company or with the Crown Estate Commissioners before reporting it to the Department of the

Environment .78 The Department ultimately makes

a recommendation to the Commissioners.

Terms

● Exploration: Licenses are issued for either 2 or 4

years and are not transferable. They permit use of

75D. Pasho, ‘ ‘The United Kingdom Oflkhore Aggregate Industry: A Review

of Management Practims and Issues, Ministry of Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, January, 1986, p. 17,

7Wode of Practice for the Extraction of Marine Aggregates, December 1981,

p. 10.

“D. Pasho, p. 19,

Tacode of Practice, p. 11.
App. D—Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries ● 315

seismic and core-sampling techniques and limited

bulk sampling by dredger (up to 1,000 tonnes over

the period of the licence). The license fee charged

by the Crown Estate is on a sliding scale depending on the size of area. Exploration licences are

nonexclusive and are normally renewable. 79

● Exploitation: Licenses are granted on a continuing basis but may be terminated at 6 months’ notice. They are expressed to be nonexclusive but as

far as possible each area is granted to a single operator. A maximum annual removal limit is stipulated. Royalties are payable on the actual quantity removed from the seabed but a dead rent of

20 percent of the maximum permissible tonnage

multiplied by the current royalty rate is charged

whether or not any material is removed. Royalty

rates are reviewed periodically but are indexed in

the Retail Price Index in the intervening years. The

current royalties represent about 5 percent of the

selling price of the material at the wharf of landing. 80

Condition s

● Exploration: Drilling and sampling near cables is

restricted. ‘ ‘Unjustifiable interference” with navigation, fishing or conservation of living resources

is prohibited. The company must provide the Commissioners with reports on operations and a full report on prospecting results including geophysical

profiles.

● Exploitation: An applicant must have held a

prospecting license for the area. According to the

1977 Code of Practice, an applicant must have the

necessary vessels, facilities, etc. to undertake work.

The license specifies the maximum annual quantity to be dredged, and safety provisions. Licenses

may be terminated by either party at 6-months’

notice.

The Government View procedure is intended to resolve ocean use conflicts. Special attention is given to

potential conflicts between fishing and mining in the

Code of Practice. The government recognizes that both

industries ‘ ‘are legitimately exploiting the sea’s resources. Therefore, it does not give special priority to

any particular activity; for instance, the MAFF does not

object to a mining license solely because it involves a

fishery area. a]

‘qF(Jrelqn and Commonwealth Oflic c, op. CI(

*011)1(1

8 ’ II)ld , p 11

Activities

Sand and gravel dredging is a fairly well established

activity, dating back to the mid-1920s. 82 The attached

table gives details on production at different mining

sites. In 1985, marine sources provided about 14 percent of Britain’s sand and gravel needs.

New Zealand

Laws

●

●

●

●

New Zealand claims a 12-mile territorial sea. 83

New Zealand declared its continental shelf in

1964 .

8 4

New Zealand declared an EEZ on September 6,

1977 with Act No. 28. Enactment of implementing legislation is pending international confirmation of the Law of the Sea Treaty . 85

Legislation is currently being reviewed on a lowkey basis by the Minister of Energy’s office; a report to the ministers is pending. 86

Jurisdictio n

Continental shelf: The Minister of Energy has exclusive authority to issue prospecting and mining licenses

for minerals in the seabed or subsoil of the continental

shelf. 87

Permit Proces s

Exploration and exploitation: Interested companies

apply to the Minister of Energy and so long as they meet

all the requirements, will be awarded a license. The

company must show that it meets all the requirements

by submitting a project assessment with its application

(e. g., environmental assessment). The concerned agencies will become involved in the review process, but the

company only deals directly with the Minister of

Energy .88

Term s

Exploration and exploitation: To date, only one

prospecting license has been issued, so few precedents

have been set. However, the granting process is likely

to closely parallel that for oil and gas. Prospecting and

‘2D. Pasho, p. 10,

aJ1,aw. “f the Sea Bul]erln, 1 ~8’\, ~p [’it ~ P. 62

‘+Ibd

8$\Ir pat Hc.lm, New Zealan(j Embass},, and ofli( Ials In wt>ilin~ton, ~’~’~

Zealand, letter to OTA, Aug 1, 198b

‘cIbd

‘~~”ew Zealand (;ontlncntal Sbelt A( t, 19b4, Nc] 28, Section 5

Ssrbl{i
316 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier
App. D—Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries . 317

I

I I I I I

I I I I I

1

I I I

I

.

. .

I

I

I

.
318 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

mining licenses are granted separately, so legally, the

right to prospect is not tied to the right to mine. Logically, however, a company which has invested in prospecting is likely to obtain a mining license. Furthermore,

since the government is often a partner in prospecting

operations, exploitation rights follow naturally. Licenses

do not grant exclusive rights; however, not enough

activity has taken place to make this a controversial issue. 89 [Details regarding duration, size, and fees are

unknown. ]

Royalties must be paid to the Crown by the operator. Rates are specified in the license. No mining license

has been issued, so no basis for assessing royalties has

been established. go

Conditions

Any mining activities must disturb the marine environment and life as little as ‘‘reasonably possible, ” must

not interfere with the rights of commercial fishermen,

must comply with safety provisions of the 1971 Mining

Act and 1979 Coal Mines Act.

‘gIbid.

‘“Ibid

Activities must not violate any of the restrictive regulations set forth by the Governor-General, concerning

navigation, fishing, conservation of living resources, national defense, oceanographic research, submarine cables, or pipelines. “Unjustifiable interference” with any

of these activities is defined at the Governor-General’s

discretion.

91 However, in practice, the details of regulations are specified in Parliamentary committees, in

consultation with representatives from appropriate government branches (i. e., the Ministry of the Environment). 92

The Inspector of Mines, in consultation with the Ministry of Transport, Marine Division, and Ministry of

Agriculture and Fisheries arbitrates conflicts between

miners and commercial fishermen.93

Activities

One license has been issued for the prospecting of

phosphorite nodules.94

g! NCW zea]and Continental Sheff Act, Section 8.

9 2P Helm, op. cit.

‘

s Ibid.

‘*Ibid.
Appendix E

Tables of Contents for

OTA Contractor Reports

Manned Submersibles and Remotely

Operated Vehicles: Their Use for

Exploring the EEZ

Frank Busby

Busby Associates, Inc.

576 S. 23rd Street

Arlington, VA 2220 2

Table of Contents

Applications

Manned Submersible s

Remotely Operated Vehicle s

Hybrid Vehicle s

Advantages and Limitations

Capabilitie s

Vehicle Applications in the EEZ

Regional Surveys/Reconnaissance

Local Survey s

Samplin g

In Situ Mineral Analyses

Example s

Needed Technical Development s

Technologies for Dredge Mining

Minerals of the Exclusive

Economic Zone (EEZ)

M.J. Richardso n

Consolidated Placer Dredging, inc .

17961A Cowa n

Irvine, CA 9271 4

Edward E. Horton

Deep Oil Technology, Inc .

P.O. Box 1618 9

Irvine, California 92713

Arlington, VA 2220 2

Table of Contents

introduction

Placer Mining Technology

Precious Mineral s

Heavy Mineral s

Industrial Minerals

Definitions

Bibliography

Dredge Mining Systems

Bucket Ladder Dredge

Bucket Dredges for Mining

Suction dredges for Mining

Beneficiation Systems

Tailings Disposal

Mining Contro l

Economics and Efficiency of Dredge Mining

Operations

Capital Cost s

Operating Cost s

Placer Sampling Methods

Initial Survey Scout Sampling

Indicated Reserves

Proven Reserve s

Drilling Systems

Bulk Sampling

Placer Sampling Equipment Comparison

Evaluation Procedures

Precious Mineral s

Heavy Mineral s

Industrial Minerals

Applications to Offshore Deposits

Future Technologies for Offshore Dredge Mining

Offshore Titanium Heavy Mineral

Placers: Processing and Related

Considerations

Arlington Technical Services

4 Colony Lane

Arlington, MA 02174

W.W. Harvey and F.C. Brow n

Table of Content s

Titanium and Associated Mineral s

Salient Features of the Industry

Recent History of Titanium Sands Mining in the

Us.

General Extrapolations to Offshore Deposits

Typical Flow Sheets for Processing Ti/associated

Heavy Mineral Sands

Modifications for Processing an Offshore Deposit

A Dune Sands Analog of the Postulated Offshore

Deposit

379
320 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Offshore Titanium Heavy Minerals Production

Scenario

Approach to a Framework for Evaluation

Component Costs for Heavy Mineral Sands

Mining and Processing

Ore Grades for Break-Even Production from

Offshore

Ore Grade Requirements: Revised Basis and

Approach

References

Tables

Figures

Appendix

Processing Considerations for Chromite

Heavy Mineral Placers

Arlington Technical Services

4 Old Colony Lane

Arlington, MA 02174

W.W. Harvey and F.C

Table of Contents

Preliminary Notes

Brown

Synopsis’ of U.S. Chromium Industry

Mining and Processing of the Black Sands

Production Potential of Offshore Chromite Placers

Costs for a Southwest Oregon Beach Sands Placer

Costs for an Offshore Chromite Heavy Mineral

Placer

Effect of New Technologies

References

Tables

Figures

Offshore Phosphorite Deposits:

Processing and Related Considerations

Arlington Technical Services

4 Old Colony Lane

Arlington, MA 02174

W.W. Harvey and F.C. Brown

Table of Contents

Background and Perspectives

Initial Perspectives

Onshore/Offshore Comparisons

Development Incentives

Past Commercial Activities

Qualitative Economic Considerations

Broad Cost Comparison

Cost Offset Via Higher Ore Values

Phosphorite Placer Development

Prior Engineering/Economic Studies

References

Tables

Figures

Polymetallic Sulfides and Oxides of

the U.S. EEZ: Metallurgical Extraction

and Related Aspects of Possible

Future Development

Arlington Technical Services

4 Old Colony Lane

Arlington, MA 02174

W.W. Harvey

Table of Contents

Foreword

Recent Literature

Polymetallic Sulfides

Subsea Occurrences

Terrestrial Deposits

Processing Technologies

Tables and Figures, Section II

Oxide Nodules and Crusts

Broad Intercomparisons

Major Processing and Marketing Issues

Recent Process-Related Studies

Figures, Section III

References

Appendix

Data Management in a

of Exploration and

of the U.S.

Richard C. Vetter

4779 North 33rd Street

Arlington, VA 22207

Table of Contents

Introduction

National Program

Development

E E Z

Conclusions, Problem Areas, and

Examination of Limiting Factors

Is Technology Limiting?

Is Understanding of Wise Data

Concepts Limiting?

Is Infrastructure Lacking?

Is Funding Limiting?

Recommendations

Management

The Present-Situation-and the Near Future

Federal Agencies

Department of Commerce/National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration
App. E—Tables of Contents for OTA Contractor Reports . 321

National Environmental Satellite, Data, U.S. Navy

and Information Service State and Local Governments

National

National

National

National

Geophysical Data Center Academic and Private Laboratories

Oceanographic Data Center Industry

Ocean Service Other Data Management Studies

Marine Fisheries Service Study Procedures

Department of the Interior References

Minerals Management Service Appendices

U.S. Geological Survey Questionnaire

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Contacts

72-672 0 - 87 -- 12
Appendix F

OTA Workshop Participants

and Other Contributors

Workshop ParticipantsTechnologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, D. C., June 10, 1986.

Participants described and evaluated technologies used for reconnoitering the EEZ, including bathymetry systems,

side-looking sonar systems, and seismic, magnetic, and gravity technologies.

Chris Andreasen

National Ocean Service, NOAA

Robert D. Ballard

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

John Brozena

Naval Research Laboratory

Gary Hill

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston

John La Brecque

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

William M. Marquet

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Don Pryor

Charting and Geodetic Services

National Ocean Service, NOAA

Bill Ryan

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

Carl Savit

Western Geophysical Co.

Robert C. Tyce

Graduate School of Oceanography

University of Rhode Island, RI

Donald White

General Instrument Corporation

Site-Specific Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, D. C., July 16, 1986.

Participants described and evaluated technologies for coring, dredging, and drilling and technologies for electrical

and geochemical exploration.

Roger Amato John Noakes

Minerals Management Service Center for Applied Isotope Studies

Alan D. Chave

AT&T Bell Laboratories

Michael J. Cruickshank

Consulting Marine Mining

Charles Dill

University of Georgia, GA

William D. Siapno

Marine Consultant

Engineer Paul Teleki

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Alpine Ocean Seismic Survey, Inc.

Peter B. Hale

Offshore Minerals Section

Energy, Mines, and Resources Canada

W. William Harvey

Arlington Technical Services, VA

Edward E. Horton

Deep Oil Technology, Inc.

Jerzy Maciolek

Exploration Technologies, Inc.

John Toth

Analytical Services, Inc.

Robert Willard

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minneapolis, MN

S. Jeffress Williams

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Robert Woolsey

Mississippi Minerals Resources Institute, MS

J. Robert Moore

Department of Marine Studies

University of Texas, TX

322
App. F—OTA Workshop Participants and Other Contributors ● 323

Pacific EEZ Minerals, Newport, Oregon, November 20, 1986. Participants assessed knowledge of chromite sands,

cobalt crusts, and polymetallic sulfides of the U.S. Pacific EEZ and evaluated existing and potential technology

for mining and processing these deposits. Held in cooperation with the Hatfield Marine Science Center, Oregon

State University.

Robert Bailey

Department of Land Conservation and

Development

State of Oregon

Thomas Carnahan

Bureau of Mines, Reno, NV

David K. Denton

Bureau of Mines, Spokane, WA

Don Foot

Bureau of Mines, Salt Lake City, UT

Laverne Kulm

College of Oceanography

Oregon State University, OR

Charles Morgan

Manganese Crust EIS Project

Joseph R. Ritchey

Bureau of Mines, Spokane, WA

Reid Stone

Office of Strategic and International Minerals

Minerals Management Service

Steve Hammond James Wenzel

Vents Program, NOAA Marine Development Associates, Inc.

Benjamin W. Haynes Robert Zierenberg

Bureau of Mines, Avondale, AZ U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA

James R. Hein

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA

Donald Hull

Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral

Industries, OR

Data Classification, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, January 27, 1987. Participants assessed the effect that classification of bathymetric data and other types of oceanographic data may have on marine science activities. Held in

cooperation with the Marine Policy and Ocean Management Center, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

James Broadus

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

John Edmond

Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA

Richard Greenwald

Ocean Mining Associates

James Kosalos

International Submarine Technology

Jacqueline Mammericks

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Donna Moffitt

Office of Marine Affairs

Department of Administration

W. Jason Morgan

Department of Geological and Geophysical Sciences

Princeton University, PA

Peter A. Rona

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological

Laboratories, NOAA

David Ross

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Derek W. Spencer

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Robert C. Tyce

Graduate School of Oceanography

University of Rhode Island, RI
324 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Mining and Processing Placers of the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, D. C., September 18, 1986.

Participants critiqued an OTA working paper on the mineral resources of the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf coast EEZs.

Technologies for offshore placer mining and for minerals processing were also discussed.

Richard A. Beale David Ross

Associated Minerals (U. S. A.) Ltd. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Michael J. Cruickshank John Rowland

Consulting Marine Mining Engineer Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C.

Edward Escowitz Langtry E. Lynd

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C.

Andrew Grosz J. Robert Moore

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA Department of Marine Studies

University of Texas, TX

Frank C. Hamata

Sceptre-Ridel-Dawson Constructors Scott Snyder

Gretchen Luepke

Department of Geology

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA

East Carolina University, NC

George Watson

Ruud Ouwerkerk

Dredge Technology Corporation

Ferroalloy Associates

S. Jeffress Williams

Tom Oxford

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Richard Rosamilia

Great Lakes Dredge and Dock Co.

Environmental Effects of Offshore Mining, Washington, D. C., October 29, 1986. Surface, mid-water, and

benthic impacts were assessed for both near-shore and open-ocean mining situations. Potential effects of offshore

dredging on coastal processes were also addressed.

Henry J. Bokuniewicz

Marine Sciences Research Center

State University of New York at Stony Brook, NY

Michael J. Cruickshank

Consulting Marine Mining Engineer

Clifton Curtis

Oceanic Society

David Duane

National Sea Grant College Program, NOAA

Joseph Flanagan

Ocean Minerals and Energy, NOAA

Barbara Hecker

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

Michael J. Herz

Tiberon Center for Environmental Studies

University of San Francisco, CA

Robert R. Hessler

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Art Hurme

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Greg McMurray

Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral

Industries, OR

Ed Myers

Ocean Minerals and Energy, NOAA

John Padan

Ocean Minerals and Energy, NOAA

Andrew Palmer

Environmental Policy Institute

Dean Parsons

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

David W. Pasho

Resource Management Branch

Energy, Mines, and Resources Canada
A.D.D. F—OTA Workshop Participants and Other Contributors 325

Mario Paula

New York District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,

NY

Richard K. Peddicord

Battelle NE, MA

Joan Pope

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Jean Snider

Ocean Assessment, NOAA

Other Contributors

Craig Amergian

Analytical Services, Inc.

Robert Abel

N.J. Marine Science Consortium, NJ

W.T. Adams

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Vera Alexander

University of Alaska

Chris Andreasen

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jack H. Archer

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Ted Armbrustmacher

U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO

Dale Avery

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Ledolph Baer

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Susan Bales

David Taylor Naval Ship Research and

Development Center

Bill Barnard

Office of Technology Assessment

Aldo F. Barsotti

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Dan Basta

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Alan Bauder

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Wayne Bell

University of Maryland, MD

Jeff Benoit

Massachusetts Department of Environmental

Quality and Engineering, MA

Rick Berquist

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, VA

Buford Holt

U.S. Department of the Interior

David Thistle

Department of Oceanography

Florida State University, FL

George D. F. Wilson

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Thomas Wright

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Lewis Brown

National Science Foundation

Bill Burnett

University of Florida, FL

R.J. Byrne

Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences, VA

David Camp

Florida Department of Natural Resources, FL

Bill Cannon

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Jim Cathcart

U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO

M. W. Chesson

Zellars-Williams Company

Michael A. Chinnery

National Geophysical Data Center

Joe Christopher

Gulf of Mexico Region, Minerals Management

Service

Jay Combe

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans

District, LA

Stephen G. Conrad

North Carolina Division of Land Resources, NC

Margaret Courain

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and

Information Service

Dennis Cox

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA

Michael Cruickshank

Consulting Marine Mining Engineer

Mike Czarnecki

Naval Research Laboratory

Lou J. Czel

E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.
326 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

James F. Davis

California Department of Conservation, CA

Mike De Luca

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

John H. De Young, Jr.

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

John Delaney

University of Washington, WA

Bob Detrick

University of Rhode Island, RI

Captain Joseph Drop

National Environmental Satellite, Data and

Information Service

Barry Drucker

Offshore Environmental Assessment Div.

David Duane

National Sea Grant College Program

John Dugen

Arete Associates

Frank Eaden

Joint Oceanographic Institutions

R.L. Embleton

British Embassy

Bill Emery

National Center for Atmospheric Research

Robert Engler

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Herman Enzer

U.S. Bureau of Mines

William Erb

State Department,

Edward Escowitz

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Robert H. Fakundiny

New York State Geological Survey, NY

Rich Fantel

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Denver, CO

Martin Finerty

Ocean Studies Board, National Academy of

Sciences

Joe Flanagan

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

John E. Flipse

Texas A&M University, TX

Mike Foose

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Eric Force

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Linda Glover

U.S. Navy

John Gould

Institute of Ocean Sciences, England

James L. Green

National Space Science Data Center

Andrew Grosz

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Kenneth A. Haddad

Florida Department of Natural Resources, FL

Robert Hall

Department of the Interior

Gary Hallbauer

Texas Sea Grant, TX

Erick Hartwig

Office of Naval Research

W. William Harvey

Arlington Technical Services, VA

G. Ross Heath

Oregon State University, OR

Barbara Hecker

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

J.B. Hedrick

U.S. Bureau of Mines

George Heimerdinger

National Oceanographic Data Center, NE Liaison

P.O. Helm

Embassy of New Zealand

H. James Herring

Dynalysis of Princeton, PA

Jerry Hilbish

University of South Carolina, SC

Gary Hill

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Tom Hillman

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Spokane, WA

Jack Hird

Texas Gulf

Joe Hlubucek

Embassy of Australia

Porter Hoagland

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Carl H. Hobbs

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, VA

Kent Hughes

National Oceanographic Data Center
App. F—OTA Workshop Participants and Other Contributors ● 3 2 7

Art Hurme

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Lee Hunt

Naval Studies Board, National Research Council

Michel Hunt

Minerals Management Service

Kaname Ikeda

Embassy of Japan

Roy Jenne

National Center for Atmospheric Research

Janice Jolly

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Jim Jolly

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Ellen Kappel

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

Mary Hope Katsouros

Ocean Studies Board, National Research Council

Jeff Kellam

Georgia Department of Natural Resources, GA

Joseph T. Kelley

Maine Geological Survey

Terry Kenyon

Vitro Corporation

Randall Kerhin

Maryland Geological Survey

Donald G. Kesterke

U.S. Bureau of Mines, retired

Daniel Kevin

Office of Technology Assessment

Lee Kimball

Council on Ocean Law

Chuck Klose

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory

John Knauss

University of Rhode Island, RI

Skip Kovacs

Naval Research Laboratory

Kenneth Kvammen

L.A. County Dept. of Public Works, CA

Richard N. Lambert

Aero Service

Bill Langer

U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO

Raymond Lasmanis

Washington State Geologist, WA

Brad J. Laubach

Minerals Management Service

Stephen Law

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Avondale, AZ

Jim Lawless

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Wah Ting Lee

David Taylor Naval Ship Research and

Development Center

Peter Leitner

General Services Administration

Howard Levenson

Office of Technology Assessment

Ralph Lewis

Connecticut Department of Environmental

Protection

Bob Lockerman

National Oceanographic Data Center

Millington Lockwood

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

J.R. Loebenstein

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Michael Loughridge

National Geophysical Data Center

J.M. Lucas

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Edwin E. Luper

Mississippi Bureau of Geology

Langtry Lynd

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Bruce Magnell

EG&G

R. Gary Magnuson

Coastal States Organization

Frank Manheim

U.S. Geological Survey, Woods Hole

Charles Mathews

National Ocean Industries Association

Samuel W. McCandless, Jr.

User System Engineering, Inc.

Bonnie McGregor

U.S. Geological Survey

Gregory McMurray

Oregon Department of Geology & Mineral

Industries

Michael Hunt

Minerals Management Service

Rosemary Monahan

Environmental Protection Agency, Region I
328 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Carla Moore

National Geophysical Data Center

Peter Moran

Eastman Kodak Co.

S. P. Murdoch

Embassy of New Zealand

Nancy Friedrich Neff

University of Rhode Island, RI

Myron Nordquist

Kelley, Drye & Warren

Terry W. Offield

U.S. Geological Survey

Jim Olsen

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minneapolis, MN

Tom Osborn

Chesapeake Bay Institute

Ned Ostenso

National Sea Grant College Program

Norm Page

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA

John Padan

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Tom Patin

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Jack Pearce

National Marine Fisheries Service

John Perry

Atmospherics Studies Board, National Research

Council

Hal Petersen

Battelle NE, MS

Richard A. Petters

Sound Ocean Systems, Inc.

Don Pryor

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Larry Pugh

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Tom Pyle

Joint Oceanographic Institutions

Ransom Reed

U.S. Bureau of Mines

R. Reese

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Joe Ritchey

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Spokane, WA

Donald Rogich

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Nelson C. Ross

National Oceanographic Data Center

West Coast Liaison

John Rowland

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Paul D. Ryan

Embassy of Japan

Carl Savit

Western Geophysical Co. of America

Frederick Schmidt

Ames Laboratory, Iowa State University, IA

Robert L. Schmidt

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Henry R. Schorr

Gulf Coast Trailing Company

Bill Siapno

Deepsea Ventures

Allen Sielen

Environmental Protection Agency, Office of

International Activities

E. Emit Smith

Geological Survey of Alabama, AL

Jean Snider

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

David J. Spottiswood

Colorado School of Mines, CO

Sidney Stillwaugh

National Oceanographic Data Center Pacific NW

Liaison

Reid Stone

Minerals Management Service

William F. Stowasser

U.S. Bureau of Mines

William L. Stubblefield

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Tim Sullivan

Atlantic OCS Region, Minerals Management

Service

Bill Sunda

National Marine Fisheries Service

Nick Sundt

Office of Technology Assessment

John R. Suter

Louisiana Geological Survey, LA

George Tirey

Minerals Management Service
App. F—OTA Workshop Participants and Other Contributors 329

Tom Usselman

Geophysics Study Committee, National Research

Council

Gregory van der Vink

Office of Technology Assessment

Van Waddell

Science Applications Inc.

Mike Walker

Intermagnetics General Corporation

Maureen Warren

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Sui-Ying Wat

United Nations, Ocean, Economics and Technology

Branch

E. G. Wernund

University of Texas at Austin, TX

Hoyt Wheeland

National Marine Fisheries Service

Bob Willard

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minneapolis, MN

S. Jeffress Williams

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Stan Wilson

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Robert S. Winokur

Office of the Chief of Naval Operations

Gregory Withee

National Oceanographic Data Center

W.D. Woodbury

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Tom Wright

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Jeffrey C. Wynn

U.S. Geological Survey

Dave Zinzer

Minerals Management Service

Philip Zion

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Appendix G

Acronyms and Abbreviations

AEM —Airborne Electromagnetic Bathymetry

AOML —Atlantic Oceanographic and

Meteorological Laboratories

BOF —Basic Oxygen Furnace

BOM —U.S. Bureau of Mines

BPL —Bone Phosphate of Lime

BS3 —Bathymetric Swath Survey System

CAIS —Center for Applied Isotope Studies

CALCOFI—California Cooperative Fisheries

Investigations

CDP —Common Depth Point

COE —U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CSO —Coastal States Organization

CZMA —Coastal Zone Management Act

DGS —Digital Grain Size

DMRP —Dredged Material Research Program

DOD —U.S. Department of Defense

DOE —U.S. Department of Energy

DOI —U.S. Department of the Interior

DOMES —Deep Ocean Mining Environmental

Study

DSHMRA—Deep Seabed Hard Minerals Resources

Act

DSL —Deep Submergence Laboratory

EEZ —Exclusive Economic Zone

EIS —Environmental Impact Statement

EPA —U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

ERM —Exact Repeat Mission

FOB —Free on Board

FWS —U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

GEODAS —Geophysical Data System

GEOSAT —U.S. Navy Geodetic Satellite

GI —General Instrument Corp.

GGB —Gridded Global Bathymetry

GLORIA —Geological Long Range Inclined Asdic

GPS —Global Positioning System

HEBBLE —High Energy Benthic Boundary Layer

Experiment

HIG —Hawaii Institute of Geophysics

HS —Hydrographic Survey

ICES —International Council for Exploration

of the Seas

IDOE —International Decade of Ocean

Exploration

IGY —International Geophysical Year

IOS —Institute of Oceanographic Sciences

1P —Induced Polarization

ICES —International Council for the

Explorations of the Seas

1ST

ITA

JOI

LDGO

LOS

LOSC

MB

MCC

MESA

MGF

MIPS

M M

MMS

MO U

MSR

NAS

NASA

NACOA

NCAR

NEPA

NESDIS

NGDC

NMFS

NMPIS

NOAA

NOAC

NODC

—International Submarine Technology,

Ltd.

—International Trade Administration

—Joint Oceanographic Institutions

—Lamont-Doherty Geological

Observatory

—Law of the Sea

—Law of the Sea Convention

—Marine Boundary Data

—Marine Core Curator

—Marine Ecosystems Analysis Project

—Miscellaneous Geology Files

—Mini-Image Processing System

—Marine Mineral Data

—Minerals Management Service

—Memorandum of Understanding

—Marine Seismic Reflection

—National Academy of Science

—National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

—National Advisory Committee on

Oceans and Atmosphere

—National Center for Atmospheric

Research

—National Environmental Policy Act

—National Environmental Satellite Data

and Information Service

—National Geophysical Data Center

—National Marine Fisheries Service

—National Marine Pollution Information

System

—National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration

—National Operations Security Advisory

Committee

—National Oceanographic Data Center

NOMES —New England Offshore Mining

Environmental Study

NORDA —Naval Ocean Research and

Development Activity

NOS —National Ocean Survey

NOS/HS —National Ocean Survey Hydrographic

Surveys

NOS/MB —National Ocean Survey Multibeam

EEZ Bathymetry

NRC —National Research Council

NRL —Naval Research Laboratory

NSF —National Science Foundation

NSI —NASA Science Internet

330
App. G—Acronyms and Abbreviations ● 331

O AR —Oceans and Atmospheric Research SAR —Systeme Acoustique Remorque

OCS —Outer Continental Shelf SASS —Sonar Array Sounding System

OCSLA —Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act SeaMARC—Sea Mapping and Remote

OCSEAP —Outer Continental Shelf Environment Characterization

OMA

OMB

OSIM

OSTP

ODP

O M A

ON R

PGM

PMEL

R OR

R OV

SAB

Assessment Program

—Ocean Mining Associates

—Office of Management and Budget

—Office of Strategic and International

Minerals

—Office of Science and Technology

Policy

—Ocean Drilling Program

—Ocean Mining Associates

—Office of Naval Research

—Platinum Group Metal

—Pacific Marine Environmental

Laboratory

—Rate of Return

—Remotely Operated Vehicle

—Strategic Assessment Branch

SP —Self Potential

SPAN —Space Physics Analysis Network

TAMU —Texas A & M University

TOGA —Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere

Study

UMI —Underwater Mining Institute

USCG —U.S. Coast Guard

UTM —Universal Transverse Mercator

UNOLS —University National Oceanographic

Laboratory System

USGS —U.S. Geological Survey

WADSEP —Walking and Dredging Self-Elevating

Platform

WOCE —World Ocean Circulation Experiment

WHOI —Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Appendix H

Conversion Table and Glossary

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Conversion Table for Distances, Areas, Volumes, and Weights

inch = 2.54 centimeters

square inch = 6.45 square centimeters

cubic inch = 16.39 cubic centimeters

centimeter = 0.39 inches

square centimeter = O. 15 square inches

cubic centimeter = 0.06 cubic inches

foot = 0.30 meters

square foot = 0.09 square meters

cubic foot = 0.03 cubic meters

meter = 3.28 feet

square meter = 10.76 square feet

cubic meter = 35.31 cubic feet

yard = .91 meters

square yard = 0.84 square meters

cubic yard = 0.76 cubic meters

meter = 1.09 yards

square meter = 1.20 square yards

cubic meter = 1.31 cubic yards

Glossary

Abyssal Plain: A flat region of the deep ocean floor.

Acid-Grade Phosphate Rock: Phosphate rock that can

be used directly in fertilizer plants. A comparatively

pure grade of phosphate rock that assays at 31 percent phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5

), and is also called

“fertilizer-grade” rock.

Acoustic: Of or relating to sounds or to the science of

sounds.

Active Margin: The leading edge of a continental plate

characterized by coastal volcanic mountain ranges,

frequent earthquake activity, and relatively narrow

continental shelves.

Alluvial Deposits: Secondary deposits derived from the

fragmentation and concentration of chromite minerals

from primary stratiform or podiform deposits. Alluvial deposits are either placers, e.g., beach sands

which occur in Oregon and stream sand deposits in

the eastern States, or laterites, which occur in northwest California and southwestern Oregon.

Anatase: One of two major crystalline modifications of

titanium dioxide (TiO2

), the other being rutile.

Argon-Oxygen-Decarburization (AOD); VacuumOxygen-Decarburization (VOD): Processes for

removing carbon from molten steel without oxidizing large amounts of valuable alloying elements, especially chromium. AOD and VOD enable the use of

lower grade, lower cost high-carbon ferrochromium.

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

are = 100 square meters = 119.6 square yards

statute mile = 0.86 nautical miles

square statute mile = 0.74 square nautical miles

statute mile = 1.61 kilometers

square statute mile = 2.59 square kilometers

nautical mile = 1.16 statute miles

square nautical mile = 1.35 square statute miles

nautical mile = 1.85 kilometers

square nautical mile = 3.43 square kilometers

kilometer = 0.62 statute miles

square kilometer = 0.39 square statute miles

kilometer = 0.54 nautical miles

square kilometer = 0.29 square nautical miles

short ton = 2000 pounds = 0.91 metric tons

long ton = 2240 pounds = 1.02 metric tons

metric ton = 1.10 short tons = 0.98 long tons

Attenuation: A reduction in the amplitude or energy

of a seismic or sonar signal, such as produced by

divergence, reflection and scattering, and absorption.

Barrier Island: A long, narrow, wave-built sandy island

parallel to the shore and separated from the mainland by a lagoon.

Bathymetry: The measurement of depths of water in

the oceans. Also, the information derived from such

measurements.

Beneficiation-Grade Phosphate Rock: Phosphate rock

that assays at 10 to 18 percent phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5

) and requires the removal of hydrocarbons

and other impurities before processing in a chemical

plant. It may be upgraded to acid grade or furnace

feed quality.

Beneficiation: Improvement of the grade of ore by milling, flotation, gravity concentration, or other

processes.

Benthos: the animals living at the bottom of the sea.

Bioassay: a method for semi-quantitatively measuring

the effect of a given concentration of a substance on

the growth of a living organism.

Biomass: The amount of living matter in a community

or population of a single species. (It may be measured either by wet, dry, or ash-free [burned] weight. )

Calcium Phosphate: Any of the calcium orthophosphates

that may be used for fertilizers, plastics stabilizers,

pharmaceuticals, animal feeds, and toothpastes. They

include acid calcium phosphate, calcium dihydrogen

332
App. H—Conversion Table and Glossary ● 333

phosphate, monobasic calcium phosphate, monocalcium phosphate, and tricalcium phosphate.

Cephalopods: Marine mollusks including squids, octopuses, and Nautilus.

Chromic Oxide: A dark green amorphous powder that

is insoluble in water or acids. Also known as chrome

green. It is commonly used as a standard measure

of chromium content in chromite.

Chromite: An iron-chromic oxide (chrome iron ore). A

mineral of the spinel group, and the only mineral

mined for chromium. ‘‘Chromite " is used synonymously for chromium ore and concentrates made

from the ore used in commercial trade. When referring to the spinel mineral chromite, it is referred to

as ‘‘chromite mineral.

Conductivity: The ratio of electric current density to

the electric field in a material; the reciprocal of resistivity.

Continental rise: That part of the continental margin

that is between the continental slope and the abyssal

plain except in areas of an oceanic trench.

Continental Shelf: The part of the continental margin

that is between the shore and the continental slope

and is characterized by its very gentle slope.

Continental Slope: The relatively steeply sloping part

of the continental margin that is between the continental shelf and the continental rise.

Crustacean: Jointed animals with hard shells. This

group includes crabs, shrimp, lobsters, and barnacles.

Deposit-Feeder: An animal that feeds on particulate

matter deposited on the seafloor.

Detritus: Particulate matter resulting from the degeneration and decay of organisms or inorganic substances

in nature.

Diversity: a measure of the numbers and kinds of species found in a particular area.

Dredging: The various processes by which large floating machines, or dredges, excavate earth material at

the bottom of a body of water, raise it to the surface,

and discharge it into a hopper, pipeline, or barge, or

return it to the water body after removal of ore

minerals.

Electrolytic Manganese Metal: A relatively pure form

of metal produced by the deposition of a metal on the

cathode by passing an electric current through a

chemical solution of manganous sulfate; at the same

time electrolytic manganese dioxide (MnO2

) is formed

at the anode.

Fauna: the animal life characteristic of a particular environment or region.

Ferrochromium: A crude ferroalloy containing chromium that is an intermediate iron-chromic product

used in the manufacture of chromium steel.

Ferromanganese Crusts: Crusts of iron and manganese

oxides enriched in cobalt that are found on the flanks

of seamounts, ridges, and other raised areas of ocean

floor in the central Pacific.

Ferromanganese Nodules: Concretions of iron and manganese oxides containing copper, nickel, cobalt, and

other metals that are found in deep ocean basins and

in some shallower areas of the oceanfloor.

Ferromanganese: A ferroalloy containing about 80 percent manganese and used in steelmaking. There are

three grades: (1) High-Carbon (Standard)—74 to 82

percent manganese; (2) Medium-carbon—80 to 85

percent manganese; and (3) Low-carbon—80 to 90

percent manganese.

Filter-Feeder: an animal that feeds on minute organisms suspended in the water column by using some

screening and capturing (filtering) mechanism.

Flotation Separation: A method of concentrating ore

that employs the principles of interracial chemistry

that separates the useful minerals in the ore from the

waste by adding reagents or oils to a water slurry mixture of fine particles of ore and collecting the useful

portion that “floats” to the surface in association with

the oil or reagent.

Full Alloy Steel: Those steels may contain between onehalf percent to nine percent chromium, but more

commonly contain between one and four percent.

Chromium is used to impart hardness.

Furnace-Grade Phosphate Rock: Phosphate rock that

assays at 18 to 28 percent phosphorous pentoxide

(P2O 5), It may be charged directly to electric furnaces

to produce slag and ferrophosphorus as byproducts

and volatilized elemental phosphorus as the primary

product.

Gangue: The nonmetalliferous or nonvaluable metalliferous minerals in an ore.

Geomagnetic: Pertaining to the magnetic field of the

earth.

Geophysics: Study of the earth by quantitative physical methods (e. g., electric, gravity, magnetic, seismic, or thermal techniques).

Grade: The relative quantity or weight percentage of

ore-mineral content in an orebody.

Gradiometry: Measurement of the difference in the

magnetic or gravity field between two points, rather

than the total field at any given point.

Gravity Anomaly: The difference between the observed

value of gravity at a point and the theoretically calculated value. Excess observed gravity is positive and

deficient observed gravity is negative.

Hadfield Manganese Steel: A steel containing 10 to 14

percent manganese; resistant to shock and wear.

Ilmenite: A black, opaque mineral consisting of impure

FeTiO3 that is the principal ore of titanium.

Interferometry: The precise measurement of wavelength, very small distances and thicknesses, etc.

through the separation of light (by means of a sys-
334 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

tern of mirrors and glass plates) into two parts that

travel unequal optical paths and when reunited consequently interfere with each other.

Invertebrate: an animal lacking a backbone and an internal skeleton.

Kroll Process: A reduction process for the production

principally of titanium metal sponge from titanium

tetrachloride by molten magnesium metal.

Larvae: free-living inmature forms that have developed

from a fertilized egg but must undergo a series of

shape and size changes before assuming the characteristic features of the adult organism.

Laterite: Weathered material composed principally of

the oxides of iron, aluminum, titanium, manganese,

nickel and chromium. Laterite may range from soillike porous material to hard rock.

Leucoxene: A mineral assemblage of intermediate titanium dioxide (TiO2

) content composed of rutile with

some anatase or sphene. Usually an alteration product of ilmenite, with the iron oxide content having

been reduced by weathering.

Macrofauna: animals barely large enough to be visible

to the naked eye and not likely to be photographed

from a meter or two. Average body length might be

about 1 mm.

Magnetic Anomaly: The difference between the intensity of the magnetic field at a point and the theoretically calculated value. Anomalies are interpreted as

to the depth, size, shape, and magnetization of geologic features causing them.

Manganese Ore: Those ores containing 35 percent or

more manganese.

Manganese Dioxide: MnO2

, a black, crystalline, waterinsoluble compound used in dry-cell batteries, as a

catalyst, and in dyeing textiles. Also known as ‘‘battery manganese.

Manganiferous Ore: Any ore important for its manganese content containing less than 35 percent manganese but not less than 5 percent. There a two types

of manganiferous ore: (1) ‘‘Ferruginous ore"--containing 10 to 35 percent manganese; and (2) "‘Manganiferous iron ore” —containing 5 to 10 percent

manganese.

Mining: The process of extracting metallic or nonmetallic mineral deposits from the earth. The process may

also include preliminary treatment, such as cleaning

or sizing.

Mollusk: a division of the animal kingdom containing

clams, mussels, oysters, snails, octopuses, and squids;

they are characterized by an organ that secretes a

shell.

Nekton: Free-swimming aquatic animals.

Neutron Activation: Bombardment of a material by

high-energy neutrons which transmute natural elements to gamma-ray-emitting isotopes of characteristic identity.

Ore: The naturally occurring material from which a

mineral or minerals of economic value can be extracted at a reasonable profit.

Overburden: Loose or consolidated rock material that

overlies a mineral deposit and must be removed prior

to mining.

P2O5: Phosphorus pentoxide, the standard used to measure phosphorus content in ores and products.

Passive Margin: The trailing edge of a continent located

within a crustal plate at the transition between continental and oceanic crust and characterized by its

lack of significant volcanic and seismic activity.

Pelagic: pertaining to the open ocean.

Perovskite: A natural, complex, yellow, brownish-yellow, reddish, brown, or black calcium-titanium oxide mineral.

Phosphate Rock: Igneous rock that contains one or more

phosphorus-bearing minerals, e.g. phosphorite, of

sufficient purity and quantity to permit its commercial use as a source of phosphatic compounds or

elemental phosphorus.

Phosphorite: A sedimentary rock with a high enough

content of phosphate minerals to be of economic interest. Most commonly it is a bedded primary or reworked secondary marine rock composed of microcrystalline carbonate fluorapatite in the form of layers,

pellets, nodules, and skeletal, shell, and bone fragments.

Phylogeny: the evolutionary or ancestral history of

organisms.

Phytoplankton: the plant forms of plankton.

Placer: Concentrations of heavy detrital minerals that

are resistant to chemical and physical processes of

weathering.

Placer: A mineral deposit formed by mechanical concentration of mineral particles from weathered debris.

The mineral concentrated is usually a heavy mineral

such as gold, cassiterite, or rutile.

Plankton: passively floating or weakly motile aquatic

plants and animals.

Plate Tectonics: A model to explain global tectonics

wherein the Earth’s outer shell is made up of gigantic plates composed of both continental and oceanic

lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) that “float” on

some viscous underlayer in the mantle and move

more or less independently, slowly grinding against

each other while propelled from the rear by seafloor

spreading.

Podiform-Type Deposits: Primary chromite mineral deposits that are irregularly formed as lenticular, tabular, or pod shapes. Because of their irregular nature,

podiform deposits are difficult to locate and evaluate. Most podiform deposits are high in chromium,
App. H—Conversion Table and Glossary ● 335

and are the only source of high-aluminum chromite.

In the United States, they occur mostly on the Pacific Coast in California and Alaska.

Polychaete: a class of segmented marine worms.

Polymetallic Sulfide: A popular term used to describe

the suites of intimately associated sulfide minerals that

have been found in spreading centers on the ocean

floor.

Primary Productivity: the amount of organic matter

synthesized from inorganic substances in a given area

or a measured amount of time (e. g., gm/m2/yr).

Processing: The series of steps by which raw material

(ore) is transformed into intermediate or final mineral

products. The number and type of steps involved in

a particular process may vary considerably depending on the characteristics of the ore and the end product or products to be extracted from the ore.

Pycnocline: a vertical gradient in the ocean where density changes rapidly.

Pyrolusite: A soft iron-black or dark steel-gray

tetragonal mineral composed of manganese dioxide

(MnO2

). It is the most important ore of manganese.

Reconnaissance: A general, exploratory examination or

survey of the main features of a region, usually preliminary to a more detailed survey.

Refractory: A material of high melting point, possessing the property of heat resistance.

Remote Sensing: The collection of information about

an object by a recording device that is not in physical contact with it. The term is usually restricted to

mean methods that record reflected or radiated electromagnetic energy, rather than methods that involve

significant penetration into the earth.

Resistivity: The electrical resistance offered by a material to the flow of current, times the cross-sectional

area of current flow and per unit length of current

path; the reciprocal of conductivity.

Resolution: A measure of the ability of geophysical instruments, or of remote-sensing systems, to define

closely spaced targets.

Rhodochrosite: A rose-red or pink to gray rhombohedral

mineral of the calcite group: MnCO3. It is a minor

ore of manganese.

Rhodonite: A pink or brown mineral of silicatemanganese: MnSiO3

.

Rutile: Occurs naturally as a reddish-brown, tetragonal

mineral composed of impure titanium dioxide (TiO2);

common in acid rocks, sometimes found in beach

sands.

Seafloor Spreading Center: A rift zone on the ocean floor

where two plates are moving apart and new oceanic

crust is forming.

Seamount: A seafloor mountain generally formed as a

submarine volcano.

Seismic Reflection: The mapping of seismic energy that

has bounced off impedence layers within the earth.

Seismic Refraction: The transport of seismic energy

through rock and along impedence layers.

Silicomanganese: A crude alloy made up of 65 to 70 percent manganese, 16 to 25 percent silicon, and 1 to

2.5 percent carbon; used in the manufacture of lowcarbon steel.

Sonar: Sonic energy bounced off distant objects underwater to locate and range on them, just as radar does

with microwaves in air.

Stainless Steel: Steel with exceptional corrosion and oxidation resistance, usually containing between 12 and

36 percent chromium. Chromium contents of 12 percent are required to be corrosion resistant. Some lowchromium stainless steels are produced (nine percent

to 12 percent), but chromium content averages about

17 percent.

Stratiform Deposits: Primary chromite mineral deposits that occur as uniform layers up to several feet thick

similar to coalbeds. Stratiform deposits generally contain chromite with low chromium-iron ratio, are comparatively uniform and extend over large areas. The

chromite occurrences in the Stillwater Complex in

Montana are characteristic of stratiform deposits.

Stratigraphy: Study of the order of rock strata, their age

and form as well as their distribution and lithology.

Substrate: 1) The substance on or in which an organism lives and grows, 2) The underlying material (e. g.,

basalt) to which cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts are

cemented.

Succession: the gradual process of community change

brought about by the establishment of new populations of species which eventually replace the original

inhabitants.

Superphosphate: One of the most important phosphorus fertilizers, derived by action of sulfuric acid on

phosphate rock. Ordinary superphosphate contains

about 18 to 20 percent phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5).

Triple superphosphate is enriched in phosphorus (44

percent to 46 percent P2O5) and is manufactured by

treating superphosphate with phosphoric acid.

Synthetic Rutile: Rutile substitutes made from highgrade ilmenites by various combinations of oxidationreduction and leaching treatments to remove the bulk

of the iron.

Taxonomy: classification of organisms into groups reflecting their similarity and differences (Kingdom,

Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species).

Thermocline: a gradient in the ocean where temperature changes rapidly.

Titanium Dioxide Pigment: A white, water-insoluble

powder composed of relatively pure titanium dioxide

(TiO2) produced commercially from TiO2 minerals
.

336 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

ilmenite and rutile (both rutile and anatase ‘‘grades’ Transponder: A radio or radar device that upon receivare manufactured). ing a designated signal emits a signal of its own. Used

Titanium Slag: High titanium dioxide (TiO2) slag made for detection, identification, and location of objects,

by electric furnace smelting of ilmenite with carbon, as on the seafloor.

wherein a large fraction of the iron oxide is reduced Turbidity: cloudiness in water due to the presence of

to a saleable iron metal product. suspended matter.

Titanium Sponge: The primary metal form of titanium Zooplankton: animal forms of plankton.

obtained by reduction of titanium tetrachloride vapor with magnesium or sodium metal. It is called

sponge because of its appearance and high porosity.
Index
Index

Ad Hoc Working Group on the EEZ, recommendations: 29

airlift systems: 19, 176-177

Albania: 87

Alvin: 145, 148, 151-152, 161, 245

AMAX Nickel Refining Co.: 89

Ambrose Channel: 231, 290

Amdril: 156-157

American Samoa: 293, 298

Analytical Services, Inc.: 159

andesites: 57

Anti-Turbidity Overflow System: 236

Arctic Research and Policy Act: 26

Arctic Research Commission: 26

ASARCO: 200

assistance to States: 34, 291

legislative: 34, 291

State-Federal Task Forces: 34, 291

Associated Minerals (U.S.A.): 105, 193

Association of American State Geologists: 267

at-sea mineral processing technology: 167, 185-192

Australia: 96, 99, 104, 174, 307, 317

mining laws: 307-309

Baffin Island: 161

barrier islands: 47

bathymetric data: 17, 22, 23, 132

general: 17, 132

security classification: 22, 23

Bathymetric Swath Survey System: 122, 128, 131, 256,

268

bathymetric systems: 124-131

airborne electromagnetic bathymetry: 130

Bathymetric Swath Survey System: 122, 128, 131, 256,

268

Canadian Hydrographic Service: 130

charts: 124, 128

deep-water systems: 126-128

General Instrument Corp.: 126, 128

Hydrochart: 128, 256

Larson 500: 130

laser systems: 128

passive multispectral scanner: 130

Sea Beam: 122, 123, 126-128, 131, 256, 276

seafloor mapping: 126, 131-132

shallow-water systems: 128-131

Sonar Array Sounding System: 126, 128, 132

synthetic aperture radar: 130

WRELADS: 130

beach erosion: 224

Becker Hammer Drill: 156-158

Bedford Institution of Oceanography: 161

benthic communities: 20

benthic environmental effects: 215, 223, 226-227, 243,

245

BIMA dredge: 169, 171, 200

Bone Valley Formation: 53, 56

borehole mining: 19

Botswana: 96

Brazil: 39, 41, 91, 94, 171

Brown & Root: 182

California Cooperative Fisheries Investigations: 262

Canada: 13, 39, 45, 49, 51, 65, 96, 98, 99, 102, 104,

218, 309, 317

mining laws: 309

Center for Applied Isotope Studies: 144

Challenger, HMS: 158

Challenger, space shuttle: 149

charting: 254-256

funding: 254

GLORIA program: 254-255

Chile: 98

chromite sands, seabed mining scenario: 196-199

at-sea processing: 197

costs: 198

location and description: 196, 197

mining technology: 197

operation: 198

profitability: 199

chromium, commodities: 91-93

demand and technological trends: 93

domestic production: 92

domestic resources and reserves: 91

foreign sources: 91

properties and uses: 90, 91

stockpile: 92

Clarion Fracture Zone: 122

Clipperton Fracture Zone: 122

coastal erosion, effects of dredging: 21

coastal plain: 42, 51, 52

Coastal States Organization (CSO): 34

Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA): 34

coastline alteration: 218, 224

cobalt, commodities: 89, 90

demand and technological trends: 90

domestic production: 90

foreign sources: 89, 90

prices: 90

properties and uses: 89

stockpile: 89

substitutes: 89

Cobalt Crust Draft Environmental Impact Statement:

215, 240

cobalt crust mining: 182-183

cobalt crust mining, environmental effects: 240-244

plume effects: 240-242

temperature effects: 242

threatened and endangered species: 243

cobalt crust sampling: 158-160

and deepsea dredges: 159

bulk sampling: 160

measuring crust thickness: 159

quantitative sampling: 159

reconnaissance sampling: 159-160

Colombia: 96, 103, 171

commercial potential, marine minerals: 13, 17, 19, 81

339
340 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

common depth point seismic data: 264

consumption, mineral commodities: 82, 83

general: 82

nickel: 83

platinum-group metals: 83

titanium: 83

continental: 3, 7, 41, 42, 45, 47, 49, 50, 52, 57-59

drift: 3

margins: 41

sea: 41, 42

shelf: 7, 45, 47, 49, 50, 52, 57, 58, 59

slope: 57

continuous casting, steel: 89

continuous seafloor sediment sampler: 144, 149, 151

Convention on the Continental Shelf: 29

copper, commodities:

demand and technological trends: 98

domestic production: 98

properties and uses: 97

resources and reserves: 98

coring devices: 118, 155-158

box core: 156

costs: 158

impact corers: 155

vibracores: 154, 155, 157, 158

Cross Seamount: 242-243

dacites: 57

data classification: 139, 268-277

and Navy: 272, 275

and NOAA: 272, 275

and ocean mining interests: 273

costs to scientific and commercial interests: 273

foreign policy implications: 275

risks to national security: 270-272

data collection and management: 21, 23, 32, 250-268

academic and private laboratories: 267

constraints: 251-254

Department of the Interior: 263-265

industry: 267-268

missing components: 252

NASA: 265-266

Navy: 266-267

NOAA: 256-263

State and local governments: 267

Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study: 215, 236-242

and manganese nodule recovery: 236-237

objectives: 237

recommendations for future research: 240

deep sea mining environmental impacts: 237-238

Deep Sea Drilling Project: 137

Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act: 29, 237,

305-306

deep submergence laboratory: 152

Deep Tow: 124, 149

deep water environmental effects: 218, 226, 236-245

Deepsea Ventures: 159

Defense Production Act: 92

deltas: 42, 54, 55

Department of the Interior: 22, 56, 182

diorite intrusive: 58

direct current resistivity: 140-141

Dominican Republic: 96

downhole sampling: 162

drag sampling: 155

Dredge Material Research

215

dredge mining technology,

dredge mining technology,

capacities: 171

capital costs: 171

limitations: 171

operating costs: 171

operating depths: 171

dredge mining technology,

dredge mining technology,

174-175

capabilities: 175

capital costs: 175

description: 174

Program, Corps of Engineers:

air lift suction: 176

bucket ladder-bucket line: 171

bucket wheel suction: 176

cutter head suction dredge:

dredge mining technologies, general: 18

dredge mining technology, grab dredge: 177

dredge mining technology, hopper dredge: 173-174

capabilities: 174

capacities: 173

capital costs: 174

description: 173

dredge mining technology, new developments and trends:

179-180

increasing operating depth: 180

motion compensation, stability: 179

dredge mining technology, suction dredge: 172-173

capacities: 172

components: 172

limitations: 172

price and costs: 173

types: 172

dredges, environmental impacts: 233-234

drill ships: 18

drilling, percussion: 156-157

Amdril: 156-157

Becker Hammer Drill: 156-158

vibralift: 157

E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.: 105, 193

ECHO I, expedition: 239

ecological: 20, 21

deep-sea communities: 21

information: 20

East-West Center: 73, 74

electrical techniques: 139-143

direct current resistivity: 140-141

electromagnetic methods: 140

horizontal electric dipole: 140

induced polarization: 141-143

induced polarization and titanium minerals: 142

induced polarization for core analysis: 143

MOSES: 140

reconnaissance induced polarization: 141

self-potential: 141
Index ● 3 4 1

spectral induced polarization: 142

spontaneous polarization: 141

transient electromagnetic method: 140

vertical electric dipole: 140

electromagnetic methods: 140

endangered species: 243

Endangered Species Act of 1973: 243

Energy Security Act of 1980, Title VII: 26

environmental effects: 20, 110, 215, 218, 222-223,

226-245

benthic effects: 215, 223, 226-227, 243, 245

deep water effects: 218, 226, 236-245

mid-water effects: 215, 222-223, 226

plume effects: 222, 226, 234, 239, 240-241

shallow water effects: 218, 226, 227-236

surface effects: 215, 222, 226

environmental impact statements: 215, 218, 240, 244

Cobalt Crust Draft Environmental Impact Statement:

215

Gorda Ridge Draft Environmental Impact Statement:

215, 244

Manganese Crust EIS Project: 240

environmental monitoring: 20, 21, 228-230, 237

Environmental Studies Program: 219, 264

Escanaba Trough: 162

exploration: 8, 22-28, 31

budget planning and coordination: 23, 27, 28

costs: 25

general: 8, 22

pre-lease prospecting rules, proposed: 31

private sector: 24

State programs: 26

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 23, 29,

41, 42, 45, 47, 49, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58, 61, 64, 65,

70, 74, 169, 199, 249, 275, 292

Federal Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee:

26

Federal Republic of Germany: 105, 317

mining laws: 310-311

ferromanganese crusts, seabed mining technology: 182

Finland: 96

fish, effects of mining on: 231-233, 242,245

France: 94, 317

mining laws: 309-310

Frasch process: 183

Gabon: 94

Galapagos Rift: 63

garnet, commodities: 112

General Instrument Corp.: 256

geochemical techniques: 143-145

dissolved manganese: 143

helium-3: 143

hydrothermal discharges: 143

light scattering measurements: 143

methane: 143

particulate metals: 143

radon-222: 143

SLEUTH: 143-144

temperature: 143

thermal conductivity: 143

water sampling: 143-144

geographic locations, United States:

Alabama: 282, 291

Alaska: 12, 16, 24, 40, 41, 56, 65, 67, 68, 100, 103,

128, 138, 169, 171, 177, 192

Alaska Peninsula: 66, 68

Aleutian Islands (AK): 41, 66

Ambrose Channel: 231, 290

American Samoa: 293, 298

Appalachian Mountains: 49, 50

Atlantic coast: 45

Atlantic Ocean: 43

Baker Island: 292

Baltimore Canyon: 43

Beaufort Sea: 41, 67, 69, 122, 253

Bering Sea: 12, 40, 66, 67, 68, 69, 122, 138

Blake Plateau: 12, 24, 45, 53, 94

Brooks Range (AK): 67

California: 12, 41, 42, 56, 57, 58, 60, 65, 122, 138,

281, 282, 291

California Borderland: 61

Cape Farrelo (OR): 60

Cape Mendocino (CA): 57

Cape Prince of Wales (AK): 67, 69

Cascade Mountains: 41, 58

Chagvan Bay (AK): 69

Chesapeake Bay: 51, 52, 224, 290

Chukchi Sea: 67, 69, 122

Columbia River: 57, 60, 291

Colville River: 67

Connecticut: 283, 290

Cook Inlet (AK): 67, 68

Coquille River (OR): 60

Coronado Bank: 61

Delaware: 281, 283, 290

Delaware River: 52

Delmarva Peninsula: 47

Dog Island (FL): 56

Escanaba Trough: 65

Florida: 12, 16, 41, 45, 53, 175, 281, 283, 290, 291

Forty Mile Bank: 61

Galveston (TX): 55

Georges Bank: 45, 46, 52

Georgia: 45, 49, 53, 281, 284, 290

Goodnews Bay (AK): 12, 68

Gorda Ridge: 12, 29, 42, 57, 61, 64, 65, 244-245, 291

Grand Isle, (LA): 218, 224

Gray’s Harbor (WA): 57, 60

Guam: 292, 293, 296, 298

Gulf of Alaska: 40, 65, 67, 69

Gulf of Mexico: 42, 55, 56, 122, 138, 183, 253

Hawaii: 43, 69, 95, 122, 182, 284, 290, 291

Hawaiian Archipelago: 72, 240, 243

Hoh River (WA): 60

Howland Island: 292

Jacksonville (FL): 53

James River (VA): 51

Johnston Island: 240, 243, 292
342 ● Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Kayak Island (AK): 67

Kingman Reef: 292

Klamath Mountains (CA, OR): 58, 59, 60

Kodiak Island (AK): 67, 68

Kuskokwim Mountains (AK): 66, 69

Long Island: 47, 50

Louisiana: 55, 56, 281, 284, 291

Maine: 45, 94, 281, 285

Maryland: 285

Massachusetts: 12, 281, 285, 290

Miami Terrace (FL): 53

Midway Island: 292

Minnesota: 95, 103

Mississippi: 41, 281, 286

Mississippi River: 55, 56

Montana: 103

Monterey Bay (CA): 57

Nantucket Shoals: 45

Necker Ridge (HI): 71

New England: 51

New Hampshire: 281, 286

New Jersey: 12, 41, 47, 286, 290

New York: 12, 41, 287, 290

New York City (NY): 45

North Carolina: 47, 52, 53, 192, 281, 287, 291

Olympic Mountains (WA): 57, 58

Onslow Bay (NC): 52, 53, 192

Oregon: 12, 16, 40, 42, 57, 58, 59, 60, 97, 122, 244,

281, 287, 290, 291

Osceola Basin (FL): 53

Pacific Mountains (HI): 72

Pacific Ocean: 41, 53, 63

Palmyra Atoll: 292

Penguin Bank (HI): 69

Pescadero Point: 61

Point Conception (CA): 56, 57, 58, 60

Portland (OR): 57

Prince of Wales Island (AK): 67

Puerto Rico: 122, 291, 292, 294

Raritan River: 231

Rhode Island: 288, 290

Salmon River (AK): 69

San Andreas Fault (CA): 56

San Diego Bay: 57

San Francisco (CA): 57

Santa Rosa Island (FL): 56

Savannah River: 53

Seattle (WA): 57

Seward Peninsula (AK): 12, 67

Smith Island (VA): 52

South Carolina: 288

S.P. Lee Seamount: 72

St. George Island (FL): 56

Sur Knoll: 61

Texas: 281, 288

Thirty Mile Bank: 61

Trust Territories: 122, 295, 298

Twin Knoll: 61

Tybee Island (GA): 53, 192

Vermont: 49

Virgin Islands: 122, 292, 293, 296, 298

Virginia: 281, 289, 290, 291

Wake Island: 292

Washington: 122, 281, 289, 290

Wisconsin: 100

Yakutat (AK): 67

Yukon River: 66

Geophysical Data System: 268

Ghana: 171

glacial deposition: 46, 47

Global Marine, Inc.: 177

Global Positioning System: 128, 131-132, 137, 268

GLORIA: 116, 119-123, 128, 131, 249, 251, 254-255,

266

gold, commodities: 100, 101

demand and technological trends: 101

domestic production: 101

domestic resources and reserves: 101

properties and uses: 100

gold placers, seabed mining scenario: 200-203

at-sea processing: 200

costs: 203

environmental effects: 203

location and description: 199, 203

mining technology: 200

Gorda Ridge: 122

Draft Environmental Impact Statement: 215, 244

Gorda Ridge Task Force: 244-245, 291

government subsidies: 23

grab sampling: 118, 154, 155

gravity: 17, 138, 163

airborne gravimetry: 138

and navigation: 163

shipborne gravimeters: 17, 138

Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Co.: 199

Greece: 87

Green Cove Springs Deposit: 105

Guam: 292, 293, 296, 298

Guaymas Basin: 65

Hallsands (UK): 224

Hanna Mining Co.: 97

Harwell Laboratory: 144

Hawaii Institute of Geophysics: 122

Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory: 244

High Energy Benthic Boundary Layer Experiment

(HEBBLE): 218

Hydrochart: 128, 256

hydrothermal activity: 42, 63, 64, 65

igneous rocks: 49

induced polarization: 18, 141-143

Inspiration Resources (Mines): 16, 40

Institute of Oceanographic Sciences: 119, 255

International Council for Exploration of the Sea: 215,

218, 227-228

recommendations: 228

zones: 228

International Hydrographic Bureau: 123, 132

international law: 296
Index ● 3 4 3

International Submarine Technology, Ltd.: 122

International Tin Council: 85

Japan: 39, 41, 65, 105, 173, 174, 177, 317

mining laws: 311-312

John Chance Associates: 123

Johnston Island: 17, 74, 182, 240, 243, 292

JOIDES Resolution: 160-161

Juan de Fuca Ridge: 12, 42, 57, 61, 63, 65, 122, 134,

140, 141, 143, 161

Kane Fracture Zone: 161

Kingman-Palmyra Islands: 74, 292

Kerr-McGee Chemical Corp.: 106

Koken Boring & Machine Co.: 161

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory: 26, 122, 131

LORAN-C: 163-164

Louisiana Purchase: 115

mafic rocks: 57

magnetic anomalies: 59, 136, 137

magnetic profiling: 118, 136-138

airborne surveys: 136

satellite surveys: 136

ship-towed magnetometers: 137

sub-bottom profilers: 133

total field measurements: 137

magnetometers: 17, 137

Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act of

1976: 6

Malaysia: 171

manganese, commodities:

demand and technological trends: 95

properties and uses: 94

resources and reserves: 95

Manganese Crust EIS Project: 240

Marconi Underwater Systems: 122

margins, continental: 42

Marine Ecosystems Analysis Project: 262

Marine Policy and Ocean Management Center: 273

materials: 13, 88

conservation: 13, 88

recycling: 13, 88

substitution: 13, 88

Materials Act of 1947: 305

metamorphic rocks: 49

Mexico: 98, 99

Mid-Atlantic Rift Valley: 160

mid-water environmental effects: 215, 222-223, 226

heavy metals: 223, 226

particulate concentrations: 222, 226

mineral commodities:

chromium: 13, 14

cobalt: 13, 85, 88, 89

ferrochromium: 14, 15, 86, 87

ferromanganese: 14, 15, 86, 87, 94

lead: 13, 88

manganese: 13, 14, 88

markets: 8, 17, 81

nickel: 13, 14, 88

phosphate rock: 14, 16, 19

platinum-group metals: 13, 88

steel: 14, 87

supply and demand: 8, 81, 87

tin: 13

titanium: 13, 88

titanium pigment: 14

zinc: 13

mineral laws, United States: 300-306

Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act: 305-306

Materials Act of 1947: 305

Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired Land: 305

Mineral Leasing Act of 1920: 300-305

Mining Law of 1872: 300-304

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act: 305

Surface Resources Act of 1955: 300-305

Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired Land: 305

Mineral Leasing Act of 1920: 300-305

mineral occurrences, general:

amber: 39

amphiboles: 49, 56, 58

cerium: 71

chromite: 12, 15, 39, 49, 58, 59, 60

coal: 39

cobalt: 53, 71, 75

copper: 39, 53, 75

diamonds: 41, 49, 171

ferromanganese crusts: 10, 12, 16, 39, 53, 70, 71, 72,

73, 90, 96

ferromanganese nodules: 10, 12, 16, 39, 53, 63, 70, 72,

75, 81, 91

garnets: 49, 59, 60

gemstones: 39, 49

gold: 39, 40, 49, 50, 55, 58, 59, 68, 69, 171

heavy minerals: 8, 14, 15, 19, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56,

59, 105, 174

ilmenite: 14, 15, 51, 56, 59

iron: 39, 312

lead: 39, 71

lime: 39

magnetite: 18, 39, 59, 60

metalliferous muds: 39, 174

molybdenum: 71

monazite: 49, 55, 60, 308

nickel: 53, 75

oil and gas: 18, 45

phosphorite: 10, 14, 15, 52, 53, 56, 61, 69, 308, 316

placers: 10, 12, 15, 18, 39, 40, 45, 48, 49, 50, 52, 54,

56, 57, 59, 60, 67, 68, 69,

platinum: 12, 49, 58, 60, 68, 171

polymetallic sulfides: 8, 10, 16, 19, 39, 45, 61, 62, 63,

65, 98, 100

precious coral: 39

precious metals: 12, 39, 49, 50, 58, 59, 67

pyroxenes: 49, 56, 58

rhodium: 71

rutile: 15, 49, 51, 171, 308

salt: 43, 55

sand and gravel: 12, 16, 39, 45, 46, 47, 48, 52, 54, 55,
344 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

57, 67, 69, 174, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 315

shells: 39

silver: 65

staurolite: 39

sulfur: 43, 55

tin (cassiterites): 39, 49, 169, 171, 308, 314

titanium: 39, 49, 52, 60, 71

tourmaline: 49

vanadium: 71

zinc: 39, 63, 65, 71

zircon: 39, 49, 56, 59, 60, 308

mineral processing technologies: 20, 186-192

at-sea deployment: 185, 191, 192

at-sea v. onshore: 186

classifiers: 188

electrostatic separation: 190

flotation: 190

general: 20

gravity separation: 188

magnetic separation: 189, 190

shipboard processing: 20

trommel: 188

minerals industry, overcapacity: 8, 13

Minerals Management Service (MMS): 16, 22, 26, 29,

31, 73, 136, 249, 253, 263

minerals, strategic and critical: 9

mining industry, state of: 85

Mining Law of 1872: 300-304

mining laws of other countries: 307-316

Australia: 307-309

Canada: 309

France: 309-310

Federal Republic of Germany: 310-311

Japan: 311-312

Netherlands: 312-313

New Zealand: 315, 318

Norway: 313

Thailand: 313-314

United Kingdom: 314-315

miocene: 56

monazite, commodities: 112

monitoring, environmental: 20, 21, 228-230, 237

Morocco: 16, 85

multi-beam echo sounders: 22, 124-131, 249, 254, 276

National Academy of Sciences: 271

Naval Studies Board: 271

National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program: 26

National Advisory Committee on Oceans and

Atmosphere: 271

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA):

26, 265-266

Ames Research Center: 266

data handling problems: 266

NASA Science Internet: 265-266

National Space Science Data Center: 265

National Climatic Data Center: 263

National Defense Stockpile: 10, 87, 89, 92, 94, 96, 98,

99, 101, 102

National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information

System: 22

National Geophysical Data Center: 22, 32, 131, 136,

253-256, 259-261, 266, 273

data handling problems: 260, 261

Marine Geology and Geophysics Division: 259, 260

mission: 259

types of data held: 260, 261

National Governors Association (NGA): 34

National Marine Fisheries Service: 239, 257, 259

National Marine Pollution Information System: 262

National Marine Pollution Program: 27

National Materials Advisory Board (NMAB): 93

National Ocean Pollution Planning Act of 1978: 27

National Ocean Service (NOS): 23, 163-164, 254-257,

261, 266

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA): 6, 17, 22, 25, 122, 128, 131-132, 136,

143-144, 218, 219, 230, 239, 237, 253-263

National Oceanographic Data Center: 22, 32, 253, 256,

261-263, 266

National Operations Security Advisory Committee: 270

National Science Foundation (NSF): 22, 26, 32, 253

Division of Ocean Sciences: 253, 267, 273

Division of Polar Programs: 267

National Seabed Hard Minerals Act of 1987 (H. R. 1260):

29

National Security Council: 271, 275

Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity: 123,

130

Naval Oceanographic Office: 266

navigable waterways, dredging: 229

navigation: 162-164

ARGO: 163-164

circular error of position: 163

data classification: 268

Global Positioning System: 163-164, 268

LORAN-C: 163-164

Mini-Ranger: 163

Precise Positioning Service: 163

Raydist: 163-164

Standard Positioning Service: 164

Netherlands: 297, 317

mining laws: 312-313

neutron activation: 145

New Caledonia: 96

New England Offshore Mining Environmental Study:

215, 227, 229, 230

recommendations: 230

New York Harbor Sea Grant studies: 231

New Zealand: 167, 171, 315, 318

mining laws: 315, 318

nickel, commodities:

demand and technological trends: 97

domestic production: 96

domestic resources and reserves: 96

properties and uses: 96

Nippon Kokan: 182

NORDCO: 161
Index ● 3 4 5

North Sea, sand and gravel: 228

Northern Mariana Islands: 292, 295, 298

Norway: 89, 318

mining laws: 313

nuclear exploration techniques: 18, 118, 144-145

continuous seafloor sediment sampler: 144, 149, 151

cookie maker: 144

neutron activation: 145

X-ray fluorescence: 144

Ocean Assessment Division, NOAA: 263

Ocean Drilling Program: 137, 160

Ocean Mining Associates: 239

oceanic crust: 42, 45

Office for Research and Mapping in the Exclusive

Economic Zone: 252

Office of Energy and Marine Geology: 254, 255

Office of Management and Budget (OMB): 26

Office of Naval Research: 266

Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment, NOAA:

257

Office of Oceans and Atmospheric Research: 257

Office of Science and Technology Policy: 271

Office of Strategic and International Minerals, MMS: 263

offshore mining technologies, transfer of oil and gas

technology: 185

optical imaging: 152-154

ANGUS: 152

Argo: 152-153

data transmission: 152-153

fiber optic cables: 152-153

Jason: 152-153

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC):

85

Outer Continental Shelf: 22, 56, 59

Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment

Program: 262

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act: 6, 23, 28, 263, 300,

305

Pacific Geosciences Center: 140

Pacific Islands, mineral occurrences: 95

Belau-Palau: 74

Federated States of Micronesia: 74

French Polynesia: 72

Guam: 74

Howland-Baker: 74

Jarvis: 74

Johnston Island: 17, 74, 182

Kingman-Palmyra Islands: 74

Marshall Islands: 72, 74

Samoa: 74

Wake Islands: 74

Pacific Ocean: 3, 12, 16

passive margins: 42

peridotite deposits: 49

Peru: 98, 99

Philippines: 87

phosphate rock:

demand and technological trends: 109

domestic production: 109

domestic resources and reserves: 108

foreign competition: 108

properties and uses: 107

phosphorite, Onslow Bay (NC), seabed mining scenario:

207-209

costs: 209

location and description: 207

mining technology: 207

processing technology: 207

profitability: 209

phosphorite, Tybee Island (GA), seabed mining scenario:

204-206

at-sea processing: 206

costs: 206

location and description: 204

mining technology: 205

processing technology: 205

profitability: 206

pigments: 91, 93, 96, 104, 107

chromium: 91, 93

nickel: 96

titanium: 104, 107

plate tectonics: 3, 43, 61, 69

platinum-group metals, commodities: 102-103

demand and technological trends: 103

domestic production: 103

domestic resources and reserves: 102

foreign sources: 102

properties and uses: 102

Pleistocene: 45, 46, 57, 65, 67

plume environmental effects: 222, 226, 234, 239, 240, 241

polymetallic sulfides, seabed mining technology: 160-162,

181-182

concepts: 181

conditions: 181

problems: 182

sampling: 160-162

positioning: 162-164

Preussag AG: 182

prices, commodity: 83, 85

general: 83

nonmetallic: 85

speculation: 85

Puerto Rico: 122, 291, 292, 294, 298

Pungo River Formation: 52

radiometric dating: 71

Raritan River: 231

Reagan Proclamation (No. 5030): 5, 6, 275

reconnaissance surveys: 17, 18, 56

reconnaissance technologies: 119-139

refractories: 93

remotely operated vehicle (ROV):

advantages and limitations: 146-148

and hard mineral exploration: 151

and navigation: 163

ANGUS: 151

Argo: 152

capabilities: 149-151
346 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

comparison with manned submersibles: 146-148

costs: 148-149

Deep Tow: 149

instrumentation: 146

Jason Junior: 151

needed technical developments: 151-152

Solo: 149

towed vehicles: 149-150

types: 146

Republic of South Africa: 41, 85, 87, 91, 94, 102, 175

rift zone: 43, 63

S.P. Lee: 116-117, 245

sampling technologies: 12, 154-162

characteristics of: 154-155

crust sampling: 158-160

placer sampling: 154-158

polymetallic sulfide sampling: 160-162

representative sampling: 154-155

sand and gravel (see mineral occurrences, general):

demand and technological trends: 111

domestic production: 111

domestic resources and reserves: 111

seabed mining ventures: 199

Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory: 231

satellites: 22

schist: 57

Scotian Shelf: 45

Scripps Institution of Oceanography: 26, 131, 132, 140,

263

Sea Beam: 122, 123, 126-128, 131, 268, 276

Sea Cliff: 245

Sea Grant: 215, 227, 229, 231, 257

data collection: 257

New York studies: 215, 227, 229, 231

seabed mining:

competitiveness: 15, 16, 17, 19, 167

economic potential: 8, 17

legislation: 23, 28, 30, 31

technology: 10, 15, 17, 181, 182

world: 39

SeaMARC systems: 122-124, 128, 132

seamounts: 42, 72, 74

seasonal environmental effects: 224, 226

sedimentary rocks: 45, 57, 58, 67

seismic reflection: 17, 22, 118, 132-136

chirp signals

profiles: 47, 56

sub-bottom profilers: 133

three-dimensional seismic surveying: 135

seismic refraction: 118, 132-136

self-potential: 141

shallow water environmental effects: 218, 226, 227-236

dredges and: 233-234

ICES: 228

minimizing effects: 232-233

Shell Oil Co.: 200

ships, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:

131

Surveyor: 131, 268, 270

Discoverer: 131

Davidson: 131, 271

side-looking sonars: 17, 116, 119-124

Deep Tow: 124, 149

GLORIA atlas: 122

GLORIA: 116, 119-123, 128, 131

Interferometric systems: 123

long-range side-looking sonar: 116, 119-122

mid-range side-looking sonar: 118-119

Mini-Image Processing System: 119

SeaMARC systems: 122-124, 128, 132

short-range side-looking sonar: 118-119, 124

Systeme Acoustique Remorque: 124

Sierra Leone: 104, 171

silt curtain: 235-236

site-specific technologies: 139-162

SLEUTH: 143-144

solution/borehole mining technology: 183

Sound Ocean Systems: 162

Southwest Africa: 169

sphalerite: 63

spontaneous polarization: 141

spreading centers, seafloor: 3, 41, 63, 64

State-Federal Task Forces: 34, 291

State-owned or State-controlled minerals companies: 14,

86

State resource management: 281

strategic and critical minerals: 9, 88, 94, 96, 98, 101, 102

Strategic Assessment Branch, NOAA: 218, 219, 257

atlases: 221, 257

Strategic Petroleum Reserve/Brine Disposal Program: 262

Stillwater Complex: 92, 103

Stillwater Mining Co.: 103

subduction zone: 3, 41, 57

Submerged Lands Act of 1953: 4

submersibles, manned: 18, 145-152

advantages and limitations: 146-148

Alvin: 145, 148, 151, 152, 161

and hard mineral exploration: 151

battery-powered: 145

capabilities: 149-151

comparison with remotely operated vehicles: 146-148

costs: 148-149

free-swimming: 145

Johnson-Sea-Link: 148

needed technical developments: 151-152

superalloys: 88, 91, 96

surface environmental effects: 215, 222, 226

Surface Resources Act of 1955: 300

tectonic processes: 41

territorial sea: 4

Territories, United States: 55, 292-299

tertiary sediments: 57, 58

Texas A&M University: 123

Thailand: 169, 171, 318

mining laws: 313-314

Third World: 13

Titanic: 124, 151, 152, 154
Index ● 3 4 7

titanium, commodities: 104-106

demand and technological trends: 106

domestic production: 105

domestic resources and reserves: 104

foreign sources: 104

properties and uses: 104

titanium heavy mineral sands, seabed mining scenario:

193-196

at-sea processing: 193

costs: 196

location and description: 193

mining technology: 193

operation: 194

Trail Ridge Formation: 52

Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Study: 263

Truman Proclamation (No 2667): 6

Turkey: 87, 91

ultramafic rocks: 49, 57, 58, 60

Union of Soviet Socialists Republics (U.S.S.R.): 91, 98,

102, 105, 109

United Kingdom (U.K.): 102, 119, 169, 173, 218, 224,

297, 314, 318

mining laws: 314-315

U.N. Conference on the Law of the Sea: 3, 7, 29, 64, 70,

76, 275

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE): 12, 20, 26, 47,

224, 227, 231, 233, 240

dredging of navigable waterways: 229

U.S. Bureau of Mines (BOM): 22, 26, 59, 160, 192, 249,

265

U.S. Coast Guard (USCG): 249

U.S. Department of Defense (DOD): 253, 276

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE): 26, 249, 262

U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI): 263

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): 26, 229,

232, 249

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS): 17, 22, 25, 51, 71, 119,

141, 122, 131, 142, 143, 159, 249, 253-254, 265

U.S. Navy: 23, 32, 118, 128, 131, 249

data collection: 266-267

data classification: 270-272, 275-277

U.S. Treasury: 101

University National Oceanographic Laboratory System:

132

vibracores: 143

Virgin Islands: 122, 292, 293, 296, 298

Wake Island: 292

water column environmental effects: 222-223, 226

wave pattern alteration: 218, 224

Williamson & Associates: 162

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution: 26, 131, 152,

161, 273

wurtzite: 63

X-ray fluorescence: 144

Yugoslavia: 91

Zaire: 85, 89, 98

Zambia: 89, 98

Zellars-Williams, Inc.: 205

Zimbabwe: 87, 91

zinc, commodities: 99, 100

demand and technological trends: 100

domestic production: 100

domestic resources and reserves: 100

properties and uses: 99

zircon, commodities: 112