NIST SP 838-8

Project Summaries 1995

U.S. Department

of Commerce

Technology

Administration

National Institute

of Standards and

Technology

Project

Summaries 1995

NIST SP 838-8

NIST

Building &

File

Research

Laboratory

U.S. Department

of Commerce

Ronald H. Brown, Secretary

Technology

Administration

Mary L. Good,

Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute

of Standards and

Technology

Arati Prabhakar, Director

Noel J. Raufaste

August 1995
National Institute of Standards U.S. Goverment Printing Office

and Technology Washington: 1995

Special Publication 838-8

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol.

Spec. Publ. 838-8

192 Pages (Aug. 1995)

CODEN: NSPUE2

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402
FOREWORD unique resources and capabilities.

Construction is one of the Nation's largest

industries, in 1994, total construction

amounted to about $847 billion which is 12.5

% of U.S. GDP (new construction put in place

amounted to about $508 billion and

renovation contributed about $339 billion).

U.S. construction accounts for more than 10

million jobs.

Fires and natural disasters destroy a significant portion of constructed facilities every year. Costs of fire safety and fire losses exceed $128 billion a year. Natural

disasters cause tens of billions of dollars

annually. For example, since 1993, the

United States has experienced significant

property losses from the Mid-west Floods;

Hurricanes Andrew and Iniki; the January

1994 Northridge Earthquake; the numerous

west coast wildfires that resulted in significant damage to the built environment;

among other natural phenomena that occur each year. The quality of constructed

facilities directly affects the productivity of

the U.S. building and fire communities and

affects the safety and quality of life of all constructed facilities. Over 60% of the

nation's wealth is invested in constructed

facilities.

The National Institute of Standards and

Technology's (NIST) mission is to promote

U.S. economic growth by working with

industry to develop and apply technology,

measurements, and standards. NIST's direct

customer is U.S. industry. Its work yields

direct investments with and benefits for the

private sector.

NIST's Building and Fire Research Laboratory

(BFRL), one of NIST's eight Laboratories,

enhances the competitiveness of U.S.

industry and public safety through

performance prediction and measurement

technologies and technical advances that

improve the life cycle quality of constructed

facilities. BFRL's efforts are closely

coordinated with complementary activities of

industry, professional and trade organizations,

academe, and other agencies of government.

The vision for BFRL, the structure of its technical programs, and the determination and

timing of its technical products are based on

analyses of industry needs and BFRL's own

BFRL's laboratory facilities include:

six-degree-of-freedom structural testing

facility; large-scale structural testing facility

with the 53 MN (12-million pound) universal

structural testing machine; environmental

chambers; guarded hot-plate; calibrated hotbox; plumbing tower; building materials

imaging and modeling laboratory; large burn

facility for conducting experimental fires in full-scale and related combustion toxicity

facility; large industrial fire test facilities; fire suppression test facilities; and a fire simulation laboratory.

BFRL is a major nonproprietary source of

technical information for development of

voluntary standards by organizations such as ASTM; American Concrete Institute; American Society of Heating, Refrigerating

and Air-Conditioning Engineers; American

Society of Civil Engineers; Institute of

Electronics and Electrical Engineers; and the

National Fire Protection Association. The

resulting standards are widely used in building

and fire codes.

BFRL works closely with its international peer

organizations to maintain awareness of

foreign research developments and assure

that generic research efforts are complementary, and U.S. interests are represented in the preparation of international

standards and practices. BFRL cooperates

closely with other U.S. and foreign

laboratories in the conduct of its research.

More than 80 research associates from U.S.

industry, guest researchers from foreign

laboratories, and faculty members from

universities worked at BFRL during 1994 for periods averaging about a year. BFRL has

direct linkages with industry through its 20

Cooperative Research and Development

Agreements (CRADAs).

BFRL participates in over 130 national and

international standardization activities; provides leadership in these national and

international standardization organizations and

chairs more than 20 voluntary standardization

activities. BFRL annually publishes over 220

reports, articles for research journals and

articles for professional and trade journals,

and 28 computer model software packages.

BFRL staff annually makes hundreds of

iii
presentations at professional and technical

meetings of building community

organizations, hosts more than 1,700 visitors to its facilities, and responds to more than

19,000 requests for information. For 25

years, BFRL has hosted a monthly Building

Technology Symposia Series in cooperation

with other organizations concerned with

building research and practice and hosts bi- weekly Fire Research Seminars for NIST staff and colleagues from the fire community.

These meetings are effective means of

transferring the latest knowledge to

practitioners and peer researchers. The Fire Research Information Service (FRIS)

consisting of national and international fire research literature and FIREDOC, the

automated database of fire research literature,

is the only comprehensive national library resource for the fire community.

At the beginning of FY 1995, BFRL had about

220 employees of which 138 are professional

staff, 72 have Ph.D.s, and 18 are registered

engineers. BFRL's budget for FY 1995 is $32

million. Funding comes from direct

appropriations ($21 million), from other

Federal agencies ($10 million) and from the

private sector ($1 million).

This report summarizes BFRL's research for

1995. The report is arranged by its research

programs: structural engineering, materials

engineering, mechanical and environmental

systems, fire safety and engineering, fire science, and applied economics. Each

summary lists the project title, the BFRL point

of contact, sponsor, research, and recent

results.

For further information about BFRL, its facilities, opportunities for Guest Researcher

assignments, collaborative programs, and

contracted research, contact BFRL's Office of

Cooperative Research Programs, Building 226,

Room B250, NIST, Gaithersburg, MD 20899.

Persons requesting information may want to contact BFRL using facsimile number 301-

975-4032 or e-mail raufaste@micf.nist.gov.
CONTENTS

iii Forward

1 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

3 Performance Requirements for

Passive Energy Dissipation

Systems for Buildings and Lifeline

Structures

4 Seismic Performance of Precast

Concrete Connections

4 Seismic Performance of Steel

Frame Structures

5 Performance of Steel-Framed

Structures

6 Inelastic Damage Model for

Rectangular Reinforced Concrete

Columns

7 Digital Data Base of Cyclic Lateral

Load Tests on Rectangular R/C

8 Cyclic Lateral Load Tests of

Circular Reinforced Concrete

Bridge Columns

9 Seismic Performance of Cladding

Systems

10 Seismic Performance of

Nonstructural Ceiling Components

12 Performance of Power

Transmission and Distribution

Systems

13 Performance of Rehabilitated

Masonry Buildings and

Development of Performance

Based Rehabilitation Guidelines

15 Seismic Resistance of PartiallyGrouted Masonry Shear Walls

16 Seismic Strengthening

Methodologies for Existing Lightly

RC Frame Buildings

17 Geotechnical Evaluation for

Lifelines

18 Comparison of Seismic Provisions

Codes to the NEHRP

Recommended Provisions

19 Management of the Interagency

Committee on Seismic Safety in Construction (ICSSC)

20 Support Implementation of EO

12699

21 Technical Assistance to FEMA

Project Officer (Existing Buildings)

21 UJNR Bridge Workshop

22 Secretariat U.S. -Side Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects

23 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

25 Noise-induced Chaos and Chaotic

Transport

26 High-Performance Concrete:

Design and Construction Practices

27 Next Generation Design Standard

For Wind Loads

28 Wind Load Criteria for

Manufactured Housing in Hurricane Zones Design

29 Non-Line-of-Sight (NLS)

Construction Metrology

30 Field Evaluation of the Marshall

Hammer Calibration Systems

31 Outreach and Technology Transfer

33 CONCRETE

35 High-Performance Concrete

36 Integrated Knowledge System for

High-Performance Concrete

V
37 Transport Properties of HighPerformance Concrete

38 Microstructure-Transport Property

Relationships in Random Porous

Materials

39 Three-Dimensional

Microstructural/Kinetic Model of

Cement Hydration

40 Characterization of Clinker and

Cement, and Flaws in Cement

Paste and Concrete

41 A Study of Floor Leveling

Components

43 COATINGS

45 Integrated Knowledge System for

Corrosion-Protective Coatings for

High-Performance Steel

46 Coatings Service Life Prediction

Consortium

47 Organic Coatings

47 Performance Criteria for

Adhesively-Bonded Encapsulants

for Lead-Based Paint

48 Method for Evaluation of

Performance of Lead-in-Paint

Measuring Devices

UnderSimulated Field Conditions

50 Standards for Abatement of

Hazards from Lead in Buildings

50 Technical Assistance on LeadBased Paint Issues

51 QUALITY ASSURANCE

53 Cement and Concrete

Reference Laboratory (CCRL)

54 AASHTO Materials Reference

Laboratory

55 Performance of Tape-Bonded

Seams in EPDM Roofing

Membranes

57 INDOOR AIR QUALITY

59 Monitoring the Environmental

Performance Green Buildings

60 Development and Application of

Multizone Indoor Air Quality

Models

61 Infiltration and Ventilation in Large Buildings

62 Study of lAQ Improvement

Through the Use of HVAC

Systems

63 Indoor Air Quality Commissioning

Program for TWFN

64 Impacts of HVAC Operation on Radon Levels in Large Buildings

65 COMPUTER INTEGRATED

CONSTRUCTION

67 Advanced Manufacturing and

Network Testbed (AMSANT) for

the Process Plant Industries

68 STEP for the Process Plant

Industries

69 Process Plant Engineering and

Construction: Structural Systems

70 Computerized Maintenance

Management Information

71 THERMAL MACHINERY

73 Thermodynamic Performance of

Natural Fluids as Alternative

Refrigerants

74 Thermodynamic Performance of

Alternative Refrigerants and

Refrigerant Mixtures

vi
75 Alternative Refrigerants in Heat

Pumps

76 Mixtures of Fluorocarbons on

Alternatives for R1 1 , R1 2, R22,

and R502

76 Calorimetric and Visual Study of

Boiling Enhancements with

Refrigerant 134a and Horizontal

Two-Phase Flow of R-32/134a

79 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS AND

CONTROLS

81 Communication Protocols for

Building Controls

82 Real Time Fault Detection and

Diagnostics

83 Test Procedures for Furnaces,

Boilers and Integrated Appliances

84 Test Procedures for Heat Pumps

and Air Conditioners

85 Development of Revised Test

Procedures for RefrigeratorFreezers

87 HEAT TRANSFER

89 Test Procedures for Advanced

Thermal Insulation Products

90 Moisture Control Guidelines for

Attics, Cathedral Ceilings, Crawl

Spaces, and Walls

91 Effect of Indoor Climate on

Moisture Performance of Walls

93 Assessment of Reflective Roof

Coatings Using TARP

94 A Photovoltaic Solar Water

Heating System

95 LIGHTING TECHNOLOGY

97 Test Procedures for Lighting

Fixtures and Systems

98 Evaluation of Occupant Response

to Lighting Retrofits

99 FIRE MODELING AND

APPLICATONS

101 Performance Standards for Fire

Safety

102 Building Evacuation Manual for

Disabled Occupants of Office

Buildings

102 Test on Fire Patterns to Determine

the Origin of Fires

103 High Temperature Accelerant Fires

103 Experimental Application of Fire

Hazard Analysis for U.S.

Passenger Train Systems

104 Field Guide on Compliance with

1 992 Act Provisions for Detectors

and Sprinklers

105 Study of Heat and Smoke

Movement and Their Influence on

Detector and Sprinkler Response in Enclosed Spaces with Complex

Ceiling Geometries

106 Balanced Design

107 Enhanced GSA Engineering Fire

Assessment System

107 FPEtool Advancement

108 Fire Research Information Services

(FRIS)

108 Computing and Network

Resources

109 Fire Performance Design of HighPerformance Materials Used in Construction

110 Fire Model Evaluation

1 1 1 Hybrid Model Development

vii
1 1 1 Development of the Fire Data

Management System (FDMS)

112 Hazard II Alpha Test

113 RECENT GRANTS - FIRE

MODELING AND

APPLICATIONS

1 13 Regulatory Decision Models for

Performance-Based Fire Safety

Codes

114 A Risk Assessment Methodology

for Fire Safety Factors in Performance-Based Corporation

1 1 5 Enhanced PC-based Building Fire

Assessment System

1 1 6 Sensitivity Analysis for

Mathematical Modeling of Fires in Residential Buildings

1 1 6 Computational Heat Conduction

for Zone Fire Modeling

1 1 7 Flow Through Vents in a Compartment Fire

1 1 9 Flows in Vertical Shafts

1 20 Further Enhancement of EXIT89

and Analysis of World Trade

Center Data

121 Development of a Graphical User

Interface for Post-Processing the

Results of a CFAST Simulation

123 LARGE FIRE RESEARCH

1 25 Fire Driven Flows

126 Northridge Postearthquake Fire

Assessment

126 Post-Earthquake Fires and Lifelines

127 UrbanAA/ildland Fires

128 Analysis of Large Industrial Fires

129 In-situ Burning of Oil Spills

130 Smoke Plume Trajectory from In- situ Burning of Crude Oil in Alaska

1 30 Helicopter Telemetry for Oil Spill

Emissions and Smoke Sampling

131 Office Building Fire Research

Program

132 The Evaluation of a DOD

Interstitial Space Construction

Design for Hospitals

133 Large Fire Research Facility

1 33 Development of a Sizing for

Firefighter Protective Clothing

135 RECENT GRANTS - LARGE FIRE

RESEARCH

135 Computational Modeling of Large

Fire Plumes

136 Large Fire Analyses

1 37 A Study of Two Phase High Liquid

Loading Jet Fires

1 38 Computing the Effect of Draft

Curtains on Sprinkler Response

138 Measurement of Flame

Temperature using IR Technique

and air-entrainment Velocity using

PDPA

139 Fire Protection in Large Industrial

Fires

140 Airborne Lidar Characterization of

Oil-Burn Effluent Plumes

141 A Study of Occupant Load Factors

and Fuel Load in Contemporary

Office Buildings

143 SMOKE DYNAMICS RESEARCH

145 Carbon Monoxide Production and

Prediction

viii
146 Study of Smoke Agglomerates

146 Comparison of Smoke Produced at

1 g and //g

147 Chemical Inhibitor Effects on

Diffusion Flames in Microgravity

148 Species Production for Turbulent

Flame Modeling

149 Vortex-ZChemistry Interactions in Methane/Air Diffusion Flames

150 RECENT GRANTS - SMOKE

DYNAMICS RESEARCH

150 Experimental and Modeling Studies

of Soot and Polynuclear Aromatic

Hydrocarbon Oxidation! in Postflame Gases

1 51 Dynamics, Transport and Chemical

Kinetics of Compartment Fire

Exhaust Gases

1 52 Experimental Study of the Optical

Properties of Soot and Smoke

152 Mixing and Radiation Properties of

Buoyant Luminous Flame

Environments

154 Post-Flame Soot

157 MATERIALS FIRE RESEARCH

1 59 Polymer Flammability Modeling

160 Chemistry of Polymer Flammability

161 Burning Rate of Materials

162 Combustion of Silicone

1 63 Flammability of Structural

Composites

164 Radiative Ignition and Subsequent

Flame Spread Over Cellulosic

Materials

165 Combustion of a Polymer (PMMA)

Sphere in Microgravity

1 65 Lean Flammability Limit as a Fundamental Refrigerant Property

166 Furniture Flammability

167 Evaluation of Fire Barrier

Performance

168 Calibration Facility for Particle Size

and Concentration

169 RECENT GRANTS - MATERIALS FIRE RESEARCH

1 69 A Study of Entrainment and Flow

Patterns in Pool Fires using

Particle Imaging Velocimetry

169 Modeling of Combustion, Fluid

Mechanics, and Radiation in Buoyant Turbulent Fires

171 Fire Growth Models for Materials

173 FIRE SENSING AND

EXTINGUISHMENT

175 Advanced Fire Detection

176 Low Environmental Impact Fire

Extinguishment

177 Fire Suppression Chemistry

1 79 Agent/System Compatibility for

Halon 1301 Aviation Replacement

179 Suppression of High Speed

Turbulent Flames in a Deflagration/Detonation Tube

180 Suppression of Simulated Engine

Nacelle Fires

182 Halon 1301 Surrogates for Engine

Nacelle Fire Supression System

Certification

183 Optimization of Aircraft Fire

Suppression System Discharge

ix
184 Minimum Mass Flux Requirements

to Suppress Burning Surfaces with

Water Sprays

185 High Heat Flux Measurement

Standards

186 Smoke Movement and Smoke

Layer Development in High Bay

Areas

187 Analysis of High Bay Hangar

Facilities for Detector Sensitivity

189 RECENT GRANTS - FIRE

SENSING AND

EXTINGUISHMENT

189 Development of an Economical

Video Based Fire Detecton and

Location System

189 Large-Scale Experiments of Fire

Signatures to Develop a Discriminating Fire Detector

191 Basic Research on Fire

Suppression

192 Required Water Density for Fire

Extinguishment or Control

193 OFFICE OF APPLIED

ECONOMICS

195 Economics of New Technology

Materials

196 Economic Data for Benchmarking

Construction and Building Program

Goals

197 Economic Methods for Building

Standards

198 Selecting Environmentally-Efficient

Building Materials

199 Provide Economic Support to NIST

Advanced Technology Program

200 Provide Economic Support to NIST

Manufacturing Extension Program

201 Rating Buildings by Historic

Significance

202 Life-Cycle Costing Methodology

204 AutoBid Software to Support

Police Vehicle Acquisition

Decisions

X
STRUCTURES DIVISION

EARTHQUAKE

ENGINEERING

1

Performance Requirements for Passive

Energy Dissipation Systems for

Buildings and Lifeline Structures

Principal Investigator:

Andrew Taylor

Structures Division

301-975-6078

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and verify guidelines for prequalification, prototype and quality control

testing of seismic isolation systenns.

Problem

Seismic isolation is effective in reducing the

level of response in structures during strong

earthquake ground shaking. In practice, the

components of the isolation system undergo

an extensive series of prototype and quality

control tests before installation. Recently

BFRL completed three volumes of draft

guidelines for conducting these tests. They

were developed with the assistance of an

Oversight Committee of five experts from the

field of seismic isolation.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop the test program for assessing and evaluating

guidelines that will involve:

1 . Development of a detailed experimental and testing program plan, in consultation with the Oversight

Committee. The testing plan will include a schedule of tests, personnel

requirements, equipment and material

needs. The first phase of tests will involve primarily uniaxial compression

loading. A second phase is anticipated, which would involve

simultaneous uniaxial compression

combined with cyclic lateral shear

loading. The feasibility and scope of

this phase will require further study,

and may be performed out in FY 1996.

2. Fabricate test fixtures, procure test specimens, calibrate transducers,

assemble data acquisition system, and

verify test control system.

3. Conduct tests, according to the

procedures established by the "Draft

Guidelines." Tests will be conducted

in the BFRL Tri-directional test facility or the Large Scale Structural Test

Facility, as appropriate.

4. Report and analyze data according to the provisions of the "Draft Guidelines." In addition, report on the

adequacy and feasibility of the

guideline test procedures, based on

the observations and experience

gained in the test program.

5. Summarize findings from test program

and provide this feedback to the

Oversight Committee.

The results from this research will be

published as NIST research reports and in technical journals.

Recent Results

Shenton, H. W. Ill, Draft Guidelines for Quality

Control Testing of Elastomeric Seismic

Isolation Systems, NISTIR 5345, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1994

Shenton, H. W. Ill, Draft Guidelines for PreQualification and prototype Testing of Seismic

Isolation Systems, NISTIR 5359, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1 994

Shenton, H.W. Ill, Draft Guidelines for Testing

and Evaluation of Seismic Isolation Systems,

ATC 1 7- 1, Proceedings of a Seminar on Base

Isolation, Passive Energy Dissipation and

Active Control, San Francisco, CA, March 1 1- 12, 1993

Shenton,, H.W. Ill and Lin, A.N., Relative

Performance of Fixed-Base-lsolated Concrete

Frames, ASCE, Journal of the Structural

Division, Vol 119, No. 10, October 1993

3
Seismic Performance of Precast

Concrete Connections

Principal In vestiga tor: William Stone

Structures Division

301-975-6075

Geraldine S. Cheok

Structures Division

301-975-6074

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To revise the design guidelines developed for nrioment resistant precast concrete beamcolumn connections in FY 1994 for adoption

into building codes and standards.

Problem

Proposed revisions to the building codes

require careful attention to the content and

wording of the proposed changes. Such

attention is necessary to avoid conflicts with

existing code requirements, the unintentional

exclusion of materials and/or procedures, and

potential mistakes caused by misinterpretation

of the proposed changes.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will collaborate with

Englekirk and Nakaki, Inc. to develop the

proposed changes and to present them to the

SEAOC Ad hoc Committee on Precast

Structures in Seismic Zones and the American

Concrete Institute (ACI) Technology Transfer

Committee. These committees will provide

guidance as to the technical content and

acceptability of the changes by the SEAOC

Seismology Committee and ACI 318

Committee. Interaction with the ad hoc

committee will include participation in the

scheduled meetings to provide technical

interpretation of the proposed design

guidelines.

Recent Results

New project.

Seismic Performance of Steel Frame

Structures

Principal Investigator:

John L. Gross

Structures Division

301-975-6068

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop guidelines for repairing damaged,

rehabilitating existing, and designing

connections of steel frame structures.

Problem

A large number of beam-to-column

connections of moment-resistant steel frame

buildings sustained serious damage during the

January 1994 earthquake. Current design

procedures presume that these connections can maintain their structural integrity through numerous cycles into the inelastic range of

deformation. Observed failures of connections

nevertheless invalidate the very basis of current design and construction practices for

steel frames. As a result, there are thousands

of steel frame buildings within high seismic

risk areas of the United States that are now

vulnerable to such damage in future

earthquakes. Guidelines are urgently needed

to repair, rehabilitate, and design of steel frames based on rational understanding of

seismic behavior.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform the

following tasks:

1. Characterize and understand failures

sustained.

2. Identify causes of failures and develop

approaches to solutions.

3. Develop and evaluate reliable and cost

effective guidelines.

A national workshop was held to develop an

action plan to address the various issues

associated with the repair and rehabilitation of

damaged steel frame buildings. A selected

4
number of specific tasks selected from the

action plan will be performed jointly with

private sector groups and university

researchers.

\

Principal Investigator:

John Gross

Structures Division

301-975-6068

Performance of Steel-Framed

Structures

Recent Results

New project

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To document damage to steel moment frame

buildings in the January 1994 Northridge

Earthquake and to establish a national plan to address the inspection and repair of damaged

buildings, rehabilitation of undamaged

buildings, and design for new construction.

Problem

Steel-framed buildings have long been

considered to be the best form and material

for seismic resistant construction. This

factor, along with others, has made steel- framed buildings an attractive alternative for the design and construction of mid-to highrise buildings. According to the City of Los

Angeles Building and Safety Department,

steel-framed building made up half of all buildings constructed in Los Angeles during

1993.

However, after the Northridge earthquake,

engineers have discovered wide-spread

failures in the beam-to-column connections of

steel moment-resisting frame buildings.

Extensive cracks in the beams and columns

have been found in at least 100 buildings,

most of them located in the San Fernando

Valley. A series of tests conducted at the

University of Texas found that properly

welded full-sized specimens cracked in the

first inelastic cycle of loading demonstrating

that no "quick fix" appears to be at hand.

Approach

During 1995, BFRL will perform

comprehensive documentation of damaged

steel frame buildings. Data collection will require a team effort since there are many

damaged steel buildings in the Los Angeles

area and inspection is time-consuming

because the steel frame is often concealed by

fire proofing and architectural finish. Such

5
documentation is necessary, however, to provide a solid basis for the establishment of an action plan to address the inspection and

repair of damaged buildings, rehabilitation of

undamaged buildings and design for new

construction. To develop the action plan, a workshop will be held which will bring

together experts from around the country to form a national perspective. The workshop

will result in a document outlining how to approach and resolve this problem.

The documentation of failures and

development of an action plan to address the

inspection, repair, rehabilitation and design of

steel moment-resisting frames will be a collaborative effort performed by BFRL and a team of experts.

Recent Results

Gross, J. L., A Survey of Steel MomentResisting Frame Buildings Affected by the

1994 Northridge Earthquake, NISTIR 5625,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, April 1995

Youssef, N.F.G., Bonowitz, D., and Gross,

J.L., Proceedings: Invitational Workshop on

Steel Seismic Issues, SAC 94-01, Structural

Engineers Association of CA, Sacramento,

November 1994, 155pp.

Inelastic Damage Model for

Rectangular Reinforced Concrete

Columns

Principal Investigator

William C. Stone

Structures Division

301-975-6075

Andrew W. Taylor

Structures Division

301-975-6078

Sponsor

Federal Highway Administration

Office of Engineering, Research, and

Development

Structures Division

Objective

To calibrate an inelastic dynamic analysis

model so that it may be applied to rectangular

reinforced concrete columns with rectangular

hoops.

Problem

There are currently available several

computer-based analysis models which predict

the dynamic performance of reinforced

concrete structures in earthquakes, not only over the elastic range of behavior, but also in the inelastic range (e.g., IDARC, SARCF,

DRAiN-2DX). These analysis models have the

potential to enable engineers to design

reinforced concrete structures which are both

safer and more economical than structures designed using current design methods (such

as equivalent static lateral load analysis, or

elastic dynamic analysis). However, inelastic

dynamic analysis models remain theoretical

tools. They cannot be used with confidence

in practical applications because they have

never been systematically calibrated against

laboratory test data.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will demonstrate a

calibration procedure for IDARC which could

be adapted for use with other inelastic

dynamic analysis software. A widely used

three parameter hysteretic failure model is incorporated in the inelastic analysis program

IDARC (Kunnath, Reinhorn and Lobo 1992).

IDARC has been examined in past studies at NIST(Stone and Taylor 1993), and has been

6
found to be a promising approach to the

seismic analysis of reinforced concrete

buildings and bridges.

First, approximately 50 to 75 digital records

from cyclic lateral load tests on rectangular

columns, obtained in an earlier phase of this project, will be analyzed using the NIST

system identification program NIDENT 3.0.

NIDENT currently provides semi-automated

capture of the three-parameter model

coefficients used in IDARC ; NIDENT 4.0,

which provides for identification of up to 15

parameters may also be employed if necessary. The three failure model

parameters will then be determined for each

specimen. Finally, the aggregate set of

parameters from the full range of tests will be

used to develop correlations between

observed performance (e.g., strength

degradation, stiffness degradation and

pinching of the hysteresis loops) and the

geometric and material properties of columns.

Recent Results

New project.

Digital Data Base of Cyclic Lateral

Load Tests on Rectangular R/C

Columns

Principal Investigator

William C. Stone

Structures Division

301-975-6075

Andrew W. Taylor

Structures Division

301-975-6078

Sponsor

State University of New York

National Center for Earthquake Engineering

Research (NCEER)

Objective

To develop a comprehensive digital data base

of cyclic lateral load tests on rectangular

reinforced concrete columns.

Problem

In order to develop confidence in inelastic

analysis algorithms for reinforced concrete

structures, the algorithms must be calibrated

against laboratory data from tests on

reinforced concrete members. Without such a

calibration, the inelastic analysis algorithms

are essentially useless. To support collateral work at BFRL on earthquake engineering for bridges, such a database for rectangular

reinforced concrete columns will be

developed. Because of the high variability

inherent in tests of reinforced concrete

members, and because of the wide range of

member geometries and material properties

covered by the analytical models, large data

bases of experimental results are required for adequate calibration. There is currently no

comprehensive, world-wide data- base of

results from cyclic lateral load experiments on

rectangular columns.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop a comprehensive digital database of cyclic

lateral load tests on rectangular reinforced

concrete columns. As a first step, a literature review will be conducted to identify as many

tests as possible throughout the world.

Second, researchers will be contacted to obtain digital data (when available), copies of

papers and test reports. Third, for those tests

7
which are reported only in analog format, the

load-deflection plots will be digitized using a computer work station, digitizing tablet and

special digitization software written expressly

for this purpose at BFRL. Finally, the digital

data will be arranged in a uniform format,

auxiliary information about the tests will be

tabulated, and the database will be described

in a report accompanied by a computer disk.

Recent Results

New project.

Cyclic Lateral Load Tests of Circular

Reinforced Concrete Bridge Columns

Principal Investigator

William C. Stone

Structures Division

301-975-6075

Andrew W. Taylor

Structures Division

301-975-6078

Sponsor

California Department of Transportation

(Caltrans)

Objective

To investigate experimentally the effect of

varying cyclic lateral load paths on damage to

circular reinforced concrete columns.

Problem

In earthquake engineering studies of

reinforced concrete columns, a controlled,

cyclic lateral load pattern with gradually

increasing amplitude has traditionally been

applied to columns tested in the laboratory.

However, in an actual earthquake a bridge

column is exposed to a random cyclic lateral loading pattern, which is much different from

the laboratory loading pattern. Current

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and

Caltrans design provisions are based almost

exclusively on tests in which traditional,

controlled laboratory loading patterns have

been applied to the specimens, rather than

realistic earthquake loading patterns.

The differences between these types of

loading have never been explored

systematically. In this study both types of

loading - controlled, cyclic lateral loads, and

random earthquake type loads - will be applied

to nominally identical columns, and the

differences in observed damage will be

studied.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will analyze twelve

column specimens. The specimens will be

approximately one-fifth scale versions of

prototype bridge columns designed using

current Caltrans standards. They will be

nominally identical: approximately 300 mm in

8
diameter by 1800 mm long, with the same

material properties for all specimens. The

specimens will be cast integrally with a reinforced concrete base block to simulate a bridge column footing.

The main variable in the test program will be

the type of cyclic lateral load pattern applied

to the specimen. The specimen base will be

clamped to the laboratory reaction floor, then

the column will be loaded at the top with

simultaneous axial load and a cyclic lateral load, to simulate the weight of the bridge in combination with a cyclic earthquake load. The first specimen will be loaded with a monotonic lateral load to failure (pushover

test) to determine basic specimen stiffness

and strength. The next three specimens will each be loaded with cyclic lateral displacements of a constant amplitude for as many cycles as are necessary to cause

complete failure of the specimen. The

amplitude of displacement applied to each

specimen will be a multiple of the yield

displacement determined from the first test specimen. The fourth specimen will be loaded

with a "standard" laboratory load pattern,

which consists of cyclic lateral displacements

with gradually increasing amplitudes. The

final seven specimens will be loaded with

simulated earthquake displacement patterns.

The earthquake displacement patterns will be

selected to simulate a range of earthquake

types. The effects of applying multiple

damaging earthquakes to the same column

will also be investigated.

The data and visual observations obtained

from these tests will be correlated with

several analytical damage models which have

been proposed by other researchers. The

accuracy of the damage models will be

evaluated in light of the test data, and

recommendations will be made regarding the

best methods for analytically modeling

earthquake damage to circular reinforced

concrete bridge columns. Recommendations

will also be made regarding the

appropriateness of using results from

"standard" laboratory tests of columns, rather

than simulated random earthquake motions, to develop codes and standards for the seismic

design of reinforced concrete bridge columns.

Recent Results

New project

Seismic Performance of Cladding

Systems

Principal Investigator

Andrew W. Taylor

Structures Division

301-975-6078

Sponsor

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To evaluate seismic performance of exterior

architectural cladding elements during the

Northridge earthquake, and develop energy

dissipating cladding systems for seismic

retrofit and design of new buildings.

Problem

Although many cladding elements are not

specifically designed for seismic forces, they

participate in resisting lateral loads as they

deform with the framing system. Cladding

systems sustained damage during the

Northridge earthquake, particularly those on

steel frame structures. The seismic

performance of buildings could be improved

by utilizing effectively the cladding system to

dissipate energy. Energy-dissipating cladding can be applied to both new construction and

seismic retrofit.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform four

tasks:

1 . Document the performance of

architectural cladding systems during

the Northridge and other earthquakes.

Current design criteria and code

requirements will be critically

evaluated based on observed cladding

performance.

2. Investigate the performance of energy

dissipating cladding connector

hardware will be studied. This will be

primarily an experimental

investigation, making use of existing

test fixtures at BFRL and elsewhere.

The goal of this phase will be to determine how different types of

energy dissipating connectors behave

(e.g. elastomeric connectors, steel clip

angles, and other specially designed

9
steel connectors). The hysteretic

properties of the connectors will be

established, and desirable modes of

connector performance will be

defined.

3. Determine the contributions of

cladding to the stiffness and damping

of the overall structural system.

Presently, it is not clear to what

degree cladding systems participate

with the main structural frame of a building during earthquake shaking.

This work follows naturally on the

connector performance studies

described above, since the energy

dissipating properties of connectors

have a major influence on the

interaction between the cladding

system and the structural frame. This

third task will be carried out by

comparing analytical models of

buildings with observed experimental

full-scale and scale-model building

performance data. Since few

experiments have been performed on

structures with and without cladding,

additional experiments may be

required in this phase.

4. Develop seismic design guidelines for building cladding systems.

Recent Results

Conducted a literature review of the state-ofthe-art of cladding research.

Developed a research agenda on cladding.

Seismic Performance of Nonstructural

Ceiling Components

Principal Investigator:

Andrew Taylor

Structures Division

301-975-6078

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Object

To develop methods for reducing seismic

damage to nonstructural components of

buildings.

Problem

It has been observed in past earthquakes that

damage to nonstructural components and

secondary systems can have a great effect on

the safety of occupants and loss of property,

and in some cases the effects of nonstructural

damage can be even greater than the effects

of structural damage. When the buildings in a community are rendered nonfunctional due to nonstructural damage or to inoperative

secondary systems, the well-being of a community can be severely jeopardized.

Furthermore, in economic terms, indirect

losses (in terms of damaged equipment, lost Inventory and records, and lost revenue) can

be two to three times greater than the cost of

replacing collapsed buildings or structures, as

repeatedly demonstrated in the 1 989 Loma

Prieta and the 1994 Northridge earthquakes.

The terms "nonstructural components" and

"secondary systems" refer to a number of

items. They include, for instance, cladding,

ceilings, building contents, equipment, and

HVAC, plumbing, and electrical systems.

Most of the past efforts in the NEHRP

program have focused on improvements of

the structural design of buildings to prevent

total collapse. As a result, most newly

constructed buildings stand a good chance

that they will not collapse from an anticipated

earthquake. It is only recently that attention

has been paid to the performance of

nonstructural components and secondary

systems.

In a FY 1994 BFRL study, a review was

conducted of the seismic performance of

10
nonstructural components, and the state-ofthe-art of seismic design methods for nonstructural components. A major problem

observed in ail recent major U.S. earthquakes

has been the seismic performance of the

components located in or above suspended

ceilings in commercial office buildings. These

include the suspended acoustical tile ceilings;

fire sprinkler systems; light fixtures; and

HVAC ducts. Problems arise because these

components are co-located in the ceiling area, and their movements during an earthquake are often incompatible. For example, fire sprinkler

heads usually project through suspended

acoustical tile ceilings. During an earthquake,

the movements of the suspended ceiling and

the sprinkler pipes are incompatible, so that

the sprinkler heads are damaged. Not only

does this decrease the ability of the sprinkler

system to suppress post-earthquake fires, but

it also may result in broken sprinkler heads

and flooding of the building contents. Another example is distortion of the acoustical

tile ceiling grid, which may cause lighting

fixtures and ventilation grills resting in the grid to fall.

Thus, studies of the interactions of

components located in and above suspended

ceilings are required to reduce nonstructural

damage in buildings. Design guidelines should

be developed to ensure compatible

deformations and adequate seismic resistance

of these components.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will review existing

seismic design standards for piping, such as those used in the process plant and nuclear

power industries. This will be followed by

evaluation of computer models which could

be used to perform dynamic analyses of

ceiling systems. These models would include

provisions for real-time opening and closing of

gaps between components; realistic component flexibility; and possibly

progressive damage of components. Initial modeling would be in two dimensions (one

horizontal axis and the vertical axis), and later modeling might be extended to three

dimensions. Once a satisfactory modeling method has been established, realistic ceiling

component data will be required. These

include component masses, stiffness and

strengths, layout of components in the ceiling area, and appropriate input seismic records.

Some simple testing of typical components,

such as fire sprinkler pipes, may be required

to obtain stiffness data.

Several typical geometric layouts of ceilings

systems will be defined, as well as three to

five input earthquake records of varying

magnitudes. Using the computer model, the

typical ceiling systems will be subjected to all of the earthquake records, and the forces and

differential displacements will be recorded.

Observed problem areas, such as impact sites

and locations of high stress will be studied,

and remedial measures will be proposed.

Alterations will be made to the computer

model to remedy the problem areas, and the

computer analyses will be repeated to assess

the degree of improvement.

Based on the analytical studies,

recommendations will be made for improving

the seismic design of components within and

above suspended ceilings in buildings. These

provisions could include recommended

minimum or maximum clearances between

components; recommended strengths for anchorages; and recommendations for fixing

some components or for freeing other

components.

Recent Results

New project.

11
Performance of Power Transmission

and Distribution Systems

2

Principal Investigator:

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To develop guidelines that improved

earthquake response of power systems and

develop substation equipment fragility 3

database using the damage information from

the Northridge Earthquake.

Problem

The January 17, 1994 Northridge Earthquake

in California has again demonstrated the

vulnerability of power system facilities to earthquake damage. As a result of this earthquake, it was the first time in its history

that the City of Los Angeles was completely

out of power. The earthquake demonstrated

the vulnerability of emergency power

systems. Information, generated from strong

motion coupled with the damaged

documented from the earthquake, provides an

unique opportunity to perform analyses and

develop procedures to mitigate the effects of

future earthquake disasters on power system

facilities.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform the

following tasks using data gathered in the

Northridge and other recent earthquakes:

1 . Develop guides for the selection,

installation, and operation of

emergency power. Many facilities which must operate after a disruption

of the commercial power supply,

including that from damaging

earthquakes, have installed emergency

power systems. However, the

performance record of these systems

following Northridge earthquake has

been relatively poor. In addition to

installation adequacies, these systems

also fail due to inadequate

maintenance, testing, and operating

procedures. The guidelines will

ensure adequate performance of these

emergency power systems.

Develop guides for the seismic

evaluation and design of high voltage

substation. Many factors contributed

to the extensive damage that occurred

at high voltage substations. They

include design details associated with

the installation of substation

equipment. These guidelines will provide guidance for evaluating the

seismic vulnerability of substations,

focusing on the construction of new

facilities.

Develop fragility curves for substation

equipment. Several factors

contributed to uncertainty in predicting earthquake damage to power equipment. They include the

variations in earthquake damage to power equipment, the variations in earthquake motion from earthquake to earthquake, in local site characteristics, even with a substation, in the design and

installation of equipment, and most of

all, the large variation in the strength

of porcelain. A case study will be

conducted to evaluate the uncertainty

in the various parameters that

influence the fragility of substation

equipment, including the analysis of

strong motion, aftershock and ambient

site data and the comparison of these

results to dynamic response

characteristics of selected substation

equipment.

Based on the results of the above

study, fragility data will be developed

for several types of equipment for

which seismic performance data is available. Fragilities based on the

Northridge Earthquake data will form

the basis of most estimates, but when

available, data from other earthquakes

will be used as appropriate.

Geotechnical analysis may also be

required using existing data to determine site characteristics and

main shock ground motions. The

results of this effort will be estimates

of fragility curves for specific types of

equipment.

12
The tasks will be carried out jointly by BFRL

and a contractor selected through competitive

process. The contractor selected to conduct

these tasks will have the expertise and the

representation of the electric power industry.

Results of this study will provide the electric

power industry a set of guidelines for improving the performance of emergency

power systems during future earthquakes and

a set of guidelines for evaluation and design

of high voltage equipment at substations. It also will result in a set of fragility curves for specific types of substation equipment.

Recent Results

New project.

Performance of Rehabilitated Masonry

Buildings and Development of Performance Based Rehabilitation Guidelines

Principal Investigator: Art Schultz

Structures Division

301-975-5301

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To document the performance of rehabilitated

unreinforced masonry buildings during the

Northridge Earthquake, evaluate the

effectiveness of current rehabilitation

practices, and develop a compendium of

rehabilitation techniques with guidance for designers.

Problem

Reinforced masonry construction has been

used in California since 1934 after the Long

Beach earthquake. However, many

unreinforced masonry buildings (URMs) still exist in the Los Angeles area. Many of these

buildings have been "rehabilitated" as the

result of the rehabilitation requirements

known as "Division 88" mandated by the City

of Los Angeles. The requirements apply to all URMs other than one and two-family

dwellings and small apartment buildings of

less than five living units. Most rehabilitation

schemes use through-bolts and face plates to connect masonry walls to the wood floor and

roof diaphragms. These bolts are clearly

visible on the building's exterior. The

rehabilitation requirements also establish

criteria for "complete" strengthening, which,

in addition to through-bolts, may require

adding interior shear wall partitions,

incorporating new timber posts or other

supplemental vertical load resisting elements.

Infilling openings, or increasing wall thickness.

While the City of Los Angeles has a mandated

rehabilitation program for URMs, the city of

Santa Monica has not. Nevertheless, rows of

through-bolts and their face plates can be

seen in many URMs in Santa Monica.

Despite rehabilitation, many of the URMs in Santa Monica and in the city of Hollywood

13
were heavily damaged as the result of the

January earthquake. As a life-safety

measure, current rehabilitation practices

appear to have been successful in this earthquake-there were no complete collapses

and no deaths of occupants.

In contrast, a significant portion of the

fatalities due to building failures during the

1989 Loma Prieta earthquake were the result of out-of-plane failures of URM walls which

collapsed onto adjacent buildings, sidewalks,

streets, and parking lots. Yet, the Northridge

earthquake occurred at 4:31 a.m., making it unlikely for deaths or injuries to occur on the

sidewalks adjoining the damaged URMs.

Furthermore, rehabilitation was not successful

in preventing property damage, which can

lead to significant economic losses as the

result of building repair and the associated

business disruption.

The Northridge earthquake offers an unprecedented opportunity to examine the

effectiveness of the current rehabilitation

practices as exemplified by the

implementation of "Division 88." There are many rehabilitated URMs that were affected

by this earthquake. There is a need to systematically develop a database that is as complete as possible to document the

locations of these URMs and their

performance.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop a database

from building department records, rather than

from site visits of individual buildings. This

work will be performed in collaborations with

outside investigators. A number of strong

motion records were generated throughout

the region as a result of this earthquake.

BFRL, with outside investigators, will perform

a comprehensive evaluation of the

effectiveness of current rehabilitation

requirements based on comparison of URM

location and performance to the

characteristics of local strong motion records, as well as to traditional MMI Intensity maps.

A compendium of rehabilitation techniques,

for all levels of performance, will be

developed, supplemented by design guidance

where such guidance can be supported by

existing research. Information gaps will be

identified. This document will provide usable

information for designers, and will

complement the existing FEMA project to develop rehabilitation guidelines for multiple

performance objectives for all building types

by 1997.

Recent Results

New project.

14
Seismic Resistance of PartiallyGrouted Masonry Shear Walls

Principal Investigator:

Arturo E. Schultz

Structures Division

301-975-5301

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To define the strength and deformation of

partially grouted masonry shear walls at the

cracking and ultimate limit states, and

determine the influence of critical parameters on wall behavior.

Problem

The behavior of masonry shear walls has been

the subject of increased attention during the

past 15 years. Most research has been aimed

at fully grouted reinforced walls. Due to the

lack of physical data on the response of

partially grouted masonry walls to in-plane

lateral loads, no acceptable design formulas

are available for predicting shear strength of

such walls. The limited data suggests that

empirical formulas for shear strength of fully

grouted, reinforced walls have limited

applicability for determining the shear

strength of partially grouted, lightly reinforced

shear walls.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will complete the

second phase of a 3 year research program on

partially grouted masonry shear walls. This

research includes evaluating the influence of

horizontal reinforcement and aspect ratio on

partially grouted masonry shear wall behavior.

Work includes testing of the second series of

specimens of highest priority, which target

the effects of amount of horizontal

reinforcement, and height-to-length aspect

ratio. This series of experiments will be

conducted on partially grouted masonry shear

walls made using hollow concrete units, and it encompasses a total of 12 specimens. This

work will study the influence amount of

horizontal reinforcement and aspect ratio on

shear behavior of walls. Horizontal

reinforcement ratios equal to 0, 0.0005,

0.0012, and 0.0021 are incorporated in the

experimental program, along with aspect

ratios of 0.5, 0.7 and 1 .0.

Analytical activities will be conducted in parallel with the experiments, and these

include development of semi-empirical

simplified expressions for predicting cracking

and ultimate shear strengths and

deformations. Similar efforts at BFRL have

led to the improvement of a shear strength

formula for fully grouted, reinforced masonry

shear walls. There is also a pressing need to study the behavior of partially grouted

masonry shear walls using a more systematic

procedure that can give global as well as local information regarding states of stress and

strain at cracking and yielding. For this

purpose, two levels of finite element analysis

of partially grouted walls will be conducted.

BFRL staff will use a nonlinear finite element

computer package which is widely available to the structural engineering community and

which is based on well-established principles.

This effort seeks to verify the applicability of

nonlinear finite element analyses for design

use. In addition, a contract will be awarded

for a contractor to conduct separate analyses

using state-of-the-art finite element analyses

with numerical models which incorporate

fracture mechanics formulations for the

constitutive relations of brittle materials. The

purpose of these analyses is to provide

greater insight on the localized behavior of

partially grouted masonry walls over the entire

range of load-displacement response.

Recent Result

Schultz, A. E., NIST Research Program on the

Seismic Resistance of Partially-Grouted

Masonry Shear Walls,, NISTIR 5481, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, June 1994.

15
Seismic Strengthening IVIethodologies

for Existing Lightly RC Frame Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Richard D. Marshall

Structures Division

301-975-6071

Geraldine S. Check

Structures Division

301-975-6074

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Long T. Phan

Structures Division, 861

301-975-6077

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To contribute to the current development of

rehabilitation design guidelines for existing

lightly reinforced concrete (RC) frame

buildings by translating existing and new

research results obtained in BFRL research

efforts into technologies usable by designers.

Problem

A recently completed BFRL program on

strengthening lightly RC frame buildings with

infill walls has produced a set of design

considerations. In the development of these

considerations, important data have been

collected and research tools have been

developed. However, difficulties in knowledge transfer arise in bridging the gap

between the research and design

communities. Research tools such as computer programs, equations, procedures,

etc., developed when conducting the research

are usually cumbersome and impractical for use by a designer. Design charts and

procedures, tables, and simplified equations

need to be developed to convert the research

tools into practical tools and technologies are needed to support performance-based design

approaches.

A major effort has been undertaken by FEMA

to develop guidelines/commentary for seismic

rehabilitation of buildings to better meet the

designers needs. This work will be used in conduct of this research.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will collaborate with

FEMA by participating in its projects meetings

and identifying gaps in the rehabilitation

technology in the area of lightly RC frame

buildings. A workshop on strengthening

lightly RC fame buildings will be held to

identify means to fill these gaps. The results

of this project will be used in support of

FEMA's effort in developing performance

based guidelines.

Recent Results

Lew, H. S., Phan, L. T, and Todd, D. R., Strengthening Methodology for Lightly

Reinforce Concrete Frames - II, Recommended

Calculation Techniques for the Design of Infill Walls," NISTIR 5421, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

May 1994

Lew, H. S., Phan, L. T, and Todd, D. R., Empirical Expressions for Estimating Seismic

Performar)ce of Existing arid Strengthened RC

Frames, Abstract submitted to the 1 993

SEAOC Annual Convention, September 29 - October 2, 1993, Scottsdale, AZ

Lew, H. S., Phan, L. T, and Todd, D. R., "Strengthening Methodology for Lightly

Reinforced Concrete Frames," 25'^ Joint

Meeting of the UJNR on Wind and Seismic

Effects, May 17-20, Ibaraki-ken, Japan, 1993,

pp. 265-272

Lew, H. S., Phan, L. T, and Todd, D. R., "Seismic Strengthening of Reinforced

Concrete Frame Buildings," Proceedings of the

1993 National Earthquake Conference, May 2-

5, Memphis, TN, Vol. 2, 1993, pp. 235-244

Lew, H. S., Phan, L. T, and Todd, D. R., Strengthening Methodology for Lightly

Reinforce Concrete Frames, NISTIR 5128,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, February,

1993

16
Geotechnical Evaluation for Lifelines

Principal Investigator:

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To refine the development of System

Identification Method for reliable estimation of

soil properties important to the sitting of

lifelines, demonstrate the effectiveness of in- situ methods of estimating liquefaction

propensity, and develop a new, energy-based

method to interpret the collected data.

Problem

Lifeline systems are vulnerable to large

earthquake induced ground displacements,

such as those associated with liquefaction,

landslides, lateral spreads, slope failures, and

fault displacements. As new lifeline systems

become more complex, their vulnerability also

is often increased. While it is in most

instances feasible to locate critical structures and support facilities on sites which are not

susceptible to large ground displacement,

similar precautions are not always possible for long linear system elements such as pipelines,

communication and electrical transmission

lines, highways, and rail lines. To rationally

design lifelines in areas of potentially large

displacements, it is necessary to map the

location of critical areas; in this case those

susceptible to liquefaction. Even more

important is that many existing lifelines were

constructed through regions where ground

conditions can be a major factor to decide the

performance of the systems. Needed are methods to identify locations where such

problems may occur and to develop

recommendations to improve lifeline safety.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will focus on the

central problem of determining the

liquefaction susceptibility of a given soil profile. Three tasks will be preferred:

1 . Extension of the system identification

technique proven by last years work

to the extensive Lotung, Taiwan test

site data set to be made available by

EPRI;

2. Verification of the efficiency of the

SASW technique for lifeline applications; and

3. Development of an energy-based

interpretation technique to enhance

the use of in-situ shear wave velocity

for estimating liquefaction potential.

A powerful alliance of government,

industry, and academia will be

established to address these problems

in a cost-effective and efficient manner.

The first task on the use of system

identification techniques to estimate soil properties from earthquake strong motions

will continue. This program is leading to a method to determine, based on seismic

records, if a site has liquefied. Work-to-date

has resulted in many publications, and

promises to provide an alternative, yet better

method to estimate in-situ soil damping. The

acquisition of data from the Lotung, Taiwan

test site from EPRI will permit validation of

the technique on 34 seismic events. In addition, the nature of the Lotung data will allow investigation into soil-structure

interaction.

The second and third tasks will be performed

in coordination with Bechtel Corporation, San

Francisco. The second task will involve a full- scale field test of the automated Spectral

Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW)

technique. The technique is non-intrusive,

and if cost-effective for "productive work,"

will allow the rapid mapping of shear wave

velocities for lifeline right-of-ways.

The third task work involves the initial development of an analytical method that will provide a rational framework for deciding the

liquefaction potential of sand. While the

shear-based methods have a firm basis in physics; its basis is for small strains. There is a good correlation between shear wave

velocity and accepted methods of estimating

liquefaction potential, at some sites, while at other sites the correlation is poor. The

traditional SPT-based methods are too

empirical and are not based on fundamental

mechanics. The proposed energy-based

method would use the amount of energy

needed to initiate liquefaction as a basis for

17
comparing laboratory and field measurements.

Recent Results

Chung, R. M., and Glaser, S. D., "Measuring

Liquefaction of Sands In-situ," Third

International Conference on Geotechnical

Engineering and Soil Dynamics ,1 995.

(Accepted for publication)

Glaser, S. D.," System Identification and Its Application to Estimating Soil Properties,"

ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,

ASCE, 1994 (accepted for publication)

Glaser, S. D., "Surface Displacements due to Earthquake Excitation for Saturated Sands"

EERI SPECTRA, 1994

Glaser, S. D., System Identification and Its Application to Estimating Soil Properties"

ASCE

Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, accepted

for publication, 1 994

Glaser, S. D., "Application of Parametric

Models for Estimation of Soil Parameters," 8th

International Conference of the Association

for Computing Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, Vol. 1, pp. 575-580, 1994

Glaser, S. D., "In Situ Methods for Estimating

Liquefaction Potential," EERI SPECTRA, in review, 1994

Chung, R. M., and Glaser, S. D., "Back

Calculation of Soil Properties with System

Identification," Fourth U.S.-Japan Workshop

on Effects of Earthquakes on Lifelines and

Liquefaction, 1994

Comparison of Seismic Provisions of

Codes to the NEHRP Recommended

Provisions

Principal Investigator:

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To compare the seismic provisions of the

model building codes to the National

Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program

(NEHRP) Recommended Provisions, 1991

edition.

Problem

Seismic provisions contained in the model

building codes, the ASCE standards, and the

NEHRP Recommended Provisions are

periodically updated, normally every 3-years.

In the case of the ICBO Uniform Building

Code, the BOCA National Building Code, the

SBCCI Standard Building Code, and the CABO

One and Two Family Dwelling Code, the

comparison of their seismic provisions to the

1988 edition of the NEHRP Recommended

Provisions were carried out in the 1991

NEHRP Provisions. Another comparison,

similar to the 1991 study, is needed to assess the seismic provisions in the more

current codes with respect to those contained

in the 1991 NEHRP provisions. Similarly, it is recommended to conduct a comparative

study on the 1993 ASCE-7 seismic provisions

with respect to the 1991 NEHRP provisions.

These studies too are required to provide a sound technical base to allow the use of

various model codes and standards by the

federal agencies in carrying out their tasks

under the Executive Order 12699.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform two

Tasks:

1 . Update the comparison of the model

building codes to the 1991 NEHRP

Recommended provisions that was

performed in 1991; the results were

published in Assessment of the

18
Seismic Provisions of Model Building

codes NIST GCR 92598, July 1992.

The nnost recent full editions (not

interinn supplements or amendments)

of the four model buildings codes will be compared to the 1991 NEHRP

Recommended Provisions. Only those

items which changed between the

1 988 and 1 991 editions of the NEHRP

Provisions, or between the edition

studied in 1991 and the most recent

edition of the model codes will be

assessed. The same comparison

techniques were used in the 1991

study will be used for the update. A

report will be issued presenting the

comparison, the results and

conclusions. Each of the studied

model codes will be identified as either

being or not being "substantially

equivalent to the 1 991 editions of the

NEHRP Recommended Provisions."

The same criteria used in making the

evaluation in the 1991 study will guide the recommendations made in the updated study.

2. Compare the seismic provisions of the

ASCE 7-93 design standard to the

1991 NEHRP Recommended

Provisions. The seismic provisions of

the 1993 edition of ASCE7, "Minimum

Design Loads for Buildings and Other

Structures," will be compared to the

1991 NEHRP Recommended

Provisions, using the criteria and a format similar to that used in the 1991

study. A report will be issued

presenting the comparison, results and

a conclusion.

Using findings from the above tasks, BFRL will develop recommendations that would allow

the use of these codes and standards by the

federal agencies in seismic design of their buildings.

Recent Results

New project

Management of the Interagency

Committee on Seismic Safety in

Construction (ICSSC)

Principal Investigator:

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective ^ To facilitate and expedite the work of the

Interagency Committee on Seismic Safety in Construction (ICSSC), by providing the Chair

and Technical Secretariat.

Problem

The National Earthquake Hazard Reduction

Program (NEHRP) established the ICSSC to

assist Federal departments and agencies

develop, improve, and maintain seismic safety

programs for all types of construction. Thirty

Federal departments and agencies currently

participate in the ICSSC. The National

Earthquake Hazard Reduction Act (amended

by Public Law 101-614) designates the

director of NIST, or his deputy, as the chair of

the ICSSC. NIST provides the Secretariat to the ICSSC, to facilitate, document, and

disseminate the work of the committee. The

ICSSC is currently developing implementation

guidance for Executive Order (EO) 12941

which adopts seismic evaluation and

rehabilitation standards for existing Federally

owned and leased buildings.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue to provide FEMA with technical support. Within one year of the signing of the Executive Order

12941 (by 1 December 1995), BFRL working

with ICSSC Subcommittee 1, the ICSSC

Steering Committee, the ICSSC Full Committee, and a private sector contractor

will develop and ballot guidelines for use by

Federal agencies in implementing the

Executive Order on existing buildings.

BFRL will schedule, chair, and document at

least two meetings per year of the full committee and at least one meeting per year

of the steering committee. BFRL will produce

19
agendas for and minutes of these meetings,

maintain membership rosters, and perform

other administrative tasks as needed to maintain the smooth functioning of this committee.

Recent Results

Todd, Diana, Seismic Safety of Federal

Bui/dings - initial Program: How iVIucti Will It Cost?. NISTIR 5419, National institute of

Standards and Technology, April 1994

Todd, Diana, ed.. Standards of Seismic Safety

for Existing Federally Owned or Leased

Buildings and Commentary, NISTIR 5382,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, April 1994

Support Implementation of EO 12699

Principal Investigator:

Riley Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To support implementation of Executive Order

(EO) 12699 on seismic safety of new Federal

construction by providing technical assistance

when requested by affected agencies, and by

producing appropriate technical studies.

Problem

Many of the affected agencies may lack

specific knowledge on seismic design and

construction principles, and content and use

of building codes. As model codes and

source documents are updated, agencies

often require guidance on which codes are appropriate for Federal use.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will collaborate with a

private sector contractor, to compose the

seismic provisions of the most recent editions

of the three major model codes and ASCE 7

to the 1991 NEHRP Recommended Provisions.

A report commenting on the relative equivalence of the codes will be produced.

When asked by a Federal agency, BFRL will continue to:

1 . Provide a speaker knowledgeable on EO 12699 and implementation issues

for meetings in the Washington, DC

area.

2. Provide multiple copies of existing

literature published by NIST

supporting implementation of the

Executive Order.

Review proposed implementation

procedures or regulations for

appropriateness of technical content.

Disseminate materials produced by

affected agencies for purposes of

information-sharing with other

agencies (only at request of the

producing agency).

20
Technical Assistance to FEMA Project

Officer (Existing Buildings)

Principal Investigator:

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To provide technical review of FEMA-funded

projects to develop design and construction

guidance documents for seismic rehabilitation

of existing buildings.

Problem

FEMA is supplementing the capabilities of its own staff by using the technical expertise of

BFRL personnel.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will review:

1 . Development of "Guidelines for Seismic Rehabilitation" by

BSSC/ATC/ASCE, and

2. An update of FEMA 1 56 and 1 57,

Typical Costs of Seismic Rehabilitation

of Buildings.

At the request of FEMA Project Officer, BFRL

staff shall participate in proposal evaluation

panels, in advisory panel meetings, in users' workshops and selected technical seminars

and meetings. BFRL staff will review findings

from draft and final FEMA projects.

UJNR Bridge Workshop

Principal Investigator:

H. S. Lew

Structures Division

301-975-6061

Sponsor:

Federal Highway Administration

Structures Division

Objective

To hold under the auspices of the UJNR Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects, a joint U.S.- Japan bridge workshop to exchange the latest developments in wind and seismic design

criteria, construction methods, and repair and

strengthening techniques.

Problem

Both the United States and Japan continually

update design criteria based on research and

field performance data. Timely exchange of

technical data is beneficial for both countries

for updating design and construction

standards for bridge structures.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will plan and host a

joint U.S.-Japan workshop to be scheduled at Tsukuba, Japan, May 1995.

Recent Results

The Second U.S.-Japan Workshop on

Earthquake Protective Systems for Bridges,

December 7-8, 1992, Technical Memorandum

of Public Works Research Institute (PWRI) No. 3196, Tsukuba Science City, Japan, 1993.

Proceedings of the 10th U.S.-Japan Bridge

Engineering Workshop, May 10-11, 1994,

Lake Tahoe, Nevada

21
Secretariat U.S.-Side Panel on Wind

and Seismic Effects

Principal Investigator:

Noel J. Raufaste

BFRL Headquarters

301-975-5905

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology and

10 Federal Agency Members

Objective

To provide the U.S. Secretariat of the U.S.- Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects.

Problem

Loss of life and property result from

insufficient knowledge to adequately design

and construct building and other structures

cost-effectively against high winds and

seismic loads. Improved mitigation practices

are in early stages of development. Technical

collaborations between experts in the United

States and Japan continue to produce findings

that improve natural hazard mitigation

practices. Such improvements are possible

through joint working relations with experts

from the United States and Japan through

performing joint research projects and

exchanges of research personnel, technical

data and information, and research

equipment. [This Panel is part of the U.S.- Japan Natural Resources Development

Program under the aegis of the U.S.- Japan

Cooperative Science Program of 1961.]

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will: 1. Plan U.S.-side activities (18 Agency

membership) through hosting two

U.S. Panel's domestic meetings.

2. Manage the U.S. delegation's

technical contributions to Annual Joint

Meetings.

3. Plan and coordinate technical activities of the 10 Task Committees.

4. Manage U.S.-delegation to Japan-side

hosted Meetings and Workshops and

developing technical programs for U.S. hosted meetings.

5. Maintain liaison with U.S. and Japan

Panel members and other experts

associated with the Panel's activities.

6. Plan Japan Panel member visits to the

U.S. under the auspices of the Panel

e.g., post disaster investigations,

special studies, data gathering.

7. Maintain administrative and technical

records.

8. Prepare and distribute periodic

activities reports, and other materials as appropriate to U.S.-side Panel and

Task Committee members.

9. Participate in Joint Panel meetings and

Task Committees, and

10. Prepare and publish annual

Proceedings.

Recent Results

Raufaste, N.J. editor. Wind and Seismic

Effects, Proceedings of the 26tt) Joint Panel

Meeting. NIST SP 871, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, September 1994

Proceedings of the 9th U.S.-Japan Bridge

Engineering Workshop, May, 1 993, Tsukuba,

Japan

22
STRUCTURES DIVISION

STRUCTURAL

ENGINEERING

23
B
Noise-induced Chaos and Chaotic

Transport

Principal Investigator:

Emil Simiu

Structures Division

301-975-6076

Sponsor:

Office of Naval Research

Ocean Engineering Division

Objective

To develop measures of the probability of

exit from a safe region for multistable

stochastic systems.

Problem

Multistable stochastic systems may

experience jumps from a safe to an unsafe

region of phase space. Safe design of each

systems requires knowledge of probability of occurrence of jumps and conditions

guaranteeing that jumps do not occur.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will extend and apply

multistable stochastic systems tools for deterministic chaotic systems.

Recent Results

Simiu, E., "Melnikov Function for Stochastically Perturbed Slowly Varying

Oscillators: Application to a Model of Winddriven Offshore Currents" accepted for publication in ASME Journal of Applied

Mechanics

Simiu, E., and Prey, M., "Melnikov Process

and Noise-induced Exits from a Well,"

(accepted for publication), Journal of

Engineering Mechanics, ASCE

Frey, M., and Simiu, E., "Noise Induced

Transition to Chaos," Spatio-Temporal Chaos,

NATO Advanced Research Workshop,

Addison Wesley, 1995

Sivathanu, Y. Hagwood, C, Simiu, E., "Exits

in Multistable Systems Excited by Coin-Toss

Square Wave Dichotomous Noise," Submitted

to Phys. Rev. E.

Simiu, E., and Franaszek, M., "Melnikovbased Open-loop Control of Escape for a Class

of Nonlinear Systems", Proceedings, 15th

Conference on Mechanical Vibration and

Noise, (submitted to ASME Technical Design

Conference September 1995)

Frey, M., Hagwood, C, and Simiu, Emil,

Melnikov-based Necessary Condition for Noise-induced Escape from a Well,"

Proceedings 7th International Conference on

Applications of Statistics and Probability,

(submitted), July 1995

Franaszek, M., and Simiu, E., Crisis-induced

Intermittency and Melnikov-Scale Factor,

(submitted to Physics Letters A)

Franaszek, M. and Simiu, E., Efficient OpenLoop Control for a Class of Stochastic

Multistable Systems, Proceedings, 15th

Canadian Congress on Applied Mechanics,

May 1995

25
High-Performance Concrete: Design

and Construction Practices

Principal Investigator:

Nicholas J. Carino

Structures Division

301-975-6063

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To enhance the application of highperformance concrete in the construction of

new and the rehabilitation of existing

constructed facilities.

Problem

High-strength concrete offers the potential for cost savings in construction due to reduced

member dimensions, the capability to accommodate rapid construction schedules,

and enhanced service life. From a structural

perspective, high-strength concrete is inherently more brittle than ordinary strength

concrete. Therefore, failure mechanisms in structural members need to be understood

before appropriate design criteria can be

developed. Lacking the necessary knowledge,

design codes have taken a conservative

approach and limit the concrete strength that can be used to compute member resistance to

tensile failure modes. This places a barrier on

the exploitation of the potential properties of

the concrete.

Testing of concrete is essential to assure that

the concrete has the potential to develop the

desired properties. Also, in-place testing is essential to assure that the finished product

has the specified properties. Standards for acceptance testing have been developed

based on experiences with ordinary strength

concrete. Problems have been encountered

when current standards are used to evaluate

high-strength concrete specimens.

Laboratories testing the same material have

obtained divergent strength values, which has

resulted in unnecessary disputes. Testing

standards need to be updated to extend their

applicability to high-strength concrete. The

use of in-place tests has to be facilitated by

developing tools that can be used in the field to evaluate test results in a rigorous fashion.

Curing of concrete is the most critical step in the construction process. Sufficient curing is needed to assure that the concrete properties

will develop and that the finished product

serves its intended function. On the other

hand, unnecessary prolonged curing adds to construction costs. Existing curing standards

are based on information from ordinary

concrete mixtures. These concretes

contained Portland cement as the only binder

and did not have set controlling admixtures.

High-performance concrete typically contains

a blend of cementitious materials and often

includes chemical admixtures that affect earlyage hydration. Thus current prescriptive

curing requirements may not be applicable to high-performance concrete mixtures. In addition, current standards make no

distinction between curing to obtain adequate

strength and curing to obtain adequate

durability. Because durability is influenced

highly by the near-surface layer, different

curing methods may be needed to achieve

adequate durability compared with curing

where the only concern is strength. A new

look at the subject of curing is critical to assure that the potential benefits of highperformance concrete can be realized

economically.

Research on the state-of-the-art of the shear

strength of high-strength concrete was begun

by BFRL in FY 1994.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will investigate the

applicability of alternative rational models to

predict the shear strength of high-strength

members. These models have been proposed

instead of the empirical models in current use.

In cooperation with NRMCA, additional

studies will be performed to address the

effects of the mechanical properties of

capping materials, the effects of testing

machine stiffness, and effects of

consolidation methods. These studies are needed to provide the basis for modification

of existing ASTM standards to assure reliable results when testing high-strength concrete.

Previous BFRL work has resulted in a methodology to analyze in-place strength

26
tests. An impediment to their widespread use

is the lack of convenient tools that can be

used in the field to analyze test results. A

useable, computer-based tool will be

developed to fill this need.

A literature review will be conducted on the

state-of-the-art of curing high-perforrhance

concrete. The knowledge from the review

will be used to plan an experimental and

analytical study to provide the technical basis

for recommended curing practices that will be

applicable to all types of high-performance

concretes. An essential component of this

effort will be gaining and understanding of

water diffusion in hydrating concrete. Joint

collaborative work will be performed with

BFRL's Materials Division.

Recent Results

Carino, N.J., Gutrie, W.F., and Lagergren,

E.S., Effects of Testing Variables on the

Measured Compressive Strength of l-lighStrength (90 MPa) Concrete. N I STIR 5405,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, October 1994

Carino, N.J., Guthrie, W.F., Lagergren, E.S., and Mullings, G.M., "Effects of Testing

Variables on the Strength of High-Strength

(SOMPa) Concrete Cylinders," Proceedings of

the ACI International Conference on HighPerformance Concrete, Singapore, November

1 5-1 8, 1 994, ACI Special Publication 149, pp

589-632

Next Generation Design Standard For

Wind Loads

Principal Investigator:

R. D. Marshall

Structures Division

301-975-6071

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop key elements of an improved wind

load design standard for establishing site- specific design wind speeds and the

corresponding steady and fluctuating

structural loads.

Problem

There are a number of significant deficiencies

in the wind load design provisions of current

U.S. codes and standards. They include: 1. extreme wind speeds and corresponding load

factors derived from outmoded estimation

methods; 2. exposure coefficients that cannot

deal with complex wind exposures (the

normal case); 3. gross simplifications of

extreme pressures and loads that ignore the

directional effects of wind; and 4. no

distinction between design for safety and

design for serviceability. Of major interest is the tail length of distributions that best fit a given set of annual extreme wind speeds.

The widely used Gumbel distribution has an

infinite tail length while physical grounds

require that wind speeds be bounded.

Recently, statistical methods for estimating

those bounds have become available. In the case of complex wind exposures, analytical

models based on fundamental principles of

fluid mechanics and on certain empirical

relationships offer a substantial improvement

over current equilibrium boundary layer

models on which site-specific wind speeds are based. Since force and pressure coefficients

are direction-dependent, directional

distributions of extreme wind speeds can be

handled most conveniently in combination

with these coefficients.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will combine

directional extremes for a given site with wind

tunnel databases for force and pressure

27
coefficients that most closely match the

geometry and/or dynamic characteristics of

the structure. The development of reliability

concepts will make it possible to match safety

and serviceability criteria with given levels of

risk under wind loading.

Recent Results

Simiu, E., and Hacker, N.A., Extreme Value

Distribution Tails: A Peak Over Threshold

Approach, BSS 1 74, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, March 1995

Marshall, R., Proceedings, Workshop or) Research Needs in Wind Engineering, N I STIR

5597, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, February 1995

Wind Load Criteria for Manufactured

Housing in Hurricane Zones

Design

Principal Investigator:

R. D. Marshall

Structures Division

301-975-6071

Sponsor:

Department of Housing and Urban

Development

Office of Policy Development and Research

Innovative Technology Division

Objective

To develop revised wind load criteria for the

design of manufactured housing intended for hurricane regions.

Problem

The Manufactured Home Construction and

Safety Standards (CFR Pt. 3280) were

implemented in 1976. Section 3280.305

contains structural design requirements which

include the effects of live loads, wind and

snow loads. Experience in south Florida

during Hurricane Andrew suggests that these

wind load requirements do not adequately

describe the forces that a manufactured home

is likely to experience in a hurricane. There is a need to critically examine the current wind

load requirements in light of this experience

and develop revised wind load criteria which

will improve the performance of manufactured

homes in hurricane winds.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform three

tasks:

1 . Assess significance of tornadoes

versus extra-tropical storms and

hurricanes as a wind load design

consideration and develop

recommended changes to the

Manufactured Home Construction and

Safety Standards (MHCSS) for basic

wind speed zones.

2. Identify alternatives to current

industry practice of supporting

manufactured homes on unbonded,

open-ceil masonry units and providing

28
resistance against sliding and uplift by

way of shallow soil anchors.

3. Develop final reports describing work

from tasks 1 and 2 above and on the

wind resistance of selected

manufactured home components.

Recent Results

Marshall, R., Manufactured Homes - Probability of Failure and the Need for Better Windstorm Protection Through Improved

Anchoring Systems. NISTIR 5370, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1994

Marshall, R., Wind Load Provisions of the

Manufactured Home Construction and Safety

Standards - A Review and Recommendation

for Improvement, NISTIR 5189, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1 993

Non-Line-of-Sight (NLS) Construction

Metrology

Principal Investigator:

William C. Stone

Structures Division

301-975-6075

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a standardized non-line-of-sight

(NLS) system by which the real time position

and orientation of any object on a construction jobsite may be determined,

irrespective of the presence of intervening

obstacles.

Problem

Current and emerging technologies for construction site metrics suffer from

substantial limitations such as line-of-sight

data acquisition requirements and severe

limitations on resolution. For some years now

a new construction site positioning system,

based on the use of two or three scanning

laser broadcasters and a receiving "wand" has

been under development. This shows promise

for initial site metrology at construction sites

where line-of-site requirements between the

broadcast units and the receiver can be met.

In such cases this system is positioned to replace traditional total-station surveying

systems for precision measurement.

However, there are many situations for which

the line-of-sight requirement cannot be

reasonably met ... e.g., where constructed

members and natural obstacles obscure the

laser transmission path. A completely

alternative means of site positioning is afforded by the use of the GPS (Global

Positioning System) satellite network in which

local coordinates may be acquired using

inexpensive hand held units. However, this

system has limitations as well. In general, it circumvents line-of-site problems (since the

locating mechanism is situated "overhead")

but it does suffer from a lack of resolution (10

meter accuracy is the norm for a hand held

unit) and does not penetrate well through

overhead obstacles (e.g., a building roof).

29
Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop a standardized system by which the real time

position and orientation of any object on the

jobsite can be determined and made available to a remote management office by telephone

and virtual reality. The problem of eliminating

the line-of-sight requirement while achieving

high precision in real time with a hand held

receiver is a difficult one. Current systems

rely on the use of high frequency radiation

(laser light or high band RF) which has the

characteristic of substantial dissipation when

encountered by objects typical at most

construction sites. Research conducted by

BFRL in 1994 has indicated two approaches

to solving these problems.

In order to penetrate engineering materials a different approach must be used. Research

conducted by BFRL in 1994 indicated that

ultra wide band transmission techniques

(sometimes referred to as "impulse radar,"

"spread spectrum SAR," and "base band

radar") appear to have the most promise for developing a practical engineering

measurement system. Fundamental work will be performed with cooperative receivers to determine which part of the EM spectrum is most effective in penetrating engineering

materials.

Once a suitable transmission technology has

been identified, BFRL will construct a LPS

(Local Positioning System) which takes the

fundamental operational principles of GPS and

applies them to site positioning by means of

synchronized local transmitters known as

"pseudolites."

Recent Results

New project.

Field Evaluation of the Marshall

Hammer Calibration System

Principal Investigator:

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor:

Federal Highway Administration

Office of Engineering and Highway Operations

Research and Development Pavements

Division

Objective

To evaluate the effectiveness of the recently

developed BFRL/NIST Marshall hammer

calibration system using "production"

equipment at state or federal highway agency

laboratories.

Problem

The Marshall test procedure is currently used

by most state and local highway agencies for hot mix asphalt design. The results of many

round-robin mix exchange programs have

shown there to be wide variability in the mix

design parameters when a given mix is compacted with different compaction

hammers. Much of the scatter in Marshall test

results is attributed to compaction hammer

related variables, such as: pedestal support,

hammer alignment, hammer mass and friction. The variability of test data implied the need

for a calibration procedure for Marshall

compaction hammers: a calibration system was recently developed by BFRL with support

from the Federal Highway Administration. The

system has been demonstrated in a laboratory

evaluation program and shown to reduce the

scatter in Marshall test results by up to 60%

(based on standard deviation and spread of

test results). The next step is to demonstrate

the calibration system using field equipment.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will select, with FHWA

staff, test sites, from the Maryland,

Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia,

Delaware, and New Jersey regions. Each site

will be visited twice by the research team.

During the first visit, 2 sets of 4 uncalibrated

Marshall specimens will be prepared using the

standard compactive effort of 50 and 75

blows, respectively. Diagnostic machine data

30
will also be collected using the calibration

system during the first visit. During the

second visit the site machine will be calibrated

and the number of blows needed to achieve

the target cumulative impulse for 50 and 75

blows established. Two sets of 4 calibrated

Marshall specimens will be prepared using the

number of blows determined in the calibration

procedure. Bulk density, percent air voids,

stability and flow will be measured for all calibrated and uncalibrated specimens. Results

will be compared to determine the reduction

in variability of the data for the calibrated

specimens. Minor modifications or enhancements to the calibration

device/system will be undertaken as part of

this effort, prior to the start of the field evaluation program.

Recent Results

Shenton, H.M. Ill, Cassidy, M.M., Field

Evaluation of the System for Calibration of the

Marshall Compaction Hammer, NISTIR 5553,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, 1 995

Shenton, H.W.III, Cassidy M. M., Savage,

D.A., and Spellerberg, RA., A System for Calibration of the Marshall Compaction

Hammer, NISTIR 5338, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, 1994

Outreach and Technology Transfer

Prin cipal In vestiga tor: Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To support the activities that promote the use

of BFRL structural related research findings by

its customers.

Problem

One of the major requirements identified by

the earthquake hazards reduction community

is the need for outreach to transfer research

results into practice. For example, only some

of the successful research sponsored by the

National Science Foundation has been

implemented into practice; the rest remains on

the bookshelves. In order to develop

technological tools to advance state-of-the-art

engineering practice in design, construction,

inspection, repair, and strengthening of

existing facilities, research results supported

by NEHRP must be synthesized and

reformatted for use by designers through

various forms of outreach and technology

transfer.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will identify media that

has high payoff in transferring technologies

such as the workshops, seminars, symposia,

and conferences. In addition, short courses may be developed and conducted for

continued education of professionals as they

enhance their knowledge base. Some of the

outreach efforts will be coordinated or jointly

supported with other NEHRP agencies.

Collectively these agencies are often the

principal sponsors of major national or

international conferences on earthquake

hazards and engineering practices.

31
This work also supports the technology

transfer of other BFRL structural related

projects.
BUILDING MATERIALS DIVISION

CONCRETE

33
I
High-Performance Concrete

Principal Investigator:

James R. Clifton

Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Chiara F. Ferraris

Building Materials Division

301-975-6711

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop methods for measuring and

predicting the rheological behavior and curing

of high-performance concrete.

Problem

After years of relatively slow advances in concrete technology, a worldwide awareness

has arisen that the performance of concrete can be significantly improved. This is cited in program plans of the CEB (Commission EuroInternational de Beton) and the highperformance concrete research activities in Japan, Norway, and Canada. The concrete

and structures program of the Strategic

Highway Research Program (SHRP) and the

NSF Center for Advanced Cement-Based

Materials (ACBM) were established in response to the need for improved concretes

and the recognition of the possibility of the

development of high-performance concrete

(HPC). The Civil Engineering Research

Foundation (CERF) and the American

Concrete Institute (ACI) have led the U.S.

efforts in developing a comprehensive

program on high performance concrete, and

CERF has published a proposed program that

deals with high-performance construction

materials, High-Performance Construction

l\/laterials and Systems: An Essential Program

for America and Its Infrastructure, CERF

Technical Report 93-5011, April 1993. HPC

technology is sufficiently different from that

of conventional concrete that existing test methods and processing practices (e.g.,

mixing, consolidating and curing) may not be

applicable. The CERF report listed the need to predict 1) the durability of HPC, 2) the

rheological properties of HPC, and 3) the

effect of different curing practices on the

performance of HPC.

Approach

During FY 1 995, BFRL will perform research on 1) the susceptibility of HPC to deleterious

expansion by alkali-silica reactivity (ASR), 2)

the rheological properties of HPC, and 3) the

effect of curing practices on the performance

of HPC. Studies on the susceptibility of HPC

to deleterious expansion caused by ASR of

aggregates were initiated in FY 1994. They

are being performed by immersing mortar

bars, of a range of water-to-cement ratios and

ages, in a concentrated aqueous sodium

hydroxide solution, at an elevated

temperature, and measuring expansions and

flexural strengths of the specimens. To determine if high-strength concrete has a sufficiently high tensile strength to resist the

expansive stresses from ASR, an apparatus

has been developed for measuring expansive

forces in mortar bars caused by ASR. In this

test, specimens are subjected to the testing

condition described above and any resulting

expansive forces are measured using a load

cell. The results will indicate whether or not

there is a need for testing the ASR of

siliceous aggregates for use in HPC.

In the second task, a method will be

developed to predict the rheological properties

of HPC. BFRL will carry out a critical review

of current knowledge on the rheology of

cement-based materials, including rheological

properties, test methods, and models.

Method(s) will be selected and used for measuring the important rheological properties

of cement pastes and mortars of a range of

compositions and water-to-cement ratios. Also, the feasibility of applying hydrodynamic

models to predicting the rheological properties

will be explored. If successful, in FY 1996

the model will be extended to mortar and

concrete. Based on the experimental and

modeling efforts, correlations between the

rheological properties of cement pastes and

mortars and HPC will be sought. If reliable correlations are obtained, they should be

useful for predicting the rheological properties

of HPC based on simpler and more rapid tests on cement pastes or mortars.

In the third task to be performed in FY 1995,

BFRL will determine the effects of moisture,

temperature conditions, and time on the

35
curing and perfornnance of HPC. An essential

component of this study will be an

investigation of moisture movement in hardening HPC. The results of the study on

curing and the state-of-the-art report prepared

by BFRL's Structures Division will provide an

essential part of the knowledge base for an

expert system giving recommendations for

curing of HPC.

Recent Results

Two papers on the frost resistance of

concrete, were published in 1994:

Snyder, K.A., and Clifton, J.R., "Measures of

Air Void Spacing," Proceedings of the 12th

International Building Materials Conference,

Weimar, Germany, Vol. 1, pp. 155-158,

September 1994.

Snyder, K.A., Clifton, J.R., and Knab,

Lawrence I, "Freeze-Thaw Susceptibility of

High Performance Concrete," Proceedings of

the 12th International Building Materials

Conference, Weimer, Germany, Vol. 1 , pp. 139-142, September 1994.

Integrated Knowledge System for

High-Performance Concrete

Principal Investigator:

James R. Clifton

Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and demonstrate an integrated

knowledge system for high-performance

concrete (HPC) which will be a model for

other high-performance construction materials

(HPCMs).

Problem

A major requirement for exploiting the

benefits of HPCMs is making reliable information about these materials

(composition, properties, and performance)

available to producers, users and other

decision makers. Owners, designers, and

contractors need access to reliable information about HPCMs that can be quickly

and economically retrieved. This can be

accomplished by organizing the information in an integrated computer-based knowledge

system. An integrated knowledge system for HPCMs should consist of databases

integrated with mathematical models and

expert opinion to assist engineers and

contractors in using the most reliable and

advanced knowledge for selecting and using

HCPMs.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue

collaboration between the private and public sectors in planning the development of an

integrated knowledge system for HPC

including its conceptual design and

architecture; available databases,

mathematical models, and expert systems;

standards for interfacing different types of

knowledge; and the formation and linking of

distributed knowledge bases. This was

initiated from an FY 1994 workshop and

symposium conducted by BFRL. A

demonstration prototype integrated

knowledge system will be developed for HPC,

using models developed at BFRL and from

36
selected reports on HPC. Also, BFRL will modify Its HWYCON expert system to make it more universal and incorporate HPC findings.

In addition to selecting concrete materials, the

extended expert system (HYPERCON - highperformance concrete) will give

recommendations on proportioning,

processing, and repairing HPC. Collaboration

with industry and technical committees such

as ACI, RILEM, and ASCE in the development

of HYPERCON will be vital to its successful

development.

Recent Results

Conducted a symposium and workshop that

explored the development of an integrated

knowledge system for HPC and other highperformance construction materials. Three

thousand copies of HYWCON have been

made available for distribution by the National

Research Council's Transportation Research

Board.

Transport Properties of HlghPerformance Concrete

Principal Investigator:

Nicos S. Martys

Building Materials Division

301-975-5915

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop analytical and simulation models

that predict transport properties of highperformance concrete (HPC), perform

experiments to validate these models, and

develop improved methods for measuring the

important HPC transport properties.

Problem

Before reliable HPC service life predictions can

be made, a fundamental understanding of the

mechanisms controlling HPC degradation is needed. Many of the degradation processes

are controlled by HPC transport properties.

Due to the anticipated small pore sizes in HPC, the primary transport properties should

be diffusion and capillary flow. Although

diffusion in HPC has been investigated, there

does not exist a comprehensive body of work

that encompasses all the important factors

controlling diffusion. In addition, no reliable test methods exist to measure the material

properties (e.g., permeability, diffusion, and

capillarity) that control the invasion of HPC by

aqueous media. Experimental methods and

standard procedures are needed to form a basis for reliable characterization of transport

properties.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will model the

diffusion and capillary flow in HPC. Results

from BFRL computer simulations will be

compared to experimental data from BFRL and

from W.R. Grace Co., Inc.

Recent Results

Martys, Nicos S., Torquato, S., and Bentz,

D.P., "Universal Scaling of Fluid Permeability

for Sphere Packings," Physical Review E, 50,

403-408, 1994.

37
Martys, Nicos. S., "Fractal Growth in Hydrodynamic Dispersion Through Porous

Media," Physical Review E, 50, 335-342,

1994.

Schwartz, L.M., Auzerais, R, Dunsmuir, J., Martys, N., Bentz, D.P., Torquato, S., "Transport and Diffusion in Three-dimensional

Composite Media," Physica A, 207, 28-36,

1994.

Nolle, C.S., Koiller, B., Martys, Nicos, and

Bobbins, Mark 0., "Effect of Quenched

Disorder on Moving Interfaces in Two

Dimensions," Physica A, 205, 342-354,

1994.

Bentz, D.P., Martys, Nicos, Stutzman, P., Levenson, M.S., Garboczi, E.J., Dunsmuir, J., and Schwartz, L.M., "X-Ray Microtomography

of an ASTM CI09 Mortar Exposed to Sulfate

Attack," MRS Symposium Proceedings Series,

Vol. 370, 1995

Martys, Nicos S., Survey of Concrete

Transport Properties and Their Measurement,

NISTIR 5592, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, (in review).

Microstructure-Transport Property

Relationships in Random Porous

Materials

Principal Investigator:

Edward J. Garboczi

Building Materials Division

301-975-6708

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop new, more accurate relationships

between microstructure and transport

properties.

Problem

The degradation of the concrete

infrastructure, worth on the order of six

trillion dollars, is a national problem. The

basic physical and chemical mechanisms of

degradation processes in concrete need to be

understood to make scientifically sound,

nonempirical service life predictions. Most of

the degradation processes that affect cementbased materials involve microstructure-related

properties such as diffusivity, permeability,

and elastic moduli. Fundamental computerbased models are necessary to quantitatively

relate such properties to the complex

microstructure of cement-based materials.

Such quantitative relationships will put

existing and future standard test measurements of transport and other

properties on the firm scientific foundation

needed to enable reliable production of highperformance materials.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop new 3-D

finite element shrinkage codes to enable

analysis of C-S-H shrinkage phenomena and

stresses caused by sulfate attack in variouslyshaped specimens, and in 3-D models of C-SH. A Cooperative Research and Development

Agreement (CRADA) is being established with

W.R. Grace, Inc., to cover some of this work.

BFRL will use a digital-image-based approach

with Monte Carlo techniques to simulate the

formation of cement-based and ceramic

materials at the most fundamental level that

is possible and necessary. Using finite

38
element and finite difference techniques,

coupled with fast conjugate gradient solvers,

BFRL will develop software to simulate and

compute physical processes and parameters

as needed. These new microstructure and

property simulation algorithms will then feed

into the other modeling projects focused on

the solution of specific problems.

Experimental measurements are made as

necessary, either at BFRL or in collaboration

with other institutions like Northwestern

University and Imperial College, to validate

the model results.

Recent Results

Bullar, J.W., Garboczi, E.J., Carter, W.C.,

and Fuller, E.R., "Numerical Methods for Computing Interfacial Mean Curvature,"

Computational Materials Science, (in press).

Bentz, D.P., Quenard, D.A., Baroghel-Bouny,

v., Garboczi, E.J., and Jennings, H.M.,

"Modelling Drying Shrinkage of Cement Paste and Mortar: Part I. Structural Models from

Angstroms to Millimeters," Materials and

Structures, (in press).

Three-Dimensional

Microstructural/Kinetic Model of

Cement Hydration

Principal Investigator:

Dale P. Bentz

Building Materials Division

301-975-5865

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and validate a comprehensive

model for cement hydration and microstructure development in three dimensions.

Problem

Prediction of the properties and performance

of cement-based materials is hindered by a

lack of a basic understanding of

microstructural development and hydration

kinetics. Progress in this area has been slow

due to the complexity of the starting

materials, water and a multi-size, multi-phase

cement powder, and the number and the

complexity of the reactions which occur

during hydration. A comprehensive model

incorporating both microstructural and kinetic

considerations is needed to allow a priori

prediction of the behavior of these materials

under a variety of processing conditions.

Approach

During FY 1995, the first year of this threeyear project, BFRL will develop the integrated

computer model and experimental techniques

to be used in model validation. The second

and third years will focus on model validation

and distribution and extensions to incorporate

mineral admixtures such as fly ash. Characterization of the starting cement powder

using scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

and x-ray imaging allows the determination

of, for a specific cement, the volume

fractions and spatial distributions of the major

phases (silicates, ferrites, sulfates,

aluminates, etc.). A key step will be the

integration of BFRLs microstructural model

with an appropriate model for the kinetics of

hydration. Model outputs will include phase

volume fractions and solution concentrations

as a function of time and a detailed three39
dimensional microstructural representation at any time of interest, as well as predictions of

the heat release and water absorption

behavior of a cement paste hydrated under

isothermal, saturated conditions. These latter two phenomena will be investigated from an

experimental viewpoint using a calorimeter

and new equipment to measure chemical

shrinkage during hydration, to be constructed

specifically for this project. These measures

will be compared to degree of hydration

measurements performed using conventional

loss on ignition techniques. An assessment

will be made of the feasibility of performing

chemical analysis of expressed pore solution

to compare to model predictions.

Recent Results

New project.

Characterization of Clinker and

Cement, and Flaws in Cement Paste

and Concrete

Principal Investigator:

Paul Stutzman

Building Materials Division

301-975-6715

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and demonstrate techniques for

compositional and microstructural

characterization of clinker, cement and

concrete, and characterization of flaws in high-performance concretes.

Problem

Understanding material properties of cement,

cement paste and concrete, each a complex

multi-phase material, depends upon the ability to quantitatively characterize their

compositions, microstructures, and

microstructure development. While x-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analysis has long

been used to identify crystalline materials,

fewer than one percent of users apply XRD

for the quantitative analysis of mixtures.

There are difficulties in sample processing,

data collection, measurement of individual

phase diffraction pattern intensities, and

matching reference phases to the unknowns

that must be overcome to allow

standardization of this potentially very

important analytical technique.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will use recent developments in imaging and x-ray diffraction

analysis to facilitate improved quantitative

characterization of each of the materials and

to help show how compositional

characteristics relate to material performance

and durability. Interactive analysis using

DATAPLOT, which is currently being tested

using the NIST Reference Clinkers, will be

applied. Least-squares fitting of reference

patterns to the mixture pattern will provide

weights that can be related to mass fractions

of each component in the mixture. A new

method, the Rietveld method, will be used in

40
calculations of the best-fit diffraction pattern

for each phase as well as the best-fit combination of patterns to that of an unknown mixture. This method will provide

quantitative phase abundance analysis and

information on the chemical compositions and

structural data for each phase in a mixture.

Application of backscattered electron imaging

in the scanning electron microscope (SEM)

will be used to investigate clinker, cement,

hardened cement paste, and concrete

microstructures with resolutions approaching

0.1 micrometers. With additional information

provided by x-ray imaging and image

analysis, BFRL will go beyond the usual

identification of calcium hydroxide and

calcium silicate hydrate and locate occurrences of monosulfate, ettringite, and

gypsum. Video image analysis using real- color discrimination will assist in imaging and

quantifying macro features such as aggregate

type and distribution and fracture characteristics. Combined SEM/video analysis will facilitate quantitative descriptions of

microstructures from meter to micrometer

length scales and include measures of phase

composition and distribution, porosity, and

fracture characteristics. The combined

application of these methods will facilitate concrete characterization and provide a means to identify macro- and microstructural

features of material and construction flaws.

Recent Results

Stutzman, P.E., Quantitative X-Ray Powder

Diffraction Metliods for Clinker and Cement,

NISTIR 5403, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, May

1994.

Stutzman, P.E., Compositional Analysis of

Beneficiated Fly Ashes, NISTIR 5598,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, (in press).

Stutzman, P.E., Guide for X-Ray Powder

Diffraction Analysis of Clinker and Cement,

NISTIR, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, (in review).

A Study of Floor Leveling

Components

Principal Investigator:

Chiara F. Ferraris

Building Materials Division

301-975-671

1

Sponsor:

General Services Administration

National Capital Region

Public Buildings Service

Objective

To evaluate the performance of self-leveling

compounds for use in an office building.

Problem

A severe odor in some floors of a large office

building was attributed to a complex

interaction involving a self-levelling

compound, carpet adhesive, and the carpet.

Information about alternative levelling

compounds is needed to aid the making of a decision as to what should be done to correct the problem.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will evaluate information furnished by suppliers of self-levelling

materials, consider their compositions,

specific masses recommended, depths of

cover, applications to concrete, curing times,

and other factors which may affect their

performance. The most promising materials

will be selected for laboratory testing.

Laboratory testing of selected self-levelling

compounds will be performed, consisting in determining their flow, hardening, and shrinkage characteristics; measuring their compressive strengths and bond to hardened

concrete; and observing their feathering

characteristics such as crumbling at thin

edges. The presence of any odors also will be recorded.

Tests also will be performed on a light-weight

concrete to determine properties such as its flow, hardening and shrinkage characteristics,

and its compressive strength and bond to hardened concrete. Also, the bond between

the light-weight concrete and previously

selected levelling compounds will be

measured. Based on the tests, the suitability

41
of the light-weight concrete as a substrate for the levelling compound will be decided.

Recent Results

Periodic reports have been provided to the

sponsor and a final report has been prepared.

The results of the work were used by GSA in selecting a self-levelling compound.
BUILDING MATERIALS DIVISION

COATINGS

43

Integrated Knowledge System for

Corrosion-Protective Coatings for

High-Performance Steel

Principal Investigator:

Lawrence Kaetzel

Building Materials Division

301- 975-5912

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop an infornnation model and a connputerized system for the representation

and dissemination of organic coatings

knowledge for protecting high-performance

steel structures against corrosion, and

develop a multi-media knowledge system to be a model decision-support system.

Problem

Coatings provide a versatile, cost-effective means for protecting steel structures against

adverse environmental conditions, but

decisions concerning coating system selection are often difficult to make. An improved

decision-making process needs to be

developed to extend the service life of these

structures. Currently coating system users must rely on information that is represented

in many different forms and systems. These

include manuals, guides, photographs and

drawings, videos, databases, and other

references. Often, the decision-making

knowledge may be dispersed or unavailable.

An integrated knowledge system that

includes different forms of knowledge and

presented in a coherent format is required to improve the specification, selection, and use

of coatings systems for protecting steel.

manufacturers, distributors, and users)

throughout its development. An investigation

into the state-of-the-art for coatings

knowledge systems and information

standards for construction materials will be

conducted. The feasibility of interfacing with

existing information sources, such as the

Smithsonian Institutions' spectral UVradiation (solar) database, will be explored.

High-level experts in the field of service life, diagnostics of coatings failures, and the

selection of coatings, will be interviewed. A

knowledge hierarchy will be established that

will address the specific focus(es) of the

system. Other factors, such as the effect of

spectral UV-B radiation on the durability of

coatings, will be identified and incorporated

into the knowledge in the form of rules and

models. An object-oriented expert system

architecture will be used to represent and

interface the different knowledge forms.

Leading-edge computer techniques and

resources will be used to develop the system.

These will include CD-ROM, hypertext, digital

images and drawings, video and sound. The

system will be developed for desktop and

field use.

The Internet wide-area network will be used

to test the usefulness of decision-making in a geographically dispersed environment. The

products of this research will be: 1) an

information model that will assist in the

decision-making process for the diagnosis and

selection of coatings materials, 2) a multimedia integrated knowledge system that will assist users of industrial maintenance

coatings, and 3) a worldwide network

repository of coatings knowledge and

information about coatings materials. The

system will contain high-level expert

knowledge, video and sound capabilities,

databases, references, and images of

coatings failures and testing procedures.

Recent Results

New project.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will analyze the

various factors affecting the service life of

coatings and the use of the information in the

decision-making process. Liaison will be

maintained with potential users of the

knowledge system (e.g., coating

45
Coatings Service Life Prediction

Consortium

Principal Investigator:

Jonathan W. Martin

Building Materials Division

301-975-6717

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology and

Departnnent of Transportation

Federal Highway Administration

Objective

To develop a method for predicting the

service life of a coating system, methods for quantitatively characterizing exposure

environments and material degradation, and

demonstrate how environmental

measurements of degradation can be made

on coated steel structures.

Problem

An improved methodology for predicting the

service life of coating systems exposed in their expected service environments is needed to reduce the time required to introduce new coatings into the marketplace.

If new coatings should have to be developed

to comply with new environmental

regulations, a reliable methodology for service

life prediction would help ensure that the

products had adequate durability.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform three

concurrent tasks as part of the first 3-year

phase of this industry/government

consortium. This work is being performed

under a Cooperative Research and

Development Agreement (CRADA) with

industry. The tasks are:

1 . Quantify photodegradation effects of

UV-radiation in the field and

laboratory. Specimens will be

exposed in field and laboratory tests. Spectral UV radiation will be

monitored. Mathematical models

derived from laboratory results will be

used in predicting field performance

results.

2. An interactive research program

involving each participant in a research project related to their work.

BFRL researchers will provide

consultation, help formulate problems,

and analyze and interpret results.

3. Develop user-friendly software for analyzing time-to-failure data. Life testing experiments are data

intensive. Software will be used in analyzing the data.

This CRADA is an outgrowth of previously

funded BFRL research quantifications of

outdoor weathering environments.

Recent Results

Pommersheim, J., Nguyen, T, Zhang, Z., and

Lin, C, "Cation Diffusion at the

Polymer/Metal Interface," Journal of

Adhesion Science and Technology, 2: 1-17,

1995.

Martin, J. W., Saunders, S.C., Floyd, F.L. and

Wineberg, J. P., Methodologies for Predicting

the Service Life of Coating Systems, NISTBSS 172, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1994.

Martin, J.W., "Reliability Testing and Life Testing Analysis of Building Materials,"

EuroCare Conference Proceedings, meeting

held in Hamar, Norway, June 1994.

Lechner, J. A. and Martin, J.W., "Modeling

and Measuring Ultraviolet Irradiance to

Predict Damage to Macromolecular

Materials," Proceedings of the American

Chemical Society Division of Polymeric

Materials: Science and Engineering, Vol. 69,

1993.

Martin, J.W., "Quantitative Characterization

of Spectral Ultraviolet Radiation-induced

Photodegradation in Coating Systems

Exposed in the Laboratory and the Field,"

Progress in Organic Coatings, 23(1 ):49,

1993.

46
Organic Coatings

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force

Air Force Civil Engineering Service Agency

Objective

To organize Tri-Service Coating Committee

meetings, provide technical assistance to solve coating problems, and help meet new

coating regulations.

Problem

Military facilities have an estimated $300

billion real property value and the annual cost

of coating maintenance is about $400 million. Improved and updated criteria for the

selection, specification, and use of protective

coatings is needed to take advantage of new

technologies and meet environmental

regulations, e.g., those relating to volatile organic compound (VOC) content and heavy

metal content.

Approach

During FY 1 995, BFRL will continue to maintain awareness of new technologies by

attending industry meetings and help

implement new technologies by sharing

information during Tri-Service Protective

Coatings Committee meetings. Efforts will focus on meeting the need for new coating

specifications that comply with new

regulations, continuing to chair the SSPC

Committee on Coatings, and working in the

ASTM D01 Committee on Paint and Related

Coatings and Materials.

Recent Results

Tri-Service Coating Manual, MIL-HDBK1110/1, Defense Printing Service Detachment

Office, 700 Rollin Avenue, Philadelphia, PA

191 1 1-5094, 1995.

Performance Criteria for AdhesivelyBonded Encapsulants for Lead-Based

Paint

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and

Poisoning Prevention

Objective

To develop preliminary performance criteria for adhesively-bonded encapsulants for lead- based paint in housing based on laboratory

testing and limited field testing.

Problem

In a survey of the Nation's housing, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) found that about 57 million

homes in the United States have lead-based

paint (LBP) on at least one painted surface

(comprehensive and Workable Plan for the

Abatement of Lead-Based Paint in Privately

Owned Housing, Report to Congress, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development, December 7, 1 990). Oneway

of helping to ensure that the hazards of LBP

in housing are kept low is to stabilize the

paint and protect it from abrasion and

solvents by an adhesively bonded

encapsulant, A major deterrent to the use of

these encapsulants is the lack of performance

standards and field performance data. Data

are needed by ASTM Subcommittee E06.23

on Abatement of Hazards from Lead in Buildings, to develop a consensus standard

for adhesively-bonded encapsulants.

Approach

During FY 1 995, BFRL will develop

preliminary performance criteria based

primarily on early age or short-term laboratory

and field tests, refine the criteria, and extend

them to include preliminary criteria that

address long-term performance. Performance

requirements and test procedures for adhesively-bonded encapsulants will be

identified. Encapsulants must, with an

47
acceptable probability, ensure that the lead is kept in place and prevented from contaminating the environment for the desired time.

Therefore, performance criteria will address

encapsulant material characteristics that

prevent release of lead such as abrasion

resistance, impact resistance, and the ability to prevent failure (e.g., peeling, flaking and

chipping) of the underlying LBP layer.

In performing this work, BFRL will:

1 . Visit several field sites where

adhesively-bonded encapsulants have

been installed or are being considered

to identify specific requirements and

selection of test materials.

2. Select substrate test materials and

develop procedures for preparing

them in a uniform and consistent manner to simulate conditions

expected in the field. 3. Select candidate adhesively bonded

encapsulants and control materials

(e.g., wallpapers) to use in testing. 4. Select appropriate test procedures

using ASTM tests where appropriate

and prepare test specimens.

5. Subject specimens to laboratory

performance tests under conditions in which the applied stresses are at the

high ends of the ranges expected

under service conditions, and

6. Based on the laboratory test results, carry out limited field testing.

Using both data sets, preliminary performance

criteria will be developed. Results of the

research will be provided to ASTM E06.23 to use in improving the technical bases for standards for encapsulants.

Recent Results

New project.

Method for Evaluation of Performance

of Lead-in-Paint Measuring Devices

Under Simulated Field Conditions

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and

Poison Prevention

Objective

To identify and quantify factors affecting the

field performance of portable x-ray fluorescence (XRF) devices for measuring

lead in paint under a range of simulated field conditions, develop a laboratory test method

suitable for evaluating portable XRF devices,

and write a draft standard test method for the

laboratory-based evaluation of portable XRF

devices and present it to ASTM E06.23 for standardization.

Problem

Recent legislation (Housing and Community

Development Act of 1992, PL 102-550) will phase in requirements for lead-based paint

testing for all housing built before 1978.

These requirements are expected to result in the development of several new x-ray fluorescence (XRF) devices. Because of both

health and financial liabilities associated with

these measurements, it is essential to have

reliable estimates of the field performance

parameters of the measurements (e.g.,

detection limit, precision, bias). For some

XRF devices, research results have shown

that estimates of these performance parameters obtained using existing laboratory

evaluation procedures do not agree with esti- mates obtained using field-acquired data.

Currently, field studies are being used to characterize additional devices. However,

field studies are limited in several ways -

sites having parameters in the necessary

ranges are difficult to find; systematic variation of the parameters is usually not possible;

implementation of new technologies may be

impeded; and advances in the fundamental

understanding of a measurement procedure

are limited. Thus, there is a need for a

48
laboratory-based field-simulation test protocol

for the reliable evaluation of portable XRF

devices which will overcome these

limitations. An amended problem statement

provides for NIST purchase of all instruments

to ensure impartiality in the selection of

instruments to be tested.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will: 1. Characterize and model the scientific principles controlling the performance

of portable XRF devices.

2. Design and perform laboratory

experiments to simulate significant

field conditions, as determined by

modeling and other information.

3. Perform a limited field study to determine whether the laboratory

results are consistent with field results. 4. Prepare a standard protocol for laboratory evaluation of portable XRF

devices and present it to ASTM

E06.23 for standardization.

A conceptual model of the measurement

process will be constructed to portray the

scientific principles involved, factors likely to

affect instrument response, and characterization of typical field situations in terms of

these factors. A mathematical model

embodying a fundamental understanding of

the measurement process and the effects of

the composition and configuration of a test specimen upon the measurement response

will be developed. The mathematical model

will be used throughout the study to explore

the implications of various material configurations and field conditions on instrument

response and to aid interpretation of experimental results.

Using information obtained from the literature and other sources, and from the model, both

a simulated field study and an actual field study will be statistically designed. The

design for the laboratory-based field simulation study will include use of model

wall sections each about one meter square

containing materials in configurations typical

of those found in residential buildings. The

laboratory experiment will be carried out in a room with temperature and humidity controls

that allow the conditions to be changed as needed. The model sections will be constructed in such a way that the materials and

configurations within them can be systematically changed to represent ranges of field conditions to study their effects upon

instrument response. The field experiment

will be conducted to determine whether the

estimates of measurement variability obtained

in the laboratory and field are consistent with

each other.

The experimental design will include

coordination with the Midwest Research

Institute's (MRI) lead-based wall program.

Measurements of leaded-paint specimens on

the wall will be made with the instruments

used in the BFRL laboratory and field studies.

In this way, links can be established between

performance data obtained in the laboratory,

the MRI wall and field studies.

Upon completion of the experimental study, a draft standard test method for evaluating the

performance of portable XRF equipment will be written and presented to ASTM E06.23.

Recent Results

Completed conceptual model incorporating

factors that will affect XRF instrument

response.

49
Standards for Abatement of Hazards

from Lead in Buildings

Technical Assistance on Lead-Based

Paint Issues

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and

Poisoning Prevention

Objective

To develop technical data for development of

needed standards for abatement of hazards

from lead in buildings and structures.

Problem

An estimated 57 million homes in the United

States contain some lead-based paint.

Although there is general guidance for characterizing the lead concentrations in paint, dust, soil and air particulates and

carrying out abatements, there are few

standard procedures that address these

issues. Thus, there is a need for an overall standard practice for abating hazards from

lead in buildings and structures that include

assessment and analysis of the problem,

design of abatement strategy, abatement

procedures and post-abatement management

procedures. An ASTM Subcommittee,

E06.23, was organized to meet this need.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue to provide technical support to HUD and ASTM.

The approach that ASTM E06.23 is using to develop the practice for abatement of hazards

from lead in buildings and structures is to develop the basic standards to serve as the

framework of the guide. These include

standards to characterize the concentration of

lead in paint, dust, soil and air particulates

and perform abatements and hazard

reduction.

Sponsor:

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban

Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and

Poisoning Prevention

Objective

To provide technical assistance on lead-based

paint material-related issues and

measurement procedures.

Problem

The Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement

and Poisoning Prevention, of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

(HUD), receives many requests for technical

assistance on issues regarding abatement of

hazards from lead-based paint in housing.

Some of these requests concern material

properties and performance of paints and

coatings and material-related measurement

procedures.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will provide, as needed, technical assistance on matters

relating to the performance of paints and

coatings, the abatement of hazards from leadbased paint, measurement of lead

concentrations in paint films, and other

material-related issues. In particular, BFRL

will provide written descriptions of enclosures

for lead-based paint. Outside experts will be

used as required.

Recent Results

Provide a written description of enclosures for Lead-Based Paint for use in HUD lead-based

paint hazard abatement guidelines.

Recent Results

Submitted technical basis for ASTM

Standards on Lead-based Paint Abatement in Buildings, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 1994

50
BUILDING MATERIALS DIVISION

QUALITY ASSURANCE

51

Cement and Concrete Reference

Laboratory (CCRL)

Principal Investigator:

James H. Pielert Building Materials Division

301-975-6704

Sponsor:

Annerican Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM) and

Department of the Army

Corps of Engineers

Objective

To inspect cement and concrete testing

laboratories, distribute proficiency test samples, and support the voluntary standards

development process.

Problem

The infrastructure represents a substantial

portion of the Nation's wealth, and the cost

of construction of facilities amounts to about

10 percent of the gross domestic product.

Over $4 billion of hydraulic cement is produced in the United States each year; the

value of concrete construction is estimated to be in the order of $20 billion. Standardization

of testing to enhance the reliability of quality assurance measurements is important. The

productivity of the cement and concrete

testing community can be increased by using

correct procedures and apparatus that reduce

testing errors and provide a sound basis for accepting cement on mill certificate. Efficient use of long-established construction materials

is facilitated by dependable quality assurance

programs.

Approach

With the support of ASTM Research

Associates working under BFRL supervision,

services are provided to public and private

cement and concrete testing laboratories on a voluntary basis. These services include the

laboratory inspection program and the

distribution of proficiency test samples.

Equipment and procedures used in performing

conventional quality assurance tests are evaluated for conformance to applicable

national standards. Related test apparatus is checked with inspection equipment calibrated

by BFRL personnel. Proficiency test samples

of Portland cement, pozzolan, concrete,

blended cement and masonry cement are

distributed at regular intervals to obtain

information on laboratory performance.

Additionally, technical studies are conducted

in areas related to these programs. These are often in conjunction with other NIST units.

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue to produce:

1 . Detailed inspection reports,

2. Report on each round of proficiency

sample testing,

3. Input to the work of standards

committees such as draft standards

and precision data, and

4. Reports on results of technical

studies.

Findings from BFRL technical reports, papers

in outside journals, and oral presentations are used by the cement and concrete community

in product development.

Recent Results

Spring, Curtis B., Pielert, James H., Leigh,

Stefan, Heckert, N. Alan, Graphical Analysis

of the CCRL Portland Cement Proficiency

Sample Database (Samples 1-72). N I STIR

5387, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, March 1994.

Inspected over 260 cement and concrete

laboratories; distributed over 3000 proficiency samples; and CCRL provided performance

examination as part of ACI certification

program.

53
AASHTO Materials Reference

Laboratory

Principal Investigator:

James H. Pielert Building Materials Division

301-975-6704

Sponsor:

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Objective

To inspect soil and bituminous testing

laboratories, distribute proficiency test samples, and support the voluntary standards

development process.

Problem

The quality of testing in construction

materials laboratories is an important concern when considering the overall question of

quality construction. The importance of the

testing function is demonstrated by The

Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP),

a $150-million highway and bridge research

program, which was completed in 1994.

Standardization of testing to enhance the

reliability of quality assurance measurements

is important. The productivity of the testing

community can be increased by using correct procedures and apparatus that reduce testing errors and provide a sound basis for the

acceptance of materials on certificate. More

efficient use of long-established construction

materials and broader use of new materials

are facilitated by dependable quality assurance programs.

Approach

With the support of AASHTO Research

Associates working under BFRL supervision,

services are provided to public and private

laboratories on a voluntary basis. These

services include the on-site inspection of the

laboratory and the distribution of proficiency

test samples. The scope of the laboratory

inspection program (LIP) includes testing of

soils, bituminous materials, and plastic pipe,

and measurement of roughness and frictional properties of highways. Equipment and

procedures used to perform conventional

quality assurance tests are evaluated for conformance to applicable national standards

Proficiency test samples of asphalt, soils,

paint, aggregates and bituminous concrete

are distributed at regular intervals. Additionally, technical studies are conducted

in areas related to these programs, often in conjunction with other NIST units.

Specific products of this work include: 1) detailed inspection reports, 2) report on each

round of proficiency sample testing, 3) input

to the work of standards committees such as

draft standards and precision data, and 4)

reports on the results of technical studies.

The AMRL programs benefit the construction

materials testing laboratories and others

involved with the Nation's transportation

systems by: 1) improving the quality of

laboratory testing, 2) providing data to quantify standard measurement techniques,

and 3) providing direct communications

between testing laboratories and standardswriting committees.

Recent Results

During FY 1994, inspected 267 bituminous

and soil laboratories; distributed over 4000

proficiency samples; implemented a quality

system for the AMRL LIP; completed a draft

report on the field evaluation phase of the

Marshall Hammer study.

54
Performance of Tape-Bonded Seams

in EPDM Roofing IVIembranes

Principal Investigator:

Walter J. Rossiter, Jr. Building Materials Division

301-975-6719

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

U.S. Army

Construction Engineering Research

Laboratories

Objective

To develop a test protocol and recommended

criteria for evaluating the performance of

tape-bonded seams in Ethylene Propylene

Diene Terpolymer roofing membranes.

Problem

Since the introduction of EPDM roofing in the

mid-1970s, several types of bonding systems

have been used for fabricating seams. Most

of the bonding systems have used organic

solvent-based adhesives applied with or without primer. Some tape systems also

have been employed but, until recently, not

widely. Concern over the effects of organic

solvents on the environment have lead to decreased use of solvent-based adhesives, and

increased use of tapes. Users of EPDM

roofing systems, such as contractors,

consultants, and architects, want to be sure

that the performance of the tape systems is properly evaluated. Based on the need for data to characterize and evaluate the shortand long-term performance of tape-bonded

seams, NiST and industry formed an industry/government cooperative research

project and developed a CRADA project. The

Corps of Engineers is also providing

sponsorship.

In an earlier study, creep-rupture experiments were used to characterize the behavior of

liquid adhesive-bonded seams of EPDM

membranes subjected to constant load over

time. Field experience has shown that seams

which were watertight when the roof was

installed sometimes developed defects within

the first three years of service. The development of seam defects so soon after

installation implies that the cause may be the

rheological (deformation/flow) behavior of the

adhesive as opposed to chemically-induced

deterioration. Consequently, evaluating the

behavior of seams under load is important in understanding the effects of different

application and environmental exposure

variables on seam performance. Needed are creep-rupture experiments on tape-bonded seams of EPDM membranes to characterize

the long-term performance.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform research

with industry through the CRADA focusing on

laboratory experimentation complemented by

field inspections. The laboratory

experimentation will subject tape-bonded

EPDM seam specimens to creep-failure

testing under a range of application and

environmental conditions. The seam specimens will be prepared using currently

available EPDM membrane material and

tape/primer systems. Additionally, seams

specimens fabricated with a solvent-based

butyl adhesive will be prepared as controls

and included in some experiments. The

laboratory research will be divided into three

sequential phases.

In Phase I, to be conducted during FY 1995,

the performance of tape-bonded seams will be compared to that of liquid-adhesivebonded seams in long-term creep

experiments. The creep-rupture tests will be

conducted at room temperature using peel

specimens. The study will be statistically

designed to determine the times-to-failure of

tape-bonded and liquid-adhesive-bonded seam

specimens as a function of load.

Two subsequent phases will be carried out in FY 1996 and 1997.

Recent Results

Rossiter, Walter J., Jr., Martin, Jonathan W.,

Lechner, James A., Embree, Edward, and

Seller, James F., Jr., "Effect of Adhesive

Thickness and Surface Cleanness on CreepRupture Performance of EPDM Peel and LapShear Joints," Roofing Research and

Standards Development, 3rd Volume, ASTM

STP 1224, American Society for Testing and

Materials, Philadelphia, PA, pp. 123-138,

June 1994.

55

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

INDOOR AIR QUALITY

57

Monitoring the Environmental

Performance Green Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

W. Stuart Dols

Building Environment Division

301-975-5860

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop systems to monitor the

environmental performance of green buildings

and to implement a monitoring program in selected green buildings.

Problem

Green buildings are designed to have minimal

impacts on global, local and indoor

environments. A major consideration in their

design is indoor air quality, primarily in terms

of low indoor contaminant levels but also in terms of thermal comfort. The energy

consumption of the building to provide a healthy indoor environment is an important

consideration. While much effort has gone

Into discussions of the technical means to meet these design objectives, relatively little effort has been devoted to evaluating the

actual performance of these buildings relative to these goals. To determine whether green

buildings and the associated technologies are indeed performing as intended, field monitoring is needed in a variety of contexts. A key element to such performance

evaluation is real-time monitoring of indoor

environmental conditions, mechanical

equipment operation and energy

consumption.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform a two-part

effort:

1 . Develop a real-time ventilation and

indoor air quality monitoring system.

This system will employ state-of-theart computer hardware, dataacquisition software and gas sensor technology to achieve a flexible and

reliable system to monitor ventilation

system performance, building airflow

rates and indoor contaminant levels. A major aspect of this system will be

a real-time tracer gas subsystem for monitoring building ventilation. Based

on efforts conducted in FY 1 994,

computer hardware components,

tracer gas and contaminant

instruments, and software approaches were evaluated for reliability and

appropriateness and for their

compatibility with each other. These

components will be procured and the

monitoring system will be assembled

and tested.

2. Identify and analyze several green

buildings for subsequent monitoring.

Several green building demonstration

projects are in progress, including the

Fish and Wildlife Service facility in Prairie City, Iowa. During FY 1994,

several buildings were evaluated for

their appropriateness in the

monitoring program based on the

building type, mechanical system

design, location and construction

schedule. A small number of these

buildings have been selected for a

pre- and post-occupancy monitoring

program. BFRL will work with the

building design and construction firms

to institute the monitoring program in the buildings as part of the

construction and commissioning

process. Based on the buildings and

their construction and occupancy

schedules, a multi-year green building

monitoring plan will be developed and

the initial phases will be implemented

during this year.

Recent Results

New project.

59
Development and Application of

Multizone Indoor Air Quality Models

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

George Walton

Building Environment Division

301-975-6421

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop an advanced airflow and

contaminant dispersal model in the CONTAM

series (BFRL's multizone airflow and

contaminant dispersal model).

Problem

Multizone airflow and contaminant models

have been developed at BFRL, including

AIRNET and CONTAM86 through

CONTAM93. These models were all unique

at the time of their development and were

useful for the study of airflow and indoor air quality in multizone building systems. As the

indoor air quality field continues to progress,

the need for model development continues in the areas of user interface, component model

development and system development.

Component model development refers to models that describe airflow and contaminant

dispersal processes for incorporation into a general model such as CONTAM93. Industry

associations and manufacturers have shown

much interest in using these models, but they

are concerned about model validation and the

evaluation of the effectiveness of products

intended to control indoor air quality.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform four

tasks:

1 . Modify CONTAM93 into CONTAM95.

This revision will include changes to the user interface, the incorporation

of component models of chemical

reaction and aerosol transport, and

the inclusion of exposure analysis as an output option. The revised version

will be widely publicized and

distributed to users in industry,

building designers, design

consultants, exposure analysts, and

researchers.

2. Model validation efforts will be

compared with datasets of field measurements against the predictions

of the CONTAM model. These efforts

will assess the ability of the model to

predict temporal and spatial variations

in indoor contaminant concentrations

for a variety of different classes of

pollutants, including reactive and

nonreactive, and pollutants with point

and distributed sources. The results

of these validation efforts will increase the ability to make wellfounded statements about the

reliability of the model and increase

its usefulness to solve problems.

3. Evaluate the effectiveness of specific

products control indoor air quality as

a joint effort with industry. BFRL will work with private industry to evaluate

products and systems of interest and

to transfer the ability to use CONTAM

to their staff.

4. Use CONTAM to study indoor quality

problems of relevance to the revision

of ASHRAE Standard 62-1989.

Based on the needs and concerns of

the revision committee, this analysis

will address issues including the

lead/lag approach to ventilation

system operation, adjustment for air cleaning and recirculation, and how to deal with transient occupancy

schedules.

Recent Results

Walton, George N., C0NTM93, User Manual,

NISTIR 5385, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, 1994

Fang, Jim B. And Persily, Andrew K., C0NTAM88, Building Input Files for MultiZone Airflow and Contaminant Dispersal

Modeling. NISTIR 5440, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, 1994

60
Infiltration and Ventilation in Large

Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Objective

To analyze energy impacts of large building

infiltration and ventilation system airflows

employing integrated building thermal analysis

and network airflow analysis and to participate in industry consensus standards

development activities.

Problem

Previous research and field investigations

have shown that despite current design

goals, the envelopes of modern office

buildings often fail short of design

expectations in terms of airtightness

performance. In addition, field testing has

shown that ventilation system airflows are often different from their design values,

leading to over- and under-ventilation and

increasing the pressure differences that drive

envelope leakage. The existence of such

envelope leakage and ventilation system

airflows that are not in accordance with

design, will increase the energy loads of a

building. In addition to the energy penalties,

envelope air leakage also can negatively

impact indoor air quality, envelope material

durability and occupant comfort. However,

the energy implications of envelope leakage

and ventilation system airflows are not

known, in part, due to a lack of ability of

thermal analysis models to properly account

for the complexities of building airflows in large, multi-zone buildings. Although

sophisticated network airflow analysis

programs are available, such as BFRL's

AIRNET, thermal analysis models are not able

to incorporate the output of such airflow

models. An integration of thermal and airflow

analysis is necessary to properly account for the energy impacts of infiltration and

ventilation system airflows.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform two

tasks:

1. Perform a comprehensive analysis of

the energy impacts of infiltration and

ventilation system airflow and assess

the national impacts of energy

conservation strategies in this area. This analysis will employ the building

energy simulation program TRNSYS.

TRNSYS is modular in nature, and

there is currently a library of modules

available for performing building

energy simulations. TRNSYS modules

will be used with a new TRNSYS

module based on the multi-zone

airflow program AIRNET to provide

the needed simulation capability. The

model will be implemented on the

DOE-defined prototype buildings.

BFRL will develop TRNSYS modules

of AIRNET and CONTAM to analyze

the energy impacts of infiltration and

ventilation in large, multizone

buildings. Also, BFRL will develop an

analysis strategy to study these

energy impacts based on the TRNSYS

computer simulation program and

begin the analysis needed to quantify

these impacts.

2. Develop industry consensus standards

and guidelines to provide them with

DOE and BFRL research results. BFRL

will assume leadership roles in the

ASHRAE SSPC 62, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality,

ASHRAE 129P, Method of Test for Ventilation Effectiveness, and

ASHRAE Guideline 10, Indoor

Environment.

Recent Results

Dols, W.S., Nabinger, S.J., and Persily, A.K.,

"Air Change Effectiveness Measurements in Two Modern Office Buildings," Indoor Air,

Vol. 4, No. 1, 1994.

Persily, A.K., Manual for Ventilation

Assessment in Mechanically Ventilated

Commercial Buildings, NISTIR 5329, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1994.

61
Study of lAQ Improvement Through

the Use of HVAC Systems

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Steven J. Emmerich

Building Environment Division

301-975-6459

Sponsor:

Consumer Product Safety Commission

Directorate of Engineering Sciences

Division of Mechanical Engineering

Objective

To assess the impact of existing HVAC

technology on residential indoor air quality

and assess the potential for using HVAC

systems to reduce indoor pollutant levels.

Problem

Despite the increasing interest in residential

indoor air quality problems, little research has

been conducted to analyze the impact of

pollutant sources, residential HVAC system

operation and building envelope leakage on

indoor pollutant levels. Most of the research

to date has employed simple models of the

building and its systems, ignoring the multi- zone nature of the airflovy/s involved. The use

of such simple analytical procedures has

limited our understanding of the impact of

HVAC systems and other systems on

residential indoor air quality and the

possibility of using these and other systems

to mitigate some indoor air quality problems.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will complete Phase II of this two-phase project. BFRL will analyze

computer simulations to evaluate the

effectiveness of the lAQ control retrofits. Following the completion of the computer

simulations, BFRL will conduct a one-day

workshop to present the results of the project

to a group of selected indoor air quality

experts. The feedback from these experts

will be used in preparation of the final report on the project and to develop suggestions for follow-up work.

Recent Results

Emmerich, Steven J. and Persily, Andrew J., Indoor Air Quality Impacts of Residential

IHVAX Systems Phase I Report: Computer

Simulation Plan, NISTIR 5346, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1994

Emmerich, Steven J. and Persily, Andrew J., Indoor Air Quality Impacts of Residential

HVAC Systems Phase II. A Report: Baseline

and Preliminary Simulations, NISTIR 5559,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, 1 995

62
Indoor Air Quality Commissioning

Program for TWFN

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

W. Stuart Dols

Building Environment Division

301-975-5860

Sponsor:

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Office of Consolidation

Objective

To develop and apply an indoor air quality

commissioning program to the new Nuclear

Regulatory Commission office building to ensure an acceptable workplace to the

building occupants.

Problem

The occupancy of new office buildings has

the potential for indoor environmental

problems associated with new building

materials, nonoptimized HVAC system

operation, and the scheduling of partial

occupancy while other portions of the

building are still under construction. While

many strategies have been proposed to reduce the potential for such problems, the

technical bases for these approaches are

limited. There has not been sufficient

research on air quality in new, or existing,

buildings to develop properly documented

procedures for preparing new office buildings

for occupancy.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is in the process of constructing a new office

building at 2 White Flint North. Based on

experiences in other buildings, NRC is concerned about the possibility of

experiencing indoor air quality problems in the

new building associated with move-in. These

concerns center on the staged occupancy

approach that will be employed in the

building, in which a portion of the building

will be occupied while other areas in the

building are still being finished. In addition,

the activity of moving in the occupants and

their belongings can be associated with

unusual contaminant sources.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will analyze the indoor

contaminant measurement data, conducted

on a year-by-year basis (after interior finishing, after the systems furniture was

installed, and one month after occupancy),

that was collected in the building last year

and prepare a final report to NRC.

Recent Results

Dols, W.S., Nabinger, S.N., and Persily, A.K.,

Development and Application of an Indoor Air

Quality Commissioning Program in a New

Office Building. ASHRAE lAQ '94

Conference, 1994.

Dols, W. Stuart, Persily, Andrew J. and

Nabinger, Steven J., Air Quality

Commissioning of a New Office Building,

NISTIR 5586, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, 1995

63
Impacts of HVAC Operation on Radon

Levels in Large Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

results for the building.

Recent Results

Fang, Jin B., Persily, Andrew, Computer

Simulation of Airflow and Radon Transport in Four Large Buildings, NISTIR 561 1, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1995.

Sponsor:

Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Research and Development

Objective

To assist EPA in planning and executing an

experimental effort in Florida designed to study the impacts of building features and

ventilation system operation on radon entry

and radon transport within large buildings.

Problem

The issue of radon entry and radon transport

within buildings has been extensively studied

in single-family residential buildings, but

relatively little work has been done in larger

buildings. The fact that larger buildings are often multi-story, have different foundation

types with larger ground contact areas, and

are generally mechanically ventilated leads one to expect that these phenomena will be

quite different in larger buildings. In addition

to a need to understand the fundamental

science, guidance is required regarding the

design, construction and operation of

buildings in order to control radon entry.

Such guidance has been developed by EPA,

ASTM and various state governments for single-family residential buildings, and efforts

have been initiated to develop guidance

appropriate to larger buildings. In particular,

the State of Florida intends to develop such

guidance and has contracted with EPA and

others to perform the technical research to support such guidance and to develop the

standard itself. In order to develop a large

building standard for Florida, experimental

studies of radon entry and radon transport

must be performed in several large buildings.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will complete the

tracer gas data analysis and prepare a report on the results. In addition, BFRL will work

with EPA and the subcontractors who

performed the field measurements in the test building to develop a report on all of the test

64
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

COMPUTER INTEGRATED

CONSTRUCTION

65

Advanced Manufacturing and

Network Testbed (AMSANT) for the

Process Plant Industries

Principal Investigator:

Kent A. Reed

Building Environment Division

301-975-5852

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To establish an experimental computing and

communication facility that provides a baseline of industrial practice in process plant

engineering and construction, and that serves

as an open testbed for integration activities of

industrial partners, and as a communications

hub for all U.S. participants.

Problem

The process plant industries comprise highly

competitive vendors and users of

computerized systems for the design,

construction, and maintenance of process

plants. An open facility is needed in which

these players can test proposals for integrating their computerized systems

without bias or unnecessary disclosure of

proprietary developments. This research

supports a companion project, STEP for the

Process Plant Industries, for testing the

information models proposed for Standard for the Exchange of Product Model (STEP)

application protocols.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop a neutral

external repository using software toolkits and

linked to the commercial computerized

systems in the AMSANT facility. The facility

is a distributed component of the NIST-wide

Advanced Manufacturing Systems and

Networking Testbed (AMSANT). This

repository will provide a mechanism for capturing process plant information sharable

among these systems and will provide the

basis for testing the information models being

developed in PlantSTEP (a companion

research project) and other process plantrelated activities in STEP. The test case

library being developed in a companion

project, STEP for the Process Plant Industries,

will be implemented in the AMSANT. This

project also will contribute to the high

performance networking experiments with

companion AMSANT projects in NIST's

Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory and

Electronics and Electrical Engineering

Laboratory.

Recent Results

Reports describing the facility and a taxonomy of process plant piping parts will be

published during the Summer of FY 1995

A report describing a taxonomy of process

plant piping parts will be published during the

Summer of FY 1995.

67
STEP for the Process Plant Industries

Principal Investigator:

Mark E. Palmer

Building Environment Division

301-975-5858

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To assist the U.S. process plant industries in developing the STEP (Standard for the

Exchange of Product Model Data) application

protocols needed for exchanging and sharing

information during the design and

construction, and maintenance of process

plants.

Problem

The U.S. process plant industries seek to improve their use of computerized systems

through integration of information systems,

e.g., automation of the exchange and sharing

of information among systems. The many

computerized systems in use can be

integrated only at great cost because of their

incompatible proprietary representations of

information; information exchange today is accomplished largely through manual

methods. Standard, neutral information

representations and exchange methods are needed that allow system vendors to be

innovative and yet allow system users to exchange and share information about

process plants automatically. The evolving

international standard ISO 10303, Product

Data Representation and Exchange, is providing the base technology. STEP

application protocols must be developed that

meet the needs of the process plant

industries.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will establish expertise

in the CAD/CAE/CAx systems used in the

process plant industries and will build a test case library for validating the draft APS

(application protocols) and evaluating

prototype implementations of the APS. BFRL

will work with industry to generalize the

application reference model for ship piping

systems developed by the Navy/Industry

Digital Data Exchange Standards Committee

(NIDDESC). BFRL will continue work with

researchers at the University of Missouri-Rolla

to assess piping and instrumentation

diagrams (P&ID) information requirements.

BFRL will work with PlantSTEP (a companion

project) to complete the documentation and

the ISO Committee Draft for the Plant Spatial

Configuration STEP Application Protocol.

BFRL will continue to co-lead the STEP

Process Plant Application Planning Project in ISO TC184/SC4/WG3.

This is a multi-year project focusing on the

development of a product data model to support 1) the selection and use of

commodity items, 2) the development of

piping and instrumentation (P&l) diagrams

from process stream information, 3) the

development of piping system geometry from

P&l information, 4) the shape and physical

arrangement information for related plant

systems, 5) demonstrating compliance with

EPA, OSHA, and ISO 9000 series standards,

and 6) the exchange of piping system data

from designer to fabricator. This project also

addresses these issues through interactions

with industry consortia, research programs,

individual companies, and through the ISO

STEP Process Plant Application Protocol

Planning Project (PPAPPP).

Recent Results

Burkett, W., Kline, S., Palmer, M., and

Skeels, J., Group 1 for the STEP Plant Spatial

Configuration Application Protocol, NISTIR (to

be published).

Beazley, W. G. and Chapman, J. B., A

Framework for Information Technology

Research in Process Plant and Related

Industries. NIST-GCR-94-657, 1994

Palmer, M. E. And Reed, K., A., "3D Piping

IGES Application Protocol Version 1 . 1,

NlSTlR 4797, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, 1994

Palmer, M. E. and Gilbert, M., "Guidelines for

the Development and Approval of STEP

Application Protocols, Version 1.1," NISTIR

51 10, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, 1993

68
Process Plant Engineering and

Construction: Structural Systems

Principal Investigator:

Long Phan

Structures Division

301-975-6077

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop the technical basis for a virtual construction environment, based on STEP

(Standard for the Exchange of Product Model

Data) technologies, that supports the design

and construction of structural systems for process plants.

Problem

The U.S. process plant industries seek to improve their use of computerized systems

through integration, e.g., automation of the

exchange and sharing of information among

systems. Effective integration will enable the

introduction of virtual construction

environments by allowing engineers and

constructors to visualize and manipulate a common process plant model from widely

disparate viewpoints. In this environment,

the plant design can be optimized for constructability and maintainability. The

evolving international standard ISO 10303,

Product Data Representation and Exchange,

is providing the base technology needed for integration. STEP application protocols must

be developed that meet the needs of the

process plant industries, notably in the

creation of virtual environments.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will:

1 . Conduct a review of current

applicable computer technologies

necessary for the development of

virtual construction environment.

2. Develop a use-case model of the

design and construction of process

plant structural systems in a virtual construction environment.

Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)

and explore possibilities of

collaboration.

Based on the review and critique of CIMSteel

in FY 1994 and the result of the use-case model in FY 1995, BFRL will 1) complete

draft proposing refinement/development of

application protocol for process plant

structural systems, 2) demonstrate the

proposed protocol to potential users for review, and 3) work with companion projects

(AMSANT for the Process Plant Industries

and STEP for the Process Plant Industries)

toward improvement and implementation of

the proposed application protocol.

Recent Results

NIST report summarizing the development of

the test case, in review.

NIST report summarizing the review and

critique of CIMSteel, in progress.

3. Establish contact with the American

69
Computerized Maintenance

Management Information

Principal Investigator:

Kent A. Reed

Building Environment Division

301-975-5852

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop digital data standards that

facilitate the exchange of information with

computerized maintenance management

systems.

Problem

A major impediment to the implementation of

computerized maintenance management

systems is the high cost of manually

gathering, formatting, and inputting the

required information about the building and its systems. Typically, this information is available only in the paper forms such as "asbuilt" drawings, specifications, and

manufacturer's data sheets and manuals.

Furthermore, current computerized

maintenance management systems typically

have different and often proprietary data

formats that prevent automatic exchange of

information from one to another, as from a work order scheduling system to a spare

inventory system. Frequently, these

exchanges are performed manually and at another high cost.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue to work

with committees to assess document type

definitions (DTD's) developed in FY 1994, to develop ASTM-specific extensions, and to demonstrate their implementation with case

studies.

Recent Results

A report summarizing this work and a draft

will be published in June 1995.

70
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

THERMAL MACHINERY

71
( iI
Thermodynamic Performance of

Natural Fluids as Alternative

Refrigerants

Principal Investigator;

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To evaluate the thermodynamic and heat

transfer performance of natural fluids as a working medium for refrigeration systems.

Problem

With the ozone crisis eliminating the use of

chlorine in the manufacturing of refrigerants,

the industry is rapidly moving towards the use of hydrofluorocarbon compounds. This

conversion has been and continues to be the

most dramatic change this industry has ever

faced. Virtually all their resources are focused on meeting the United Nations and

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

schedules. However, on the horizon looms

the global warming crisis and the carbon - fluorine bond of the alternative refrigerants causes them to be rather offensive; thus, it is generally conceded that they do not represent

the ultimate solution. Since the atmospheric

chemical kinetics of man-made materials are complex and difficult to predict it seems that

any such fluid offers the potential for trouble

for future generations and, thus, the only

solution is the use of natural fluids as

refrigerants. That is, ones that are either

found in nature or are in such abundance in the atmosphere already that the marginal

difference the refrigerant supply would make

would be insignificant (e.g., carbon dioxide,

hydrocarbons, ammonia, water vapor).

Although these fluids have been used as

refrigerants in the past, they (except for ammonia in industrial applications) have been

disregarded for various safety or efficiency or economic reasons. There is a need to reevaluate these fluids to determine if these

problems can be alleviated through modern

technology and alternative cycle design.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will determine the

optimum vapor compression/absorption cycle

for each fluid considered. This effort will require considerable modifications to BFRL's

basic CYCLE-1 1 family of models.

Optimization will focus on efficiency. Criteria for acceptance to the laboratory evaluation

stage will be the same as traditional

refrigerants; i.e., safety, oil compatibility,

specific capacity, pressure ratio, maximum

temperature, etc.

There will be considerable cooperation with

NIST's Chemical Science and Technology

Laboratory in performance of thermodynamics

research. In addition, BFRL will collaborate

with two compressor companies. The

difficulties and economics associated with the

development of a high pressure positive

displacement compressor and a low pressure

centrifugal compressor will be explored. Both

the prototype costs and the cost estimates

for production models will be considered

before a selection as to which laboratory

system construction begins first.

NIST heat pump simulation model, HPSIM,

will be upgraded to utilize REFPROP 4

property routines for both thermodynamic and

transport property evaluation. A property

look-up table will be employed to cover most

computational-intensive property ranges,

while the REFPROP routines will be called

directly for properties which are outside the

table range. This look-up-table approach is needed to mitigate significant CPU

requirements, which result from complexity of

the model itself and the REFPROP routines.

The model will evaluate performance of an

air-to-air heat pump charge with a mixture

comprising up to five components. Several

modifications will be made to better represent newer heat transfer surfaces introduced to the marketplace .

Recent Results

Domanski, P., Didion, D., Mulroy, W., and

Parise, J., "A Simulation Model and Study of

Hydrocarbon Refrigerants for Residential Heat

Pump Systems," Proceedings of the IIP conference: New Applications of Natural

Worl<ing Fluids in Pefrigeration and Air

Conditioning in Hannover, Germany, May

1994, International Institute of Refrigeration,

Paris France

73
Thermodynamic Performance of

Alternative Refrigerants and

Refrigerant Mixtures

Principal Investigator:

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Peter Rothfleisch

Building Environment Division

301-975-5868

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Equipment Division

Objective

To quantify the practical limitations and

performance benefits of using a zeotropic

refrigerant mixture in a residential air-to-air heat pump.

Problem

The use of zeotropic mixtures as working

fluids for refrigeration machines offers two

basic advantages: 1) a gliding saturation

temperature during the phase change of the

working fluid (i.e., evaporation and

condensation), and 2) an opportunity to vary

the circulating working fluid's composition

and, thus, the system's volumetric capacity.

The indoor heat exchanger's temperature

glide offers the opportunity to improve the

system's COP if counterflow between the air and refrigerant can be established. The

degree to which this ideal temperature profile

matching can be achieved depends very

much on the design of the heat exchanger, as

well as the ideality of the mixture. Thus,

practical trade-offs with other criteria demands on the hardware and fluid selection

result in a certain degree of subjective

judgment, based on experience, to be

exercised in the design of an optimized

system. Similarly, the system capacity

control and variation limitations are dependent on reasonable sized distillation column design, where it is placed within the

system, and how and when it is used. What

is reasonable requires judgment. The problem

then is to acquire sufficient data on the

components to establish their ideal performance potential.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue

researching the counter-flow and cross- counter flow heat exchangers. Research will build on BFRL's composition-shifting study

using a passive system (i.e., the accumulator)

and an active distillation column that was

designed and constructed. BFRL will fully

evaluate the composition shifting capabilities

of this distillation column and its impact on

the heating performance of the heat pump. A

modeling effort will begin on a parallel track

and the complete optimum system will be

designed, constructed, and evaluated.

The need for being able to predict, a priori,

the composition shift under either controlled

or uncontrolled conditions has resulted in the

development of a computer simulation based on REFPROP. This program was developed

by BFRL and needs to be verified by

isothermal and adiabatic experiments. The

apparatuses will be constructed and tests performed via gas chromatographic analysis.

Researching further into zeotropic mixture

system design requires making decisions

about secondary fluids (refrigerants).

Inherent tradeoffs between pumping power

and heat capacity currently results in performance penalties that significantly hurt

the zeotropic concept. Such secondary fluid systems are traditionally based on specific

heat capacity only. Heat of mixing and latent heat mechanisms will be studied to determine

if they offer improvements.

Recent Results

Kim, M.S. and Didion, D.A., "Simulation of

Isothermal and Adiabatic Leak Processes of

Zeotropic Refrigerant Mixtures," International

Journal of Heating Ventilating, AirConditioning and Refrigerating Research, Jan.

1995, Vol. 1, No. 1, American Society of

Heating, Refrigeration and Airconditioning

Engineering, (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA.

74
Alternative Refrigerants in Heat

Pumps

Principal Investigator:

William Mulroy

Building Environment Division

301-975-5878

David Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

Trane Company

DuPont Corporation

Objective

To determine the technical and economic

feasibility of a residential heat pump using

environmentally acceptable refrigerants.

Problem

The refrigerant used in current residential

heat pumps, R-22, is scheduled to be banned

as environmentally unacceptable. The design

of heat pumps has matured around this particular refrigerant. Replacement

refrigerants or refrigerant mixtures must be

identified. New refrigerant choices will affect

system hardware design. For example, liquidsuction heat exchange, which has no benefit

for R-22, tends to be of benefit for refrigerants nearer their critical point, for most large molecule refrigerants, and, if mixtures are employed, can be used for

partial recovery of the lost work of

expansion.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop computer

simulations for refrigerant selection with

primary emphasis on mixture of R- 32/1 25/1 34a. Previous BFRL tests on

mixtures of R-32/1 25/1 34a show they give

operating pressures near those of R-22.

Tests at Trane and at BFRL on other

refrigerants indicate that higher pressure and

higher capacity refrigerants such as R- 32/125, give improved efficiency in actual

machinery as a result of an improved

capacity/parasitic loss ratio and may offer

savings in several areas of equipment design.

Recently R-227ea and R-245cb have been

suggested as alternative nonflammable.

environmentally safe refrigerants with Normal

boiling points similar to R-134a. Their use in mixtures also will be examined by simulation

in the NIST CYCLE-1 1 crossflow model.

Primary laboratory efforts will be directed to evaluate of mixtures of R-32/1 25/1 34a (or R1 25/1 43a/1 34a et al.) From an HCFC-22

pressure level to that of a composition of

50% R-32/50% R-125. These mixtures will be created by treating the blend of 50% R- 32/50% R-125 as a single component for mixture with R-134a so that model for hermetic application in residential heat

pumps), which has been modified for open

drive by Battelle Institute, has been obtained

through Gas Research Institute. This will allow direct measurement of power into the

cycle without concern for variation of motor

efficiency (or cooling) with speed or load. BFRL will perform laboratory tests with the

compressor incorporated in an extensively

instrumented residential heat pump supplied

by Trane for a previous study.

Recent Results

New Project.

75
Mixtures of Fluorocarbons on

Alternatives for R11, R12, R22, and

R502

Principal Investigator:

William J. Mulroy

Building Environment Division

301-975-5878

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

Electric Power Research Institute

Customer Services Division

Objective

To determine if there are environmentally

acceptable binary and ternary mixtures of

partially halogenated fluorocarbons that will act as an azeotrope or near-azeotrope

alternative for R1 1, R12, R22, and R502.

Problem

Research performed during the past four

years has nearly exhausted pure fluid candidates as potential alternatives for new

systems. These efforts have not produced

drop-in candidates for existing systems. The

emphasis placed on searching for alternatives

among pure materials has limited the research

for alternatives possessing the desired

attributes. The number of alternatives is significantly expanded by including mixtures

as possibilities. With mixing different fluids,

there is the option of tailoring a material by

modifying composition, the option not

available with a pure material.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will predict

azeotropes, using a BFRL developed method

and the degree of near azeotropy that a given

set of components may demonstrate. Once

candidate mixtures are identified (on relevant

thermodynamic properties) their thermodynamic performance will be predicted

using different versions of BFRL cycle model,

CYCLE-1 1 . The benefit of liquid-suction line heat exchange will be quantified for those

candidates whose heat capacity is favorable.

Recent Results

New Project.

Calorimetric and Visual Study of

Boiling Enhancements with Refrigerant

134a and Horizontal Two-Phase Flow

of R-32/134a

Principal Investigator:

Mark A. Kedzierski

Building Environment Division

301-975-5282

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standard's and

Technology

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Equipment Division

Electric Power Research Institute

Customer Services Division

Trane Company

Imperial Chemical Industries

Fluorochemical Application Laboratory

Objective

To generate heat-transfer data and visual

observations for a thorough description of the

boiling behavior of the refrigerant R-134a

with various lubricants and heat transfer

additives and to measure the horizontal flow

boiling heat transfer coefficient for a new R- 22 replacement: a 30% mass R-32/70%

mass R-1 34a/mixture with various lubricant

concentrations.

Problem

The introduction of alternative refrigerants

has solved one problem (ozone destruction in the stratosphere by chlorine) and created

another (lack of thermal design information

for the new refrigerants). Within the next

few years, most new refrigeration equipment

will be required by law to operate with ozonesafe refrigerants. Industry does not have an

ozone-safe, drop-in refrigerant for their

equipment so they must redesign equipment.

This is of immediate concern to the industry

since they have relatively little experience

designing chillers for alternative refrigerants.

Consequently, the refrigeration industry

76
needs accurate two-phase heat transfer

correlations to redesigned evaporators and

condensers to ensure the efficient and reliable operation of centrifugal water chillers and

direct expansion evaporators.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will advance

alternative heat transfer research for the

direct-expansion and flooded evaporator

industries. The tube-side flow boiling study

of the R-32/134a mixture will be conducted

In an existing test apparatus and will aid the

direct-expansion heat exchanger industry.

The R-134a Additive/Lubricant study will be

conducted in a pool boiling

calorimetric/visualization rig and will assist

the flooded evaporator industry.

BFRL will generate heat-transfer data and

visual observations for a thorough description

of the boiling behavior of three popular

commercial enhanced surfaces with several

combinations of alternative refrigerant,

lubricant, and additive. Two refrigerants will be examined: R-134a and R-12 (as a baseline

for comparison to R-134a). R-134a will be

tested with four appropriate lubricants and one appropriate additive which has a potential to enhance the pool-boiling performance. The

additives have not been previously tested.

DuPont Corporation has developed the

additives using speculative theory generated

from a previous DOE/BFRL-sponsored project.

This represents 21 separate tests for one

particular lubricant and additive

concentration. Each additional lubricant and

additives concentration adds 30 tests. Each

individual test includes many individual data

points for various conditions. Consequently,

the work will produce a substantial,

encompassing data source for use by the

refrigeration industry.

The R-32/134a mixture study will investigate

horizontal flow boiling of both a 30% mass R- 32/70% mass R-134a mixture, a R- 32/1 25/1 34a mixture, and R-22 with

lubricants. The mixtures are ones that have

been chosen for study by the R-22

Alternative Refrigerants Evaluation Program

(AREP). This program was organized by the

Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute "to investigate and evaluate alternative

refrigerants to replace HCFC-22 in major air- conditioning and refrigeration applications."

Findings from this research will provide

valuable heat transfer information for the

design of new R-32/134a evaporators and

condensers.

Recent Results

Kedzierski, M., and Kim, M.S., Single Phase

heat Transfer and Pressure Drop

Characteristics of an Integral-Spine-Fin Within an Annulus, NISTIR 5454, National Institute

of Standards and Technology, 1994.

Kedzierski, M., and Kaul, M., "Horizontal

Nucleate Flow Boiling Heat Transfer

Coefficient Measurements and Visual

Observations for R-12, R-134a, and R-134a,

and R-134a/Ester Lubricant Mixtures,"

International Symposium on Transport

Phenomena, Seoul, May 9-13, 1993.

77

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

AND CONTROLS

79
*
Communication Protocols for Building

Controls

Principal Investigator:

Steven T. Bushby

Building Environment Division

301-975-5873

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Green Buildings

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Federal Emergency Management Program

Objective

To develop, evaluate, and produce

conformance testing of Communication

Protocol Standards for the open exchange of

information between equipment from different

control vendors and between different levels of control in both hierarchal and distributed

building management systems (BMS).

Problem

Today's direct digital control (DDC) systems

employ proprietary communication protocols

which prevent systems supplied by different

manufacturers from communicating with each

other. This has resulted in "captive

customers" who, upon buying a control

systems, are unable to upgrade or expand it without going back to the same

manufacturer. This lack of communication

capability between control systems made by

different manufacturers also prevents building owners from obtaining the most capable

building service by not allowing them to choose, regardless of the manufacturer, the

best Energy Management and Control

system, best security system, the best fire detection system, or the best

telecommunications system.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will:

industry partners in a BACnet

Interoperability Testing consortium.

The objectives of the consortium are

to: o assist control system

manufacturers in verifying the

correctness and operability of

their proprietary BACnet

implementations; o verify the technical soundness

of the BACnet protocol; o identify errors or omissions in the BACnet protocol

specification before it becomes a final standard; o identify ambiguities in the

BACnet protocol which might

lead to implementations which

cannot interoperate and; o develop insight into testing

requirements which should be

included in a future ASHRAE

standard for testing

conformance to BACnet.

3. Develop tools that can be used to establish an industry-run BACnet

certification program.

4. Establish a BACnet test-bed

demonstration project in a GSA

building in San Francisco.

5. Begin work on international

standardization of BACnet through

ISO/TC 205.

6. Begin work on expanding BACnet to integrated building services, including

life safety, security and

transportation.

Recent Results

Bushby, S.T., "BACnet Promises a New Age

in Building Control Systems," Construction

Business Review, March/April 1994.

Bushby, S.T. and Newman, H.M., "BACnet:

A Technical Update," ASHRAE Journal,

January 1994.

1 . Complete and publish the BACnet

standard. It will be published by

ASHRAE.

2. Administer and participate with

81
Real Time Fault Detection and

Diagnostics

Principal Investigator:

George E. Kelly

Building Environment Division

301-975-5870

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Systems Performance

Objective

To develop methods for controlling and

performing fault detection and diagnostics on

mechanical equipment and systems in real time and to participate in the International

Energy Agency (lEA) Annex 25 Committee on

Real Time Simulation of HVAC - Systems for Building Optimization, Fault Detection and

Diagnostics (BOFD).

Problem

The operation of buildings and systems is a complex procedure. With more and more

emphasis on a combination of different and

often conflicting performance measures, the

processes, systems, and equipment being

used in commercial and residential buildings

are becoming more and more complex. New

control and on-line analysis methods are needed to detect problems (faults) as they

occur, determine which component or system

is failing or has failed, and recommend

maintenance or repair procedures. These

methods can then be incorporated by the

building controls industry into either the

building energy management system (BEMS),

"smart" building equipment, or into stand

alone systems dedicated to fault detection

and diagnostics.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL and Johnson Controls,

Inc. (working under a CRADA) will use BFRL's Fault Detection and Diagnostics (FDD)

Laboratory containing a VAV air handling

system to study the problems associated with

the control strategies and control algorithm

that are commonly used today on VAV air handling systems. Experimental data will be

gathered on the performance of various

strategies and control algorithms under

normal operating conditions and without/with

the presence of typical faults. A detailed

HVACISM+ based model of the VAV air handling system will be validated, and

simulation studies will be performed to evaluate the performance of alternative

control techniques and strategies and various

fault detection/diagnostic methods. These

technologies will be implemented and tested on the actual VAV air handling system in the

laboratory. Various methods for on-line

system identification, fault detection, and

diagnosis will be explored in conjunction with

the new control methods and used to support

NIST/DoE participation in International Energy

Agency Annex 25.

A BACnet test-bed demonstration project will be established in a General Services

Administration (GSA) operated building in San

Francisco. This site will be used in future

years to evaluate the benefit of energy

management systems, advanced/optimal

building system control strategies, and fault detection/diagnostic methods and

applications. ^

Recent Results

Kelly, G.E., et al., "Using Emulators to Evaluate the Performance of Building Energy

Management Systems," ASHRAE

Transaction. V. 100, pt. 1, pp. 1482-1493,

No. 94-23-4 (1/94).

Peitzman, H., Park, C, et. al., "The

Reproducibility of Tests on Energy

Management and Control Systems Using

Building Emulators," ASHRAE Transaction, V. 100, pt. 1, pp. 1455-1465, No. 9-13-1

(1/94).

82
Test Procedures for Furnaces, Boilers

and Integrated Appliances

Principal Investigator:

Stanley T. Liu

Building Environment Division

301-975-5880

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of furnaces, boilers, and

integrated appliances.

Problem

The ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 1 24-1 991

,

Method of Testing for Rating Combination

Space Heating/Water Heating Appliances, has

been approved by the American National

Standards Institute and ASHRAE. The

Standard requires the testing of the space

heating function of the appliance as a boiler

in accordance with the ANSI/ASHRAE

Standard 103-1988, and testing the water

heating function as a water heater in accordance with a procedure similar to the

DoE test procedure for water heaters. Rating

descriptors for an appliance are derived from

the two separate tests. The current test procedures for space heating and water

heating published by the DoE do not cover

the combination appliances. By referencing

the ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 124-1991, BFRL

will assist DoE in the development of a DoE

test procedure for the rating of these type of

combination appliances.

Approach

During FY 1 995, BFRL will conduct tests on

induced draft outdoor furnaces to develop a

reliable and repeatable test procedure for this type of outdoor units. Research will continue on furnaces, boilers, and combination

space/water heating appliances that will involve the following tasks;

1 . Continue assisting DoE in publishing

the Final Rule for furnaces/boilers and

vented home heating equipment.

2. Procure, install, and conduct

laboratory tests on an induced draft,

outdoor furnace for the development

of a tracer gas test procedure for the

determination of the power burner

draft factor.

3. Complete the development of a recommended test procedure for evaluating the annual performance

and cost of operation of Type I and

Type II combined space/water heating

appliances and assist DoE in preparing

a Proposed Rule Making on this product.

4. Assist DoE in preparing responses to Requests for Waivers and draft Federal Register Notices of proposed

Rule Making.

Recent Results

Liu, Stanley, Kelly, George, Terrlizzi, Charles,

Performance Testing of a Family of Type I Combination Appliances, NISTIR 5626,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, 1 995.

83
Test Procedures for Heat Pumps and

Air Conditioners

Prin cipal In vestiga tor: Brian Dougherty

Building Environment Division

301-975-6396

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Appliance Division

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of heat pumps and air conditioners.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PL

94-163) (EPCA), as amended, requires the

Department of Energy (DoE) to prescribe test and rating procedures and minimum

performance standards for various residential

appliances. In addition, the 1987

amendments to EPCA require analysis of any

test procedure amendments to determine

their effect on minimum efficiency standards.

DoE has, since 1975, relied on the National

Institute of Standards and Technology's BFRL

to assist in the development of the test and

rating procedures.

Approach

DoE will publish, in 1995, a proposed

rulemaking on the test procedures for heat

pumps and air conditioners (Appendix M) and

combined heat pump-water heating

appliances (Appendix Ml). During FY 1995,

BFRL will complete work on both test procedures before the rulemaking is published. Appendix M work includes

revising the nomenclature so it is consistent

with Appendix Ml and making additions and

modifications to address how to test units

having features such as adaptive defrost

controllers and variable-speed, constant air flow rate indoor blowers. With regard to the

proposed test procedure for combined

appliances, BFRL will generate a document

having a single, generic calculation section.

The 33 different calculation sections of the

present proposed combined appliance test procedure will be published in multiple NIST

internal reports. The final version of Appendix

Ml will reference these internal reports. In addition, BFRL will continue its active

participation on ASHRAE Standard 137P and

ARI Standard 290P.

Following the close of the comment period on

the proposed rulemaking, BFRL will assist

DoE with resolving technical issues raised by

the commenters. If laboratory testing is needed to resolve issues related to Appendix

M, BFRL will contract with ETL (ETL Testing

Laboratories, Inc.) to perform the needed

testing, and BFRL will perform the necessary

analysis. If laboratory testing is needed to resolve issues related to Appendix Ml, this

testing will be conducted at BFRL or ETL. At

present, two different heat pumps that are equipped with the same active, variable flow

rate, desuperheater would be the selected

systems for test. Each system would be

tested with at least two different size water

heaters.

Through a combination of laboratory test

results, HPSIM computer simulations,

repeated bin-type calculations, and

correspondence with ETL and ARI (AirConditioning and Refrigeration Institute),

BFRL will generate a first draft of a metric

DoE test procedure that is as compatible as

possible with the ISO Standard. Approaches

for more explicitly addressing talent heat

removal capability within the test procedure

will also be sought but probably will not be

finalized until FY 1996.

BFRL expects to evaluate a few requests for

waiver from the DoE heat pump and air conditioner test procedure during FY 1995.

BFRL will review and make recommendations

for changing ASHRAE Standard 16, Method

of Testing for Rating Room Air Conditioners

and Packaged Terminal Air Conditioners,

which is used by DoE.

Recent Results

Provided sponsor with written reports.

84
Development of Revised Test

Procedures for Refrigerator-Freezers

Principal Investigator:

James Kao

Building Environment Division

301-975-5871

refrigerator-freezer energy calculation

procedures. In addition, the test results wi

be compared with the predictions of the

Arthur D. Little refrigerator-freezer model.

Recent Results

New project.

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To conduct tests on residential refrigeratorfreezers and use the data generated from

tests to study whether test procedures for

refrigerator-freezers should be revised.

Problem

The current DoE test procedure was

developed nearly 10 years ago. The test procedure includes certain test conditions and

assumptions which may not be realistic operating conditions (e.g., 32 "C ambient

temperature is presently required during the

test and the door opening is required only for the variable defrost control optional test)

resulting in a higher energy consumption than

obtained from tests. More advanced

manufacturing techniques (lower anti-sweat

heater energy, better cabinet insulation,

better door gaskets, etc.), and operational

features (e.g. electronic defrost operation,

through-the-door ice service, etc.) are now

used extensively. Review of the current test procedure is in order.

Approach

Two refrigerator-freezers were tested in FY

1994 to determine the energy effect of some

operating factors. A two-state approach was

used. The first stage screened the commonly

believed energy affecting factors to identify

the two factors that affect energy

consumption the most. The second stage

tested the energy consumption under various

combinations of the two identified factors.

During FY 1995, BFRL will analyze the test data and review the DoE refrigerator-freezer test procedure. NIST will recommend test procedure revisions to cover automatic ice making devices, and to incorporate, if appropriate, the test findings in the

85

BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

HEAT TRANSFER
]B
Test Procedures for Advanced

Thermal Insulation Products

Principal Investigator:

A. Hunter Fanney

Building Environment Division

301-975-5864

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To evaluate thermal measurement techniques

applicable to advanced insulation systems.

Problem

Advanced insulation products are being

developed and introduced into the U.S.

market. Examples of these products are aerogels, powder filled panels, and evacuated

panels. These products offer extremely high

insulating capabilities. For example,

theoretical calculations reveal that an R-value

approaching 100 may be achieved in a 25.4

mm thick evacuated panel. However, current

test procedures for measuring thermal

conductivity are only applicable to materials

which are homogenous, have planar surfaces,

and have, compared to advanced insulation

products, relatively poor insulating

capabilities. Appropriate measurement

techniques are needed which will allow an

accurate determination of the overall thermal

conductance of advanced insulation systems.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will evaluate two

advanced insulation panel concepts. Metalclass evacuated insulation panels will be

evaluated over a wide range of conditions.

Of all advanced insulation concepts, these

panels offer the highest theoretical thermal

performance. The particular metal-clad

evacuated insulation panels under evaluation were supplied by Aladdin Industries under a NIST CRADA. Gas-filled insulation panels

supplied by Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories

also will be evaluated. Although gas-filled

panels do not achieve the level of thermal

resistance provided by the metal-clad

evacuated panels, they should prove much

less expensive to manufacture. Additional

CRADAs may be established with other

manufacturers.

The calorimeter facility will continue to be

improved. Research has shown that, unlike

conventional homogenous materials, the

thermal resistance of metal-clad vacuum

Insulation panels changes with the imposed

convective coefficients. As the surface

convective coefficients increase, the

temperature distribution across the panel

becomes more uniform. This increases the

heat transfer through the edges of the panel

resulting in a lower overall thermal resistance.

BFRL's calorimeter will be modified so the

convective film coefficients on both sides of

the panel can be varied. This modification

will permit the relationship between

convective film coefficients an surface-tosurface thermal resistance to be documented.

Additional transducers will be added to the

calorimeter such that the relative humidity on

both sides of the panel can be monitored.

Also, BFRL will perform an indepth

assessment of the applicability of infrared

imaging systems and thermochromatic

crystals to the evaluation of advanced

insulation panels.

Recent Results

Fanney, A. H., "Test Procedures for Advanced Insulation Panels", Proceedings of

the 1994 International CFC and Halon

Alternatives Conference held October 24-26,

1994.

i 89
Moisture Control Guidelines for Attics,

Cathedral Ceilings, Crawl Spaces, and

Walls

Principal Investigator:

Douglas M. Burch

Building Environment Division

301-975-6436

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Systems Division

Objective

To conduct a one-dimensional analysis of the

combined heat and mass transfer in attics

and cathedral ceiling; develop guidelines and

practices for preventing moisture problems in attics and cathedral ceilings; and develop a user's manual for MOIST to permit building

engineers and architects to evaluate

strategies for controlling moisture in hotel/motel building envelopes.

Problem

Appropriate moisture control guidelines for

attics, cathedral ceilings, and crawlspaces are

still debated by experts in the building

community. Field studies are useful because

they document a specific moisture problem as

it relates to a particular building construction.

Moreover, they often provide an

understanding of the underlying physics.

However, it is difficult to generalize individual

field experiments to different constructions,

outdoor climates, and indoor conditions. This

is because complex interactions exist

between the construction materials and the

indoor and outdoor climates. It is impractical

to carry out an adequate number of field experiments to cover all possible

constructions and indoor and outdoor

climates.

Approach

BFRL has developed a state-of-the art personal computer program, called MOIST,

that predicts the combined transfer of heat

and moisture in multi-layered building

construction under non-steady-state

conditions. This program predicts the

moisture content and temperature of

construction layers as a function of time of

year. It includes moisture transfer by vapor

diffusion and capillary flow. The program

inputs a user-defined construction and hourly

WYEC ASHRAE weather data which is available for 51 different cities of the United

States and Canada.

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform four

tasks:

1 . Attics and Cathedral Ceilings. BFRL

will extend MOIST to attics and

cathedral ceilings. This new model

will subsequently be used to investigate the viability for all attic and cathedral ceiling constructions

given in the DoE Moisture Control

Handbook. The moisture content of

the construction materials will be

predicted and plotted as a function of

time of year. Hourly weather data for

a cold winter climate (Madison, Wl), a mixed climate (Washington, DC), and

a hot and humid climate (Lake

Charles, LA) will be used in the

analysis. Based on the results of this

analysis, guidelines and practices will be developed to control moisture

problems in attics and cathedral

ceilings. These computer simulations

will resolve the contentious issue as

to whether attic ventilation provides a "net" reduction in moisture

accumulation of attic construction

materials. Attic ventilation removes

and transports moisture from moist

attic materials to the outdoor

environment. However, attic ventilation also may increase air leakage from the indoor space into an

attic, thereby increasing the moisture

load into the attic.

2. Measurement of Moisture Properties

of Ten Roofing Materials. BFRL will measure spot permeability curves

(permeability versus relative humidity)

and sorption isotherms (moisture

content versus relative humidity) for seven roofing materials. These

measurements will support ongoing

research at the Oak Ridge National

Laboratory.

3. Develop a Recommended Procedure

for Evaluating Envelope Moisture

Control Strategies During Hotel/Motel

90
Guest Room Design and Construction.

MOIST will be used to simulate

typical construction used in hotels/motels. BFRL will prepare a user's manual describing how to use MOIST. This manual will be targeted

for use by architectural/engineering

firms involved in the design and

construction of building envelopes.

Recent Results

Zarr, R.R., Burch, D.M., and Fanney, A.H.,

Heat and Moisture Transfer in Wood-Based

Wall Construction: Measured Versus

Predicted, NIST Building Sciences Series 173,

National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, February

1995

Burch, D.M. and Thomas, W.D., MOIST: A

PC Program for Predicting Heat and Moisture

Transfer in Building Envelopes, NIST Special

Publication 853, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,

MD, September 1993

Burch, D.M., Water Vapor Measurements of

Low-Slope Roofing Materials," NISTIR, in review,

Burch, D.M., Zarr, R.R., and Fanney, A.H.,

"Experimental Verification of a Moisture and

Heat Transfer Model in Hygroscopic Regime,"

Conference on the Thermal Performance of

the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings VI.

Burch, D.M. and Saunders, C.A., A Computer

Analysis of Wall Constructions in the

Moisture Control Handbook, NISTIR, in review

Rode, C.R. and Burch, D.M., "Empirical

Validation of a Transient Computer Model for Combined Heat and Moisture Transfer,"

Conference for the Thermal Performance of

the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings VI.

Effect of Indoor Climate on Moisture

Performance of Walls

Principal Investigator:

Douglas M. Burch

Building Environment Division

301-975-6433

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To incorporate a variable indoor climate

model into BFRL's MOIST Program and to subsequently use this computer model to conduct a comprehensive computer analysis

to investigate the effect of indoor climate on

the moisture performance of walls composed

to winter climate.

Problem

BFRL's MOIST predicts heat and moisture

transfer in building envelopes. This model is used by more than 600 persons to investigate

the moisture performance of wall

constructions as a function of outdoor

climate. MOIST is limited by requiring

specified constant indoor temperature and

relative humidity during an annual simulation.

Indoor humidity has a significant effect on

moisture accumulation within building

envelopes. The indoor humidity within a building varies considerably during the year. Furthermore, buildings located in cold

climates generally have lower indoor

humidity. Indoor humidity depends on: outdoor climate, moisture production rate by

the occupants, outdoor ventilation rate, and

the hygroscopic storage of moisture at

interior surfaces. The outdoor ventilation

rate, in turn, depends upon the amount of

mechanical ventilation, the building air tightness, the indoor-to-outdoor temperature

difference, and wind speed. During summer,

the mechanical space-cooling equipment removes moisture from the building.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will incorporate a variable indoor climate model into its MOIST

Program. This indoor climate model will permit the indoor water-vapor pressure to

float and be calculated at each time step from

a moisture balance of the whole building.

91
Here the moisture released by occupant

activities will be equated to the transfer of

moisture by ventilation and hygroscopic

storage at interior surfaces. The indoor

climate model will contain the following

elements: o LBL's infiltration model will be used to determine their natural ventilation rate from the effective leakage area, the

indoor-to-outdoor temperature

difference, and the wind speed.

Natural and mechanical ventilation rates will be combined to give a total ventilation rate using algorithms In the

ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.

o Storage of moisture at interior surfaces will be predicted using a hygroscopic storage model developed

by the Forest Products Laboratory.

Parameters for this model (i.e., sorption constant per unit floor area and a time constant) have been

measured for both manufactured and

site-built homes.

o Operating regimes for the building

(i.e., space heating, space cooling, or

floating) will be determined by

comparing the daily-average outdoor

temperature to the appropriate

balance point temperatures for variable-base heating and cooling

degree-day models. Separate set- point temperatures for space heating

and cooling will be specified.

In addition, a considerably more use-friendly

input and output processor in a Windows

environment will be developed for the

enhanced MOIST Program. The processor

will use pull-down menus to select different

operating features of the program. A user

will be able to highlight a data entry by

clicking on it with a mouse and then entering

revised data from the keyboard. After the

program executes, it will be possible to select

and plot specified output files on the

computer screen without leaving the

program.

The above enhanced MOIST model

subsequently will be used to conduct a comprehensive sensitivity analysis to investigate the effect of indoor climate

parameters on moisture accumulation in walls

exposed to winter climate. The performance

of several wall constructions will be analyzed

for a cold climate (Madison, Wl), an

intermediate winter climate (Boston, MA), and

a mild winter climate (Atlanta, GA). The

impact of the following parameters will be

investigated: building air tightness, outdoor

climate, mechanical ventilation, indoor

moisture production, and hygroscopic

moisture storage at interior surfaces. For each computer run, the moisture content of

the construction layers will be plotted versus

time of year. A peak moisture content will be

deemed to be unacceptable when the material

becomes saturated (i.e., liquid water exists

within the pore structure of the material).

Recent Results

Tsongas, G. and Burch, D.M., "A Parametric

Study of Wall Moisture Contents Using a Revised Variable Indoor Relative Humidity

Version of the 'MOIST' Transient Heat and

Moisture Model," Conference on ttie Thermal

Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of

Buildings VI

92
Assessment of Reflective Roof

Coatings Using TARP

Principal Investigator:

Robert R. Zarr

Building Environment Division

301-975-6436

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To assess the energy impact of reflective

roofing materials for typical residential and

commercial buildings using the Thermal

Analysis Research Program (TARP).

Problem

A recent study on reflective surfaces for reducing the ambient air temperature of urban

areas has increased interest in the use of

reflective coatings for saving energy in buildings. In addition, several recent field studies conducted in hot climates of the

United States have indicated significant

savings in energy use. For example, a

reflective coating applied to six houses in Florida reduced the energy usage and peak

demand by an average of 23% and 27%,

respectively. At a national level, these results

may suggest a promising method for saving

energy and reducing peak demand for the

Nation's electric utilities. But are the effects

the same in a cold climate or for a well- insulated building? (The authors of the

Florida study noted that the savings were

generally greater for roofing with low levels of thermal insulation.) In order to answer

these questions, it is proposed that a series

of computer simulations for a typical

residential and commercial building be

conducted using the TARP. TARP is a computer program capable of computing

hour-by-hour heating and cooling loads for an

arbitrary building under a variety of climatic

conditions.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will select for analysis

two buildings as typical examples of

residential and commercial construction. The

residential construction will be chosen from one of the typical house designs produced by

BFRL in the later 1970's. The commercial

construction will be typical of a common

warehouse building and selected after consultation with members from industry.

The computer analysis will be conducted for

each building using one year of weather data.

In order to ascertain climatic effects, weather

data will be selected from several of the 51

locations of ASHRAE Weather Year for

Energy Calculation (WYEC) data.

After preparing the geometric models for the

residential and commercial constructions, a "ruggedness" test will be conducted to

identify and rank the factors that may affect

the energy savings. Some of the factors to be considered include 1 ) level of attic (or

roof) insulation; 2) attic infiltration rates; 3)

nigh-setback for the air conditioning controls,

and 4) level of reflection, for example. This

experimental design will be prepared with

assistance from the Statistical Engineering

Division. After determining the main factors

affecting the energy savings, the key factors

will be analyzed for several geographic

locations on the North American continent

using the WYEC data. The findings will be

summarized in an ASHRAE paper.

Recent Results

New project.

93
A Photovoltaic Solar Water Heating

System

heat water for a typical residence. Various

Principal Investigator:

A. Hunter Fanney

Building Environment Division

301-975-5864

controller concepts will be evaluated to determine which of the concepts defined

within the patent will results in optimum

energy collection.

Recent Results

New project.

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a photovoltaic solar water heating

system.

Problem

Numerous problems associated with solar

thermal hot water systems have prohibited

significant market penetration. Among these

are high materia! and installation costs, freeze

and fluid leakage problems associated with

fluid transport loops, failure of differential temperature sensors and controllers, large

thermal losses associated with fluid circulation loops, and extensive installation

problems associated with roof penetrations

for the piping that transports fluid to and

from the solar collector array. A photovoltaic

solar water heating system, by comparison,

eliminates the installation problems

associated with a solar thermal hot water

system and offers the potential of a low cost means of supplying a significant portion of

the energy consumed for domestic water

heating.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will design, construct,

optimize, and evaluate for 12 months a prototype photovoltaic solar water heating

system based upon the concepts in a patent,

"Photovoltaic Solar Water Heating System,"

awarded to Fanney and Dougherty (March

1994). The initial design will focus on a twotank system. The heating elements in the

preheat tank will be removed and replaced

with multiple heating elements. A controller

connects these multiple elements, using

series and parallel connections, in a manner

that the photovoltaic array operates near its maximum power point for any given solar

irradiance level and ambient temperature.

The photovoltaic array will be sized to deliver a significant portion of the energy required to

94
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT DIVISION

LIGHTING TECHNOLOGY

s

95

Test Procedures for Lighting Fixtures

and Systems

Principal Investigator:

Stephen J. Treado

Building Environment Division

301-975-6444

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division ,

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating

procedures for determining energy

performance of lighting fixtures and systems.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PL

94-163) (EPCA), as amended, required the

Department of Energy (DoE) to prescribe test and rating procedures and minimum

performance standards for various residential

appliances. In addition, the 1987

amendments to EPCA require analysis of any

test procedure amendments to determine

their effect on minimum efficiency standards.

DoE has, since 1975, relied on the National

Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

to assist in the development of the test and

rating procedures.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue to provide technical support and assist in DoE

rulemaking activities. This will include

refining test procedures and performing bench

tests for HID lamps to identify any problems

or inconsistencies which might merit revision.

Work also will continue on the test procedure

for vibration service incandescent lamps and

colored incandescent and fluorescent lamps

as definitions for these lamp types are refined

and revised in response to manufacturers'

comments and the results of laboratory

measurements. BFRL will evaluate the ER

and BR incandescent lamp exemptions, the

impact of the minimum standards on mercury

lamps, and the applicability of test procedures

to new HID lamp technologies such as the

sulfur lamp. BFRL will introduce the vibration

service lamp test procedure, the colored lamp

definition, and the luminaire performance

evaluation procedure as proposed lES

standards.

Recent Results

Treado, S., Testing Procedures for Multilamp

Luminaires, NISTIR 5262, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,

MD, 1993.

97
Evaluation of Occupant Response to

Lighting Retrofits

Principal Investigator:

Stephen J. Treado

Building Environment Division

301-975-6444

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To evaluate occupant response to the lighting

in offices at DoE Headquarters in Washington, DC.

Problem

The Department of Energy is undertaking a major renovation of the lighting system in its Headquarters as part of the Federal Relighting

Initiative. This initiative is intended to reduce

power consumption dramatically without

compromising existing lighting quality.

Determining the impact of the relighting on

the occupants and on the lighting in their

offices is a major part of the evaluation of the

effectiveness of the relighting initiative. Data

from the post-occupancy evaluation of

several U.S. Army facilities suggested that

lighting levels were below lES minimum

recommendations for the types of tasks done

in DoE's facilities. Occupant satisfaction also

was below that obtained in other areas in the same facility. Information is needed for the

retrofits planned for the Forrestal Building to determine their overall effectiveness.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will determine

representative samples of interior and exterior

offices (to assess any daylight contribution)

and conventional and open-plan offices. A

representative sample of occupants also will be performed. They will include professional,

administrative and support personnel. A twopart procedure is planned in which physical measures of the lighting in the offices are assessed, including measures of task

illuminance, surround luminances, and typical

task contrasts; and occupant reaction is determined using questionnaire techniques

developed in previous BFRL post-occupancy

assessments. The number of measures

required to characterize and describe the

space

will be determined using a conventional

photometer and a luminance mapping device

in conjunction with a statistical analysis

procedure. After the photometric measures

have been obtained, the spaces will be

evaluated by human subjects using postoccupancy procedures performed in past

BFRL projects. This will provide baseline

information on the conditions existing before

the renovation and data on the effectiveness

of the renovation in improving lighting

conditions in the offices. During the course

of the project, a comprehensive procedure for measuring luminances in an office space will be implemented, along with a protocol for

assessing occupant response. These

procedures will be documented and validated

during the assessment of the Forrestal

Building for future use in other Federal

Relighting projects. Development of

repeatable, valid procedures for measuring

the effectiveness of relamped facilities will enable DoE to provide critical feedback

information to building managers.

Recent Results

Sanders, P. and Collins, B., Post Occupancy

Evaluation of the Forrestal Building, NISTIR

5591, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1995.

98
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

FIRE MODELING AND

APPLICATIONS

99

Performance Standards for Fire Safety

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a risk-based methodology for es- tablishing the degree to which fire safety

features and systems contribute toward the

goals of a performance-based code.

Problem

Parallel efforts are underway in a number of

countries to develop risk-based methods that can be used to assess compliance with per- formance codes. These methods incorporate

identical frameworks and cite the same set of

calculational procedures for the major por- tions of the calculations. Differences occur

primarily in data or assumptions and stem

from local experience. There is great interest

among the participants to collaborate and

harmonize the approaches into a single, stan- dardized method.

initiated. This proposal will be worked

through the Life Safety Code. Water

exposure to elevators is a significant

limitation concerning elevator fire evacuation,

and efforts are underway to develop a Cooperative Research and Development

Agreement with the National Elevator

Industry Inc. (NEII) to study the effects of

water on elevator safety. This effect will provide a means to change the standards for elevator use during fires to accommodate

evacuation and use by firefighters.

Recent Results

New project.

Related Grants

"Regulatory Decision Model for Performancebased Fire Safety Codes", Lehner, Paul,

George Mason University.

"A Risk Assessment Methodology for Fire Safety Codes," Lehner, Paul, George Mason

University.

A Risk Assessment Methodology for Fire Safety Factors in Performance-based Design

and Buildings," Karedas, Demetrius, Factory

Mutual Research Corporation.

Approach

A committee was established under the Inter- national Council for Building Research Studies

and Documentation Working Group (CIB

W14) on Fire; Bukowski is the chair. Initial efforts involve building consensus on risk objectives and an appropriate analytical

framework. Task groups are working on the

development of design safety factors which

relate to total computational uncertainty, data

resources, and impacts of management

policies. Efforts to address concerns of U.S. code officials with equivalency analyses were

initiated through ICBO with the objective of

the sanctioning of specific methods for specific uses. As intermediate results are obtained through committee related activities,

papers will be written to disseminate this information into the international community.

Work on the development and adoption in U.S. codes, of performance-based

requirements for protected elevators

recognized as a means of egress has been

101
Building Evacuation Manual for

Disabled Occupants of Office Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To develop a manual for use by building managers (such as GSA, FEMA, BOMA) to inform

disabled employees of appropriate procedures

to use in the event of fire or other

emergency.

Problem

Little specific guidance is available for dis- abled employees on emergency procedures.

Procedures and systems are being retrofitted

under the ADA to accommodate the needs of

the disabled, but they and building managers

have little written material on best practices.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will prepare a manual

in English and translated into Spanish. The

booklet also will be produced in braille.

The topics to be covered include:

a. Proper placement and content of tactile signals for the visually impaired.

b. Installation of visual signals or use of tactile pagers for the hearing impaired.

c. Guidance in the development of evacuation plans (e.g., "buddy system" or wardens).

d. Use of protected elevators for egress and

areas of refuge for mobility impaired.

e. Use of special wheelchairs for stairs or other special equipment.

f. Organizations which can act as information resources for building managers in special

needs assessment.

Recent Results

New project.

Test on Fire Patterns to Determine the

Origin of Fires

Principal Investigator:

Robert S. Levine

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6671

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To perform full scale tests and validate the

results so evaluation criteria used by fire in- vestigators to determine the origin of fire will be justified in court.

Problem

FEMA is assisting fire investigators in establishing that the criteria used to diagnose a fire are valid and admissible in court.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop with the

sponsor a work statement in coordination

with an expert steering committee for a series

of ten bedroom fire tests. The tests will be

carried out in identical specified rooms built in BFRL's large full-scale burn facility with identical furnishings. These highly instrumented

tests will be performed by BFRL. Members of

the Steering Committee will observe the

tests, and the Steering Committee will write

the Technical Reports.

Recent Results

Four of ten tests have been completed and

Reports of Tests have been prepared for the

Steering Committee Members.

102
High Temperature Accelerant Fires

Principal Investigator:

William D. Walton

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6872

Sponsor:

Defense Nuclear Agency

Headquarters

Objective

To evaluate the burning characteristics of

high temperature accelerants and predict the

environment generated by high temperature

accelerant fires in structures.

Problem

Several arson fires involving the use of

suspected high temperature accelerants have

been reported in the northwest U.S. There is insufficient data available to evaluate the

impact of high temperature accelerant fires on

structures.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform three

tasks:

1 . Evaluate existing data on high

temperature accelerant fires. Existing

data from high temperature

experimental fires will be evaluated to estimate the rate of mass production,

and radiative and convective heat

released rate fractions of high

temperature accelerant fuels. 2. Conduct laboratory scale experiments

to characterize a selected high

temperature accelerant as a source of mass momentum, sensible and radiant

energy, and smoke particulate. 3. Predict the impact of a high

temperature accelerant on a selected

structure. Predictions of high

temperature gases and smoke

movement, as well as thermal

radiation incident on those spaces

directly impacted by the accelerant

will be used to estimate damage and

life threatening conditions in the

structure.

Recent Results

New project.

Experimental Application of Fire

Hazard Analysis for U.S. Passenger

Train Systems

Principal Investigator:

Richard D. Peacock

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6664

Sponsor:

Department of Transportation

Federal Railroad Administration

Voipe Transportation Systems Center

Objective

To demonstrate the practicality and

effectiveness of new generation test methods

and hazard analysis techniques when applied

to passenger rail transportation vehicle fire safety.

Problem

Considerable advances in fire safety

engineering have been made in the decade

since the original development of the current

U.S. guidelines for passenger train material

selection. Some requirements for system

design, materials controls, detection,

suppression, and emergency egress are included in the variety of requirements with

each applying to distinct subsets of

passenger-guided ground transportation.

Better understanding of the underlying

phenomena governing fire initiation and

growth have led to the development of a new

generation of test methods which can better

predict the real-scale burning behavior of

materials and assemblies. At the same time,

advances in fire and hazard modeling are leading a revolution in the analysis of a material's overall contribution to fire hazard in a particular application. Such an approach

allows evaluation of factors in addition to material flammability, and of tradeoffs in the

fire-safe design of the entire fire safety

system. These advances need to be

incorporated in future designs of passenger

trains.

Further testing and analysis is necessary to evaluate the suitability of these new

techniques of mathematical modeling and fire hazard analysis when applied to typical fire scenarios in passenger rail vehicles.

103
Approach

This research will progress in three

overlapping phases, bench and intermediatescale heat release rate (HRR) tests of current

materials, computer-based hazard analysis,

and real-scale proof testing. During FY 1995,

BFRL will evaluate selected materials that were tested to older generation test methods

using the HRR methodology. This evaluation

will define acceptance criteria for the use of

HRR test methods in a context similar to the

current Federal Railroad Administration guidelines and provide necessary data for hazard

analysis specific to passenger train vehicles.

Recent Results

Peacock, R.D., Reneke, P.A., Jones, W.W.,

Bukowski, R.W., and Babrauskas, V., "Concepts for Fire Protection of Passenger Rail Transportation Vehicles: Past, Present, and

Future", Fire and Materials (accepted for publication)

Peacock, R.D., Bukowski, R.W., Jones,

W.W., and Reneke, P. A., "A New Concept

for fire Protection of Passenger Rail Transportation Systems," International Association for

Fire Safety Science, fire Safety Science, Pro- ceedings, 4th International Symposium, July

13-17, 1994, Ontario, Canada.

Peacock, R.D., Bukowski, R.W., Jones,

W.W., Reneke, P.A., Babrauskas, V., and

Brown, J.E., Fire Safety of Passenger Trains: A Review of Current Approaches and of New

Concepts, Tech Note 1406, National Institute

of Standards and Technology, 1994

Peacock, R.D., Bukowski, R.W., Jones,

W.W., Reneke, P.A., Babrauskas, V., and

Brown, J.E., Fire Safety of Passenger Trains,

DOT/FRA.ORD-93/23, U.S. Department of

Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, 1993

Field Guide on Compliance with 1992

Act Provisions for Detectors and

Sprinklers

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

Department of Housing and Development

Office of Research, Evaluation, and Monitoring

Objective

To develop guidance for HUD field offices on

the technical aspects of compliance with the

provisions of the Fire Administration Authorization Act as pertains to HUD properties,

other than "rebuilt multi-family".

Problem

The Act requires HUD to install hard wired

smoke detectors and sprinklers in several

categories of housing, in accordance with

NFPA 72 and with NFPA 13, 13R, or 13D (as

appropriate). HUD field offices are generally

unfamiliar with the required fire protection

systems and with the governing standards.

Prior attempts to install such systems under

local mandates resulted in poorly installed

equipment and excessive costs to the government.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop a guide

document for distribution to HUD field offices as a HUD document. This guide will provide

a summary of the minimum requirements

contained in NFPA standards including a dis- cussion of alternative solutions or arrangements that provide more cost-effective approaches to compliance. The guide also will provide information for HUD field offices in solicitation, evaluation and award of

contracts to perform the work contemplated

by the Act. The guide will not address rebuilt multifamily properties which are required

under the Act to comply with the Existing

Apartment Chapter of NFPA 101, the Life Safety Code.

Recent Results

New project.

104
Study of Heat and Smoke Movement

and Their Influence on Detector and

Sprinkler Response in Enclosed

Spaces with Complex Ceiling

Geometries

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

National Fire Protection Research Foundation

General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Real Property and Management

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To examine the effect of complex ceiling

geometry and obstructions on the distribution

of heat and smoke to optimize requirements

for automatic fire detector location found in NFPA 72E and for automatic sprinklers as covered by NFPA 13, 13D, and 13R.

Problem

Recommendations for placing automatic fire detectors, NFPA Standard on Detection

Devices (72E), are based on engineering

judgement or on experiments by Heskestad

and Delichatsios on flat, unobstructed

ceilings. In the implementation of these data,

tables and curves were developed from

calculations with a zone model which are also

only applicable for flat, unobstructed ceilings.

Since 72E includes recommendations for placing fire detectors in spaces with sloping

or peaked ceilings, or open beams and joists,

validation of these recommendations is necessary. Further, detector siting problems

associated with stratification and high air movement from HVAC systems are mentioned in the standards, but only limited

installation guidance is provided which is based only on judgement. ~

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue examining the effects of fire size, fire location, ceil- ing height, ceiling slope, typical ceiling beam

or joist configurations; the effect of stratifica- tion on the distribution of heat and smoke

from the fire; and the effects of HVAC sys- tems on fire detectors and sprinkler activation.

Specific geometries to be examined have

been selected to coincide with experimental

studies identified in the literature review con- ducted earlier in this project; providing validation for the calculations. Additional geometries will be added in consultation with the

Technical Advisory Committee of the project

sponsors. Participation by ASHRAE is ex- pected in the tasks relating to HVAC effects,

and their expertise will be used to identify

specific HVAC system configurations to be

studied such that applicability of results will be maximized.

The study is designed to be applicable over a wide range of detector types and installation

characteristics. Detector types will include

those that respond to heat, smoke, and gas. The studies will be carried out numerically,

using a field model, Harwell Flow3d, a commercial computer model that simulates fluid dynamics and heat transfer using a finite dif- ference approach, to simulate the room ge- ometries and fire growth, but selected experimental verification will be included when

needed.

The model will be used to produce contour

plots of temperature, velocity, and smoke

concentration near the ceiling at the level of

the sensing components of typical detectors

and sprinklers. These detailed distributions

will then be used to develop engineering

guidelines for detector/sprinkler placement,

resulting in recommendations for changes to the appropriate NFPA standards. Validation

of the numerical results for the study will be

accomplished using a combination of existing

fire experiments and, when necessary, by

conducting additional experiments.

Recent Results

Davis, W.D., Forney, G.P., and Bukowski,

R.W., Field Modeling: Simulating the Effect of

Sloped Beamed Ceilings on Detector and

Sprinkler Response, National Fire Protection

Research Foundation, Quincy, MA 02269,

1994.

105
Balanced Design

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Real Property Management and

Safety

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To quantify the operational reliability of

detection, sprinklers, and compartmentation

as directed by the U.S. Fire Administration

Act of 1992, PL-1 02-522.

Problem

Trade-offs between active and passive fire protection strategies are often made without

technical foundation. As legislation mandates

sprinklers and detectors in specified

occupancies, the term "compartmentation"

must be understood so overall safety is not

compromised. Thus, PL-1 02-522 required

BFRL to conduct this study as a joint effort of the public and private sectors.

conditions under which one or more

of the systems can be reduced or eliminated without unacceptable risk of loss. What is "unacceptable" is likely to be a highly subjective measure which needs a public policy

decision. A panel consisting of

building owners, insurance, and

regulators would be convened to seek

a consensus view of what types and

levels of losses would be acceptable

to society.

4. Fire-resistive (PR) vs noncombustible

construction (NO. Besides the basic

difference in fire resistance ratings,

field data compiled in task 1 will be

analyzed to identify any other

characteristics of these construction

types which impact on their mitigation

of risk. Given that fire resistance

requirements are consistent with

expected duration negating any issues

relative to performance differences,

these "reliability" aspects represent

the relevant factors separating these

construction types.

Recent Results

New project.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform this work

as four tasks:

1. Data Collection. Primary emphasis on

Hotel and Office occupancies. In col- laboration with insurance originators

(FM, IRI, Cigna, and American Insur- ance Services Group) BFRL will collect data on other occupancies as background information to enrich the

database.

2. Special Studies. In task 1, types of

system impairments which reduce the

ability of the system to perform will be identified. To the extent that these

reduce but not prevent performance,

special studies may be needed to quantify this reduction. This effect

will require model development and

testing of impaired assemblies.

3. Trade-offs. One of the study's

objectives is to determine the

106
Enhanced GSA Engineering Fire

Assessment System

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

General Services Adnninistration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Real Property Management and

Safety

Objective

To develop and deliver a computer software

system operating under MS-Windows for the

Fire Safety Evaluation System (FSES) for

offices.

Problem

Current fire safety practice within GSA is rooted in the Life Safety Code prescriptions

and the FSES for equivalency determinations.

GSA's goal is to move this predictive practice

to a risk management basis.

Approach

GSA is planning a long range program to develop and implement a fire risk management system for their properties by

the turn of the century. It will be based on

the evolution of the current FSES for offices to a risk basis, underpinned by an advanced

FPEtool package and a life-cycle cost

evaluation tool. This project represents the

first stage of this longer term effort.

Recent Results

Developed a prototype automated FSES

demonstration at the 1995 NFPA Annual

Meeting.

FPEtool Advancement

Principal Investigator:

Paul Reneke

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6696

Sponsor:

General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Real Property Management and

Safety

Objective

To develop advanced state-of-art analytical

tools for the practicing fire protection

engineer and to enhance cross compatibility

with other analytical techniques and the

applicability to hazard and risk analyses.

Problem

FPEtool (BFRL/GSA developed software used

to evaluate hazards and fire protection

strategies in GSA Office buildings) is a highly

popular software product among practicing

Fire Protection Engineers (FPE's) and is used

worldwide. Its utility will be enhanced when

re-written in a structured language (C), and

moved to a windowing environment.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will complete its migration to a windowing environment

(WINDX) and will coordinate it with the

HAZARD product by replacing FIRE

SIMULATOR, CORRIDOR, and THIRD ROOM

with a 2-room version of CFAST (BFRL's

building fire model). Further developments

will be coordinated with GSA Enhanced Fire Safety Evaluation System Program.

Recent Results

Deal, Scot, Technical Reference Guide for

FPEtool Version 3.2, NISTIR 5486, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

September 1994.

107
Fire Research Information Services

(FRIS)

Principal Investigator:

Nora H. Jason

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6862

SponsorNational Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To maintain BFRL's Fire Research Information

System (FRIS) as the world's prominent fire research library and to expand its role to pro- vide access to resources needed to apply fire science findings.

Problem

A more effective and efficient mechanism to dissemination of BFRL documents electronically to the user community is required. Also

needed is reduction of the physical space

required to accommodate the BFRL collection

without jeopardizing the availability and usability of the documents.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue its demonstration of electronic access to BFRL documents through NIST site license to ACROBAT

and its PDF format, and through

ANONYMOUS FTP. Continue FIREDOC, the

bulletin board and regular services. Evaluate

the potential for digital storage of collected

documents which would provide for reduced

physical storage needs. Investigate means of

capturing information in a way that will facili- tate the creation of a remote access system

to full documents.

Computing and Network Resources

Principal Investigator:

James W. Raines

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6855

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To provide improvements, day-to-day support

and long range planning for scientific, net- work and administrative computing.

Problem

Needed is a uniform and consistent environment for scientific and administrative computer services.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will configure, pur- chase and install new hardware and operating

software for the local area networks that will provide a uniform and consistent system. An

improved backup system will be developed

for management and support staff. New users

will be added to the LANs, and software will be upgraded as necessary. Attach LAN to new fiber-optic backbone and prepare plans

for FDDI connection to LAN high end

workstations. Maintain the local area network

and assigned facilities with no significant

downtime. Upgrade plans for LAN disaster

recovery.

Recent Results

Provided increased emphasis on training and

increased throughput of LAN and shared

resources.

Recent Results

Martin, Phyllis M., and Jason, Nora H., Editors, BFRL Publications 1994, NIST Special

Publication (in press). National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,

MD, 1995.

Martin, Phyllis M., and Jason, Nora H., Editors, Fire Research Publications 1993, NIST

SP 878, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1994.

108
Fire Performance Design of HighPerformance Materials Used in Construction

Principal Investigator:

Leonard Y. Cooper

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6880

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop performance-based methods for evaluating high performance (HP)

construction materials under fire conditions.

Problem

The standard method of insuring integrity in fires of building components is based on the

response of building materials to a standardtest-method fire exposure. Material

categories, test method, and acceptance

criteria are essentially unchanged since the

early part of the century. HP steel, concrete,

organic matrix composites, and combinations

of these, are being considered for use in many types of modern construction. These

materials have strength versus temperature

and failure characteristics that can differ substantially from those of traditional

construction materials. Existing temperature

acceptance criteria too can be conservative

because they do not account for advanced

performance of modern materials. Also, fires involving modern furnishings and work

environments may produce exposure

conditions that differ substantially from those

simulated by the standard test. Finally, in determining the integrity of a particular

candidate component, and even in the design

process itself, it will be increasingly more

important for industry to use modern methods

of engineering analysis to minimize the need

for costly and burdensome furnace testing

procedures. Such methods have to be

developed and implemented.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform four tasks

toward developing evaluation methods of

high performance construction materials

under fire conditions:

1 . Explore the long-term project plan

with industry to establish partners in

its implementation.

2. Modify the project plan, as required,

to reflect interests of industry. 3. Develop reports on progress of

implementation of the plan. 4. Develop report for a modified ASTM

El 1 9/UL 263/NFPA 251 methodology

that accounts for the actual

temperature-dependent structural

properties of materials.

Recent Results

Fire Performance of High-Performance

Construction Materials, to be presented by

Leonard Y. Cooper at the 1st European

Symposium of International Association for

Fire Safety Science, August 1995.

109
Fire Model Evaluation

Principal Investigator:

Richard D. Peacock

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6664

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop protocols for quantifying the level of accuracy of computer-based predictive fire models and the experimental, statistical, and

analytical techniques to support this method.

Problem

Fire models have progressed to the point of

providing good predictions for some parameters of fire behavior. However, users and

authorities are often asked to accept building

fire safety design based on fire models without accepted statements of their predictive

accuracy. It is important to be able to state with confidence, how close are the actual

conditions to those predicted by the model.

There is no domestic or international agreement on a procedure for quantifying fire model accuracy and demonstrating suitability for a particular application.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop experimental and analytical studies to develop realistic fire descriptions and measurement techniques to compare model prediction with ex- perimental results and will cooperate with

other organizations to develop consensus on

procedures for model evaluation, peer review

of models, and sensitivity analysis. This

work will be performed as four tasks:

1 . Burning characteristics of products.

Develop through real-scale testing, a selected set of burning characteristics

for products which may become in- volved in fires. The measured data

will be in a form which can be used

by fire models.

2. Sensitivity analysis of complex fire models. Perform a detailed sensitivity

analysis of the effects of changes in heat release rate on important calculated outputs for a complex fire model

using BFRLs Consolidated Fire and

Smoke Transport Model (CFAST) to provide input data for the analysis.

3. Techniques for comparing experimental and model data. Develop, using

the experimental and model data col- lected in Task 2, appropriate statisti- cal techniques for quantifying the

level of agreement between experimental measurements and model pre- dictions for calculated outputs which

depend on the heat release rate. 4. Consensus on procedures. Continue

fostering international cooperation,

with organizations as ASTM, CIB,

ISO, and VTT Finland in fire model

evaluation to provide a well accepted

framework for future efforts by BFRL

and others.

Recent Results

Mitler, H. E., The Use of Thermocouples in Reference Fire Tests, National Institute of

Standards and Technology 1995 (in press).

Peacock, R. D., Reneke, P. A., Forney, C. L., and Kostreva, M. M., Understanding Sensitivity Analysis for Complex Fire Models, journal article (in press).

Related Grant

"Sensitivity Analysis for Mathematical Model

of Fire in Residential buildings," Kostreva,

M.M., Clemson University.

110
Hybrid Model Development

Principal Investigator:

Glenn P. Forney

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-2313

Sponsor:

Department of Navy

Naval Research Laboratory

Office of Naval Technology

Objective

To model fire and smoke transport in long

corridors typical of passage ways on naval

vessels.

Problem

There are lacking equations to model the hori- zontal momentum or velocity of a ceiling jet

traveling down a corridor.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will use its Consolidated Fire and Smoke Transport Model

(CFAST). CFAST has features that make it attractive to further develop technologies to meet the objectives of this project.

Matsushita, Japan and BFRL each have

independently developed mathematical

equations and a computational model to simulate this type of flow. These two

modeling approaches will be analyzed and a determination made as to which approach is best suited for incorporation into CFAST.

Recent Results

Developed and implemented a procedure for modeling heat transfer between the floor and

ceiling of a compartment.

Related Grant

"Computational Heat Transfer for Zone Fire Modeling", Moss, William F., Clemson

University

Development of the Fire Data

Management System (FDMS)

Principal Investigator:

Rebecca W. Portier

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6757

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a second generation database

which accommodates all fire related data for users who collect or use building fire data.

Problem

A unified method of accessing data is crucial to experimental and modeling efforts to develop the science of fire. The FDMS

concept is well founded, and very important

to experimentalists acquiring data, and to modelers and others using data related to

fires and material properties. A stand-alone,

PC version of the database exists which

supports a limited number of fire test results. This version lacks some functionality, is not

portable across computer platforms, and is dependent on third-party software libraries which are no longer supported.

Approach

During FY 1995 (third year of the project),

BFRL will pursue acceptance of the FDMS

database concept throughout the fire community. An international beta test with a

sufficiently large database is being

conducted. Available data including Cone

Calorimeter (ASTM 1354/ISO 5660), Eurefic

Room/Corner (NT 025/ISO 9705), and full- scale tests have been loaded for the beta

test. New development has begun on the PC

version of the Graphical User Interface (GUI) as a replacement for the existing FDMS 1 .0. This will include import/export functionality,

querying and report writing capabilities.

Recent Results

Portier, Rebecca W., Fire Data Management

System, FDMS 2. 0, Technical

Documentation, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,

MD, 1994.

111
HAZARD II Alpha Test

Principal Investigator:

Walter W. Jones

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6879

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To plan and implement the next generation

hazard methodology.

Problem

Traditional approaches to product design,

product evaluation, and codes and standards

development address fire safety in a piecemeal fashion, for example, evaluating heat

release without considering product use, toxicity, or ignition propensity. Quantitative

hazard analysis techniques have the potential

of providing significant cost savings and re- ducing the time to bring successful products

to market. In addition, measures are evaluated as an interacting system, including the

impact of structure and contents. Alternative

protection strategies can be studied within

the hazard analysis framework to give the

benefit-cost relation for each. Providing

these alternatives promotes the design flexibility which reduces redundancies and cost

without sacrificing safety.

Approach

The project is being performed on three tasks:

1 . Advancing the physics in the model.

2. Improving the structure, interface and

interaction of the individual

components of the models of HAZARD

3. Publishing the methodology.

During FY 1995, BFRL will test the singlesurface pyrolysis, detection and suppression

algorithms and begin development of the "hybrid" concept to incorporate CFD algorithms

into the zone model framework. Work will continue on the unification of the user inter- face with a new-generation input editor and

hazard shell including a new unified input

data file.

Recent Results

incorporated new physical routines to the zone model such as flow through holes in ceilings and floors and another zone for each

compartment that contains a fire (ceiling jet).

To estimate heat loss from and to the ceiling

much more realistic new radiation and conduction models were incorporated that solve

the boundary discrepancy between

convection/conduction and radiation and in- corporate the conduction calculation directly

into the differential equation set solved by

CFAST

Related Grants

"Expansion of the Applicability of EXIT89,"

Fahy, R.F., National Fire Protection Association.

"Development of a Graphical Interface for Post-processing the Results of a CFAST

Simulation," Barnett, J., Worcester Polytechnic Institute.

"Computational Heat Transfer for Zone Fire Modeling," Moss, W.F., Clemson University.

"Sensitivity for Mathematical Modeling,"

Kostreva, M., Clemson University.

112
RECENT GRANTS - FIRE

MODELING AND APPLICATIONS

1. Regulatory Decision Models for Performance-Based Fire Safety Codes

Principal Investigators:

Paul E. Lehner, Ph.D

Department of Systems Engineering

George Mason University

Fairfax, Virginia 22030

(703)993-1625

Vincent M. Brannigan, J.D. Department of Fire Protection Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland 20742

(301) 405-6667

Objective

To develop a decision analytic methodology

to incorporate computational fire models into

the regulatory decision making process.

Problem

Computational fire models have been pro- posed as a foundation upon which

performance-based fire codes can be established. As yet there does not exist an ap- proach to using these models that would be

considered acceptable to the regulatory pro- cess or would survive legal challenges.

Approach

Overall the proposed methodology involves

the development of regulatory decision models, based on legally admissible sources of

professional expertise, that incorporate the use of computational fire models. In this methodology, a decision model is used to support the policy makers' evaluation of alter- native fire safety proposals. The parameter

values in the decision model (and parts of the

structure) are provided by assessments from

various professional experts, whose judgment

will be derived, in part, as a result of exercising computer models.

Before expert judgments can be incorporated

into the decision model the process by which

those judgments are arrived at must pass a set of criteria specified in a legal admissibility

filter. The filter will reflect legal criteria for sources of expert testimony, which in some

cases may mandate the use of fire models.

For instance, for assessments of fire spread

the use of one or more fire spread models

may be required, since direct experience and

field data in this area are limited.

During FY 1995, a decision model will be

developed for evaluating some alternative fire safety options in manufactured housing. By

working through a detailed case study, we

will be able to better identify the specific benefits, problems, and regulatory issues associated with a decision analytic approach to fire safety regulation.

The emphasis during the first year will be on development of a decision model that examines selected aspects of fire safety in manufactured housing, and to determine how best

to relate fire models and a decision model for evaluating proposed fire safety

configurations. Most of the expert inputs

into the decision model will be from professional experts whose primary expertise is in fire modeling and regulatory decision making.

Recent Results

Lehner, P. "Computational Domains Models

and Normative Systems," 1995 Workshop on

Normative Systems, May 1995.

Lehner, PI. and Brannigan, V., "Computational Domain Models and Regulatory Decision Making," submitted International Confer- ence on Fire Research and Engineering, September 1 995.

Brannigan, V. And Lehner, P., "Performancebased fire codes: A regulatory effectiveness

analysis," submitted International Conference

on Fire Research and Engineering, September

1995.

113
2. A Risk Assessment Methodology for Fire Safety Factors in Performance-Based Corporation

Principal Investigator:

D.M. Karydas

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Norwood, MA 02062

Michael A. Delichatsios

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Norwood, MA 02062

617-255-4981

Objective

To develop an event tree algorithm that

includes all engineering systems and operational conditions as well as inputs from deterministic and probabilistic models related to

fire safety design of buildings. Also develop

probabilistic and reliability models for various

components of the building engineering sys- tem (e.g. detection, protection, alarm).

Problem

Performance-based standards for fire safety

design of buildings are being advanced

throughout the world to enhance existing

prescriptive standards for fire safety design.

To apply performance-based standards, one

needs both deterministic and probabilistic

models connected through the methodologies

used in engineering risk analysis. The

product of this engineering risk analysis is the

identification and development of significant

scenarios through an event tree which

provides probability and consequences for each event tree path. Probabilities are deduced from the probabilistic models and

consequences are deduced from the

deterministic models. The proposed work will address and develop tools to implement this methodology for the fire safety design of

buildings by a) developing event tree pathways for significant scenarios; b) advancing probabilistic models for determining

probabilities of events such as ignition, and

detection and protection system failures; and

c) assembling databases for both deterministic and probabilistic models.

event trees can be generated including all relevant events. Such events or systems are:

1) fire initiation; 2) fire spread and growth; 3)

detection/alarm; 4) protection; 5)

ventilation/smoke management system; 6)

evacuation; 7) emergency response/fire department. The output from the event tree analysis includes: a) at each location of the

building (X), toxic concentrations, temperatures and heat fluxes which quantify the hazard as obtained from deterministic models; b)

the time at which the effects of the fire cease, as determined both from deterministic

mitigation measures (detection, protection), as well as from probabilistic models (e.g.,

emergency response, evacuation, human

response); c) the probability that the

estimated damage will occur. Probabilities on

each event tree for various events can be

obtained from probabilistic models for

equipment reliability and various actions

which depend on human factors such as evacuation and emergency response and fire department response. The description of fire from deterministic and probabilistic models is planned to be handled in the following way:

a) The building will be divided into two areas

- one around the room(s) directly involved in burning and the other in space involved only

in smoke movement. For the area involved in burning, a two layer zone model (e.g. CFAST)

will be used to determine the key parameters

needed as inputs for the event tree; the

burning area will increase with time as fire spreads through the building. For the smoke

movement area, a nodal analysis for flows

and pressures will be used to determine the

smoke concentrations which will be

considered locally uniform throughout space.

b) The deterministic code will be run for a predetermined long time assuming that no fire intervention has occurred. Relevant outputs

from the deterministic codes will be fed to the

event tree program (these include: 1) time, 2)

smoke concentrations, 3) temperatures and

4) heat fluxes), c) Probabilistic models for

ignition, alarm, evacuation, etc. will provide

needed response times to the event tree program.

Recent Results

An automated event tree algorithm is being

developed that includes all the relevant engineering systems for the fire risk analysis in buildings. For each building, all possible

114
3. Enhanced PC-based Building Fire Assessment System

Principal Investigator:

Edward K. Budnick, P.E. Hughes Associates, Inc. Baltimore, MD

410-737-8677

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

U.S. General Services Administration

Objective

To develop a PC-based version of the current

Fire Safety Evaluation System for office occupancies and integrated selected quantitative

methods that will enable engineers to perform

detailed fire hazard, risk equivalency, and

cost optimization analyses for existing or planned buildings.

Problem

The need to accurately measure fire risk impact and estimate costs of different fire safety strategies on levels of fire safety in individual buildings is essential to achievement of an overall building risk management philosophy. Limitations in current prescriptive requirements represent

significant inhibitions to needed design

flexibility and general usefulness. This is particularly the case when comparing

alternative impact. A growing need among

building owners, local code authorities and

design engineers is to the availability of

quantitative methods to evaluate building fire safety within a broad, risk-based context

which permits examination of "equivalent"

alternatives.

Approach

This effort is being conducted in three

phases. Phase I was completed in early FY

1995 and involved development of a PCcomputer based version of the NFPA-FSES

for business occupancies. This program was

developed using the Microsoft Visual C/C+ + Windows development platform and is fully

compatible with the normal Windows

environment. It contains explanatory text to

assist the user in selecting the correct parameter conditions and utilizes visual

prompts to guide the user through the FSES

method.

The program contains four modules of

encapsulated code, each with specific tasks.

The Applications Module is the main program.

This module controls the individual

performance elements, including calculations,

output, and interface parameters.

The Main Window Module is the outer

framework of the Windows based program.

It is analogous to the Program Manager in Microsoft Windows and allows the user access to file input/output features, print

features, window controls, and program help.

The Document Module is the storage medium

for user input. This module is invisible to the

user. The document module contains all of

the scoring functions, filters that check if data are complete and accurate, and all of the

code for storing data to a file.

The View Module is the interface, used for entering data and selecting score categories.

Currently, there are 1 5 elements in the view

module. None of the viewing elements are erased when not in use unless user specified.

The current version of the program has been

validated on a limited basis against the FSES

method in NFPA 101 A and can be utilized as an interim method for conducting FSES

evaluations in office buildings.

Phase II will be initiated in FY 1995 and

completed in FY 1996, and is directed at the

necessary research to enhance the

methodology to allow quantitative

comparison of design options. This will include integration of appropriate elements of

currently available engineering calculations

(e.g., Hazard, FPEtool, etc.) and development

of algorithms to assess reliability.

Phase III will include an attempt to integrate

the results and methods developed in the

initial phases into a computerized risk management program.

Recent Results

New project.

115
4. Sensitivity Analysis for Mathematical

Modeling of Fires In Residential Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Michael M. Kostreva

Professor of Mathematical Sciences

Clemson University

Clemson, South Carolina 29634-1907

Objective

To develop a prototype sensitivity analysis

equipped fire model computer program, with

the intention of analyzing the existing

approach of HAZARD 1, and evaluating and

demonstrating recently obtained results on

the mathematical foundations of fire models.

Problem

While HAZARD I is now an established computer tool for modeling fires in residential

buildings, it is lacking a sensitivity analysis

capability. Such a feature would allow the user to have a greater understanding about

the importance of certain input data to the

computational results. This understanding can be translated into better use of resources

for data gathering, and a generally enhanced

credibility of the modeling results. HAZARD I has successfully incorporated a succession of

increasingly complex fire models: FAST,

CFAST and C0NRAD2. Some efforts need to be made to provide a corresponding set of

sensitivity analysis equipped models.

Approach

The approaches to sensitivity analysis which

were investigated with respect to the simple

fire model of ASET, to a limited extent in Kostreva, et. al. 1 989, will now be studied

with respect to ASET, FAST, CFAST and

C0NRAD2. These include the local methods

of finite difference type, together with the

direct methods which involve some additional

differential equations. Global methods, which

involve averaging over a collection of preselected scenarios will not be studied at this time.

Results are contained in the paper Peacock,

et al. 1995, in which a complete introduction

to the methodology and the main issues of

performing sensitivity analysis are provided.

Tabular presentation of relevant sets of input

parameters and model outputs orient the user

to sensitivity analysis. Examples from currently available, zone-type room fire models

are presented and relevant parameters are studied for fires involving up to four rooms.

It is found that a limited analysis, considering

a carefully selected subset of input parameters is feasible, even for the more complex

models. Graphical presentation of the results

allows a good qualitative understanding of

the underlying relationships. Further studies

involving C0NRAD2 will documented in a forthcoming report.

Recent Results

Peacock, R.D., Reneke, P.A., Forney, C.L.,

and Kostreva, M.M., "Understanding Sensitivity Analysis for Complex Fire Models," submitted for publication, 1995.

Kostreva, M.M., Jarvis, J. P., and Forney,

C.L., "Graphical Presentation and Numerical

Analysis of Fire Data for Model Validation,"

Final Technical Report, Grant Number

60NANB6D0627, NIST, 1989.

5. Computational Heat Conduction for Zone

Fire Modeling

Principal Investigator:

William F. Moss

Department of Mathematical Sciences

Clemson University

Clemson, South Carolina 29634-1907

803-656-5225

Objective

To develop a two-dimensional model of heat

conduction through walls and to incorporate

it in a zone fire model. The fire model will provide for heat transfer between rooms via heat conduction through ceilings, floors, and

walls.

Problem ^ ~ By modeling temperature variation vertically

in walls, as well as through walls, more realistic temperature profiles will be obtained.

Approach

In the NIST zone fire model CFAST, the four

walls of the typical room are lumped together

and divided into upper and lower sections by

the smoke layer interface. A one-dimensional

submodel for heat conduction into the upper

116
submodel for heat conduction into the upper

and lower walls is innplemented, but heat is not transferred between rooms. The radiation

submodel used in CFAST computes

configuration factors for the upper and lower

walls which are functions of time because of

the movement of the smoke layer interface.

There are several disadvantages to this

approach. First, it does not produce accurate

vertical temperature profiles, especially in rooms of fire origin. Second, many of the

configuration factors in the radiation

submodel cannot be computed in advance.

This slows down the radiation submodel

computation. If the wall areas were fixed in time, the configuration factors for a room

could be computed outside the solver loop

which advances the solution from one output

time to the next. Third, in the one- dimensional model the vertical temperature

profile in the room and in the wall both jump

at the smoke layer height which is clearly not

correct. The advantage of the one- dimensional method is that there are only two

solution variables for the walls, the upper wall

temperature and the lower wall temperature.

If heat conduction through the walls is modeled, then the walls must be subdivided

into four panels and each treated separately.

This leads to eight solution variables. On the

other hand, if four wall panels are subdivided

into five horizontal strips, twenty solution

variable will arise.

A two-dimensional wall model has been

developed in which each wall panel is divided

into a number of horizontal strips. The twodimensional model is much more complex

than the one-dimensional model. It uses a bi- cubic Hermite method of lines to solve the

two-dimensional heat equation. The resulting

differential-algebraic equation system is solved using the backward Euler method.

Because the problem is linear, the resulting

system is also linear. Using columns

interchanges, this system can be put into

block form with the upper left block an

identity matrix. The bandwidth of the lower

right hand block increases as the number of

breakpoints increases.

Recent Results

Moss, W.F., "Computational Heat Transfer

for Zone Fire Modeling, Final Report: NIST

Grant No. 60NANB2D1 281 , Covering the

Period August 1 8, 1 992 to June 1 , 1 994,"

Clemson University, 1994

Forney, G.P. and Moss, W.F., "Analyzing and

Exploiting Numerical Characteristics of Zone

Fire Models," J. of Fire Science and

Technology, 14, 49, 1994.

6. Flow Through Vents in a Compartment

Fire

Principal Investigator:

Yogesh Jaluria

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace

Engineering

Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

New Brunswick, NJ 08903

908-445-3652

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To carry out an experimental investigation on

the flow of smoke and hot gases in vertical shafts, focusing on the effects of forced

ventilation and on tall shafts. This is expected

to lead to a better understanding of the flow

in vertical shafts and to yield quantitative

inputs which may be used in the modeling of

building fires. Among the important aspects

to be investigated are entrainment, dilution,

speed of smoke spread and effects of forced

ventilation.

Problem

The flow in vertical shafts is very important in the accurate modeling of fire-induced flows in multi-leveled buildings since a considerable

amount of flow and thermal transport occurs

in the shaft. The vertical shaft provides a

crucial transport mechanism which must be

included in the model for accurate prediction

of the spread of smoke, hot gases and other

combustion products, particularly toxic

ingredients. Tall vertical shafts are of greater

consequence in typical multi-storied buildings

and usually some form of forced ventilation

exists in these shafts. In addition, forced

ventilation may be used effectively to reduce

the spread of toxicants in the building.

117
allowing greater time for evacuation of the

building.

Approach

A fairly versatile experimental system has

been designed and fabricated. Heated air or smoke is injected into the shaft at a lower

opening and the downstream flow is monitored by means of thermocouples, hot-wire

anemometers, and visualization. The conditions at the outlet are also monitored to determine the effects of entrainment into the

flow and heat transfer to the walls. Wide

ranges of all the physical variables in the

problem are obtainable, allowing the

simulation of flow due to fire in multi-leveled

buildings with vertical open shafts.

Typical values of the operating conditions

have been investigated, ranging from high

buoyancy levels, for which the flow stays

close to the vertical wall of the shaft, to much lower levels, at which the flow enters the shaft with a significant flow velocity and

spreads outward very quickly. With

increasing temperature at the inlet, the

buoyancy effect is larger resulting in higher

velocities and shorter time to reach the top.

This time is an important quantity since it indicates the speed with which smoke and

other combustion products reach into the

higher levels of the building. The effect of the

inlet mass flow rate is smaller, with a larger

flow rate resulting in smaller time. The

temperature at the outlet depends on heat

transfer to the walls as well as on the flow

velocity. Since these two effects oppose each

other, the resulting ratio of the outlet

temperature difference to the inlet temperature difference does not show a monotonic variation with an increase in inlet temperature.

Several detailed and quantitative

measurements on the velocity and

temperature fields have also been taken. The

different flow regimes that arise as the shaft

geometry and inlet conditions are varied are

investigated. The results obtained on the

naturally vented, relatively short, vertical shaft indicate that the flow and temperature

are not uniform across a horizontal plane in the shaft. A wall plume is generated which

conveys the hot fluid rapidly along the shaft

wall from the inlet to the outlet. A

recirculating flow arises away from this wall

and this flow affects the heat transfer and

flow in the wall plume. This, in turn, affects

the entrainment into the flow, decay of the

temperature field and rate of downstream

movement. Therefore, horizontally uniform

conditions can not be assumed here, as employed in several earlier studies for tall shafts. The wall plume has to be modeled in this case, considering the entrainment into

the boundary layer flow and the effect of the

recirculating flow on the temperature field. A detailed experimental study of the flow in

tall vertical shafts, with both natural and

forced ventilation, is presently being carried

out. The flow conditions are varied from a forced/mixed convection circumstance to a natural convection one. The discharge

velocity of the hot gases or smoke can be

kept small to simulate the typical situation in building fires. The focus of this phase of the

study is on large aspect ratio vertical shafts.

The measurements include mass flow rates at the inlet and outlet channels, downstream

decay of the temperature field, rate of smoke

movement, and temperature and velocity

fields in the shaft. The opposing velocity at which the downstream spread is negligible is an important result and will be determined.

The results obtained are being compared with

those from the first phase of the study on

small aspect ratio shafts and natural venting.

The results are obtained in dimensionless

terms to facilitate their use in the modeling of

typical building fire situations. The ranges of

the governing parameters will be chosen to cover typical fires in multi-leveled buildings.

Recent Results

Jaluria, Y., Chiu, W.K.S. and Lee, S.H.-K.,

"Flow of Smoke and Hot Gases Across

Horizontal Vents in Room Fires", Proc. 4th

ASME/JSME Thermal Engr. Joint Conf.,

Hawaii, Vol. 3, pp. 75-81, 1995.

G.P. Mercier and Jaluria, Y., "Fire-Induced

Flow of Smoke and Hot Gases in Open

Vertical Shafts", Sym. Ther. Sci. Engg., San

Francisco, Nov. 1995 (submitted).

118
7. Flows in Vertical Shafts

Principal Investigator:

Edward E. Zukoski

California Institute of Technology

Pasadena. CA 91 125

818-395-4785

Objective

To provide the data required for the development of computer-based models for flows

produced by fires in vertical shafts and passages when the stack effect is not dominant.

Problem

Strong turbulent mixing can be driven by unstable density gradients, (cold, heavy gas

above lighter, hot gas) in a vertical shaft. When the stack effect is weak, this process

will control the vertical movement of hot

products of combustion. This research

program involves the development of a description of this process. In the absence of

the stack effect, flows of this type are one of

the primary means of transport of hot, toxic

gas through ventilation and elevator shafts or

stairwells in a multi-storied structure. The

description of this process is not yet available

for use in computer-based fire codes.

Approach

The basic study involves an investigation of

the flow in a vertical shaft, sealed at the top

and initially filled with cool air. The walls are held at room temperature. A typical

experiment starts when the bottom of the

shaft is suddenly opened and exposed to a

large reservoir filed with hot gas. The

subsequent penetration of the hot gas into

the shaft occurs because of the unstable

density gradient. The turbulent mixing

process driven by this instability is the

subject of this study.

The experimental configuration chosen for

initial studies has the advantage that it is clearly defined and is as simple as we can

study while still keeping most of the features

of real flows.

In previous work. Cannon and Zukoski 1976,

we have used the salt-water/water modeling

technique to study this process in the

absence of heat transfer. This older work

forms a solid basis for the present study in which heat transfer from the gas to the walls

cools the gas, reduces the unstable density

gradient, and thus strongly affects the mixing

process and the gas motion.

Understanding this process is the initial aim

of this work. Later, we will investigate the

effects on the flow of openings in the walls

and will change the processes by which the

hot gas is introduced into the bottom or sides

of the shaft.

Experiments in which low density helium-air

mixtures are substituted for the hot gas will be used to relate the current work with the

earlier salt-water/water modeling work and to demonstrate the difference between the

effects of density differences produced by

molecular weight of the gas and by gas

temperature.

The shaft and its instrumentation and the hot

gas reservoir have been completed. Initial experiments were carried out in the first quarter of 1 994 in a shaft that is 0.25 m

square and 2.4 m high. The shaft is only

open at the bottom and the walls, composed

of 2.5 cm thick aluminum plates, remain

close to room temperature during a typical

experiment. The initial experiments show, as expected, that the presence of heat transfer

has a dramatic impact on the rate of

propagation of the mixed gas front up the

shaft.

Recent Results

Cannon, J.B. and Zukoski, E.E., (1975),

"Turbulent Mixing in Vertical Shafts Under

Conditions Applicable to Fires in High Rise

Buildings," Technical Fire Report No. 1 to the

National Science Foundation, Calif. Institute

of Tech., Pasadena, CA.

119
8. Further Enhancement of EXIT89 and Analysis of World Trade Center Data

Principal Investigator:

Rita F. Fahy

National Fire Protection Association

I Batterymarch Park

Quincy, Massachusetts 02269-9101

(617) 984-7469

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

1) To enhance the applicability of the evacuation model EXIT89 to exiting scenarios in a variety of public buildings in order to assist in the development of performance based

codes, particularly NFPA 101; and 2) to complete the analysis of data collected on the

evacuation of the World Trade Center in February 1993.

Enhancement of EXIT89: EXIT89 was

designed to handle the evacuation of a large

population of individuals from a high-rise

building. It has the ability to track the

location of individuals as they move through

the building so that the output from this

model can be used as input to a toxicity

model that will accumulate occupant

exposures to combustion products.

The model was originally developed with

particular emphasis on its ability to serve as a people movement module of HAZARD 1

.

EXIT89 was designed to use smoke input in a manner similar to EXITT and to output the

information needed by toxicity model included

in HAZARD 1, so that it could function as a replacement module for EXITT. it was

specifically designed to handle high-rise

buildings with large occupant populations.

Detailed results from U.K. building

evacuations were used to compare the results

generated by the model and add

enhancements such as the option for evacuees to use familiar routes as opposed to calculated shortest routes.

Another of the data sources included the

effects of disabled occupants on occupant

evacuation. Comparisons from the

observations from these evacuations and

from the model's output were evaluated. The

data on the impact of disabled occupants on

the overall building evacuation was used to add the presence of disabled adults to the

model. The model now includes the option of

having some occupants travel at speeds set

at a proportion of the speed of able-bodied evacuees around them.

Other modifications include the use of CFAST

output for smoke input, and the inclusion of

additional human behavior data by adding

randomly assigned delays. The user can now

specify a proportion of occupants for whom

delays will be calculated and a distribution of

evacuation times to be selected from.

Analysis of World Trade Center Data: On

February 26, 1 993, shortly after noon, a bomb exploded in a subterranean garage

below the World Trade Center plaza in New

York City. The explosion and subsequent fire caused extensive structural damage in several

basement levels, caused damage that

interfered with the operation of the fire protection and other emergency systems and

resulted in the evacuation of up to 100,000

occupants of the complex.

The NFPA began a research project to study

the human behavior of building occupants in this incident and to document, to the extent

possible, those engineering details such as

building design, fire safety features, and

smoke spread, that affected behavior. Under

this project, reports have been prepared

discussing the actions undertaken by the evacuees in order to aid in the understanding

of what people do in fires and why and how

those actions may conform to or differ from

the assumptions used in designing and

planning for life safety in such a large

building.

Survey responses show that there was a

significant difference in perception of severity

between the two buildings since the bomb

was closer to Tower 1 than Tower 2. Also,

where previous human behavior studies have

shown that people will move through smoke,

this incident demonstrated that people will not only move through smoke, but will move

through worsening conditions.

Information on pre-movement times and

activities before and during evacuation were

120
also obtained. Results to date indicate that

all occupants of high-rise buildings need some

level of training and that training should in- clude enough information and/or education

about basic fire physics to enable occupants

to think for themselves.

Recent Results

Proulx, G. And Fahy, R.F., "A Study of the

New York World Trade Center Evacuation,"

Proceedings of AsiaFlam '95, Kowloon, Hong

Kong, March 1995.

Fahy, R.F., "EXIT89 - An Evacuation Model

for High-Rise Buildings - Model Description

and Example Applications," Proceedings of

the Fourth Internationa/ Symposium - /AFSS,

Ottawa, Ontario, 1 994.

9. Development of a Graphical User Interface

for Post-Processing the Results of a CFAST

Simulation

Principal Investigator:

Professor Jonathan R. Barnett Center for Firesafety Studies

Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Worcester, MA 01609

508-755-9937

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a modern output post-processor

for the interpretation of

CFAST\footnote{'CFAST' is the Consolidated

Model of Fire and Smoke Transport, written

by BFRL.} simulation results. This software

needs to incorporate the concepts of userfriendliness, scientific visualization, and

hardware platform independence.

The visualization software currently included

with BFRL's fire simulation package CFAST

does not encourage quick interpretation of

simulation results due to the convoluted

procedures that are necessary in order to get

output. CFAST provides on-screen displays

of simulation progress, however this display

lasts only as long as the simulation itself.

Much information exists in the CFAST output

'history' file that could be very useful in visualization of the output, however this data

is unused. This project has created a software package, named CVIEW, to address

these concerns.

Research has proved the ability of the human

eye to interpret and spot trends (and

problems) in large data sets quickly and wit

minimal effort, when compared to

interpretation of text-based numerical

information. The development of an advanced visualization system to be used

with CFAST speeds interpretation of the

simulation's results, in addition to reducing

errors caused by looking through large

volumes of text-based results.

Approach

Quick access to results without significant

effort is a high priority in our efforts. Our aim

is to use all the available data from the

CFAST simulation to provide a much clearer

picture of the simulated fire than possible

with the current post-processors, REPORT

and CPLOT

CFAST's own history file reading routines are used as an interface to CVIEW; this prevents

problems by ensuring that the reading

routines will always be up-to-date. The

CVIEW software is designed to work on many

separate platforms, preventing complications

with what machines are necessary for its use. Such platforms currently include MS-DOS and

Windows 3.1 -based PC's, as well as Sun

SPARC-based machines. Through software

purchase, the possible platforms may be

extended to include other Windows

versions,\footnote {This includes 1 6- and 32-

bit Windows 3.1 as well as Windows 95 and

NT.} Macintosh, Sun SPARC stations and

Solaris machines. Such an extension will not

require additional coding.

The CVIEW software developed at WPI

allows extraction of two and threedimensional views of rooms simulated in CFAST and their display on a local host. In addition, CVIEW can be used to generate

graphs similar to those generated with

CPLOT. These graphs and compartmentviews ('floor plans') can be extracted from a CFAST History file in about one minute, with

121
relatively little prior knowledge of the part of

the CVIEW user.

Future work is progressing under a grant from

the Fire Research Station, UK. To extend CVIEW's capabilities to other software. The

thrust of the grant will be to enable users to quickly and easily compare JASMINE output

(an advanced Field model) with CFAST re- sults.

CVIEW has been written so that future developments in room fire model development can

be simply and effectively integrated within

the existing software. This will allow CVIEW

to be a general purpose post-processor for all room fire simulation software packages.

122
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING DIVISION

LARGE FIRE RESEARCH

123

Fire Driven Flows

Principal Investigator:

Howard R. Baum

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6668

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a fundamental understanding of

the mechanisms which control the generation

and transport of heat and smoke in fires and

develop a predictive capability which will allow the computer simulation of fires associated with constructed facilities to be based on the underlying physical principles.

Problem

Information is lacking about the interaction

of fires with the physical environment in commercial, industrial, residential, and transportation facilities. The dominant problem of heat

and smoke movement in these facilities is of

interest to their builders, owners, operators,

regulators, and insurers. Small scale combustion processes are the study of diffusion

flames in a turbulent flow environment and

are of interest to the general combustion

community.

Approach

Theoretical and computational techniques

applied to the study of transport, mixing

diffusion, radiation, and reaction processes

occurring at widely different length and time

scales. Detailed studies of individual

phenomena are carried out in a manner that

permits them to be assessed individually and

later combined into overall simulations of

problems of interest.

Recent Results

Baum, H.R., Ezekoye, O.A., McGrattan, K.B. and Rehm, R.G., "Mathematical Modeling and

Computer Simulation of Fire Phenomenon,"

Theoretical and Computational Fluid

Dynamics 6:125-139 (1994).

Baum, H.R., McGrattan, K.B., and Rehm,

R.G., "Simulations of Smoke Plumes from

Large Pool Fires," 25th international

Symposium on Combustion, The Combustion

Institute, Irvine, CA, August 1994.

Baum, H.R , McGrattan, K.B., and Rehem,

R.G., "Mathematical Modeling and Computer

Simulation of Fire Phenonema," Fire Safety

Science, proceedings of the Fourth

International Symposium, Kashiwagi, T, Ed.,

International Association for Fire Safety

Science, pp. 185-194, 1994.

Related Grants

"Radiation from Turbulent Luminous Flames,"

Prof. Faeth, G.M., University of Michigan

"Fire Modeling," Prof. Pagni, P.J., University

of California, Berkeley

"Numerical Modeling of Plume Dispersion and

Smoke Deposition from large Scale Fires,"

Prof. Ghoniem, A.F., Massachusetts Institute

of Technology

125
Northridge Postearthquake Fire

Assessment

Principal Investigator:

William D. Walton

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6872

Sponsor:

Federal Ennergency Management Agency

Objective

To examine the origin and spread of fires and

evaluate the response of fire sprinkler systems following the Northridge earthquake.

Problem

The Northridge earthquake provides an opportunity to examine the causes of post-earthquake fires, effectiveness of building systems

in suppressing and containing the fires, damage to the fire protection infrastructure, man- agement of fire department resources in response to the fires, and the recovery from

fire damage following an earthquake. Fire sprinkler systems are one of the most widely

used active fire protection systems in buildings. There is preliminary evidence that the

Northridge earthquake resulted in damage to a significant number of sprinkler systems.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will work with grant- ees to analyze the information concerning the causes, effects, and response to fires following the Northridge Earthquake. The researchers will take into account the complex

interactions of events related to fire to determine the actions which would be effective in reducing the lost due to fire and maintaining

adequate fire protection after an earthquake.

Work will involve three tasks:

1 Investigate the causes of

postearthquake fires, the response of

building systems to the fires, and the

restoration measures taken,

2. Develop recommendations for retrofit and new construction to reduce the sources of fires, improve the reliability

of fire protection systems, and reduce

the recovery time, 3. Make recommendations related to the

performance fire sprinkler systems.

Recent Results

New project.

Post-Earthquake Fires and Lifelines

Principal Investigator:

William D. Walton

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6872

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standard and Technology

Objective

To make recommendations that reduce ignitions and major fires following earthquakes

through improved in fire protection and life- line integrity.

Problem

Fires are common following earthquakes and

the major ones can result in loss of life and

significant property damage, such as resulted

from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and

the 1 923 Tokyo earthquake where thousands

of persons died. The experience in recent earthquakes suggests that, the prevention of

large fires will depend on reducing the number of ignitions and controlling the spread of

fire in and between buildings. Lifelines - electric power, water, sewer, gas, liquid fuels,

telecommunications, and transportation sys- tems directly impact causes and control of

fires. Failure of gas lines, liquid fuel lines,

and electrical power distribution systems can

result in fires, whereas failure of water lines,

transportation systems, telecommunication

facilities, and electric power can hamper fire fighting capabilities. Yet, lifelines have no

nationally recognized seismic design or

rehabilitation standards.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will address two

thrusts:

1 . Identify causes of fires and the

factors which lead to the spread of

fires. Develop recommendations

which will lead to a reduction in the

number of fires, reduce the likelihood

that fires will spread, and improve the

fire department response to fires. 2. Develop recommendations for repair

of damaged systems, strengthening

methodologies for existing systems,

and the design and construction of

new systems.

126
BFRL will work closely with the experts to define the scope of the problem; identify a connplete list of issues; document lessons

learned from recent earthquakes, particularly

the Northridge earthquake; to assess and

analyze the data collected; review the

current practices by the profession; collect

the information developed from recent research in the areas related to these topics;

and to develop recommendations for future

improvement.

Recent Results

New Project.

urudii/ Wildland Fires

Principal Investigator:

Daniel Madrzykowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6677

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To quantify the capability of different types of

water based Class A foam to protect building

exterior materials from ignition.

Problem

A promising concept for protecting buildings

in the path of an advancing wildland fire is to cover the building with a water based (Class

A) foam prior to evacuating the area. BFRL

conducted a small scale study in 1988 on the

ignition inhibiting properties of one type of

Class A foam. The results of the study

indicated that compressed air. Class A foam

exhibited an ignition-inhibiting capability twice

that of an equal mass of water for T-1

1

siding and the compressed air foam (CAF)

displayed a retention efficiency approximately

20 times that of water on the test samples.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will characterize

several types of building exterior materials

(i.e., T-1 1 siding, cedar shingles) for ease of

ignition. Repeat the experiments with large

scale samples of the materials that have been

pre-treated with different types of Class A

foam to quantify the exposure protection

capabilities of Class A foam. Analyze the

characteristics of the Class A foams which

provide the best exposure protection, and

quantify the results based on data for properties such as drain time, surface

tension, and opacity. If successful, these

experimental techniques could be used as a basis for a new standard test method for the

evaluation of Class A foams as a thermal

exposure shield for structures.

Recent Results

New project

127
Analysis of Large Industrial Fires

Principal Investigator:

David D. Evans

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6897

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To assess the performance of combined

installations of sprinklers and draft curtains.

Problem

There is lack of information about the

interaction of draft curtains with sprinkler

systems to protect industrial facilities, of draft

curtain installation standards are separate, it

is not clear that the interactions have not

been studied in a systematic way. Fire models have the potential to provide

substantial information about both beneficial

and detrimental installation combinations.

However, present fire models cannot analyze

the performance of sprinkler systems as determined by the number of heads operated

during fire suppression.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop a model

of an industrial facility with combined

sprinkler and draft curtains using

computational fluid dynamic methods, such

as FL0W3D (a commercial package computer

model that simulates fluid dynamics and heat

transfer using a finite difference approach)

and LES (Large Eddy Simulation). This model

will be used to analyze fire scenarios and

determine the combination of parameters

which define beneficial and detrimental

combined installations of sprinklers and draft

curtains. Data from experiments that have

been conducted by industry to examine these

interactions will be used as much as possible

to evaluate the accuracy of the models.

BFRL will conduct specific new experiments

in small scale as needed and in large scale

facilities of opportunity to obtain data for a more complete evaluation of the predictions.

Results will be reported in a form that

facilitates the development of a performance

based standard. As part of a long term

fundamental research effort, BFRL laboratory

support is being used by University of

Maryland staff in a cooperative study to understand the effects of water additives on

the cooling of surfaces by sprays and foam.

Other grants related to industrial fires also are included as part of this project.

Recent Results

Jay Gore (Purdue University), An

Investigation of Oil and Gas Well Fires and

Flares. NIST-GCR 94-653, National Institute

of Standards and Technology, June 1994.

128
In-situ Burning of Oil Spills

Principal Investigator:

Kevin McGrattan

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-2712

Sponsor:

Department of Interior Minerals Management Service

Technology Assessment and Research Branch

Objective

To determine conditions where in-situ burning can be used effectively as a response method

to accidental spills of crude oil on land and on

water.

Problem

BFRL has established leadership in characterizing the combustion of large pool

fires. In support of other Federal agency

objectives to implement burning as a response method to oil spills, the burning

characteristics of fresh, weathered, and

emulsified oils must be known. In addition,

predictions are needed to assess the impact

of the smoke plume produced by burning on downwind locations. Explore tests need to be developed to evaluate equipment needed

to conduct burning operations.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will extend its previous work on fresh oil in stagnant pools

to the burning of weathered and emulsified

oils on water with waves. A new test facility

will be used to perform field measurements of

burns up to 7 m in diameter with waves. BFRL researchers are working with the State

of New Jersey to secure a permit for testing

and are looking for other facilities to perform

relevant mesoscale experiments. Measurements on the ignition and burning

characteristics of fresh and weathered and

emulsified crude oils will be performed in controlled laboratory experiments to enhance the

data base of material burning characteristics.

A format will be designed to display technical

information that will eventually be part of a practical guide for responders. The LES

(large eddy simulation) model for smoke

plume flow in the atmosphere will be

modified to account for terrain in response to the needs in California and Alaska. Data will

be collected to evaluate the accuracy of the

LES model.

Recent Results

LaBelle, R.P., Tennyson, E.J., Gait, J.A., K.B. McGrattan, "1993 Spill Off Tampa Bay, A

Candidate for Burning?" Proceedings of the

Seventeenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill

Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, June 8- 10, 1994, Vancouver, British Columbia, pp. 635-649, (1994).

Putorti, A.D. Jr., Evans, D D., Tennyson,

E.J., "Ignition of Weathered and Emulsified

Oils," Proceedings of the Seventeenth Arctic

and Marine Oil Spill Program (AMOP

Technical Seminar, June 8-10, 1994,

Vancouver, British Columbia, pp. 657-667,

(1994).

Jason, N.H., editor, "In-Situ Burning Oil Spill

Workshop Proceedings," January 26-28,

1994, Orlando, Florida, NIST SP867, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

20402, (1994).

Baum, H.R., McGrattan, K.B., Rehm, R.C.,

"Simulations of Smoke Plumes from Large

Pool Fires," Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth

International Symposium on Combustion, The

Combustion Institute, Irvine, CA, August

1994.

Walton, W.D., Twilley, W.H., McElroy J., Evans, D.D., Tennyson, E.J., "Smoke

Measurements Using a Tethered Miniblimp at the Newfoundland Offshore Oil Burn

Experiment," Proceedings of the Seventeenth

Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program (AMOP)

Technical Seminar, June 8-10, 1994,

Vancouver, British Columbia, pp. 1083-1098,

(1994).

McGrattan, K.B., Baum, H.R., Rehm, R.G.,

"Smoke Plume Trajectory from In-Situ Burning

of Crude Oil in Alaska," Proceedings of the

Seventeenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill

Program (AMOP) Seminar, June 8-10, 1994,

Vancouver, British Columbia, pp. 725-733,

(1994).

Related Grant

"Numerical Modeling of Plume Dispersal and

Smoke Deposition from Large Scale Fires,"

Ghoniem, Ahmed F., Massachusetts Institute

of Technology

129
Smoke Plume Trajectory from In-situ

Burning of Crude Oil in Alaska

Principal Investigator:

Kevin B. McGrattan

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-2712

Sponsor:

Alaska Dept. of Environmental Conservation

Division of Spill Prevention and Response

Objective

To determine the expected trajectory of

smoke plumes from in-situ burning as a response method for oil spills in Alaska.

Problem

There is a need to determine the downwind

concentrations of smoke particulates from the

in- situ burning of oil on water.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will verify its large

eddy simulation (LES) model of a smoke

plume trajectory. Downwind particulate

concentration measurements from the in-situ burns conducted in September 1994 near Prudhoe Bay, Alaska will be analyzed and

compared to numerical simulations.

Recent Results

McGrattan, K, et al. Smoke Plum Trajectory

from In-Situ Burning of Crude Oil in Alaska,

NISTIR 5273, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, October 1993.

Helicopter Telemetry for Oil Spill

Emissions and Smoke Sampling

Principal Investigator:

William D. Walton

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6872

Sponsor:

Department of Transportation

U.S. Coast Guard

Research and Development Center

Objective

To design and test of an oil spill emission and

smoke plume sampling package that can be

suspended from a helicopter and transmit real time data to the ground.

Problem

The ability to use helicopters to transport a smoke sampling package has been

demonstrated during previous mesoscale

burns. A smoke sampling package has been

developed and tested which can be suspended from a helicopter and held in the smoke

plume, however, it is unable to transmit real time data to the ground. Real time data from

the spill emissions or smoke plumes are required to make decisions on spill and burn

management.

Approach

The existing smoke sampling package

contains air sampling pumps, collection

media, and sample bags to provide time

averaged measurements of smoke yield,

smoke particle size distribution, PAH

concentration, volatile organic compounds,

basic metrology measurement of temperature,

relative humidity, wind speed and direction,

and barometric pressure. During FY 1995,

BFRL will add two major new instruments to the existing sampling package to meet the

need for real time data during an oil spill or burn. The instruments are an infrared carbon

dioxide analyzer and photo-ionization organic

vapor analyzer. A radio modem compatible

with the existing data logger will be added to transmit the data real time to a ground

station. A global positioning satellite receiver

will be added to the package to provide

absolute location data for the package during

operation.

130
The helicopter transported sampling package

will be evaluated during three mesoscale fuel

oil burns at the Fire and Safety Test Detachnnent in Mobile, Alabama. BFRL will analyze the smoke yield, particle size

distribution, and the real time carbon dioxide

and organic vapor measurements. Another

agency selected by the Coast Guard will provide the analysis of the PAH and volatile organic compound samples.

Recent Results

Walton, W.D., McElroy, J., Twilley, W.H.,

and Hiltabrand, R.R., "Smoke Measurements

Using a Helicopter Transported Sampling

Package", Proceedings of the Seventh Arctic

and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical

Seminar, Vancouver, B.C., June 6-10, 1994

Office Building Fire Research Program

Principal Investigator:

Daniel Madrzykowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6677

Sponsor:

General Services Administration

Public Building Services

Office of Real Property Management and

Safety

Objective

To quantify the impact of large fires on

buildings and their occupants and investigate

the use of current technology/resources for mitigating the hazards.

Problem

Systems furniture called "work stations"

have been identified as a source of large heat

release rate fires in office buildings. Because

of the wide spread use of systems furniture

the potential fire hazard in an open plan office

environment needs to be quantified. The

conditions in a long corridor (means of

egress) adjoining the fire compartment need

to be determined. If the fire can not be suppressed in the room of origin, the impact of

sprinklers on the smoke flow in the corridor is needed. While the impact of sprinklers has

been demonstrated in BFRL experiments, this

has not been included in the corridor flow

model, because the data base and zone

modeling techniques were not sufficient to continue development of the corridor flow

model including sprinkler effects.

Approach

During the past 2 years experiments have

been conducted examining smoke flow in a corridor and characterizing the heat release

rates of open plan office fuel packages.

Experiments also have been conducted on

mitigating the hazard of such fires. During FY

1995, BFRL will conduct experiments to enable the modeling of the mitigation effects. Also, work on verifying FPEtool (BFRL

software used to evaluate hazards and fire protection strategies in GSA Office Buildings)

will continue. The water spray from sprinklers

used in the large scale experiments will be

quantified. This information will be used as

input to BFRL's FIRE DEMAND model and as

131
input for field modeling of the corridor

experiments. Large scale experiments on the

effects of obstructed ceiling flows on sprinkler activation will be conducted. Experimental results will be compared with the current

capabilities of FPEtool.

Recent Results

Three reports are in process.

Related Grants

"A Study of Occupant Load Factors and Fuel

Load in Contemporary Office Buildings,"

Milke, James A., Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of

Maryland

The Evaluation of a DOD Interstitial

Space Construction Design for

Hospitals

Principal Investigator:

James R. Lawson

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6676

Sponsor:

Department of the Army

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Alaska District

Objective

To evaluate the fire endurance of a walk-on

deck design incorporated into the integrated

building system approach adopted by the

military for use in some hospitals.

Problem

The walk-on deck and interstitial space design was based on a design evaluated by BFRL in 1985. Significant design changes have been

proposed. It is necessary to verify that a 2- hour performance rating is still valid for the

modified design.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will contact a fire test assembly, representative of the interstitial space construction system planned for the

Elmendorf Air Force Base Medical Center, in

its large scale fire test facility. The test assembly will be constructed in accordance

with the structural and architectural

specifications supplied by the Corps. The

test assembly will be instrumented and

exposed to the fire and heat conditions

specified by NFPA 251,1 990 edition for a minimum duration of 2 hours.

Recent Results

Lawson, J.R., Brown, E., DeLauter, L., and

Roadarmel, G., Fire Performance of an

Interstitial Space Construction System,

NISTIR 5560, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, February 1995.

132
Large Fire Research Facility

Principal Investigator:

Daniel Madrzykowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6677

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To perform large scale fire experiments and

develop measurements on large fires to meet

the needs of industry and government

customers.

Problem

Use of BFRL's large fire research facility must

be scheduled for timely performance of

experimental programs. Modernization of

equipment and facilities is continually required to address technology needs of environmental

and workplace safety.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue to provide daily management for its Large Fire Research Facility, which includes scheduling

tests and timely execution, along with

modernization of test equipment and

facilities. Additional short term improvements

will be developed and executed during the

fiscal year, pending availability of funding.

These plans will be developed in conjunction

with researchers to assure that new and

updated instruments fit the needs of the fire program and its customers. BFRL will develop methods to assure full compliance

with Federal environmental requirements for large and small scale tests.

Recent Results

Commissioned design study to examine the

installation of a regenerative thermal oxidizer

for abating the combustion products from

BFRLs Large Fire Research Facility.

Development of a Sizing for

Firefighter Protective Clothing

Principal Investigator:

James R. Lawson

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6676

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Firefighter Health and Safety

Objective

To determine the critical factors of

work/station garment size which affect the

thermal protection and work dynamics of fire fighters during fire suppression operations.

Problem

As a result of recent changes in employment

regulations in the fire service, the range of

firefighter body sizes has increased. The fit of firefighter work/station uniforms has

become more critical as it relates to function

with and without protective garments in fire suppression operations. Therefore, a need

exists for standardizing the size of

work/station uniforms to enhance safety and

efficiency in fire fighting activities. In addition, emergency responders from FEMA

have no standards which provide guidance on

protective clothing or equipment which is required when they are called to investigate

emergencies or disasters.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform a

literature survey to identify applicable

publications associated with the fit and

function of firefighter work/station uniforms

and clothing and equipment for use of FEMA

personnel in emergency or hazardous

environments. BFRL will obtain input from

the fire services and apparel manufacturers to

identify special needs of firefighters and the

ability of industry to support the firefighter's

needs. Input will be collected from

emergency managers and investigators to

identify their needs for protective clothing

and equipment. Working with ASTM and

NFPA Committees which produce protective

clothing and equipment standards, BFRL will develop and establish standards for firefighter

uniforms and a FEMA standard for FEMA

133
emergency managers, investigators and

inspectors.

Recent Results

Developed a draft standard for sizing and fit of fighter station/work uniforms, ASTM

Standard Practice for Taking body

Measurements and Size Selection of Fire

Rescue Service Station/Work Uniforms,

ASTIVI F-23 Subcommittee on Human

Factors. The draft standard is being updated

based on ballet comments.

134
RECENT GRANTS - LARGE FIRE

RESEARCH

1 . Computational Modeling of Large Fire Plumes

Principal Investigator:

Professor A.F. Ghoniem

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, MA 02139

Graduate Research Assistants

I. Lakkis

M.C. Soteriou

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a computationally based large fire plume model in which buoyant fluid mechanics, combustion, radiative transport, and their

mutual interactions are all fundamentally rep- resented using physically sound approximations, and well resolved spatially and temporally. The model's computational efficiency,

achieved by using Lagrangian schemes to simulate each of these processes, should

allow practical simulations to be performed on

an advanced engineering workstation.

Problem

Simulation of fire plumes yielding burning

rates, pollutant formation rates and the radiation field is necessary as a tool for the as- sessment of the environmental impact of

large fires. Computational modeling of these

fires is complicated by the presence of several complex physical processes, including

turbulence, transport and chemistry. The

wide range of physical scales present in these

processes complicates their numerical modeling even further. The overall dynamics is essentially unsteady and thus should be the

model. Conventional numerical approaches

could be very expensive since the domains of

these fires are often extremely large.

Approach

To overcome the difficulties described above,

we are developing a computational model of

fire plumes based a Lagrangian simulation of

all significant physical processes involved.

The vortex method is used to obtain solutions

of the Navier-Stokes equations, including the

buoyancy terms and the baroclinic terms,

using computational elements distributed

along the layer separating the plume (fuel and

products) and the surrounding (air and products), in the turbulent regime. The mixing

and combustion processes are simulated using the transport element method in which

only species concentration and temperature

gradients are computed, and only where vor- tex elements exist. The fast chemistry as- sumption is used in the computation of the

burning rate, temperature and major species

distribution. The concentration of the computational elements within the narrow zone of

plume boundaries endows the approach with

the necessary efficiency.

During FY 1 995, we performed an extensive

validation study of both the isothermal plume

and the reacting plume models. For the first, we established the correspondence between

the puffing frequency and the pool diameter,

and compared the results with experimental

data. For the reacting case, we repeated the same study and obtained good agreement

with experiments. In both cases, we concluded that puffing is a buoyancy instability

formed at the base of the plume near the pool

due to the tendency of the rising plume to accelerate upward thus by reducing the

plume diameter below that of the pool. The

conical interface is subject to gravitational, or

Rayleigh-Taylor type instability which leads to the roll-up of the material interface and the

concomitant puffing. The latter is responsible

for the strong entrainment field into the fire plume and the high upward penetration of the

flames.

For the balance of the year, we plan to incorporate (I) a soot formation model, and (ii) a

liquid-gas interface boundary condition at the

pool surface. The first is necessary for the

computation of the radiative transport fluxes,

which contribute significantly to the fuel evaporation and pyrolysis, while the second

is intended to establish a physical basis for

determining the vaporation rate of the fuel. For the FY 1 996 we plan to develop and

incorporate a Lagrangian-based radiative

transport algorithm.

Recent Results

135
Recent Results

Lakkis, I., Soteriou, M. and Ghoniem, A.F., "Numerical Simulation of Large Fire Plumes,"

to be presented at the International

Conference on fire Research and Engineering,

Sept. 11-15, 1995, Orlando, PL

Zhang, X. and Ghoniem, A. P., "A

Computational Model for the Rise and

Dispersion of Wind-Blown, Buoyancy-Driven

Plumes-Ill. Penetration of Atmospheric

Inversion," Atmospheric Environment, vol. 28, No. 18, pp. 3019-3032, 1994.

2. Large Fire Analyses

Principal Investigators:

Professor Patrick J. Pagni

Professor Dorian Liepmann

Dr. Nicholas A. Dembsey

Dr. Javier Trelles Mechanical Engineering Department

University of California

Berkeley, CA 94720-1740

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a comprehensive, modular,

fundamentally sound model for fire growth in the urban/wildland intermix.

Approach

Fire induced winds in large scale fires determine the local characteristics of the fire environment. The Baum and McCaffrey

model serves as the foundation for a three

dimensional description of fire-induced winds.

A resultant plume module has been added

which determines the asymptotic nature of

the flow after the multiple plumes from a

large number of independent surface fires have fully merged.

The resultant plume model developed here

accounts for the velocity and temperature

profiles along the centerline by introducing a

shift Zl and for the broadening of the plume

with a shift Z2. These two shifts are determined from the exact conservation

integrals for mass and momentum. Energy is automatically conserved throughout the

plume. Below a ceiling determined by plume

overlap, the net conservation fluxes are modeled as the sum of the individual plumes.

The equality between the two regions

facilitates the determination of the two shifts for the resultant plume. Performing algebra on the coupled system of equations yields an

implicit equation for Zl . A second equation

emerges from the manipulation of the coupled

system depends on both shifts but, since Zl

is already known, it is only a function of the

unknown, Z2. Brent's method is used to solve for the shifts. The ability to reduce the

original system to 2 equations which can be

solved by univariate techniques makes the

determination of the shifts reliable and robust.

The two regions are joined to provide a smooth flow field. With the velocity field determined, firebrands can be convected

through this flow model to yield valuable

information regarding flame spread based on

active firebrand arrival distributions.

Firebrand transport is of utmost importance in this environment since it is a proven mode for

transmitting burning material across sizable

fire breaks. Also, firebrand transport has not

been studied nearly as well as flame-to-fuel

ignition. Modules for conventional fire spread

will be added at a later date.

An experimental program is planned to determine the flaming life span of wood

shingles similar to Tarifa's work on spheres

and cylinders. Wind tunnel experiments in our fluid mechanics laboratory will determine

shingle weight loss and aerodynamic drag as

functions of time. These results will be used

to predict the trajectories of brands produced

by burning structures and transported by the mass fire plume described above.

Recent Results

Dembsey, N.A., Pagni, P.J., and Williamson,

R.B., "Fire Near-Field Entrainment

Measurements," in press, Fire Safety Journal.

Dembsey, N.A., Pagni, P.J., and Williamson,

R.B., "Compartment Fire Experiments:

Comparison to Models," submitted to Fire Safety Journal.

136
3. A Study of Two Phase High Liquid Loading

Jet Fires

Principal Investigator:

Jay P. Gore

Thermal Sciences and Propulsion Center

Purdue University

West Lafayette, IN 47907-1003

317-494-1452

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To construct a laboratory scale burner for

measurements and correlation of visible flame

length and radiative heat loss fractions of

high liquid loading spray jet fires.

Problem

Two phase jet fires, similar to the oil well

blowout fires observed after the war in Kuwait, can result from effective atomization of

a liquid fuel by small quantities of trapped

gases upon depressurization. Existing studies

of accidental fires have not considered the

generic problem of two phase jet fires and

experimental data and correlations for radiation, flame length, and pollutant emission

hazards associated with such fires do not

exist.

Approach

An effervescent atomizer burner was developed for the simulation of the physical pro- cesses involved in accidental fires involving

high liquid loading two phase jets. A technique based on a single point measurement of

radiative heat flux for the estimation of total radiative heat loss fraction of the jet fire was

developed. Initial measurements involved

crude oil fires (Dutta et al., 1994). While more recently toluene, heptane and other

flammable industrial liquids are being considered (Wade et al., 1995).

Four factors were considered to be the possible contributors to the variation in length of

apparently momentum dominated, two phase

spray fires; (1) the length required for the

evaporation of the liquid fuel, (2) the rate of

entrainment of surrounding air due to the two

phase flow effects, (3) persistent effects of

buoyancy due to differences in the momentum o f the two phases, and (4) effects of

variations in radiation hat loss and soot properties.

Evaporation lengths were measured using Mie

scattering in the near injector region while

accounting for possible interference from soot

particles. The results showed that the evaporation length increased by up to a factor of 3

for conditions with large drops and high liquid

flow rates. However, the evaporation length was found to be a small fraction of the total

visible flame length. Furthermore, the

changes in the visible flame length do not

track those in the evaporation length. Hence,

evaporation length was eliminated as a

significant factor for the present flame

conditions.

Radiative heat loss fractions showed three

different trends with heat release rates. For flames with high MLR, radiative fractions were in the 10-15% range and decreased

with increasing heat release rates. For flames

with low MLR, radiative fractions remained

almost constant or increased a little and then

decreased as heat release rate was increased.

Measurements of soot volume fractions and

temperatures indicate that radiative coupling

is a significant factor in determining the

visible flame length.

The burner has been scaled up to 200 kW

and effects of radiative coupling and two

phase flows are being currently studied.

Recent Results

Dutta P., Gore J. P., Sivathanu Y.R., and

Sojka P. E., "Global Properties of High Liquid

Loading Turbulent Crude Oil + Methane/Air

Spray Flames," Combustion and Flame, 97,

251, 1994.

Wade R.A., Sivathanu, Y.R. and Gore J.P., "Soot Volume Fraction and Temperature

Properties of High Liquid Loading Spray

Flames," Combustion Fundamentals and

Applications Proceedings of the Joint

Technical Meeting of the Central, Western

States and Mexican National Sections of the

Combustion Institute and American Flame

Research Committee) (J. P. Gore, Ed.), 1995.

137
4. Computing the Effect of Draft Curtains on

Sprinkler Response

Principle Investigator:

James D. Kieffer

A Fire Design Group Co. Tomes, Van Rickley & Assoc.

Parklane Towers

1 Parklane Bl., Suite 1222-East

Dearborn, Ml 48126

313-441-0000

Sponsor:

The National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide preliminary information for the

development of a fire model to predict under

what conditions draft curtains and heat and

smoke vents enhance or diminish the

performance of sprinklers and to search for an appropriate site for validation of this model

through small and large scale fire tests in an

actual industry setting.

smoke and heat vents or draft

curtains. o Organize, catalog and analyze the

data found to determine the state and

completeness of information available. Evaluate existing data in an attempt

to develop a baseline for future

testing. o Format the data determined to be of

interest into the NIST developed FMS

format for use in future research and

modeling.

2. Performing Building Search: o Set physical criteria for required

facility. o Contact local government

environmental offices for approval for

fire testing, o Contact Automotive and other

industrial concerns for listings of their

potential sites, o Visit potential sites and prepare a report on all sites worth

consideration.

Problem

Over the past twenty years there has been

much debate concerning the interaction of

sprinklers and draft curtains or heat and

smoke vents in large facilities. At issue is to what extent and under what conditions draft

curtains enhance or diminish the performance

of sprinkler systems. It is believed that

substantial insight can be gained through a program to develop an advanced fire model of

sprinkler response and then verify its predictions through small and large scale

experiments.

Approach

This grant is for two specific tasks, the

searching for available information to provide

data for a computer model and to find

potential sites for small and large scale fire tests to validate the model. To accomplish

this the following are being done:

1. Performing Information Search: o Globally search and attempt to capture the presently unknown

quantity of existing data from both

fire loss experience and small and full scale laboratory fire testing related to

industrial fires with sprinklers and

5. Measurement of Flame Temperature using

IR Technique and Air-entrainment Velocity

using PDPA

Principal Investigator:

Kozo Saito

Dept. Mechanical Engineering

University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40506-0108

606-257-1685

Sponsor:

National Institutes of Standards and

Technology

Objective

This project began in August, 1 994 with the

support from NIST. Tasks that have been

completed are summarized below. In order to complete the project, we need to conduct

further experiments described in the Proposed

Tasks, which will require a one-year effort. A

graduate student who has participated in this

project has made significant progress toward

the completion of his thesis by the beginning

of 1 996. Since we have all the equipment

needed for the proposed experiments, and a new $150,000 fire-test facility will be

138
completed by this summer with the support

from our University, we will be able to conduct the proposed tests at a very

reasonable budget.

Approach

IR images were taken for small scale pool

fires with diameter, 5 cm to 20 cm; they were compared to the thermo-couple

temperature measurements. A black body

source was placed behind the pool fires, and

the radiant energy transmitted through each

pool fire was measured by IR camera. We

also measured the radiant energy directly

emitted from the pol fire by the IR camera.

Using these data, we calculated the

emissivity of each pool fire, and the

relationship between the emissivity and the

pool diameter was established. We need to extend the same series of experiments for larger scale pool fires. We designed a small

scale pool fire apparatus and a laser-sheet

particle-track system for flow-visualization

tests. We conducted a series of flow

visualization for a 10 cm diameter pool fire and visualized stream lines of air entrained

through the primary anchoring zone, which is the bottom part of the pool fire. These data

are new and expected to help us understand

the mechanism of flame anchoring in pool

fires, one of the important problems related to the flame extinction and the flame

stabilization. Therefore, we wrote a paper on

the flame anchoring mechanism and

submitted it to Combustion and Flame.

Our new fire test laboratory will be completed

by this summer. This laboratory is especially

designed for our experimental fire research.

Now we have all the equipment necessary for

the small to medium scale pool-fire

experiments. With the continuous support

from NIST, a graduate student who has

mastered the measurement technique will be

able to work on this experiment and complete

the project. (2) We have a two component

LDV system and a transmission measurement

system. Using these apparatus, we will be

able to measure velocity profiles around the

pool fires and distributions of sot particles for pool fires up to 1 m diameter. Based on

these data, we will develop scaling

relationships in order to predict the structure

of large scale pool fires. In the future, these

predictions will be tested using our technique.

Recent Results

Ito, A., Narumi, A., Saito, K. And Cremers,

C.J., Temperature measurement by

holographic interferometry in liquids. Proc. Eighth International Symposium on Transport

Phenomena in Combustion, Edited by S.H. Chan, 1995.

Qian, C, Tashtoush, G., Ito, A., and K. Saito,

Structure of large scale pool fires. International Conference on Fire Research and

Engineering, Orlando, FL, September 10-15,

1995.

Venkatesh, S., Ito, A., and Saito, K., Why

pool fires are anchored? submitted to Combustion and Flame.

Qian, C, Arakawa, A., Ishida, H., Saito, K., Cremers, C.J., Temperature measurement by

infrared images with application to fire research. Thermal Conductivity 22, Edited by

Tong, T.W., Technomic Publishing Corp.,

Lancaster, PA, 1994, pp. 973-984.

6. Fire Protection in Large Industrial

Fires

Principal Investigator:

Marino di Marzo

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of Maryland

College Park, MD 20742

301-405-5257

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To evaluate and optimize the performance of

fire fighting agents used to protect structures and to prevent the spreading of fire in large

industrial settings such as a large petrochemical storage facility.

Problem

The most common active methods to mitigate

and contain large industrial fire in petrochemical storage facilities encompass water

sprays and water firms. These techniques

require massive amount of water due to the

significant duration of these fires. The

139
mental concern. An integrated approach to

identify cost-effective, environnnentally safe

agents and their application strategies is sought.

Approach

The specific goals of this research include: a) the evaluation of the active techniques

currently used; b) the experimental and

theoretical study of the basic mechanisms

governing their interactions with the fire environment; c) the extension of these

findings to identify the optimal agents to be

used; d) the identification of the most costeffective, environmentally safe application

methodology; and e) the setting of guidelines

for the design and performance prediction of

preventive measures and fire mitigation

strategies applicable to large industrial

settings.

Protein foams exhibit characteristics which

are of particular interest for these

applications. They show; a) good expansion

characteristics to provide significant volume

of foam per unit volume of liquid; b) good

performance in terms of burnback resistance

when exposed to fire; and c) low mobility

which makes them ideal to coat vertical and

underhung as well as horizontal surfaces.

Fire trials, which test the overall effectiveness

of foams, are available. However, the data

compare foams based on the time before

ignition of the protected surface. Human

factors and outdoor uncontrolled

environmental conditions are common

obstacles to the consistent repeatability of

these kind of tests. Nonetheless, the test procedures and product rating reflect this overall approach.

Preliminary activities in FY 1 994 include the

design and construction of a fire box where

layers of foams coating a 0.09 m^ metal

surface are tested under radiant heat input of

20-30 kW/m^ in a controlled environment.

During FY 1995, instrumentation and data

acquisition system are installed. Extensive

efforts are devolved to the design,

construction and testing of a foam generation

system that yields a repeatable, well

characterized foam over a broad range of

expansion ratios. Foam properties

characterization is also ongoing. A separate

test apparatus has been designed and

constructed to measure thermal diffusivity

during a slow heat-up transient of a foam

layer. In parallel with these characterization

efforts, burning tests in the fire box are also

executed to gather preliminary data on the

behavior of the foam.

These data, allow the construction of a first- cut model of the foam destruction process.

The objective of this model is to ensure that

the major governing parameters are identified

and that the relative importance of the

different effects is properly quantified. To

limit the scope of this initial effort, a steadystate solution is considered. It turns out that,

for high radiant heat fluxes, this is a reasonable first-order approximation. The

heat transfer by conduction in the foam

(which is modeled as a variable properties,

porous material) is considered along with the

advancing destruction front and with the

radiant heat input deposition in the foam layer near the exposed surface. The expansion of

the foam is considered for its feedback on the

thermal and physical properties.

Encouraging results from this model are obtained. These results allow to chart the

future direction of the experimental programs

for the determination of the foam properties

and for the gathering of data concerning the

overall foam destruction processes.

Presentation of these results is forthcoming.

7. Airborne Lidar Characterization of Oil-Burn

Effluent Plumes

Principal Investigators:

Edward E. Uthe, Robert D. Kaiser, Lewis Carr

SRI International

Geoscience and Engineering Center

Menio Park, CA 94025

415-859-4667

Sponsor:

Minerals Management Service and

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To provide data on the transport and diffusion

of the smoke plume resulting from burning of

oil on water surfaces that can be used to

validate models of the environmental

consequences of burning spilled oil as a

140
method of achieving rapid environmental

recovery.

Problem

Map the three-dimensional smoke plume with

high spatial and temporal resolution over long

downwind distances from the oil burn.

Approach

During October 1 994, three oil-spill simulation

tests were conducted at the U.S. Coast

Guard Fire and Safety Test Detachment Facility on Little Sand Island in Mobil Bay, Alabama. For each test about 1 7,000 I of diesel

oil overlaying water in a 15.2 m square pan were ignited. The resulting atmospheric efflu- ent plume was observed with the two-wavelength (0.53 and 1.06 um) airborne lidar plume

and haze analyzer (ALPHA-2) flown on the

SRI Queen Air in vertically downward viewing

direction. The aircraft was flown in cross- plume directions at various distances from the source as the elongated effluent cloud moved

downwind. Backscatter signatures were pro- cessed for real-time height/distance colormodulated video displays that were used to help direct aircraft operations for achieving

optimum plume sampling. The backscatter

signatures along with aircraft location and

time information were recorded on an optical

disk for use in subsequent data analysis pro- grams.

The three burn events clearly demonstrated

the importance of atmospheric conditions on

establishing the downwind structure of the

oil-burn effluent plume and concentrations at the surface level. Effluents from the first test

rapidly penetrated an elevated temperatureinversion and directional wind-shear layer that

resulted in convective cloud formation and a

significant change in the plume downwind

transport direction. The second and third tests were conducted under more stable at- mospheric conditions, resulting in less plume

penetration across the elevated inversion

layer and greater impaction of effluents on

the surface at long downwind distances.

The data analysis program is on-going with

emphasis on the second and third burn tests. Aircraft flight paths have been represented as

best-fit straight line segments on a base map

of the area. The backscatter signatures have

been corrected for the inverse range-squared

dependence and resulting records have been

supplied to NIST on CD-ROM. A program was developed to plot the data in gray-scale

picture format on a Raytheon Spectrum Analysis Recorder. The recorder provides highquality cross-plume (altitude/distance) plotting

without the distortions normally associated

with video plotting of long data records.

Data examples have been supplied to BFRL,

and the remaining data are being processed.

We expect to conduct a two-wavelength

analysis of particle size that may be useful for

estimating downwind smoke densities.

I Recent Results

New Project.

8. A Study of Occupant Load Factors and

Fuel Load in Contemporary Office Buildings

Principal Investigator:

James A. Milke

Department of Fire Protection Engineering,

University of Maryland at College Park

College Park, MD 20742

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology and

General Services Administration

Objective

To provide a method of determining the

occupant load in a wide variety of

contemporary office buildings i.e. open plan

vs. compartmented. In addition, a method to

collect fuel load data in office spaces is being

explored.

Problem

Questions have been raised concerning the

accuracy of currently accepted values for

occupant load and fuel load in office

buildings. The concerns have resulted from

preliminary studies conducted in open-plan

and compartmented contemporary office

buildings.

Approach

A literature survey was conducted to review

the occupant load survey procedure and data

collection forms used previously, e.g. by

Bourdeau at the University of Maryland. This

review resulted in the development of a

preliminary data collection procedure and

141
preliminary data collection procedure and

form for trial use. This approach was used to conduct an occupant load surveys in publicand private-sector office spaces in the

Washington metropolitan area.

In an occupant load analysis, two parameters

are needed: the number of building occupants

at any given time and the area of the floor space. Essentially, the approach consists of

counting building occupants present along

with indicating workstations which appear to be occupied normally. However, accounting

for an individual not being at the workstation

is a source of inaccuracy as the worker may

be absent on the day of the survey or elsewhere in the building. Further, an assessment of guests or visitors in the

building need to be accounted. Accounting

for building maintenance, custodial staff or contractors. These individuals are readily

identified due to the different working attire.

An approach for the fuel load evaluation is to survey office spaces prepared for moving.

This process significantly simplifies the

process of weighing or estimating the

quantity of loose materials.

142
FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

SMOKE DYNAMICS

RESEARCH

143

Carbon Monoxide Production and

Prediction

Principal Investigator:

William M. Pitts

Fire Science Division

301-975-6486

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a fundamental understanding of

the mechanisms of carbon monoxide

formation in flames sufficient to produce an

estimation model and a detailed predictive

model.

Problem

CO generated by fires in enclosures is responsible for roughly two-thirds of fire deaths. The conditions necessary and the

mechanisms responsible for the generation of

high concentrations of CO are poorly

characterized. As a result, it is currently

impossible to predict the generation of CO by

fires.

Approacli

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue

performing both fundamental and engineering

investigations. The engineering studies are designed to develop correlations for CO

formation for fires in enclosures and provide

the necessary knowledge to incorporate the

findings into existing BFRL fire models. The

fundamental investigations are to identify the

principal chemical and physical mechanisms

responsible for the formation of high CO

concentrations in fires and to theoretically

justify the use of the engineering correlations.

Ultimately, the findings will be incorporated

into a simple physical model for CO

production in enclosure fires.

Recent Results

Johnsson, E.L., Bryner, N.P., and Pitts, W.M.,

Fire-induced Mass Flow into a Reduced-scale

Enclosure, Fire Safety J. (to appear)

Pitts, W.M., Bryner, N.P., and Johnsson, E.L., "Carbon Monoxide Formation in Fires by Hightemperature Anaerobic Wood Pyrolysis", 25th

Symposium (International) Combustion (to

appear)

Bryner, N.P., Johnsson, E.L., and Pitts, W.M.,

Carbon Monoxide Production in Compartment

Fires-reduced-scale Enclosure Test Facility,

NISTIR 5568, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, December 1994

Leonard, S., Mulholland, G.W., Puri, R., and

Santoro, R.J., "Generation of CO and Smoke

During Underventilated Burning," Combustion

and Flame 98 20, 1 994

Pitts, W.M., The Global Equivalence Ratio

Concept and the Prediction of Carbon

Monoxide Formation in Enclosed Fires,

Monograph 179, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, June 1994

Pitts, W.M., "Application of Thermodynamic

and Detailed Chemical Kinetic Modeling to Understanding Combustion Product

Generation in Enclosed Fires," Fire Safety J. 23, 271, 1994

Related Grants

"Compartment fire Combustion Dynamics,"

Vandsburger, U., Virginia Polytechnic Institute

and State University, and Roby, R.J., Hughes

Associates.

145
Study of Smoke Agglomerates

Principal Investigator

George W. Mulholland

Fire Science Division

301-975-6695

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

Exobiology Flight Experiments Program

Objective

To test the validity and utility of fractal concepts in describing the growth and

properties of large smoke agglomerates.

Problem

Needed is a general hardware design and data

analysis methodology for studying smoke

agglomerates in an orbiter facility.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will use its Transmission Cell-Reciprocal Nephelometer to monitor the extinction cross section and total scattering cross section as the agglomerates

grow. The angle dependent scattering will be

used to monitor the fractal dimension and

radius of gyration as the agglomerates grow.

The results will be compared with light

scattering calculations for a computer

simulation of smoke agglomeration.

Recent Results

Mulholland, G.W., Bohren, C.F., and Fuller,

K.A., "Light Scattering by Agglomerates:

Coupled Electric and Magnetic Dipole

Method", Langmuir 10, 2533, 1994

Comparison of Smoke Produced at 1 g

and iJ g

Principal Investigator

George W. Mulholland

Fire Science Division

301-975-6695

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

NASA Ames Research Center,

Space Science Division

Objective

To evaluate the feasibility of collecting smoke

agglomerates generated during a drop tower

experiment for subsequent analysis.

Problem

There are several experiments proposed for the Gas-Grain Simulation Facility (GGSF)

involving agglomerate structures. These

experiments take advantage of the reduced

gravity in the GGSF to study the evolution of

agglomerates over a much greater length of

time and much greater range of particle sizes

than is possible at 1 g. An important issue in these studies is the initial condition; that is, what is the initial primary sphere size and

chemical content of smoke agglomerate

produced at pQ compared to 1 g?

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will operate a laminarjet diffusion burner in the 5 second NASA

Lewis drop tower. Minor modifications of an

existing burner facility will enable BFRL's

collection of smoke agglomerates. The smoke

collection apparatus consists of a cascade

impactor/filter assembly and battery operated

pump. The collected samples will be analyzed

for particle size and chemical content.

Recent Results

New project.

146
Chemical Inhibitor Effects on Diffusion

Flames in Microgravity

Principal Investigator:

Gregory T. Linteris

Fire Science Division

301-975-2283

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Lewis Research Center

Space Systems Branch

Objective

To determine the effects of flame inhibitors on

the physical characteristics (height, shape,

color, and luminosity) and stability limits (ignition, extinction, lift-off and blow-off) of gas- eous diffusion flames in the presence of halogenated fire suppressants in microgravity; and

to develop quantitative analytical models for the observed behavior, including chemical

kinetic effects, to understand the mechanisms

of inhibition of halogenated compounds in gaseous diffusion flames in microgravity.

Problem

Fire safety in space is one of the main reasons

to investigate combustion phenomena in microgravity. Since halogenated compounds

will remain the fire suppressant of choice in many space missions, there is a need for experimental evidence on the effectiveness of

these compounds for diffusion flames under

zero buoyancy conditions.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform experiments of normal and microgravity studies of

laminar jet and co-flow diffusion flames inhibited by halogenated suppressant in the air or

fuel stream. In microgravity, visual and temperature diagnostics will be used to detect

flame shape, dynamics, and stability limits. Normal gravity experiments will use additional

chromatographic and spectroscopic diagnostics in addition to visual and temperature ex- periments. Analytical and computational work

will be performed using existing general 2-D

codes with chemical kinetic models for comparison with the observed

results.

Recent Results

VanDerWege, B.A., Bush, M.T., Hochgreb, S., and Linteris, G.T., "Effect of CF3H and CFgBr on Laminar Diffusion Flames in Normal and

Microgravity," Third International Microgravity

Combustion Conference, NASA, 11-13 April

1995, Cleveland, OH

147
Species Production for Turbulent

Flame Modeling

Principal Investigator:

Kermit C. Smyth

Fire Science Division

301-975-6490

George W. Mulholland

Fire Science Division

301-975-6695

Nelson Bryner

Fire Science Division

301-975-6868

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To establish models for in-flame species

concentrations and post-flame species yields as a function of residence time, equivalence

ratio, temperature, and strain and scalar

dissipation rates.

Problem

Data base, metrology, phenomenology, and

models for well controlled flame environments

are required to provide the foundation for predicting flame radiation and the production

of toxic gases and smoke for buoyant,

turbulent diffusion flames for a wide range of

combustion conditions.

develop models incorporating the wide range

of combustion conditions using the new data

base.

Recent Results

Shaddix, C.R., Harrington, J.E., and Smyth,

K.C., "Quantative Measurements of Enhanced

Soot Production in Flickering Methane/Air

Diffusion Flame," Combustion and Flames 99,

723-732, 1994

Smyth, K.C., Harrington, E.L., Johnsson, E.L., and Pitts, WM., "Greatly Enhanced Soot

Scattering in Flickering CH4/Air Diffusion

Flames," Combustion and Flame, 95, 229-

239, 1993

Related Grants

"Fundamental Studies of Diffusion Flame

Chemistry," Miller, J. Houston, George

Washington University

"Aerosol Fractal Aggregates: Light Scattering,

Diffusion and Aggregation", Sorensen,

Christopher M., Kansas State University

Experimental Study of the Optical Properties

of Soot & Smoke", Choi, Mun Young,

University of Illinois.

"Mixing and Radiation Properties of Buoyant

Luminous Flame Environments", Faeth, Gerald

M., University of Michigan.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will select and

experimentally examine laminar flame

environments with temperature, residence

time, equivalence ratio, and strain and scalar

dissipation rates characteristic of buoyant,

turbulent flames. Emphasis will be placed on

planar imaging approaches using laser-induced

fluorescence and scattering signatures, as

well as quantitative measures of the soot

field. Initial studies will focus on time-varying

and underventilated laminar diffusion flames.

Characterize the in-flame and post-flame

chemical species, flow velocity, and

temperature fields. Apply GC-MS and laser ionization-mass spectroscopy (previously used

for graphitic smoke) to the analysis of the

mostly organic smoke produced during

underventilated combustion. Test and

148
Vortex-Chemistry Interactions in

Methane/Air Diffusion Flames

Principal Investigator:

Kermit C. Smyth

Fire Science Division

301-975-6490

William M. Pitts

Fire Science Division

301-975-6486

Sponsor:

Gas Research Institute

Objective

To determine how chemical production and

destruction rates for soot, CO, and NO

depend upon local flame conditions.

Problem

Increasingly tighter regulations from the Clean

Air Act and its 1990 amendments control

pollutant emissions. In cases where the

chemical kinetics are well established, e.g., CO production and destruction, emission

levels cannot be predicted from practical

combustion devices over a range of operating

conditions.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will study chemistryflowfield interactions using flickering

methane/air diffusion flames. Axisymmetric

flames will be acoustically locked to a pulsed

dye laser system at 10 Hz, allowing

interrogation of the flame dynamics as a function of height, phase angle, and forcing

amplitude. These flames exhibit a much wider

range of local strain and scalar dissipation

rates than those found in steady, co-flowing

laminar flames. Emphasis will be on planar

imaging approaches for species and soot

concentrations and LDV velocity and thinfilament pyrometry temperature

measurements. These results will provide

critical tests of current models for production

of toxic gases and smoke from buoyant, • turbulent diffusion flames for a wide range of

" combustion conditions.

Recent Results

New project.

149
RECENT GRANTS- SMOKE

DYNAMICS RESEARCH

1. Experimental and Modeling Studies of Soot

and Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbon Oxidation in Post-flame Gases

Principal Investigator:

J. Houston Miller Department of Chemistry

The George Washington University

Washington, DC 20052

Objective

To developed fundamental kinetic data and

mechanistic insight for the oxidation chemistry of condensed phase carbon (soot and

polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) in conditions typical of upper layers in room fires.

Problem

Emissions from real fires, and laboratory en- closure fires which are meant to mimic their

behavior, are found to be closely linked to the

global equivalence ratio [Pitts (1994)] (GER),

defined as the ratio of fuel to oxygen in the

system divided by the stoichiometric ratio:

Of major concern is the production of CO

which is often the primary cause of fire death

[Harwood and Hall (1989)]. The level of car- bon monoxide emitted from a fire is expected

to reach toxic levels for underventilated fires

[Pitts (1994)]. Although some of the CO emitted from these fires is attributable to gasphase chemistry, a majority may be attribut- able to post-flame oxidation of condensed

phase carbon, i.e. soot. Previous studies in shock tubes [Roth et a/. (1 990), Park and

Appleton (1973)], in flames [Neoh et al. (1985), Garo et al. (1990), Puri et al. (1994)],

and thermogravimetric investigations [Noirot

et al. (1 994), Wicke et al. (1 986), Gilot et al. (1993)] have provided kinetic data on soot

oxidation, but not under conditions analogous

to those found in the upper layer of room

fires.

Approach

In our experiments the emissions from laminar

diffusion flames are passed through a long

quartz tube held in a tube furnace. The entire

apparatus is fully-enclosed so that the GER

can be varied. Both optical and extractive

diagnostics are used to characterize the flame

emissions before and after the furnace region.

In early experiments tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy was used to monitor

CO levels while extinction of the red beam of

a HeNe laser was used to determine soot

volume fractions. By measuring the

temperature profile through the system, local velocities could also be estimated. From the

time-temperature behavior of the

disappearance of soot and the formation of

carbon monoxide, a simple kinetic expression

for particle oxidation was derived. Preliminary

results from these experiments have recently

been presented (Tolocka and Miller, 1994).

More recent experiments have focused on the use of on-line mass spectrometry to determine

residual gas concentrations in the oxidation

tube. We also have performed extractive

chemical procedures on the soot sampled in these experiments. Preliminary results of

these studies show dramatic increases in adsorbed PAH on the soot when the GER

approaches 2. Evidence exists for partially

oxidized PAH in this sampled material.

Recent Results

Noirot, R., Gilot, R. Gadiou, R., and Prado, G.,

(1994) Combustion Sci. and Tech., 95:139.

Tolocka, M. And Miller, J.H. (1994), Chem.

Phys. Processes in Combust., 242-245.

Leonard, S. Mulholland, G.W., Puri, R., and

Santoro, R.J., (1994) Combustion and Flame,

98:20.

Gilot, R., Bonnefoy, F. Marcuccill, F., and

Prado, G., (1993) 95:87.

Garo, A., Prado, G. And Lahaye, J., (1990)

Combustion and Flame, 79:226.

Harwood, B. and Hall, J.R., (1989) Fire J. 83:29.

Neoh, K.G., Howard, J.B., and Sarofim, A.F.,

(1985) Twentieth Symposium (International) on Combustion/The Combustion Institute.

150
2. Dynamics, Transport and Chemical Kinetics of Compartment Fire Exhaust Gases

Principal Investigator

Uri Vandsburger

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and

State University

Blacksburg, VA

(703)231-4459

Richard J. Roby

Hughes Associates, Inc. (301)596-2190

Objective

To determine when high concentrations of

carbon monoxide (CO) are transported to locations remote from the building fire origin

and develop correlations to predict the

amount of CO which is transported to these

locations.

Problem

Two-thirds of the deaths which are caused in building fires are attributed to smoke and

toxic gas inhalation. The majority of these

deaths occur at locations distant from the fire origin and are caused by CO inhalation.

Models need to be developed to predict when

and the amount of CO that is transported to remote locations in building fires.

Approach

In a number of building fires where people

died of CO inhalation, ambient air was

entrained into the room containing the fire while the rest of the building was not able to

entrain ambient air. The reduced-scale building fire facility at VPI&SU which consists of a compartment connected to the side of a hall- way was used to investigate the conditions

necessary for transport of high concentrations

of CO. The facility was altered so limited oxygen entered the hallway and the

compartment. Two scenarios have been

addressed thus far. In the first case, oxygen

containing combustion gases are entrained

into the compartment from the hallway via a doorway connecting the two. The second set

of experiments had a controlled amount of

ambient air entering the compartment with the

compartment and hallway connected by a window size opening.

In the experiments with oxygen being

entrained from the hallway, the compartment

temperatures were only 950 K and the

compartment upper-layer was seen to drop all the way to the floor. The CO concentration

0.05 m below the ceiling in the hallway fell to

1 .6% after being transported approximately

0.71 m down the hallway and then remained

constant for the rest of the hallway length.

This was due to the hallway upper-layer

temperatures being less than 700 K after traveling just 0.71 m down the hallway. The

CO was being transported down the hallway

in the presence of approximately 6% 0^ in the

upper-layer of the hallway. CO yields

downstream of the hallway were 0.25 which

is comparable to yields previously seen inside

the compartment.

In the experiments where a controlled amount

of ambient air enters the compartment, a decrease in the air entrainment rate into the

compartment resulted in higher global

equivalence ratios (GER). The CO

concentration 3.76 m downstream of the

compartment was seen rise with a rise in GER

up to a GER of 1 .8-2.0 (with no external

burning). For GER greater than 1 .8-2.0, the

CO concentration 3.76 m downstream of the

compartment stayed relatively constant. At

these higher GER, 1 % CO was leaving

the hallway with external burning occurring.

Most of what was being oxidized in the

external burning was unburned hydrocarbons

and not CO. With higher GER, the upper-layer

inside the compartment fell down close to the

floor. As the GER was increased, the

temperatures inside the compartment and the

hallway approached those seen in the

experiments where oxygen was entrained

from the hallway.

By limiting the amount of oxygen entrainment

into the hallway and the compartment, high

levels of CO can be transported to the remote

locations in the building. Further research will be performed to determine the effects the

fluid mechanics inside the hallway and the

stoichiometry of the gases entering the

hallway have on the transport of CO.

Recent Results

Lattimer, B.Y., Ewens, D.S., Vandsburger, U. and Roby, R.J., 1995, "Transport and

Oxidation of Compartment Fire Exhaust Gases

in an Adjacent Corridor", Journal of Fire

Protection Engineering, Vol. VI, No. 4.

151
Lattimer, B.Y., Vandsburger, U., and Roby,

R.J., 1995, "Carbon Monoxide Production,

Transport and Oxidation from a Compartment

Fire with a Combustible Ceiling", 8th Int. Sym. on Transport Phenomena in Combustion, San Francisco.

3. Experimental Study of the Optical Properties of Soot and Smoke

Principal Investigator:

Mun Young Choi

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Illinois at Chicago

Chicago, IL 60607

(312)996-7389

MunYChoi@uic.edu

Objectives

To measure the dimensionless extinction constant for soot generated from various fuels

using gravimetric sampling and simultaneous

light extinction techniques. Determine the

effects of soot morphology, sampling temperature, burner configurations on the measured

extinction constant. The focus of the

proposed study is on the development and

use of Gravimetric Sampling/Light Extinction

technique to measure Ke. This technique consists of isokinetically sampling the soot at a known flow rate, measuring the mass of soot

collected and determining the density of soot

using helium pycnometry. The soot volume

fraction determined simultaneously using optical extinction measurements (to be performed

in the spectral range of 600 nm to 3000 nm)

will then be calibrated using the soot volume

fraction determined from the gravimetric technique. In this manner the magnitude and the

spectral variation of Ke can be determined

without relying on the refractive index of soot

or making drastic assumptions regarding its scattering characteristics.

Approach

In the fire and combustion community, light

extinction is commonly used to measure the

soot volume fraction. This technique is attractive because it provides instantaneous and

relatively non-intrusive measurements. Some

of the applications for light extinction technique include the study of soot formation and

growth in flames, monitoring of particulates

for smoke plume modeling, measurement of

soot concentration for fire detection and as- sessing visibility reduction in buildings.

The soot volume fraction measurements are very sensitive to the choice of dimensionless

extinction constant used in the calculations.

Recent measurements indicate that there are

significant uncertainties in the dimensionless

extinction constant due to the use of limiting

assumptions and inaccurate optical property

data for soot which can result in errors of up

to 50%. Thus, in order to improve the light

extinction technique for use in combustion

and fire applications, this study proposes to accurately measure the dimensionless extinction constant without relying on the available

optical properties of soot or limiting assumptions.

Recent Results

Zhou, Z. and Choi, M.Y., "Measurement of

Dimensionless Extinction Constant of Soot

Generated Using Various Fuels," To be pre- sented at the Central/Western/Mexican Sections of the Combustion Institute, San Antonio, TX, April, 1995.

Vander Wal, R.L., Z. Zhou and M.Y. Choi,

"Spatially Resolved Spectral and Temporal

Characterization and Gravimetric Sampling

Calibration of Laser-Induced- Incandescence,"

Combustion and Flame, Submitted, 1995.

4. Mixing and Radiation Properties of Buoyant

Luminous Flame Environments

Principal Investigator:

G.M. Faeth

Department of Aerospace Engineering

The University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, Ml 48109-21 19

313-764-7202

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To complete measurements of the mixing and

radiation properties of luminous buoyant

152
turbulent flame environments, and to exploit

these results to develop and evaluate

advanced models of practical unwanted fires.

Problem

Turbulent mixing and radiation from luminous

flames are major mechanisms controlling the

rates of spread, growth and combustion of

unwanted fires; therefore, these properties are important elements of contemporary models

of unwanted fires; that find application for quantifying fire hazards while avoiding the

time and cost of full-scale fire tests. Unfortunately, available information about the properties of buoyant turbulent flow is very limited,

which has impeded model development and

evaluation. In addition, radiation from soot in luminous flames is the dominant radiation

mechanism of fires but is poorly understood

due to uncertainties about soot optical properties. Thus, both these issues are being addressed during this investigation.

Approach

The study of buoyant turbulent flows is concentrating on self-preserving buoyant turbulent plumes because they are fundamental

classical flows that are independent of source

properties and can be numerically simulated

with modest computational requirements.

Present work began with self-preserving

round buoyant turbulent plumes using laser- induced fluorescence and laser velocimetry to measure mixing levels and velocity properties,

respectively. These measurements revealed

that earlier work did not extend far enough

from the source to reach self-preserving conditions, and that self-preserving round turbulent plumes were narrower, and had larger

scaled mean values near the axis, than previously thought. Mean and turbulence properties satisfied self-preserving behavior and were measured to facilitate model development.

Attention has now turned to the classical

problem of self-preserving plane (or line) buoyant turbulent plumes for several reasons.

First of all, the streamwise rates of

development of self-preserving round and line buoyant turbulent plumes is fundamentally

different which provides a useful evaluation of

modeling improvements needed to treat the

complex flows of practical fire environments.

Secondly, the line buoyant turbulent plume is a necessary precursor for gaining a better

understanding of turbulent flows along

surfaces. Finally, reaching self-preserving

flow conditions is more difficult for line than

round plumes; therefore, concerns about

existing measurements that claim to represent

self-preserving behavior must be resolved

before this information can be exploited for model development.

Work on the radiation properties of luminous

flames is concentrating on the optical

properties of soot because continuum

radiation from soot is the most important source of radiation in fires. Measurements

and computations during initial phases of the

study showed that the popular Rayleign and

Mie scattering theories were not effective for soot as massfractal aggregates of primary

soot particles, was effective for the conditions

of interest. Measurements revealed that the

fractal properties of soot aggregates were

robust; therefore, current large uncertainties

about the refractive indices of soot, and how

they vary with fuel type and flame condition,

are the greatest impediment to reliable estimates of soot optical properties.

In view of these findings, work is concentrating on soot refractive indices. The

first phase of this work involves the use of

insitu methods based on extinction and

scattering measurements for the ultra-violet and visible wavelength ranges (200-800 nm),

considering soot in both nonpremixed and

premixed flame environments. The next

phase of the work will involve the use of ex

situ reflectively measurements in the visible and infrared wavelength ranges (500-1000

nm) for the same soot populations. This

approach allows both comparison of effects of

in situ and ex situ methods and evaluation

effects of soot temperatures on refractive

indices. Given this information, the final phase of the investigation will evaluate

predictions of radiation from soot-containing

flames using present methods, based on

radiation measurements for well-characterized

luminous laminar flames.

Recent Results

Dai, Z., Seng, L.-K. And Faeth, G.M.,

"Velocity Statistics of Round, Fully-developed

Buoyant Turbulent Plumes," J. Heat Trans.,

117, 138, 1995.

153
Dai, Z., Tseng, L.-K., and Faeth, G.M.,

"Structure of Round, Fully-Developed, Buoyant Turbulent Plumes," J. Heat Trans., 1 16,

409, 1994.

Farias, T.L., Carvalho, M.C., Koylu, U.O., and

Faeth, G.M., "Computational Evaluation of

Approximate Rayleigh-Debye-Gans/FractalAggregate Theory for the Absorption and

Scattering Properties of Soot," J. Heat Trans.,

117, 152, 1995.

Koylu, U.O., and Faeth, G.M., "Optical

Properties of Overfire Soot in Buoyant

Turbulent Diffusion Flames at Long Residence

Times," J. Heat Trans., 116, 152, 1994.

Koylu, U.O., and Faeth, G.M., "Optical

Properties of Soot in Buoyant Laminar

Diffusion Flames," J. Heat Trans., 116, 971,

1994.

Koylu, U.O., Faeth, G.M., Farias, T.L., and

Carvalho, M.G., "Fractal and Projected

Structure Properties of Soot Aggregates,"

Combust. Flame. 100, 621, 1995.

5. Post-Flame Soot

Principal Investigator:

Christopher M. Sorensen

Department of Physics

Kansas State University

Manhattan, KS 66506-2601

913-532-1626

Objective

To develop a morphological description of

large soot aggregates that can escape from a diffusion flame and relate morphology to the

soot cluster optical properties and the kinetics

of their creation.

Problem

Carbonaceous soot released from combustion

processes is a major atmosphere pollutant

effecting both visibility and health. Such soot

at much higher concentrations in building fires

is also the source of the extreme obscuration

and is a major cause of fatalities in such a

situation. Thus it is important to know what

this soot is, i.e., how to describe it physically.

This proposed morphological description will be the basis for understanding its optical

properties, transport, and kinetics of creation.

Approach

Post-Flame Soot is the soot that escapes

unburned from the top of a fuel rich flame. It is composed of large fluffy aggregates which

continue to grow in the post-flame

environment. For certain fuels and burning

conditions these aggregates may grow to become visible to the unaided eye. How do

these aggregates or "supersoot" form? Is there a different physical route to form these

particles than for in-flame soot, or can the

growth be explained in terms of stochastic

Brownian dynamics? What is their

morphology, are they fractals, and how is the

morphology related to the kinetics of their

formation? And what are their optical

properties and can these properties be related to their morphology in a straightforward

manner?

In the first year of this work we studied the

morphology of soot collected from a laminar

acetylene diffusion flame in still air. The

burner was simply a 0.9 cm ID tube through

which acetylene flowed at a rate of 3.2

cm^/sec. Soot was sampled both

thermophoretically and via impaction, using a sampling device that held the collection TEM

grid or microscope slide in the flame for 15

msec. The thermophoretic samples were

viewed with a TEM at 20800x magnification.

The impaction samples were viewed with an

optical microscope at 72x. Photographs were

digitized and analyzed with a computer. Over

a 1000 soot clusters were analyzed to obtain

N, the number of monomers per cluster, a, the

monomer radius, and Rg, the cluster radius of

gyration. From these measurements the

fractal dimension Df and the prefactor ko were obtained by fitting to Morphological

studies were very successful. Our largest

soot clusters were nearly 1 mm across (Rg~0.4 mm). The range in Rg was four

orders of magnitude; in N it was several

orders of magnitude. We found that

throughout this great range the morphology

was the same: fractal with Df = 1 .80 ± 0.

1

and ko = 2.3±0.6.

These results are important because they

study soot two orders of magnitude larger (in

154
Rg) than any previous work. They establish

that the same morphology holds from clusters

of a few monomers up to clusters of 100 million monomers! Both Df and ko, which we

measured over this vast range of sizes, are key variables for future optical characterization. Finally, our results strongly imply that

Diffusion Limited Cluster Aggregation (DLCA)

Is the kinetics of formation throughout this large size range.

Future work will study the optics of these

large clusters based on this morphological

understanding.

Recent Results

Sorensen, CM., and Feke, G.D., "Morphology

of Macroscopic Post-Flame Soot," submitted

to Combustion and Flame.

155

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

MATERIALS FIRE

RESEARCH

157

Polymer Flammability Modeling

Principal Investigators:

Marc R. Nyden

Fire Science Division

301-975-6692

Kathy Butler

Fire Science Division

301-975-6673

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Federal Aviation Administration

Technical Center

Objective

To develop an integrated model of thermal

degradation and char formation in burning

polymers leading to the development of

technical bases for the design of a new

generation of fire retardants and fire resistant

materials.

Problem

Flammability is a major concern when

polymeric materials are used in buildings,

aircraft ships and clothing. Today's standards

for acceptable cost, performance and environmental safety have made the traditional "trial and error" approach to materials flammability

obsolete.

Approach

There is a strong correlation between char

residue and fire resistance since char is always formed at the expense of volatile fuel. Furthermore, the presence of a surface char

insulates unburnt material from the heat

generated in gas phase combustion reactions

and obstructs the outward flow of

combustible gases generated in the

degradation of the interior. The thermal

degradation chemistry of some polymers can

be altered to favor char formation with

chemical additives and/or by direct

modification of the structure of the polymer.

The challenge is to achieve significant levels of fire resistance without adversely affecting

intended-use properties, cost, and the toxicity

of these materials.

During FY 1995, BFRL will research microand macroscopic phenomena. The

microscopic approach is based on a molecular

dynamics model of the thermal degradation of

polymers which was developed at BFRL. The

dynamic trajectories of the polymers are calculated from Hamilton's equations of

motion. Macromolecular systems, which are too costly or too complex to synthesize on a routine basis, can be modeled and

systematically varied, all the while examining

their tendency to form high molecular weight

crosslinked structures.

Modification of BFRL's molecular dynamics

model to accept geometrical input from

INSIGHT II, (a commercial product developed

and maintained by Biosym Technologies) was

completed in FY 1994. This is the first step

in developing the capability to model the

thermal degradation of a wide range of

polymers. The molecular forcefield also has

been expanded to permit simulations of the

degradation of polyvinyl alcohol. The application to other vinyl polymers should be

possible, however, the extension to polyaromatics will require a completely new

programming approach and access to proprietary databases consisting of forcefield

parameters for a much wider range of

molecular structures. Work will focus at predicting the rate-of-heat-release in combustion of vinyl polymers.

The macroscopic model simulates the

dynamics of the swelling process as the result of an ensemble of expanding and migrating

bubbles. The motions of bubbles and the

material surface obey the flow field obtained

by summing the contributions from all bubbles. Material properties and bubble

growth rate depend on local temperature and

the chemistry of the gasification process.

Recent Results

Lomakin, S.M., Brown, J.E., Breese, R.S., and

Nyden, M.R., "An Investigation of the

Thermal Stability and Char Forming Tendency

of Cross-linked Poly(methyl methacrylate),"

Polym. Deg. and Stab., 41, 229,1993.

Nyden, M.R., and Brown, J.E.,"A New

Generation of Fire Resistant Polymers: Part I Computer Aided Molecular Design,"

Proceedings of the 12th Joint Panel Meeting

of the UJNR Panel on Fire Research and

Safety, 257, 1 992

159
Chemistry of Polymer Flammability

Principal Investigators:

Jeffrey Gilman

Fire Science Division

301-975-6573

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To characterize the chemical structure of

polymer residues which are generated at well- defined fire simulated conditions, for the

purpose of determining the links between

original polymer structure, non-halogenated

additives, char characteristics and

flammability properties for polymer materials.

be generated, from the preceramic/organic

polymer blends, in an inert-flow-pyrolysis

apparatus at many different temperatures.

Char yield, C/H ratio, aromatic/aliphatic ratio (CP/MAS 13C NMR and PAS-FTIR), crosslink

density (swelling tests) will be measured. For

higher heating rate conditions, the samples

will be evaluated under fire-like (non-oxidizing)

conditions in a gasification apparatus which

exposes large compression molded samples

(100 g, disks) to a radiant heat source (2.5-40

kW/m^) in a atmosphere. Gaseous degradation products for the selected polymer

samples may also be analyzed using the pyroprobe FTIR.

Recent Results

Gilman, J., W., Vanderhart, D.L., and

Kashiwagi, T., "Fire and Polymers,"

Symposium Series Book, American Chemical

Society, Fall ACS 1 994 Meeting,

Washington, D.C. (in press)

Problem

Two recent trends which have started to

affect the U.S. plastics industry are polymer

recycling and a demand for non-halogenated

flame retardant treatments. The degradation

products of polymers with such treatments

are corrosive and some may be toxic. One

alternative flame retardant approach is to form

char during polymer burning. This approach is ideal in that carbon atoms retained in the

condensed phase, as char, lessen the

available fuel for flaming combustion even as they help insulate the polymer from the heat

of the flame. However, at present, there is very little quantitative information about the

relation between polymer structure, char

properties, the effect of non halogenated

additives, and realistic flammability properties.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will evaluate candidate

polymer/additive systems, using its Cone

Calorimeter, for novel (improved) flammability

behavior. Preceramic polymer/organic

polymer blends will be prepared and

evaluated.

The solid state decomposition chemistry of

promising candidates will be characterized

primarily using CP/MAS 13C NMR. Samples

at intermediate stages of decomposition will

160
Burning Rate of Materials

Principal Investigator:

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Anthony Hamins

Fire Science Division

301-975-6598

Kenneth Steckler

Fire Science Division

301-975-6678

Philip Austin

Fire Science Division

301-975-4508

Steven Ritchie

Fire Science Division

301-975-5441

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To improve the understanding of the physical

and chemical gasification processes of

thermoplastics and char forming polymers; to develop theoretical models to predict the

gasification rates of polymers exposed to fire conditions; to improve understanding of

energy feedback mechanisms of pool fires and

to develop theoretical models to predict

energy feedback rates from a pool flame to the fuel surface; to determine heat transfer

rate from flame to horizontal surface near a rectangular shape fuel source under external

wind for simulation of flame spread; to improve mathematical models to predict the

burning rate of thermoplastics; and to develop

models for char forming polymers by

combining the gasification models with the

energy feedback rate models.

Problem

At present, models are not available that can

calculate the burning rate (heat release rate)

of building contents. Therefore, a fire source

is prescribed or estimated from bench scale

tests for HAZARD I (BFRL's software that

predicts the hazard to a building and

occupants anywhere within a building). In

order to improve the prediction of fire hazard,

accurate description of fire source is urgently

needed.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop burning

rate models (global and field equation) of

polymeric materials (including char formers)

for simple horizontal configurations. This

research consists of coupling between

experiments and modeling; it is divided into

two parts; one is to determine energy

feedback rates from a pool flame for various

fuels and sizes and the other is to determine

the gasification rate of various polymers. Gas

phase combustion characteristics are measured for a variety of fuels with pool

diameters up to 100 cm. Global and field equation energy feedback models are developed as a function of fuel type and size.

In the condensed phase, a well-defined

thermal radiation source is used to simulate

energy feedback from a flame to a polymer

surface; the gasification rate, temperature and

density distributions in the polymer are measured under nonflaming condition for various radiant fluxes. Gasification models for thermoplastics and char forming polymers are developed. The results of this project will be

applied for understanding combustion

characteristics of noncarbon based polymers

such as silicone, (a CRADA with Dow

Corning).

Recent Results

Choi, M.Y., Hamins, A., Mulholland, G., and

Kashiwagi, T., "Comparison of the Soot

Volume Fraction Using Gravimetric and

Optical Techniques," to appear in Combustion

and Flame, 1994.

Kashiwagi, T., "Role of the Condensed Phase

in Polymer Combustion and Flammability," to appear in the Twenty-Fifth International

Symposium on Combustion.

Rushmeyer, H.E., Hamins, A., and Choi, M.Y.,

"Case Study: Volume Rendering of Pool Fire data," to appear IEEE Computer Graphics and

Applications, Special Issue, Visualization Case

Studies (Ed. by Silver, D., and Robertson, P.)

Choi, M.Y., Hamins, A., and Kashiwagi, T., "Simultaneous Optical Measurement of Soot

Volume Fraction and Temperature in Premixed

161
Flames," Combustion and Flame, 99, 174-

186, 1994.

Yang, J.C., Hamins, A., and Kashiwagi, T. "Estimate of the Effect of Scale on Radiative

Heat Loss Fraction and Combustion

Efficiency," Combustion Science &

Technology, 96; 183-188 (1994).

Hamins, A., Klassen, M., Gore, J., Fischer, S., & Kashiwagi, T. "Heat Feedback to the Fuel

Surface in Pool Fires," Combustion Science &

Technology, 97: 37-62 (1994).

Choi, M.Y., Hamins, A., Rushmeyer, H.E., and

Kashiwagi, T., "Simultaneous Optical

Measurement of Soot Volume Fraction,

Temperature, and CO^ in Heptane Pool Fires," to appear in the Twenty-Fifth Symposium on

Combustion, 1994.

Related Grants

"A Study of Entrainment and Flow Patterns in Pool Fires Using Imaging Velocimetry," Gore,

J. P., Purdue University.

"Modeling of Combustion, Fluid Mechanics,

and Radiation in Buoyant Turbulent Fires,"

Ezekoy, 0. A., University of Texas at Austin.

Combustion of Silicone

Principal Investigator:

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor:

Dow Corning Company

Objective

To understand the combustion mechanism of

siioxane.

Problem

The heat release rate (HRR) of burning

materials increases significantly with an

increase in external thermal radiant flux

applied to the burning surface. This is true for

noncharring materials and also for charring

materials. However, the burning behavior of

siloxanes differs markedly from carbon-based

materials. Perhaps most significant, the HRR

for siloxanes (chain length > 15 Si-0 units)

does not increase significantly with an

increase in external thermal radiant flux. Whereas carbon based materials may form

products of incomplete combustion such as

soot and carbonaceous chars, siloxanes form

very minimal char but produce substantial a- mounts of solid amorphous silica (SiOj) as a major product of combustion. Previous

studies suggest that amorphous silica plays a

significant role in mediating the burning

behavior of siloxanes.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will:

1 . Determine gasification rate of

siloxanes having different chain length

in nitrogen and derive the relationship

between external radiant flux and

global heat of gasification, and

2. Collect silica particles at various

locations of D4 pool flame and

characterize their nature.

Recent Results

Buch, R., Hamins, A., Mattingly, D., Shields,

J., Borthwick, P., and Kashiwagi, T., "Pool

Burning of Silicon Fluids," 1994 Fall Technical

Meeting, The Eastern States Section of

Combustion Institute, pp204-208, 1994

162
Flammability of Structural Composites

Principal Investigator:

Thomas Ohiemiller

Fire Science Division

301-975-6481

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop quantitative procedures for

assessing the impact of fire on structural

composites.

Problem

Composites are highly attractive materials for a wide variety of structural uses. However,

the organic resins that comprise roughly 50%

of these materials are flammable and subject

to loss of strength in a fire. The available

quantitative information on these concerns is limited. Two research issues need resolution:

1. Impact of composite formulation . Resin

chemistry is foremost here but fiber form,

loading and distribution may also interact

significantly with flammability behavior

through thermal properties and rate of

gasification. The ability of current models of

fire growth to deal with the practical ranges

of these variables needs to be assessed.

2. Impact of structural configuration . Current

models and data only deal with a single flat surface. Concave or convex surfaces of more

complex structural members introduce new

thermal issues that can influence fire growth

potential. The possible variations in structural

member shape are unlimited so only general

guidelines, based on modeling and

experiment, are possible.

While all of the preceding considerations have

been enumerated in the context of fire growth, they bear equally on the issue of the

strength of composites during fire exposure.

An additional complication is that fire growth

and composite reaction to loading during a fire may interact since ply delamination

phenomena influence composite thermal

properties.

Approach

During FY 1 995, BFRL will focus its effort on

understanding fire growth in the absence of

structural loading. The first issue to be

addressed is the role of fiber loading and the

protective abilities of available surface

coatings. BFRL's Cone Calorimeter and lateral flame spread devices will be used to derive

quantitative measures of ignitability, heat

release rate and opposed-flow flame spread

characteristics. The thermal conductivity of

these materials, before and after fire exposure, will be measured. The potential

impact of the observed range of the variables on upward flame spread will be assessed in the context of BFRL's models of this process,

with limited experimental checks. The

composites will be based on a vinyl ester resin

and woven glass.

Recent Results

New project.

163
Radiative Ignition and Subsequent

Flame Spread Over Cellulosic

Materials

Principal In vestiga tor: Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Howard Baum

Fire Safety Engineering

301-975-6668

Kevin McGrattan

Fire Safety Engineering

301-975-2712

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

Lewis Research Center

Microgravity Science Program

Objective

To develop new models that describe the

characteristics of heat transfer and flame

spread along a narrow diameter polymer rod

in microgravity.

Problem

This project is one of NASA Microgravity

Science projects to enhance understanding of

combustion science by taking unique

advantage of a microgravity environment.

Knowledge is lacking about the ignition and

subsequent flame spread over a thermally thin

cellulosic material in a microgravity

environment to a thermally thick material.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will expand current multi-dimensional code (axisymmetric, twodimensional, and three-dimensional) to include

thermally thick materials. Two environmental

conditions are being studied: one in a quiescent environment and the other in slow

forced flows. Validation experiments are planned for a shuttle flight in 1 996. The

experimental design, fabrication, experimental

parameters and procedures are being

developed with NASA's Lewis Research

Center. Exploratory experiments with a similar

hardware will be conducted using the

Japanese 10 seconds drop tower in March

1995. A new model describing heat transfer

and flame spread along a narrow diameter

polymer rod in microgravity will be developed.

Recent Results

Nakabe, K., McGrattan, K. B., Kashiwagi, T., Baum, H. R., Yamashite, H., and Kushide, G.,

"Ignition and Transition to Flame Spread Over

a Thermally Thin Cellulosic Sheet in a Microgravity Environment," Combustion and

Flame, 98; 361-374, 1994

McGrattan, K.B, Kashiwagi, T., Baum, H.R.,

and Olson, S.L., "Ignition and Wind Effects on

the Transition to Flame Spread in a Microgravity Environment," submitted to Combustion and Flame.

164
Combustion of a Polymer (PMMA)

Sphere in IVlicrogravity

Principal Investigator:

Jiann Yang

Fire Science Division

301-975-6662

'

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

Lewis Research Center

Objective

To determine the burning rates of PMMA

spheres in a low gravity environment under

various ambient conditions.

Problem

The need to use polymeric materials that

may be flammable cannot be totally elimi- nated aboard the space shuttle or the future

manned permanent space-station. Knowledge is required to understand potential fire threats caused by the presence of polymeric

materials. The use of spherical geometry

has many advantages - a spherical flame,

which is one-dimensional, is amenable to simple mathematical analysis and facilitates a detailed examination of the many interesting phenomena associated with the combustion of a solid phase material without involving the complications of flame-spread,

which is an active research area.

Approach

Reduced gravity is achieved by performing

the experiments aboard a learjet, a DC-9 or

a KC-135 aircraft flying a parabolic trajectory. During FY1995, BFRL will evaluate

different ignition techniques to determine

the optimal method for igniting a PMMA

sphere. A mechanism for deploying an un- supported sphere will be developed. Experiments using suspended spheres will be conducted. Suspended spheres will be

obtained by supporting the spheres at the

tip of a thermocouple. Results will be compared with those obtained under normal

gravity condition. NASA will provide technical assistance to the initial design phase of

the experiment and will conduct flight ex- periments.

Recent Results

New project.

Lean Flammability Limit as a Fundamental Refrigerant Property

Principal Investigator:

Carole Womeldorf

Fire Science Division

301-975-4415

Sponsor:

Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration Institute

Objective

To demonstrate that a counterflow burner can be used to establish the lean flammability limit of HFC-32 and identify the critical flammability ratio of HFC-32/HFC-1 25 mixtures.

Problem

A critical element of the risk analysis of

alternative refrigerants is the lean flammability limit, which is currently determined ac- cording to ASTM E681-85. Variations in flammability limits are observed depending

on the initial conditions chosen for conducting the test. There is a need to eliminate

these variations and to establish invariant,

fundamental lean flammability limits which

can be attributed to refrigerant mixtures in a manner similar to fundamental thermodynamic properties like enthalpy of formation

and adiabatic flame temperature.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will modify an existing burner facility will be modified to operate in a symmetrical, adiabatic mode, with

independent control of the gaseous refriger- ant and air flows. The burner will be cali- brated using methane CH4 to ensure that

the facility is capable of reproducing the

published values of the lean flammability

limit. Stoichiometric flames of HFC-32 and

air will be examined. The flow velocity will be varied to establish the extinction strain rate and to identify the dynamic range of

the burner using a less flammable fuel. The

fuel/air equivalence ratio will be varied

about the stoichiometric point and the strain rate will be adjusted to identify the most

robust mixture (normally slightly rich for hydrocarbon flames). The lean flammability

limit of HFC-32 will be found using the zero

strain rate extrapolation method. The criti- cal flammability ratio can be found either by

slowly increasing the fraction of HFC-125 in

165
the HFC/air mixture while maintaining the

overall equivalence ratio and strain rate

fixed, or by fixing the concentrations of all constituents and slowly increasing the strain rate by reducing the spacing between the

upper and lower burners.

Recent Results Sponsor:

New project. National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Furniture Flammability

Principal Investigator:

Thomas Ohiemiller

Fire Science Division

301-975-6481

Objective

To develop an initial set of guidelines for furniture manufacturers to design

upholstered furniture with low, rate of heat

release.

Problem

The flammability of upholstered furniture

continues to be a substantial problem in residential and public occupancies. This is a smoldering and a flaming ignition problem.

The smoldering problem, primarily in residences, is currently being addressed by

a voluntary industry program and by

consideration of regulations on cigarette

ignition propensity. The flaming ignition

problem and its consequences in terms of

heat release are being addressed in differing manners which depend on occupancy in which the furniture is used. California

Technical Bulletin 133 requires that public

occupancy furniture respond to an arson-like

1 8 kW igniter with a peak heat release rate of 80 kW or less. This severe test has

encouraged the development of barrier

technology (a protective fabric layer

between fabric and foam); the technology is sufficiently cost effective in this context

that it is not meeting strong industry

resistance. However, there are so many

variables in furniture design that only very

large companies are able to perform the

large number of empirical tests needed to assure compliance across their product line. This, coupled with the technical

attractiveness of barriers for controlling heat

release behavior in any upholstered furniture

(including residential), has prompted BFRL's

ongoing efforts to develop a quantitative

understanding of the various factors that

control the heat release curve in a CB 133

test environment using mock-ups containing

various barrier fabrics.

166
Approach

During FY 1 995, BFRL will study the

relationships between small-scale test data

(Cone Calorimeter, LIFT) and full-scale mockup behavior. Currently, the focus is on mockups containing a barrier fabric. Results of

related studies such as by the Association for Contract Textiles and the European

Community will be considered as BFRL

develops its guidelines for industry. Having

completed in FY 1994 such a study of barrier

effects for several fabrics in a fixed mock-up

geometry, BFRL will vary the geometry

systematically. This calls for a series of

mock-ups involving a very limited material

selection but wide variations in seat, seatback

and arm cushion dimensions. The design

rules that emerge from this research will be

tested against real furniture, both isolated and

In a room context.

This program contributed substantially toward

the increasing acceptance of CB 133 as a meaningful basis for assessing the heat

release hazard of a furniture fire.

Recent Results

Cleary, T., Ohiemiller, T., and Villa, K., "The

Influence of Ignition Source on the Flaming

Fire Hazard of Upholstered Furniture," Fire

Safety Journal, 23, p79, 1 994

Ohiemiller, T. and Shields, R., Behavior of

Mock-ups in the California Technical Bulletin

133, Test Protocol: Fabric and Barrier Effects,

NISTIR, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, (in review)

Evaluation of Fire Barrier Performance

Principal Investigator:

Kenneth D. Steckler

Fire Science Division

301-975-6678

Sponsor:

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulations

Objective

To provide technical expertise in reviewing

and evaluating for NRC staff technical issues

related to fire-barrier systems used in nuclear

power plants.

Problem

The NRC requires technical assistance for evaluating the fire performance of certain fire barrier systems intended to satisfy the fire protection of safe shutdown capability as

specified in certain NRC documents.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform reducedscale fire-endurance tests on certain fire- barrier materials used in nuclear power plants.

BFRL will make arrangements to have some

of the materials tested according to ASTM E- 84 at a commercial laboratory and chemical

analysis performed on pre-test specimens by

NIST's Chemical Science and Technology

Laboratory.

BFRL will research the development of the

ASTM #E-1 19 temperature-time fire-severity curve, analyze past efforts to develop curves

for other specific applications, and assess the

feasibility of developing and implementing

nuclear-power-plant-specific fire-severity curves.

Recent Results

Steckler, K.D., Pilot-scale Fire-Endurance

Tests of Fire-Barrier Materials, Blankets, and

Panels, Report of Test FR3994, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, March

1994

167
Calibration Facility for Particle Size

and Concentration

Recent Results

New project.

Principal Investigator:

George W. Mulholland

Fire Science Division

301-975-6695

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a facility for accurately measuring

particle size and concentration and for

depositing monodisperse particles of specified

size, number, and chemistry on calibration

artifacts.

Problem

The detection, quantification and

characterization of particulate contamination on semiconductor surfaces is essential to advanced semiconductor manufacturing. The

present practical limit for particle detection is 0.1 /ym diameter. The National Technology

Roadmap for Semiconductors calls for the

ability to detect and quantify particles with

0.06 /ym equivalent diameter by 2001 . There

is a need for accurately sized monodisperse

particles in the size range from 0.07 //m to 0.2 /ym for developing and calibrating

improved wafer scanners.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will create a laboratory

with state-of-the-art instrumentation for generating monodisperse aerosols, for accurately characterizing the size and

concentration, and for depositing the particles on a calibration artifact. Key instruments for the laboratory are constant output nebulizers, an electrical mobility analyzer, condensation

nucleus counter, aerosol electrometer, bipolar

charger, cascade impactor, and optical

microscope. The basic approach is to nebulize a suspension of spheres in water,

evaporate the water, classify the particles

with an electrostatic classifier, and measure

the concentration with a condensation

nucleus counter. A major element in the

facility will be the calibration of the basic

physical quantities including the flows and the

voltage.

168
RECENT GRANTS - MATERIALS

FIRE RESEARCH

1 . A Study of Entrainment and Flow Patterns

in Pool Fires Using Particle Imaging

Velocimetry

Principal Investigator:

Jay P. Gore

Thermal Sciences and Propulsion Center,

Purdue University

West Lafayette, IN 47907-1003

317-494-1452

Objective

To measure entrainment flow field around

pool fires using Particle Imaging Velocimetry

(PIV) in order to resolve the large discrepancies between existing data and correlations.

Utilize the entrainment data to demonstrate

the capabilities and limitations of a fundamentally sound fire induced flow field model

(Baum-McCaffrey model) developed at BFRL.

Problem

Rate of air entrainment into pool fires affects

their heat feedback, burning rate and toxic

material production. Empirical correlations of

entrainment rates show up to an order of

magnitude scatter and are therefore not reli- able for use in fire prediction models.

Approach

Flow field induced by pool fires in a quiescently seeded, screened enclosure with well- defined boundary conditions is examined. In FY 1992 and 1993, it was discovered that

the fire induced flow field did not allow a simple definition of the entrainment rate as

the change of mass flow rate (from zero to

infinite radius) in the axial direction with

height. In fact, a finite surface (or radius) over which the entrainment occurred had to be explicitly or implicitly defined. While the

classical definition required integration to

infinite radius, several suggestions regarding

the proper specification of a finite surface were quickly made by members of the

combustion and fire communities (Zhou and

Gore, 1995). These included: (1) the visible flame surface, (2) the turbulent interface, and

(3) the vorticity interface. However, none of

the experimental data and correlations in the

literature defined or identified the interface.

Thus the reasons for the order of magnitude

differences became clear. At this point it was

recognized that the idea of a universal

correlation for entrainment rates should be

replaced by one that considered the basic

physics of the fire induced flow field correctly

but did not involve a direct numerical

simulation of the turbulent reacting flow.

The kinematic approach developed by Baum

and McCaffrey is based on such an idea.

Thus attention has been focused on the

utilization of this model as the recipe for calculation of the fire induced flow field and

the resulting entrainment rate. The model

inputs include the heat release rate

distribution, the fire plume vorticity

distribution and a specification of the type of

boundaries (solid wall or floor or free at- mospheric air) existing on all sides of the fire. Given these inputs, the model is capable of

predicting the entire fire induced flow field in a matter of seconds on a personal computer

and therefore is no more complicated than

using a correlation if one existed. The user

. can find the mass flow rate into any

computation domain of interest.

The efficacy of such an approach was

demonstrated with excellent qualitative

results in Zhou et al. (1995). By considering

fires with and without a floor, the dramatic

difference in the flow field caused by a "simple" change in boundary conditions was

shown. Quantitative demonstration must

await improved heat release rate and vorticity

measurements inside the fire.

2. Modeling of Combustion, Fluid Mechanics,

and Radiation in Buoyant Turbulent Fires

Principal Investigator:

Professor O.A. Ezekoye and Z. Zhang, Doctoral Candidate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The University of Texas at Austin

Austin, TX 78712

Objective

The continued development of appropriate

strategies for fire safety engineering will rely

upon both experimental and computational

data on fires. Adequate computational

169
formulations of fire physics are still very much

in the development stages. Among the

various computational approaches being

developed to model fires becoming

increasingly clear that the method for future

computations will be Large Eddy Simulations

(LES). In Large Eddy Simulations, the large

scale dynamics of a flow field are resolved on

the available scales and subgrid scale models

are introduced into the simulation to model

phenomena occurring below grid scales. For

fire modeling, these phenomena include the

combustion processes and also some aspects

of the radiative transfer phenomena.

In our research program we are developing a subgrid scale Lagrangian flamelet (thermal

element) model to be used in conjunction with

LES fire codes. As with all flamelet

strategies, the laminar nature of the flamelet

implies that direct computation of the

necessary combustion reactions can be

performed for any level of detail required.

Thus, reaction chemistry can be specified to be either detailed or simplified. Various levels of chemical mechanism specification are investigated in our project. An appropriate

level of physical processes must be specified on the thermal element such that the radiation

field from asimulated fire flow field may be

accurately modeled. This implies that both the

soot species and temperature distributions

should be accurately computed on the

flamelet.

The Lagrangian element has also been used

to aid in the clarification of processes such as

radiative extinction of diffusion flames. A

theoretical analysis for transient radiative

extinction was formulated in the context of

high activation asymptotics using the

formalism first introduced by Fendell and

Linan. The effects of transient processes

within diffusion flames were described using a propane mechanism with aphenomenological

soot model. Subsequently, we've focused on

fuel specific computations with well specified

(within the literature) reaction mechanisms for

fuel species (detailed and reduced) as well as

for soot species (Leung-Lindstadt). Recently,

the combustion history of acetylene-air

diffusion flames was computed using two

modeling strategies that are generally

assumed to yield the same results (state

relationships and finite rate chemical

mechanisms). The result of these

computations was the construction of

unsteady computational state relationships. It was found that the effects of finite rate chemistry were quite important in describing

the combustion process in cases where the

net radiative loss fraction was large, as well as points near ignition and extinction. The

implication is that there will be situations

where there will be large deviations from the

state relationship predictions of fuel burnout.

Recent Results

O.A. Ezekoye and Z. Zhang, "Modeling of a Lagrangian Flamelet with Radiation

Interaction," Combustion Science and

Technology, accepted 1995.

Z. Zhang and O.A. Ezekoye, "Computational

Study of State Relationships for Acetylene-Air

Diffusion Flames with Soot Radiation," to appear in HTD bound vol. ASME NHTC,

Portland, OR, August, 1995.

H.R. Baum, O.A. Ezekoye, K.B. McGrattan,

and R.G. Rehm, "Mathematical Modeling and

Computer Simulation of Fire Phenomena,"

Theoretical and Computational Fluid

Dynamics, vol 6., 1994.

Z. Zhang and O.A. Ezekoye, "Combustion of a Spherical Diffusion Flame in a Radiative Field,"

HTD bound vol. 296 ASME IMECE, Chicago,

III December 1994.

H.R. Baum, O.A. Ezekoye, K.B. McGrattan,

and R.G. Rehm, "Large Eddy Simulation of

Fire Phenomena," Ninth Symposium on Turbulent

Shear Flows, Kyoto, Japan, August 1993.

O.A. Ezekoye and H.R. Baum, "A Lagrangian

Element Analysis of Combustion Processes in Fires," Central & Eastern States Sections of

the Combustion Institute joint meeting, New

Orleans, LA, 1993.

170
3. Fire Growth Models for Materials

Principle Investigator:

James Quintiere, Prof.

Fire Protection Engineering

University of Maryland

College Park, MD

301-405-3993

Objective

The proposed research seeks to determine

transient burning rate models that can be

used to generalize data from the Cone Calorimeter. This will involve several models built upon a consistent framework. Each model

will be appropriate to a specific Class of Materials.

Problem

Bench-scale test methods developed by the

BFRL fire program have become standards,

and offer the potential for scientifically based

assessments of flammability. These test methods, based on the Cone Calorimeter and

the LIFT apparatuses, provide material data on ignition, flame spread and burning or energy release rate for small samples. There

is a need for utilizing these data to describe

the fire hazard of materials. The problem is to identify the form of these data consistent

with general models for ignition, burning rate, and spread.

Approach

A model with good accuracy has been

successfully demonstrated for thermoplasticlike materials. This is based on an integral

method that leads to a closed form analytical

solution for constant heat flux. As a result,

applications of that model will be examined.

First, it has been suggested to examine the case of step changes in irradiance to see if the current model can still yield accurate

results in the Cone Calorimeter. This will investigate the ability of the model to handle

sudden changes in fire heat flux. Second, the

effect of transient burning rate on upward

flame spread prediction will be examined.

This will test the current simplifying

assumption of quasisteady burning used in

fire growth models. Third, the model will be

extended for charring materials, maintaining

the same simplicity as the thermoplastic

model. The effect of char will be considered

as a growing insulated layer. Useful data

formats will be developed for the Cone

Calorimeter to provide the basis for

generalized solutions. In this way, it is intended to build upon Cone type data for

general fire hazard predictions.

Recent Results

Hopkins, D. Jr., Predicting the ignition Time

and Burning of Thermoplastics in the Cone

Calorimeter," MS Thesis, Department of Fire Protection, U. Of MD, May 1995.

J. Quintiere and N. Iqbal, "An Approximate

Integral Model for the Burning Rate of a Thermoplastic-like Material," Fire and

Materials. Vol. 18, 89-98, 1994.

N. Iqbal and J. Quintiere, "Flame Heat Fluxes

in PMMA Pool Fires," SFPE Journal, Vol. 6,

No. 4, 153-162, 1994.

B.T. Rhodes and J.G. Quintiere "Burning Rate

and Heat Flux for PMMA in the Cone Calorimeter," presented at the Fire and Materials

Conference, Crystal city, VA, Qctober, 1 994;

and submitted to the Fire Safety Journal.

J.F. Quintiere, "Estimating the Fire Growth on Compartment Interior Finish Materials," SFPE

Engineering Seminars, SFPE, San Francisco,

CA, May 16-18, 1994.

J. G. Quintiere, "Fire Tests and Hazard Eval- uation," 7th International Research and Training Seminar on Regional Development Planning For Disaster Prevention-Improved

Firesafety Systems in Developing Countries • 17 Qctober 1994 - Tokyo, Japan; and The

International Conference on Fire and Smoke

Resistant Materials, National Academy of

Sciences, November 8-10, 1994,

Washington, D.C.

171

FIRE SCIENCE DIVISION

FIRE SENSING AND

EXTINGUISHMENT

Advanced Fire Detection

Principal Investigator:

William L. Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To measure the chemical and physical

products formed very early in industryaccepted standard fires, and to design a universal test bed for evaluating the

effectiveness of conventional and novel fire sensors.

Problem

A new generation fire detection system is needed in order to protect American homes

and industrial production capability. It is necessary to sense a fire and its location and

suggest the correct suppression strategy

before the fire does significant damage and

without generating false-fire alerts. The

disparity in time scales between when a threat needs to be identified (seconds) and

how often a true fire event occurs (once in tens of years), along with the variability in geometry, content and occupancy of the

space, impose great demands on the system,

especially when cost is an overriding

constraint.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform two

activities:

1 . Perform experimental measurements

of the chemical and physical products

formed very early in a fire. This

activity follows from BFRL's review of

fire products performed in FY 1 994,

which identified significant holes in the database. Measurements of

temperature, infrared radiation,

particulates, and stable species will be

made within the plume directly above

standard UL and EN fires before the

heat release exceeds 50 kW.

2. Develop a universal fire emulator/detector evaluator (FE/DE) in which the velocity, individual gas

species, particulate matter and

temperature will be controlled as a function of time. Interaction will take

place with representatives from the

fire detector systems industry, UL,

NFPA and FM to more adequately

understand their requirements for such

a device and how it can be best

utilized to discriminate satisfactory

from unsatisfactory detection systems

and hasten the best ideas to market.

Recent Results

Grosshandler, W. "Towards the Development

of a Universal Fire Emulator/Detector

Evaluator," 10th Internationals Konferenz

Uber Automatische Brandentdeckong April

1995 AUBE '95 Proceedings, Duisburg,

Germany, April 1995.

Grosshandler, William L., A Review of

Measurement and Candidate Signatures for

Early Fire Detection. NISTIR 5555, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1995.

Grosshandler, W., and Jackson, M.,

"Acoustic Emission of Structural Materials

Exposed to an Open Flame," Fire Safety

Journal 22, 209-228, 1 994.

Grosshandler, W., and Braun, E., "Early

Detection of Room Fires Through Acoustic

Emission," Fourth International Symposium on

Fire Safety Science, Ottawa, June 13-17,

1994.

Smith, R.L., Performance Parameters of Fire

Detection Systems, NISTIR 5439, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, June 1994.

Grosshandler, W., "Novel Fire Detection

Concepts," NFPA 98th Annual Meeting, May

1994.

175
Related Grants

"Development of an Economical video-Based

Fire Detection and Location System," Plumb,

O.A., and Richards, R.F., Washington State

University.

"Smart Fire Detection Using Neutral

Networks," Milke, J. A., and McAvoy, T.J.,

University of Maryland.

"Advanced Infrared Systems for Detection of

Building fires," Serio, M.A., Advanced Fuel

Research, East Hartford, CT, Phase 1 SBIR.

"Decision-theoretic Control of Centralized Fire- alarm Systems, Knowledge industries," Shwe,

M., Palo Alto, CA, SBIR Phase 1.

"Advanced Fire Detection Based on Combined

Smoke and CO Sensors," Roby, R., Hughes

Associates, Inc., Columbia, MD, SBIR Phase

II.

Low Environmental Impact Fire

Extinguishment

Principal Investigator:

William Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop the physical and chemical

principles leading to identification and use of an optimal set of clean, effective, environmentally safe fire suppressants, and to demonstrate to the suppression system

manufacturing and user industries green

alternatives to halon-based technologies for

total flooding and streaming applications.

Problem

Fire protection of facilities requires

suppressants that will not harm the environment. Current alternatives to the halons have

some ozone depletion potential and/or are

significant greenhouse gases. Other

approaches to fire protection have features

that make them less desirable from an

operational standpoint than the halons they

are to replace. For example, sprinklers can

cause excessive water damage to a structure,

dry-powder suppressants leave a residue, and

fluorocarbons produce corrosive gases after passing through a flame. Requiring an

alternative which has the low toxicity of many

halons constrains selection choice of chemicals even more, suggesting that improved means for storage and delivery of less effective (but inherently safe) materials need

to be addressed.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue

researching the extinction mechanisms of

flames; the dynamics of transport of suppressants to the fire zone; a way to screen

potential aqueous, gaseous and particulate

agents; and the local and global environmental

impact resulting from release of the

suppressant into a fire and during installation,

maintenance, and false discharge.

Performance of the entire fire suppression

system will be considered over the extended

176
period of this research. Efficient storage of

the agent, delivery to the space being protected, and interaction of the agent with the fire will be a major focus of the research. Means

to evaluate alternatives to halons on a benchscale which reliably predict full-scale performance will be developed. Inert gas

systems and fine water sprays are the only

alternatives currently known to have no

detrimental environmental impacts. Methods

to enhance their effectiveness as fire fighting

agents and overcome their deficiencies (large

quantity requirements and possible

asphyxiation for inert gases, and significant

collateral damage for water sprays) will be

investigated. Other currently proposed

halocarbons are saddled with known or

potential negative impacts on stratospheric ozone depletion or global warming, and it is unlikely that new compounds from this family

will have both short atmospheric lifetimes and

zero ODP. Approaches to more precisely

predict the chemistry of alternative compounds in the atmosphere and to hasten their

conversion to the most environmentallyfriendly end-state will be sought.

Recent Results

New project.

Fire Suppression Chemistry

Principal Investigator:

Gregory T. Linteris

Fire Science Division

301-975-2283

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

It Objective

To provide a fundamental understanding of

the flame extinguishing action of inert and

chemical flame inhibitors to facilitate the

development of the next generation of

suppression agents and technologies.

Problem

Fire suppressants and their application

methods should be effective, fast-acting,

economical, have low toxicity, permit a habitable environment during suppression, and

cause no collateral damage to the protected

space. Existing suppressants, however, are non ideal: water from sprinklers can cause

excessive damage; powdered suppressants

leave a residue; and the currently favored

suppressants, the halocarbons, produce

corrosive gases after passing through a flame.

There exists a continuing need for better

suppressants and suppression methods, but

limited scientific understanding of how

existing chemical inhibitors act to extinguish

flames hinders development of new agents.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will research the

chemical and physical mechanisms of existing

suppressants through laboratory

measurements of both global properties and

detailed species concentration profiles. In order to understand the simultaneous

thermodynamic, fluid mechanic and chemical

kinetic effects of the inhibitors, the

experimental results will be interpreted

through numerical calculations of the flame

structure using existing well developed codes.

These experimental and modelling results

should lead to a unified method of describing,

and an improved fundamental understanding

of the mechanisms of flame inhibition,

extinction, and stabilization relevant to the

advanced suppression of fires. A new

counterflow burner for flame inhibition studies

177
will be constructed. Work will be completed on assembling a chemical kinetic mechanism

for hydrofluorocarbon inhibitors (including C2

chemistry), and flame experiments are planned to reveal the means by which

Fe(C0)5 acts so effectively.

Recent Results

Linteris, G.T., and Truett, L.F., "Burning Rates

of Premixed Methane-air Flames Inhibited by

Fluorinated Hydrocarbons," Halon Options

Technical Working Conference, Albuquerque,

NM, May 3-5, 1994.

Linteris, G.T., King, M.D., Liu, A., Womeldorf,

C, and Hsin, Y.E., "Acid Gas Production in Inhibited Diffusion Flames," Halon Options

Technical Working Conference, Albuquerque,

NM, May 3-5, 1994.

Seshadri, K., and llincic, N., "The Asymptotic

Structure of Nonpremixed Methane-air Flames

with Oxidizer Leakage of Order Unity,"

submitted for publication in Combustion and

F/ame, Feb. 1994.

Linteris, G.T., and Truett, L.F., "Inhibition of

Premixed Methane-air Flames by

Fluoromethanes," submitted to Combustion

and Flame, October 1 994.

Linteris, G.T., "Effect of Inhibitor

Concentration on the Inhibition Mechanism of

Fluoromethanes in Premixed methane-air

Flames," accepted to Halon Replacements:

Technology and Science, American Chemical

Society Symposium Series, (Eds Mizioiek,

A.W., and Tsang, W.), Washington, D.C.,

1995

Linteris, G.T., "Numerically Predicted Frame

Structure and Burning Rates of Premixed COAr-O^-H^ Flames Inhibited by CF3H,"

submitted to Combustion and Flame, February

1995.

Hochgreb, S., Hsin, E.Y., and Linteris, G.T.,

"Laminar Flame Speeds of CFgH-Propane-air

Mixtures at Elevated Pressures," NIST Annual

Conference on Fire Research, October 1994.

Linteris, G.T., and Truett, L.F., "Burning Rate

of Premixed methane-air Flames Inhibited by

Fluorinated Hydrocarbons," NIST Annual

Conference on Fire Research, October 1994.

Linteris, G.T., and Truett, L.F., "Experimental

and Numerical Burning rates of Premixed

Methane-air Flames Inhibited by

Fluoromethanes," Paper #068, Eastern States

Section Meeting, Clearwater Beach, FL,

December 1 994, the Combustion Institute,

Pittsburgh, PA.

Linteris, G.T., and Gmurczyk, G., "Inhibition

of Premixed Methane-air Flames by Iron Pentacarbonyl," submitted to 15th

International Colloquium on the Dynamics of

Explosions and Reactive Systems, July 30-

Aug 4, 1995, Boulder, CO, the Combustion

Institute, Pittsburgh, PA.

Trees, D., Grudno, A., llincic, N., Weissweiler,

T., and Seshadri, K., "Experimental and

Numerical Studies on Chemical Inhibition of

Methane-air Diffusion Flames by CF3Br and

CF3H," Western States Section Meeting, April

23-26, 1995, San Antonio, TX, The

Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, PA

Seshadri, K. and llincic, N., "The asymptotic

structure of inhibited nonpremixed methaneair flames," submitted for publication in Combustion and Flame, April 1994.

Related Grants

"Chemical Inhibition of Methane-Air Diffusion

Flames," Seshadri, T., University of California,

San Diego.

"Basic Research on Fire Suppression," Atreya,

A., University of Michigan.

178
Agent/System Compatibility for Halon

1301 Aviation Replacement

Principal Investigator:

Richard G. Gann

Fire Science Division

301-975-6866

Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

Survivability Enhancennent Branch

Department of the Army

Tank Automotive Command

Objective

To evaluate 12 USAF-specified candidate

halon 1301 replacements for compatibility

with flight systems, people, and the

environment; recommend 3 candidates for further examination; and perform longer-term

evaluations to increase confidence in the

preliminary results.

Problem

The current suppressant for in-flight fires,

halon 1301, is rapidly being phased out. The

Air Force has committed to begin

implementing an alternative at the end of FY

1995. Screening of potential alternatives is needed to narrow the number of chemicals for

full-scale testing.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL, working with NIST's

Materials Science and Engineering Laboratory,

will perform bench-scale determinations of

non-volatile residue; stability during long-term

storage; compatibility with 8 metals, 5

elastomers, and 3 lubricants; develop

prediction method for HF formation during

suppression; determine potential human

exposure levels and summarize environmental

regulations.

Recent Results

Grosshandler, William L., Gann, Richard G.,

William M. (editors). Evaluation of Alternative

In-flight Fire Suppressants for Full-scale Testing on Simulated Aircraft Engine Nacelles

and Dry Bays. NIST SP 861, National Institute

of Standards and Technology, April 1994.

Suppression of High Speed Turbulent

Flames in a Deflagration/Detonation

Tube

Principal Investigator:

William Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsors:

Department of the Navy

Air Systems Command

Department of the Air Force

Wright Laboratory

Objective

To determine the effectiveness of HFC-125

and CF3I, relative to FC-218, in suppressing

turbulent flames in shocked propane/air

mixtures, and to determine if pressure ratios less than 7:1 are sufficient to produce

enhanced pressure build-up during

suppression.

Problem

HFC-125 has been observed to produce very

high over-pressures under certain conditions

in the deflagration/detonation tube apparatus.

It is not known if a dangerous situation could

arise under different sets of achievable

conditions, or to the extent to which the

previous experiments represent a realistic threat scenario. A related, but less severe, problem exists with CF3I, in which small

amounts of the chemical effectively inhibit the

quasi-detonation; but as the concentration is increased, pressures increase to a point

exceeding the uninhibited situation. It is unknown why this occurs, making it impossible to predict the performance of CF3I

under substantially different conditions.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue analyzing

its data taken in FY 1994, reviewing it for consistency and preparing a final report

describing the experiments.

Recent Results

Gmurczyl, G., and Grosshandler, W.,

Suppression of High Speed Turbulent Flames

in a Detection/Deflection Tube, NISTIR (in review). National Institute of Standards and

179
Technology, April 1995

Gmurczyl, G., Grosshandler, W., "Suppression

of High-speed Flames with Cl-halocarbons,"

Twenty-fifth Symposium (International) on

Combustion, The Combustion Institute,

Pittsburgh, PA (in press), 1995

Gmurczyl, G., Grosshandler, W., and Lowe,

D., "Suppression Effectiveness of

Extinguishing Agents Under Highly Dynamic

Conditions," Fire Safety Science - Proceedings

of the Fourth International Symposium,

Kashiwagi, T. Ed, lAFSS USA, pp 925-936,

1994

Suppression of Simulated Engine

Nacelle Fires

Principal Investigator:

Anthony Hamins

Fire Science Division

301-975-6598

Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force

Wright Laboratory

Survivability Enhancement Branch

Department of the Navy

Naval Air Systems Command

Department of the Army

Tank Automotive Command

Federal Aviation Administration

FAA Technical Center

Objective

To document guidelines for fire suppression

system performance based on improved

understanding of the influence of various

parameters on fire suppression in engine

nacelles.

Problem

An engine nacelle encases the jet engine

compressor, combustor, and turbine. A

nacelle fire is typically a turbulent diffusion

flame stabilized behind an obstruction in a moderately high speed air flow. The most

likely source for a fire in the nacelle are fuel

lines carrying jet fuel or hydraulic fluid, that can feed the fire either as a spray or as a pre- vaporized gas. Temperatures as high as 150 ° C are common in normal operating engine

nacelles.

Extinguishment occurs when a critical amount

of agent is transported to the flame, where it

is entrained into the primary reaction zone. The extinction process is affected by a number of parameters, including the velocity

of the air flow, the type and quantity of fuel,

the system temperature, agent properties and

concentration, and the flow field geometry

(e.g., the location of obstacles in the flow

field).

Halon 1301 (CFgBr) has been used as the fire extinguishing agent for protecting aircraft

180
engine nacelles because of its many positive

attributes. However, its production will cease

at the end of 1995, leaving many aircraft needing an alternative. The Air Force will soon begin testing three candidate

alternatives to halon 1301 in its full scale

Engine Nacelle Test Facility. There are, however, a number of different aircraft and

operating conditions for which a new

suppressant is needed. Because testing

cannot be performed for all possible aircraft and conditions, knowledge is needed which

will provide guidance in the extension of the

full-scale data to untested systems and

conditions.

Recently, the Air Force funded an

experimental study which involved simulating an idealized engine nacelle fire. A coaxial

turbulent spray burner was used, with jet fuel and hydraulic fluid as the fuels with the air at ambient and elevated temperatures. This

project will extend that study to a broader

range of suppression and re-ignition

conditions, typical of in-flight engine nacelles.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will continue making

flame suppression measurements in its modified turbulent spray burner. Agents

tested include CF3I, HFC-125, and HFC-227.

The effect of various flow parameters on the

amount of agent needed to suppress a fuel- spray fire will be tested. The parameters

being tested include system pressure, air, and

agent temperatures, air velocity, and agent

delivery rates and duration. The effectiveness

of ignition suppression by the agents will also

be tested.

A computational fluid dynamic model using

FL0W3D (a commercial package computer

model that simulates fluid dynamics and heat

transfer using finite element difference

approach) of conditions in the engine nacelle

was developed in FY 1994. Information

about criticality of the number, placement,

and orientation of agent injection nozzles and

the rate of gaseous agent injection will be

determined. The flow field model will be

experimentally validated to demonstrate the

capability of computational fluid dynamics to model gaseous agent concentration in a generic engine nacelle.

The knowledge gained from this research will

be integrated into guidance tools to assist

suppression system designers. Information

about concentration/duration requirements as

a function of fire zone conditions will be

included. Results will be used to give

guidance for adjusting the needed

concentration of candidate fire suppressants

over a range of engine nacelle fire conditions.

Recent Results

Presser, C, Hamins, A., Vazques, I., and

Grosshandler, W., "Suppression of Simulated

Engine Nacelle Fires," Presented at the Annual

AlCHE Meeting, San Francisco, CA,

November 1 994.

Grosshandler, W., Presser, C, Lowe, D., and

Rinkinen, W., "Assessing Halon Alternatives

for Aircraft Engine Nacelle Fire Suppression,"

to appear in J. Heat Transfer, 1994.

Vazquez, !., Grosshandler, W., Rinkinen, W.,

Glover, M., and Presser, C, "Suppression of

Elevated Temperature Hydraulic Fluid and JP8

Spray Flames," to appear in the Proceed'mgs

of the Fourth International Symposium on Fire

Safety Science, 1994.

Grosshandler, W., Lowe, D., Rinkinen, B., Presser, C, "A Turbulent Spray Burner for Assessing Halon Alternative Fire Suppressants," ASME Paper No 93-WA/HT23, 1993.

181
Halon 1301 Surrogates for Engine performance.

Nacelle Fire Suppression System

Certification Results

Reports have been provided to the sponsor.

Principal Investigator:

Carole Womeldorf

Fire Science Division

301-975-4415

Sponsor:

Department of the Navy

U.S. Naval Engineering Center

Objective

To determine the physical properties which , dominate the dispersion process,

experimentally test and recommend an

environmentally acceptable candidate for use

in simulating the dispersion of ambient

temperature halon 1301 in an aircraft engine

nacelle.

Problem

Existing Navy aircraft fire suppression

systems require certification to ensure the

fire-fighting agent is present in sufficient

quantity and for a long enough period to extinguish a possible fire. In the past,

certification was accomplished by discharging

the halon 1301 and measuring its concentration over time at various locations in the nacelle. This procedure is now not

acceptable because (a) the reserves of halon

1301 are limited since (no longer in production), and (b) halon 1301 released to the atmosphere contributes to unwanted

depletion of stratospheric ozone. An

alternative chemical is needed to fill the

certification role formerly by halon 1301

.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will coordinate

chemical tests with Walter Kidde Aerospace in their full-scale fire bottle discharge facility of

their small-scale aircraft engine simulator.

These tests will be based on data from a wide

range of chemicals reviewed by BFRL during

FY 1994 for physical similarity to halon 1301

to identify prospective candidates for discharge certification. These will be

compared to pipeline flow and spray discharge

experiments performed in BFRL facilities. A

report will be prepared documenting the

search for surrogates and conclusions on

agents for certifying field system

182
Optimization of Aircraft Fire

Suppression System Discharge

Principal Investigator:

Jiann C. Yang

Fire Science Division

301-975-6662

Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force

Wright Laboratory, Flight Dynamics

Directorate

Department of the Navy

Naval Air Systems Command, Subsystem

Branch

Department of the Army

Army Aviation and Troop Command

Federal Aviation Administration

Technical Center

Objective

To provide discharge test data for four

recommended agents in simulated drybay and

engine nacelle applications and to establish

engineering correlations for pressure drop

estimation in delivery piping systems.

Problem

None of the gaseous agents being screened

for the Air Force has exhibited the chemical

activity of halon 1301. The mass

concentrations of many of the agents needed

to suppress the laboratory flames are closely

clustered. The thermodynamics properties of

these agents, however, vary significantly.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will develop

temperature-pressure data on the

recommended fluids, pure and in mixtures

with nitrogen to fit the binary interaction

coefficients in the computer program

PROFISSY (a computer program to calculate

pressure-temperature characteristics of the

fire extinguisher containing the four selected

agents). Discharge rates of the four agents

directly into an unconfined space (to simulate

dry bay applications) will be compared under

different initial bottle conditions and release

mechanisms. Discharge simulation using the

computer code KIVA or CONCHAS SPRAY

also will be carried. The performance of the

recommended fluid agents flowing through

various piping geometries and components in transient operation will be determined.

Recent Results

Cleary, T.G., Grosshandler, W.L., and Yang,

J.C., "Flow of Alternative Agents in Piping,"

paper presented at the Halon Options

Technical Working Conference, May 3-5,

1994, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Yang, J.C., Cleary, T.G., and Grosshandler,

W.L., "Simulation of Dry Bay Discharge of

Alternative Agents," poster presented at the

Halon Options Technical Working Conference,

May 3-5, 1994, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

183
Real-Time Suppressant Concentration

Measurement

Principal Investigator:

William M. Pitts

Fire Science Division

301-975-6486

Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force

Wright Laboratory

Survivability Enhancement Branch

Objective

To evaluate possible methods for real-time

measurements of concentrations of alternative

fire fighting agents for airplane dry bay and

nacelle fire applications.

Problem

The use of halon 1301 for suppressing dry

bay and nacelle fires on aircraft is being

phased out rapidly. In order to design and

test effective replacement systems,

instrumentation must be available to measure

concentrations of potential replacements with

good temporal resolution. At the present

time, such analytical capabilities do not exist.

Approach

BFRL has evaluated the performance of two

possible instruments-aspirated hot-film and

differential infrared absorption~for making the

necessary concentration measurements. In addition, the literature has been reviewed to determine if other, more promising approaches

have been demonstrated. Both of the tested

instruments were found to be sufficiently

promising that feasibility studies in the full- scale dry-bay test facilities at WrightPatterson AFB were carried out.

Recent Results

Month reports were submitted to the sponsor.

The final report is in preparation.

Minimum Mass Flux Requirements to

Suppress Burning Surfaces with Water

Sprays

Principal Investigator:

Jiann Yang

Fire Science Division

301-975-6662

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To determine how the orientation of a burning

surface and its location relative to the water

spray nozzle affects the mass flux of droplets

required to extinguish the flame.

Problem

Prescriptive relations exist which allow a fire protection engineer to estimate the amount of

water necessary to suppress a fire in a given

enclosure using conventional sprinklers.

However, the fear of collateral damage

created by high water flows, in the case of a

fire or false discharge, discourages their use. This is particularly problematic since halon

1301 is no longer available for protecting

water-sensitive equipment. Fine water sprays

are an alternative which may be applied

instead of sprinklers or halon-type systems,

but the dynamics of the spray/fire interaction are insufficiently understood to optimize fine

water spray systems.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will determine the

response of a burning object to the discharge

of the water spray. Small slabs of

combustible solids will be ignited, and after a designated pre-burn time, a small

concentration of water droplets will be

allowed to flow towards the object for a fixed

period of time monthly the conditions are close to constant. The water flow, size

distribution and velocity will be measured; and

if the fire is not extinguished, the test will be

stopped, the sample replaced, and the water

flow increased until suppression occurs. The

experiment will be repeated at different

locations within the spray to cover the full range of expected velocities and size

distributions. The fuel will be oriented

184
upward, downward and vertically.

Experimental conditions will be chosen which

are likely to be of direct use to residentialtype system designs.

Recent Results

Grosshandler, W.L., Lowe, D., Notarianni, K., and Rinkinen, W., Protection of Data Processing Equipment with Fine Water Sprays,

NISTIR 5524, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, 1994

High Heat Flux Measurement

Standards

Principal Investigator:

William L. Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a prototype facility that extends

current heat flux measurement standards to convective flows with much higher energy

fluxes, and to develop for industry new techniques for applications to critical technologies.

Problem

Heat flux requirements are ever increasing in magnitude, ranging from about 50 kW/m^ in an unwanted fire to as high as 10^ kW/m^ in a boiler. The challenge is to determine ways

in which heat flux can be measured accurately and unobtrusively under operational

extremes, and to develop standard test-beds

in which new heat flux measurement devices can be calibrated. Unlike temperature, heat

flux is a derived quantity which is application

dependent. Standard methods exist for cali- brating thermal radiation detectors at flux

levels extending to 10 kW/m^ using controlled

blackbody cavities, and up to 40 kW/m^ using

a monochromatic laser radiation source. However, heat flux transducers are often

used under conditions where convection Is dominant, where radiation emanates from a source with different spectral character, or where the flux levels exceed 40 kW/m^.

Approach

A steady flow of hot gas over a cooled flat plate represents a simple, yet generic, ele- ment common to fires, chemical manufacturing processes, thermal treatment of metals

and ceramics, and combustion engines. During FY 1995, BFRL will construct an experimental facility consisting of a cooled plate in which a heat flux transducer can be mounted

flush to the surface. A laminar gas jet impinging on the surface and fully-developed

pipe flow around a bluff object on the centerline will be considered. The gas temperature.

185
velocity, flow geometry and imposed radiant

field will be variable, with designed heat

fluxes at the surface exceeding 100 kW/m^.

The facility will be constructed to permit flow

visualization, LDA and hot-wire probing,

thermocouple and Schlieren measurements,

thermal imaging of the surface, and

temperature measurements in the solid. Plans will also be developed to increase the

heat flux capabilities of purely radiometric

calibrations. Direct numerical simulation of

the gas phase energy transfer will be coupled

to the solution of the conduction equation In the flat plate, using numerical methods for the internal heat transfer previously

developed for the thermal analysis of various

solid-state devices. The capabilities of

existing heat flux measuring techniques,

including thin and thick film gauges,

microelectronic devices, thermopiles, and

gardon gauges, will be investigated in following years in consultation with the heat

flux measurements industry, to determine

their specific calibration needs and design

suggestions.

Recent Results

New project.

Smoke Movement and Smoke Layer

Development in High Bay Areas

Principal Investigator:

Kathy A. Notarianni

Fire Science Division

301-975-6883

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

NASA Headquarters

Objective

To develop data on smoke movement and

smoke layer development in high bay areas to permit NASA to make decisions on fire detection and suppression in their high bay

spaces.

Problem

There is a special need to address fire protection issues for high ceiling height (high

bay) spaces. NASA has numerous high bay

spaces that are used to perform a variety of

functions. Many of these functions are critical to meeting the goals of the NASA strategic

plan. Examples of high bay spaces at NASA

include those used for clean rooms, shuttle

simulators, assembly/storage, vacuum and

vibration chambers, vehicle assembly, and/or

testing facilities with payloads. These spaces

represent some of the most difficult fire protection challenges in that detection of a

fire in a large space may be delayed due to the distance smoke and products of

combustion must travel to reach the detector,

the large amount of ambient air for smoke

dilution, the high dollar value of these spaces,

and the low damage threshold of a clean room. Some of these spaces also involve

forced airflow.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will model NASA high

bay spaces using FLOW 3D (a commercial

package computer model that simulates fluid dynamics and heat transfer using a finite difference approach). The spaces are categorized into a matrix divided by ceiling

height, maximum acceptable fire size, type of

detection, and airflow. Sets of recommendations for each category of spaces will be determined from results of the computer calculations, and other BFRL expertise.

186
Results

Notarianni, K.A., and Davis, W.D., The Use

of Computer Models to Predict Temperature

ar)d Smoke Movemerit in High Bay Spaces,

NISTIR 5304, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, 1993.

Analysis of High Bay Hangar Facilities

for Detector Sensitivity

Principal Investigator:

Kathy A. Notarianni

Fire Science Division

301-975-6883

Sponsor:

Department of the Navy

Naval Facilities Engineering Connmand

Objective

To provide the Navy with scientific data on

flame detection, smoke detection, and smoke

movement in high bay aircraft hangers using

aviation fuels.

Problem

Fire protection criteria for aircraft hangers

employ "best engineering judgment" using

NFPA codes and standards which are based on maximum ceiling heights of 9.1 m (30 ft). For years, DoD and the private sector have

extrapolated data from research conducted in buildings with conventional ceiling heights.

There are no actual data to support the cur- rent design practices for fire detection and

suppression systems which may be located

30.4 m (100 ft) or more above the fuel level. The effects of stratification, wind, and the

movement of smoke and heat in high bay

areas such as aircraft hangers are not presently known. Consequently, the reaction

time and effectiveness of fire detection and

suppression systems in aircraft hangers poses

many questions.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will determine the heat

release rate vs. time curve for aviation fuels to be used in full-scale tests. Instrumentation

for the fire tests will include thermocouples to measure ceiling temperatures, plume temperatures, and velocities. Also, actual response

time of numerous types of fire and smoke

detectors, and the response times of a variety

of sprinkler heads will be measured. Instru- ment locations will be determined by appropriate installation standards and by prior simulation of the fire tests using a CFD model.

Twelve full-scale tests will be conducted in each of two high bay hangar facilities, one in a cold climate location and one in a warm

climate location for the purpose of

187
understanding how smoke movement and

detector sensitivity is impacted by ambient

temperature. The fire size, fuel type, and

wind conditions will be varied. Each set of

experiments will be analyzed using the

measurement data and the CFD model. The

analysis will include appraisal of the following:

1 ) the effectiveness of ceiling detectors for high bay structures; 2) the effectiveness and

placement strategy for IR and UV detectors;

3) the approximate minimum fire size for

delectability for each detector type; 4) the

effect of fuel type on the effectiveness of

each type of fire detector; 5) the impacts of

wind and temperature stratification on the

effectiveness of each type of fire detector; 6)

optimal overall strategies for providing fire detection for the spaces in question.

Recent Results

New project.

188
RECENT GRANTS - FIRE SENSING

AND EXTINGUISHMENT

1. Development of an Economical Video

Based Fire Detection and Location System

Principal Investigators:

O.A. Plumb and R.F. Richards

Department of Mechanical and

Materials Engineering

Washington State University

Pullman, WA 99164-2920 ^

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop and demonstrate an inexpensive

video based system to detect, locate, and

size accidental fires. The system involves a video camera which monitors color-changing,

temperature-sensitive sensors to gather tran- sient temperature information around a fire, and an inverse problem solution algorithm

which uses the transient temperature data to predict the fire-i-s location and heat release

rate.

Problem

Industrial facilities such as warehouses and

factory floors may combine significant fire risks with minimal human monitoring for ex- tended periods. When accidental fires do

occur in industrial settings the time the fire burns undetected plays a crucial role in the

destructiveness of the fire. As a result there

is a critical need for an economical means to automatically monitor work spaces and

quickly determine the presence of a fire and

assess the threat to life and property.

Approach

The video based fire detection system consists of color-changing, temperature-sensitive

sensors, a video camera, a frame-grabber and

a PC based inversion algorithm.

Temperature-sensitive labels are arranged in a

grid on the ceiling of a room. A video camera

is placed in the room at a vantage point such

that the temperature-sensitive labels are arranged in a grid on the ceiling of a room. A

video camera is placed in the room at a van- tage point such that the temperature-sensitive sensors are within its field of view. If a fire is

accidentally ignited, a buoyant plume of hot

combustion gases will be generated. The

buoyant plume rises to the ceiling of the compartment and upon reaching the ceiling will turn and then flow radially outward as a ceil- ing jet. As the ceiling jet flows across the

ceiling, temperature sensitive labels are heated to their detection temperature and one

by one will display a visible color change.

Transient temperature information about the

expanding ceiling jet is passed on to the PC

by the frame grabber in the form of a timeseries of digitized video images. The series of

digitized images is then analyzed in the PC to provide the data needed by the invasion

algorithm to predict the fire + s location and

size. A prototype video fire detection system has

been built. Testing of the prototype system

under controlled laboratory conditions has

demonstrated the ability of the system to locate a flame source within 40 cm and determine the flame + s heat release rate within

50% (99% confidence intervals).

Recent Results

Richards, R.F., Munk, B.N., and Plumb, O.A.,

"Fire Detection and Location through Inverse Problem Solution," Proceedings of the 10th

International Conference on Automatic Fire

Detection, AUBE 95, Duisburg, Germany,

1995.

2. Large-Scale Experiments of Fire Signatures to Develop a Discriminating Fire

Detector

Principal Investigators:

James A. Milke and Thomas J. McAvoy

Departments of Fire Protection and

Chemical Engineering,

University of Maryland at College Park

College Park, MD

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To determine the characteristics of a fire detector which has the capability to promptly

189
f

react to smoke while discriminating between

smoke from fire and non-fire sources.

Problem

Improvements in fire detectors are needed to reduce the response time and also the

frequency of false alarms. In an effort to describe the characteristics of a detector with

the noted capabilities, patterns of signatures

associated with fire and environmental signa- tures via experiments must be identified.

Approach

Most recently, work has been conducted to continue the experimental effort reported

previously [1-3]. The research is being con- ducted at the University of Maryland by

teams in the Departments of Fire Protection

Engineering and Chemical Engineering. The

fire protection engineering team is concentrating on identifying signatures from fire and

non-fire sources. The chemical engineering

team is investigating the applicability of neural networks to discriminate between signa-[1]

tures.

Large-scale experiments were conducted in a 3.6 m x3.6 m x2.4 m (height) room. Measurements included temperature, mass loss of

the fire sources, CO, CO2 and O2 concentrations, light obscuration and the voltage out- put from two metal oxide sensors (Taguchi

model 822 and 880). In addition, two commercial smoke detectors (one photoelectric

and one ionization) were located on the ceil- ing, at the center of the room. Mass loss

measurements were used to estimate the

yield fractions of the signatures from the fire sources. A variety of sources were used to generate conditions within the room. The

sources were intended to be representative of

residential fire and nuisance sources.

A research link has been established with

NIST's Process Measurements Division,

Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory. Preliminary work has been conducted

to integrate thin film sensors and neural

networks for processing the sensor information.

Data from the sensors was reviewed to identify patterns associated with the categories of sources. Concentrating on the maxima for each sensor, an expert system was formulated. An improvement in the success rate for

characterizing the source has been achieved

using a PCA. Results from the application of

the PCA for smoldering sources provides a 87% correct classification rate, while only

25% of the smoldering fires were detected by

commercial smoke detectors. The time for detection with the PCA-based intelligence

(the "prototype detector") was significantly less than that for the commercial detector.

The time required for detection was reduced

an average of 45 s for the flaming fires and

245 s for the non-flaming fires.

Dr. William Grosshandler is the technical

monitor. The assistance of Mr. Randy

Edwards, Fire Control Instruments, and Mr.

Seth Cowles, Notifier Division of Pittway, is recognized in lending assistance with

commercial smoke detection systems used in the study.

Recent Results

Miike, J. A., and McAvoy, T.J., "Analysis of

Signature Patterns for Discriminating Fire Detection with Multiple Sensors," Fire

Technology, to be published.

Milke, J. A., "Application of Neural Networks

for Discriminating Fire Detectors," presented

at the 10th Int. Conference on Fire Detection,

AUBE '95, Duisburg, Germany, April 5, 1995.

Milke, J. A., B. Hagen, T. McAvoy and D. Pan, "Large-scale Experiments of Fire Signatures to Develop a Discriminating Fire Detector," presented at the Annual

Conference on Fire Research, Gaithersburg

MD, October 19, 1994.

Milke, J. A., Denny, S.A, McAvoy, T.J. and

Pan, D., "Initial Application of Neural

Networks to Discriminate Between Fire and

Non-fire Odors," presented at the Annual

Conference on Fire Research, Rockville, MD,

October 19, 1993.

190
3. Basic Research on Fire Suppression state.

Principal Investigator

Arvind Atreya

Department of Mechanical Engineering

and Applied Mechanics

The University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, Ml 48109-2125

313-747-4790

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop a quantitative understanding of

the chemical and physical mechanisms of fire suppression by water through small-scale

experiments and models and focus on understanding the gas-phase effects.

Problem

Water has two well-known physical suppression effects: (I) cooling of the burning solid

by water evaporation, and (ii) smothering

caused by dilution of the oxidizer and or the

fuel by water vapor. In addition to these two

well known effects, there are three more ef- fects, namely: (iii) enhanced radiative heat

loss due to increased water concentration,

(iv) enhanced mixing as a result of columetric

expansion caused by water evaporation, and

(v) a little known but significant chemical

enhancement effect which reduces the soot

concentration and decreases the flame radiation. Our experiments show that the last two

effects significantly increase the combustion

efficiency and reduce the suppression effectiveness of water. Thus, it is necessary to quantify the gas-phase effects [i.e. ,(ii) through (v)] important if water mist is used

for fire suppression.

Approach

Two experimental configurations were used

for this study: (I) Stagnation-point flow

apparatus: which allows studying both gasphase and condensed-phase suppression and

enables transient chemical measurements in the exhaust. These measurements are used

to study the suppression mechanisms and

quantify the suppression effectiveness, (ii) Counterflow diffusion flame apparatus: which

allows detailed flame structure measurements

to study suppression mechanisms (chemical

and/or physical), but is limited to steady

Experiments were conducted for different 02

concentrations (to change the soot volume

fraction) and for different constant water

application rates (applied both as liquid water

and as water vapor). Methane and ethylene were used as fuels, and fuel and oxidizer flow

rates were held constant to maintain constant

strain rates. The overall transient species

composition measurements in the exhaust of

the stagnation-point flow apparatus were

used to calculate the effect of water on the

overall heat release rate. An increase in the

CO^ production rate and the 0^ depletion rate corresponds to an increase in the burning rate and vice versa. Also, detailed flame structure measurements in the presence of water vapor were made in the steady counterflow

diffusion flame and numerical calculations were performed to help interpret the data and

understand the suppression mechanisms.

The dilution effect of HjO is compared with

the dilution by & CO^, enhanced radiative

heat loss is calculated via a model and mixing

and chemical enhancement effects are investigated experimentally and theoretically.

Recent Results

Suh, J. And Atreya, A., "The Effect of Water

Vapor on Radiative Counterflow Diffusion

Flames." submitted to the Symposium on Fire and Combustion Systems, 1995 ASME

IMECE, being prepared for submission to Combustion and Flame.

Crompton, T., and Atreya, A. "Quantifying

the Effectiveness of Fire Suppression in a 1-D

Laminar Diffusion Flame," Proceedings of the Eastern Section of the Combustion Institute,

1993.

191
4. Required Water Density for Fire Extinguishment or Control

Principal Investigator:

Michael A. Delichatsios

Factory Mutual Research Corporation

Norwood, MA 02062

617-255-4981

Objective

To characterize material properties which

affect water surface application requirements

for fire extinguishment and/or control,

together with developing measurement techniques for critical water surface application

rates and incorporating these results into

modeling and predictive techniques for fire growth mitigation by water surface

application.

Extinguishment and control of a fire by water

is one of the most efficient and general

protection methods. Although many

technical water application requirements have

been established through careful large-scale or intermediate scale experiments, there is lack of fundamental understanding of

extinguishment or control. For example, it is difficult to answer simple questions, such as what properties of material affect the required

water densities for either extinguishment or control of fire. The reason is that there are several phenomena involved that are difficult to separate. The present work intends to separate and investigate two phenomena:

surface cooling (which directly reduces the

heat flux to the surface) and inserting of the

pyrolyzing gases (which reduces the luminous

radiation heat feedback) as they emerge out

of the surface. We do not intend to investigate in detail the effectiveness of

droplet evaporation, sold in-depth water

absorption or inserting of ambient air by

water vapor. A transient investigation of the

pyrolysis rate and burning owing to water

application is necessary and will be taken into

consideration in the program. We plan to use

already developed models for pyrolysis and

combustion and flame spread to complete the

analysis.

Approach

The current program includes both

experimental and analytical work. Three

areas will be addressed; a) what are the

minimum requirements for extinguishment by

surface water application, and how these

requirements depend on material properties;

b) how the pyrolysis rate varies with time as water is applied on the surface; and c) what

are the minimum water surface requirements

to prevent flame spread but not necessarily

extinguishment of the initial fire. Previous

experimental results together with some new

experiments will be used to address questions

(a) and (b). A horizontal flame spread

experiment and a parallel vertical wall

experiment will be designed to address item

(c).

Recent Results

Demonstrated that current extinction theories

of diffusion flames on condensed surfaces can not capture the observed experimental

results.

Modified an integral transient pyrolysis code

to account for sudden cooling owing to water

application rate.

192
BFRL HEADQUARTERS

OFFICE OF APPLIED

ECONOMICS

193

Economics of New Technology

Materials

Principal Investigator

Harold E. Marshall

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6131

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop life-cycle economic methods for evaluating the economics of substituting new

materials, such as composites or highperformance concrete and steel, for

traditional materials in civil engineering

applications.

Problem

The construction industry needs

sophisticated, practical methods and

guidelines for evaluating alternative building

materials in a consistent manner over their

life cycle. The need for standardized,

improved methods and guidelines stems in large part because high up-front costs of new

technology construction materials

discourages their application even when

warranted by life-cycle criteria. Providing a method for evaluating life-cycle cost

effectiveness will give decision makers a tool to help them select, both for research and

applications on the job, those materials that

will make firms most competitive and deliver

the nation's infrastructure at least life-cycle cost.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will begin developing a

life-cycle cost method designed specifically for evaluating the cost effectiveness of

composites in relation to conventional

construction materials. Working jointly with

BFRL's Building Materials Division, a method

will be developed that would enable analysts

to estimate the cost effectiveness of

composites in a typical engineering

application. A case study will be performed

for a bridge building application based on data

collected in collaboration with the Building

Materials Division.

In subsequent years, additional methods,

such as the adjusted internal rate of return and net savings methods, will be developed.

A multi-criteria decision method that allows

users to simultaneously evaluate multiple

economic and engineering criteria when

choosing among alternative materials will also

be developed. Techniques for taking into

consideration economic uncertainty and risk

will be explored. Through participation in the

ASTM Building Economics Subcommittee

(E06.81), efforts will be made to have these

methods and techniques consistent with

existing and future ASTM building economics

standards. Case studies using these methods

and techniques will be prepared for other

applications such as high performance roofing

and building systems. Decision support

software will be developed to implement the

methods and techniques.

Recent Results

New project.

195
Economic Data for Benchmarking

Construction and Building Program

Goals

Principal Investigator

Stephen F. Weber

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6137

measuring metliods for each of these

goals.

Recent Results

Developed economic data on the life cycle of

constructed facilities to provide input to this

research.

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To identify economic data that provides

benchmarks of current practice and measures

of progress of the U.S. construction industry

to the stated goals of the National Science

and Technology Council's Construction and

Building Subcommittee (NSTC/C&B).

Problem

BFRL is co-chairing the Construction and

Building Subcommittee of the Civilian Industrial Technology Committee of the

National Science and Technology Council.

The Preliminary Research Plan published by

the C&B Subcommittee has established goals

for Federal research in the construction

industry. Economic data are needed to benchmark current practice and measure

progress of the U.S. construction industry

with respect to these goals.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will support this effort by:

1. Reviewing all the documentation

produced by the C&B Subcommittee

relevant to National Construction and

Building Goals.

2. Conducting a preliminary search for possible data sources.

3. Identifying those goals for which

adequate data sources were found to support benchmarking and progress

measurement.

4. Developing a conceptual approach for bench-marking current practice and

measuring progress with respect to these identified goals.

5. Collecting the necessary data.

6. Preparing a report describing the data

and the benchmarking and progress

196
Economic Methods for Building

Standards

Principal Investigator

Harold E. Marshall

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6131

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To provide a comprehensive plan for

economic analysis to support BFRL's goals

and contribute to the revision of old and

development of new standard economic

methods, guides, and classifications to help

the national and international building

communities evaluate new technologies and

achieve affordable buildings that meet

performance objectives.

Problem

The building community needs sophisticated,

practical methods and guidelines for

evaluation of alternative building technologies

in a consistent manner. The need for

standardized, improved methods and

guidelines stems in large part from the high

costs of building materials, the high costs of

construction due to safety and environmental

regulations, the alleged slow growth in construction productivity, the uncertain costs

of energy, and the uncertain life-cycle costs

associated with new technologies.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will prepare a comprehensive plan for economic analysis to support BFRLs goals. The plan will include

proposed projects such as standard methods

for measuring the cost effectiveness of new

technologies, e.g., composite materials;

standard methods and supporting computer

programs for promulgation through ASTM;

support of the economics of the Construction

and Building (C&B) Subcommittee of the

Civilian Industrial Technology Committee

(CITC) of the National Science and

Technology Council (NSTC); and recruitment

targets and staff assignments to achieve the

plan.

Economic methods and supporting analyses

will be developed for application to building

problems. The principal avenues for transferring them to the building community

will be the ASTM Building Economics

Subcommittee, the C&B Subcommittee, and

the International Council for Building Research

(CIB) Building Economics Working

Commission.

Administrative and technical leadership will be provided the ASTM Subcommittee. In FY

1 995, the major technical effort will be in developing and balloting a new standard

method for multi-attribute decision analysis.

A report on multi-attribute decision analysis

will be authored to serve as the basis for the

new standard. BFRL staff will continue to

chair the Building Economics Subcommittee

and to perform technical work that

contributes to new and revised standards.

The ongoing effort on a Workbook to accompany the "Choosing Methods for

Economic Evaluation" video will be completed

and a NIST report published.

Technical and administrative support will be

provided CIB W.55. Work will center on coediting a book on project evaluation: the first volume of a CIB-sponsored Building

Economics Reader Series.

Recent Results

Marshall, H, and Petersen, S., "Building

Economics," Mechanical Estimating

Guideboolc for Bui/ding Construction, 6th

edition, Gladstone and Humphreys, editors,

McGraw-Hill (in press).

Marshall, H., "Sensitivity Analysis", The

Engineering Handbool<, CRC Press, Boca

Raton, FL (in press)

Completed society balloting, UNIFORMAT II, based on, UNIFORI\/IAT II: A Recommended

Classification for Building Elements and

Related Sitework, NIST Special Publication

841, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, 1992

Marshall, H., Compilation of Building

Economics, Third edition ASTM, Philadelphia,

1994

197
Marshall, H., co-author, "Life-cycle Costing,"

Architectural Graphic Standards ninth edition,

1994

Marshall, H., "Choosing Methods for

Economic Evaluation," 3rd NIST video in the

three-part series on Least-Cost Energy

Decisions for Buildings, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, 1993

Selecting Environmentally-Efficient

Building Materials

Principal Investigator

Barbara C. Lippiatt

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6133

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Objective

To develop decision-support software for

selecting building materials that achieve the

most appropriate balance betvveen life-cycle

environmental and economic performance.

Problem

Environmental and economic performance are two key factors in decision making by consumers and producers of building

materials. Consumers include architects,

developers, and homeowners, while

producers include materials manufacturers

and the building products industry. The

environmental performance of building

materials, however, is not readily assessable

and comparable to economic performance. A

method is needed to assess and compare

environmental performance against economic

performance. To maximize technology

transfer, the method should be implemented

in user-friendly decision-support software for consumers and producers.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will assess the

environmental performance of building

materials based on the concept of life-cycle

assessment. Life-cycle assessment evaluates

and aggregates environmental impacts from

all phases in the life of a material - from

cradle to grave. These phases include raw

materials extraction, transportation,

manufacture, installation, use, and eventual

reuse, recycling or disposal of the building

material. Environmental impacts include

ecosystem, resource, and human health

impacts. These result from depletion of

energy, water, land, and raw materials, and

from environmental releases such as atmospheric emissions, water effluents, and solid

waste. Life-cycle assessment data for building

materials are being collected for this project

198
by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,

with guidance from BFRLs Office of Applied

Economics (OAE). OAE is developing a multiattribute decision analysis methodology to combine these data into measures of overall

relative environmental impact. Probabilistic

techniques are being incorporated into the

methodology to treat the uncertainties

inherent in the underlying life-cycle assess- ment data.

The economic performance of building

materials is being assessed based on the life- cycle cost concept. Life-cycle costs include

those incurred over the useful life of the

building material, including the costs of

acquisition, maintenance, repair, replacement,

and disposal. This data is being collected

from widely used data sources, such as R.S. Means, Inc. and the U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers. The method will be disseminated

as an economics standard proposed for

incorporation in ASTM Subcommittee

E50.06, Green Buildings.

Recent Results

Developed multi-year research plan for project

(involving collaboration with EPA).

Provide Economic Support to NIST

Advanced Teclinology Program

Principal Investigator

Stephen F. Weber

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6137

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and

Technology

Advanced Technology Program (ATP)

Objective

To support the economic and program

evaluation missions of NIST's Advanced

Technology Program (ATP) by designing and

developing economic questionnaires and

implementing them in software to permit

electronic submission by ATP awardees of

quarterly and annual reports on economic and

marketing progress.

Problem

ATP management is developing

questionnaires to track the technological and

economic progress of awardees. Economic

consulting is needed to review the questions,

and software is needed to implement them in electronic form.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will be supporting

NIST's ATP by:

1 . Reviewing the questionnaires for their

economic content and working with

ATP economists to specify data

requirements and to design efficient ATP awardee questionnaires to support economic impact models.

2. Developing data structures, files, and

data relations for collecting in the field and storing in a centralized database

at ATP headquarters questionnaire

responses.

3. Computerizing in separate,

executable, software modules each of

the six ATP awardee questionnaires.

The screen layout and user prompts

and instructions will be similar to the

paper form being developed by ATP. Some data validation features will be

included, as well as help screens.

4. Develop software utilities for creating

distribution diskettes and for

199
consolidating data from floppy

diskettes into a centralized relational

database at ATP headquarters.

Recent Results

Completed the software for collecting data

for the ATP Quarterly Report on Business

Plan and Developments and the software

utility to automate creation of diskettes for

ATP's Quarterly Report.

Provide Economic Support to NIST

Manufacturing Extension Program

Principal Investigator

Stephen F. Weber

Qffice of Applied Economics

301-975-6137

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Manufacturing Extension Partnership (MEP)

Objective

To support the economic and program evaluation missions of MEP by identifying economic

data sources, developing economic data analysis software, developing economic maps,

and modeling economic impacts.

Problem

MEP management needs economic consulting

support for planning, reporting, and program

evaluation.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will support MEP by

reviewing and developing economic questions

used in the MEP quarterly reporting system.

BFRL will develop software macro procedures

to automate the display and analysis of quarterly reports. BFRL will support MEP by:

1 . Providing economic data and maps to define the scope, scale, and

geographic distribution of manufacturing establishments and Manufacturing

Extension Centers (MFCs).

2. Conducting a survey and evaluation

of alternative economic impact simulation models and recommend one for use by MEP.

3. Developing models of direct economic

impacts resulting from Technical Assistance Projects (TAPs) of MFCs that

are compatible with the selected eco- nomic impact simulation model.

4. Evaluating and testing the application

of Data Envelopment Analysis to measure, and suggest improvements in, the relative efficiency of MFCs.

200
Recent Results

Completed analysis of MEP surveys of small

manufacturing firms and of technology consulting firms and developed economic maps

showing the county locations and densities of

small and medium manufacturing establishments and of defense contractors in the U.S.

Rating Buildings by Historic Significance

Principal Investigator

Barbara C. Lippiatt

Office of Applied Economics

301 975-6133

Sponsor

U.S. General Services Administration

Public Buildings Service

Office of Portfolio Management

Objective

To develop decision-support software for

rating buildings by their historic significance.

Problem

Sixty percent of the buildings owned by the

Public Buildings Service are classified as his- toric structures based solely on their age. Some of these buildings are truly historic,

while others have little historic significance.

In order to manage them effectively, PBS

needs to know their relative historic importance. PBS has developed and is currently

implementing the Building Preservation Plan

(BPP), a system for collecting detailed data on

the historic properties of its buildings. The

objective of this project is to use these data

to develop a consistent, reliable method for

rating the portfolio of PBS buildings by their

historic significance, and to implement the

method in decision support software for PBS.

This project is using the wealth of detailed

data the PBS collects on each of its historic

buildings to develop a true scalar rating of

historic significance.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will use multi-attribute

decision analysis (MADA) techniques to develop three separate rating systems

corresponding to the three levels of detail, or

stages, at which the BPP system evaluates

historic significance: 1 . building elements,

such as door glazing and wall trim, 2. building zones, or sections of the buildings based on

historic significance or function, and 3. the

building as a whole. The three rating systems

will be integrated into a comprehensive rating

system to measure the combined historic

significance at all levels of building detail. This is known as the architectural rating.

Finally, another MADA-based rating system

201
will be developed to compute a community

rating, reflecting the combined extent of community support (neighborhood, state and lo- cal, and national) the PBS can expect for a

rehabilitation project for the building. The PBS

will use the architectural and community support ratings to help allocate funds among

competing building investment projects.

Recent Results

Developed the rating systems for computing

the element, zone, building, and overall architectural ratings, implemented the rating methods in Beta Test decision support software

for PBS, and developed an interim report describing the technical details underlying these

rating methods and documenting their algorithms.

Life-Cycle Costing Methodology

Principal Investigator

Stephen R. Petersen

Office of Applied Economics

301 975-6136

Sponsor

U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Assistant Secretary for Energy Effi- ciency and Renewable Energy

Federal Energy management Program

Objective

To provide, on a continuing basis, economic

analysis methods, data, software, training,

and consulting to the Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) in support of energy

and water conservation projects in federal

buildings and facilities.

Problem

The National Energy Conservation Policy Act

directs NIST to provide expert consulting to DOE related to economic analysis of energy

conservation projects in federal buildings.

Executive Order 12902 of March 8, 1994,

requires that energy usage in federal facilities be reduced by 30% by the year 2005 relative to 1995 levels, in a cost-effective manner. The objective of this project is to provide the

expert services available in BFRL to FEMP

pursuant to this goal. Methods of economic

analysis are to be based on established methods used in the private sector. The products

are used widely by federal, state, and local governments and in the private sector.

Approach

During FY 1995, BFRL will perform five tasks:

1. Methodology. BFRL will assist DOE in the development and modification of

FEMP LCC rules, as promulgated in 10 CFR 436 Subpart A. BFRL will amplify these rules and procedures in NIST Handbook 135, Life-Cycle Costing Manual for the Federal Energy

Management Program, which is being

revised to reflect many changes in the

FEMP rules since it was published in 1987.

Data. Each year BFRL computes the

discount rate to be used in the analysis of federal energy and water con2.

202
servation projects, using the procedure specified in 10 CFR 436. In addition, BFRL connputes tables of

discount factors and energy price indi- ces, based on this discount rate and on energy price projections received

from DOE/EIA for this purpose. These

data are published each October 1 in NlST's Annual Supplement to Handbook 135, and included in electronic

fornn with the BFRL LCC software.

3. Software. BFRL has developed four

computer programs for economic

analysis of energy and water

conservation projects: BLCC, Quick

Input, DISCOUNT, and ERATES.

These programs are maintained,

updated, and enhanced with new

analytical capabilities annually. These

programs are distributed by DOE and numerous private-sector software

vendors. User manuals are provided

with each program, and full documentation is underway. This

software also has been incorporated

into several other software projects

outside NIST, sponsored by DOE.

4. Training. BFRL conducts five LCC

workshops annually at locations

throughout the United States,

primarily for federal engineers and

energy managers, but attended by

representatives from state and local government, utilities, and consultants

from the private sector. BFRL

designed this course and updates the course materials on an annual basis.

In addition, BFRL has recently trained

16 instructors, mostly university

professors, to conduct this LCC

workshop, and is providing them with

required teaching materials. These

trainers are now conducting many

additional workshops throughout the

United States, greatly expanding the

reach of NIST research activities. FEMP also has developed three

training videos related to LCC analysis

and is finalizing the training manual

for the last of these.

5. Consulting. BFRL provides consulting

to DOE related to methods of

economic analysis for federal energy

and water conservation projects on a continuous basis. For example,

changes to the FEMP LCC rules in 10

CFR 436 are made in consultation

with BFRL; users of BFRL publications

and software frequently call with

technical questions related to these

materials and to interpretation of 10

CFR 436; and BFRL is working with

FEMP to reconcile differences in DoD's LCC methodology with the

FEMP methodology used by other

federal agencies.

Recent Results

Revised Fuller, S.K. and Petersen, S.R., Life Cycle Costing Manual for FEMP, NIST

Handbook 135, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, June 1995

Revised Petersen, S.R., BLCC User's Guide

and Reference Manual and Programmer's

Documentation, NISTIR 5185-2, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

January 1995

Conducted 5 two-day workshops on Life- Cycle Cost Analysis of Energy Conservation

Projects on Federal Engineers, FY 1995.

Petersen, S.R., Present Worth Factors for LCC Studies in the Department of Defense

(1995)., NISTIR 4942-2, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, October 1994.

Revised LCC training manual. Fuller, S.K., and

Petersen, S.R., Life-Cycle Cost Workshop for Energy Conservation in Buildings: Student

Manual, NISTIR 5165, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, October 1994

Annual Supplement to Handbook 135,

Petersen, S.R., Energy Price Indices and

Discount Factors for LCC Analysis 1995,

NISTIR 85-3273-9, National Institute of

Standards and Technology

203
AutoBid Software to Support Police

Vehicle Acquisition Decisions

Principal Investigator

Stephen F. Weber

Office of Applied Economics

301-975-6137

Sponsor

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Office of Law Enforcement Standards (OLES)

Objective

To update and publish AutoBid software to support police vehicle acquisition decisions.

Problem

AutoBid software that supports police vehicle

acquisition decisions needs to be updated to include the latest 1 996 model year data on

police vehicle performance. The current version

of AutoBid is directly dependent on a specific set of data files that each cover one vehicle

model year. The data files contain the

performance test results for police patrol

vehicles published annually by the Michigan

State Police. The specific data files expected to be present are explicitly referenced in the source code of the software. This feature requires that the source code be modified each year when the new model year data become available. As a

result, the entire program must be recompiled

each year.

Approach

During FY 1 995, BFRL will assist OLES in preparing the data files compatible with AutoBid

for the 1 996 model year, as soon as the police

patrol vehicle performance data become

available. Work will center on redesigning the

software to automatically recognize any vehicle

model year data files in the current directory and

provide the user with a menu to select any given

year for which the data are present.

Recent Results

Recompiled AutoBid software and included

1995 model year police patrol vehicles.

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i3 GPO : 1995 0 - 397-935 : QL 3