8/20

Opportunities in Agriculture

A Whole-Farm Approach to 

Managing Pests

Examples of ecological pest management practices include (clockwise from left): crop scouting (photo by Carol Glenister), 

rotating crops (photo by Stacie Clary, Western SARE) and the use of no-till and cover crops (photo by Michael Nolan).

SUCCESSFULLY MANAGING PESTS IS ONE OF THE BIGGEST 

challenges for farmers and ranchers who want to run 

their operations sustainably. In order to reduce their use 

of off-farm chemical inputs, they need management 

options that are reliable and profitable. More and more, 

farmers across the United States are realizing that ecological pest management strategies can provide what 

they’re looking for. For example, practices that promote 

natural enemies of pests on the farm provide an 

estimated $4.5 billion worth of pest suppression each 

year nationwide. Other common practices include 

rotating in new crops that disrupt pest cycles, enhancing 

a crop’s ability to compete against weeds and building 

soils that naturally suppress disease microorganisms. 

The ecological approach uses knowledge, biodiversity 

and resource management to produce healthy crops and 

keep pest insects, weeds and diseases at bay.

Ecological pest management is part of a holistic 

approach to farming, with benefits that go beyond 

limiting pest populations and the damage they cause. 

Improving soil health, supporting beneficial organisms, 

and maintaining plant and animal diversity all improve 

other aspects of farm management. The benefits can 

include, for example, more efficient management of soil 

nutrients and water. Also, a whole-farm approach 

improves risk management, which makes the farm more 

resilient to market fluctuations, extreme weather events 

associated with climate change, and other production 

challenges. These benefits can add up to improved profitability, either through lower production costs, more 

consistent yields, or both.

Pests in Farming Systems Versus Natural

Systems

Agricultural pests are any unwanted species of plant, 

animal, insect or microorganism that damages or reduces 

the productivity of crops and livestock. They may seem 

like an ever-present challenge in agriculture, but pest 

outbreaks are uncommon in natural landscapes, where 

they have to compete for limited resources and avoid 

their predators. For example, more than 100,000 species 

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

Pests in Farming Systems 

Versus Natural Systems 1

Taking a Holistic View 

of the Farm 2

Who Can Use Ecological 

Management Strategies? 3

PART ONE: 

AN ECOLOGICAL 

APPROACH TO PEST 

MANAGEMENT 4

Ecological Principles for 

Managing Pests 5

Promote Biodiversity 5

Create Healthy Crop 

Habitats 5

Reduce Disturbance 

to Soil and Non-Crop 

Vegetation 6

Minimize Off-Farm Inputs 6

PART TWO: APPLYING 

ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 

TO THE FARM 7

Diversify Within 

Agroecosystems 7

Grafting and Selecting 

Resistant Varieties 7

Include Natural and 

Semi-Natural Habitats 9

Enhance Natural Enemies 10

Manage Soil to Produce 

Healthy Crops 10

Minimize Agricultural 

Disturbances on the Farm 11

Create Multiple Stresses 

for Pests 12

Reduce Excess Sources 

of Nitrogen 13

As a Last Resort, Use 

Targeted Attacks 13

Basics of Crop Scouting 14

Beyond Pest Management 15

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 16
of plants, insects, nematodes and other organisms (most 

are microscopic) may live on a typical farm. But in any 

given year, only about a dozen species might reach pest 

status. If you manage your farm correctly, there could be 

far more beneficial species than pests, and these beneficial 

species provide important ecosystem services, or benefits 

gained from biodiversity. The ecosystem services that beneficial species contribute to include nutrient cycling (by 

breaking down plant residues), crop pollination and pest 

regulation (by eating pests).

Think of pests as a symptom of ecological imbalances 

on your farm and in the surrounding landscape. In natural 

environments, pests do not typically reach threatening 

levels because they experience more competition and 

predation. In contrast, the management practices we use 

alter this balance and directly influence the likelihood of 

developing pest problems. Many agricultural systems are 

designed to maximize production of a few crop species. 

Excess tillage, over-fertilization, monoculture cropping 

and routine pesticide sprays are common examples of 

practices that disturb ecological processes and create environments favorable to pests. At the same time, these 

practices reduce biodiversity, meaning fewer beneficial 

organisms such as natural predators and parasitoids are 

around to keep pests in check compared to natural 

systems.

Taking a Holistic View of the Farm

Ecological pest management goes beyond attempts to 

manage individual pests. Instead, the whole farm is 

managed to create environments that crops and livestock 

can thrive in. This systems-level approach considers the 

impacts of management decisions not only on your cash 

crops and their pests, but across the whole farm. This is a 

more knowledge-intensive approach. Growers work to 

strengthen on-farm ecosystem services by combining good 

agricultural practices with crop production needs. The 

goal is to focus on sustainable, proactive and preventive 

strategies that create healthy crop environments, rather 

Natural features in the 

landscape support 

biodiversity and 

protect soil. Tree lines 

protect fields from 

heavy winds and native 

plants attract beneficial 

organisms. Photo by Stacie 

Clary, Western SARE 

2 www.SARE.org

Growing tomatoes inside a high tunnel protects the crop 

from many pests and extends the market season. Straw 

mulch shades out weeds and limits the transmission of 

pathogens from the soil to plant leaves, while also improving 

soil health as it decomposes. Photo by David Van Eeckhout, The 

Good Acre
www.SARE.org 3

than to rely on reactive, input-based controls that degrade 

the environment and promote pests in the long term.

Regular field scouting and record-keeping are integral 

to developing a holistic approach to farm or ranch management. Correctly identify and develop working 

knowledge of the pests and beneficials present in your 

fields and surrounding region, then use this knowledge to 

assess the pests’ potential to damage your crops. Use an 

integrated set of strategies that includes cultural (planting 

dates, plant diversity, proper irrigation), biological 

(predators and parasitoids) and physical control (row 

covers, traps) methods, and use selective agrochemicals 

only as a last resort. 

Who Can Use Ecological Management

Strategies?

Managing pests with ecological strategies doesn’t mean 

giving up farming the way you know it. Ecological strategies can supplement the unique pest management needs 

of your farm and provide benefits that go beyond pest 

management. Small adjustments like pushing back a 

planting date to avoid peak pest activity or including 

flowering species in hedgerows and conservation buffers 

can go a long way towards reducing your need for pesticides. Whether you work with row crops or specialty 

crops, there are ecological options you can use to rein in 

your pest problems. 

Part One of this publication describes the principles 

that make up the foundation of ecological pest management. Part Two explains some of the most common ways 

to put these principles to work on your farm or ranch. To 

explore ecological pest management further, read this 

publication online at www.sare.org/pests, where you will 

find links to additional resources that were developed by 

SARE and SARE grantees.

Project Highlights

The “Project Highlights” boxes throughout this publication provide examples of SARE-supported farmers 

and researchers who have successfully used ecological 

principles to manage important pests in different cropping systems. For complete information on a project, 

visit our database of project reports (projects.sare.org/

search-projects) and search by each project number 

listed in parentheses. A complete list of highlighted 

projects is on page 16.

www.SARE.org 3

A mixed vegetation buffer near a poultry house at Hill Farms in Houston, Del., offers habitat for pollinators and natural 

enemies, and reduces dust coming off of the poultry house. Photo courtesy of Hill Farms

Visit 

www.sare.org/pests 

for more information 

on ecological pest 

management.
4 www.SARE.org

STARTING IN THE 1950s, MOST GROWERS BEGAN TO RELY

on agrochemical-based strategies to manage pests. 

Low-cost pesticides were seen as convenient “silver bullet” 

solutions, but that view is changing. Repeated use of pesticides has brought about resistance in many pest species. 

In addition, broad-spectrum insecticides not only kill crop pests but 

also important non-target 

predators and pollinators. These 

disruptions lead to pests resurging 

and returning to crops faster and 

in greater numbers, but with fewer 

predators and parasitoids to 

control them. In time, the repeated 

use of pesticides can create conditions where pests thrive, resulting 

in growers who feel compelled to 

lean more heavily on the same 

agrichemical controls that caused 

the problem; this situation has 

been named the “pesticide 

treadmill.”

More and more farmers are 

becoming aware of these risks to 

their operations, human health 

and the environment, and are 

turning instead to ecological pest management strategies 

for solutions. Ecological strategies treat the farm like an 

agroecosystem, meaning they use good agricultural 

practices that mimic and reinforce the natural relationships already built into farming systems. Using cover 

crops instead of leaving the soil bare, for example, 

protects soil from erosion, shades out weeds, nurtures 

soil microbiology and attracts beneficial arthropods 

that eat pests, pollinate crops and recycle crop debris. 

In this way, good agricultural practices boost the natural 

defenses of your farm.

These good agricultural practices, however, require 

careful farm planning and habitat management, and they 

depend on two driving ecological concepts: biodiversity

and biological control. Biodiversity refers to all of the 

living species found in and around the farm, including 

crop plants, weeds, livestock, woody plants and shrubs, 

arthropods, soil biology, wildlife and many other 

organisms. The interactions between these organisms and 

their environment provide valuable ecosystem services 

like biological control, or the use of natural enemies to 

reduce, prevent and delay pest outbreaks. Instead of 

reacting to pest problems with off-farm inputs, ecological 

strategies prevent problems from arising by proactively 

addressing their root causes, such as low biodiversity, 

stressed crops and degraded soils. 

Seeding a cover crop into corn in a no-till system. This is an example of how more farmers are taking advantage of 

holistic, ecological principles to manage pests, nutrients and water with fewer purchased inputs. Photo by Edwin Remsberg

A paper wasp with 

cabbageworm prey in 

broccoli. Photo by Russ 

Ottens, University of Georgia

Part One: 

An Ecological Approach to Pest Management

Ecological 

strategies mimic 

and reinforce 

the natural 

relationships 

already built into 

farming systems.
www.SARE.org 5

Ecological Principles for Managing Pests

In general, sustainable pest management practices adhere 

to one or more of the following guidelines:

1. Promote biodiversity

2. Create healthy crop habitats

3. Reduce disturbance to soil and non-crop vegetation

4. Minimize off-farm inputs

These four guidelines are summarized in this publication. For more in-depth information on ecologically based 

pest management and the strategies that growers are 

using successfully, read through publications like SARE’s 

Manage Insects on your Farm (www.sare.org/

manage-insects).

1. Promote Biodiversity

Farming is possible thanks to the many complex relationships that exist between species across the farm, in fields 

and in the soil. Diversity in the crops you grow and in the 

way you manage them goes a long way toward reducing 

pest pressures. A diverse patchwork of crop and non-crop 

species attracts beneficial insects by providing them food 

and shelter. Including different varieties of the same crop 

species can provide plants with genetic resistance against 

disease-causing organisms and against pest insects. 

Diversity aboveground drives diversity belowground. For 

example, rotating plant species that have different growth 

habits, rooting depths and root exudates promotes the 

health of the soil, which influences crop defenses.

2. Create Healthy Crop Habitats

The first line of defense against pests is a healthy plant, 

and healthy soils produce healthy plants. Plant defenses 

work better when they grow in well-drained, porous soils 

that have a high level of biological activity. A robust 

community of soil arthropods and microorganisms 

promotes soil health and nutrient cycling, and may 

suppress disease-causing organisms in the soil. With 

adequate access to plant-available nutrients, crop plants 

become better competitors against weeds and can 

naturally defend themselves against insect pests that are 

feeding on them.

3. Reduce Disturbance to Soil and Non-Crop 

Vegetation

Agricultural disturbances include practices like harvest, 

tillage and pesticide applications. Disturbances provoke 

pest problems and create situations where crop plants are 

more stressed and vulnerable to pests. While some disturbances such as harvest are unavoidable, others can be 

minimized. Minimizing the disturbances caused by field 

tasks promotes undisturbed habitats that beneficial 

insects use for shelter and to forage for prey, nectar and 

pollen. Use tillage techniques that avoid stirring the weed 

seedbank, which could otherwise result in more problematic weeds coming to the soil surface. Frequent tillage also 

depletes soil organic matter and reduces important soil 

biology, both of which are vital for healthy soil and crops.

Ten vineyards partnered 

with Washington State 

University to improve or 

restore wildflower 

habitat near their fields. 

The result was fewer 

pesticide sprays and 

more beautiful scenery 

for visitors. Photo by 

Lorraine Seymour
6

www.SARE.org

Project Highlight: Cover Crops and No-Till 

Suppress Weeds

In the U.S. Virgin Islands (LS12-252), sunn hemp and 

sunflowers were used as a green manure mulch in order 

to suppress weeds in jalapeño pepper production. 

Researchers used a roller crimper to kill sunn hemp and 

sunflower cover crops before transplanting peppers directly into the residue. The living cover crops provided 

near-total weed suppression while growing, and cover 

crop residues provided weed suppression similar to full 

tillage for up to six weeks after termination.

4. Minimize Off-Farm Inputs

Synthetic fertilizers and pesticides that are improperly 

managed can worsen pest problems. Pest insects tend to 

be more attracted to heavily fertilized crops. When excess 

nitrogen and phosphorus are left behind in the soil, weeds 

use it to grow, shed seeds and compete with nearby crops. 

When you reduce off-farm inputs in favor of stable organic 

amendments such as cover crop residues and composts, 

which act as slow-release fertilizers, your crop will have 

access to nutrients when they are needed.

An informed nutrient management plan begins with a 

soil test. Use results from soil or plant tissue tests to match 

your fertilizer timing and rates to the needs of the growing 

crop. Improve nitrogen use efficiency on your farm 

through best practices like split rate applications, manure 

management and fertigation. If available, technologies like 

variable rate fertilization further improve your ability to 

target fertilizer applications to the crop’s needs. 

The Natural Defenses of Healthy Crops

What makes a healthy crop?

Healthy soil is the foundation of a healthy crop. Good tilth, drainage, water-holding capacity, high organic matter and fertility all provide a crop with the resources 

it needs to grow vigorously and respond to stresses from insects, diseases, weeds 

and harsh weather. Soil management practices such as crop rotation, cover crops, 

reduced tillage and application of organic materials contribute to cropping environments that are favorable for crop growth but unfavorable for pests.

What natural defenses do crop plants use?

The natural defenses that plants use to minimize stress from insects, weeds and 

disease-causing pathogens are widespread and can take many forms. They also 

reduce the impacts of harsh conditions like droughts and floods. Some examples:

• Many types of plants produce physical barriers such as waxy coatings, thorns 

or plant hairs to stop herbivores from feeding, to reduce disease infection and 

to slow water loss during extremely hot conditions. Leafhopper-resistant varieties of alfalfa, for example, depend on plant hairs to stop their major pest, 

the potato leafhopper.

• Most plants produce chemical defenses in response to leaf damage. Some are 

toxic to insects and some have antimicrobial properties that degrade diseasecausing pathogens. For example, cucurbits produce a bitter-tasting chemical 

that is toxic to insects and deters them from feeding. Brassica and mustard 

plants are known to produce chemicals that are toxic to nematodes. When 

incorporated into the soil, mustard crop residues release these toxic chemicals 

into the soil to suppress nematode pests such as root-knot nematodes.

• Plants can defend themselves by relying on beneficial organisms. When under 

attack by herbivores, plants release chemical signals to attract predators and 

parasites to defend them. For example, when attacked by aphid pests, tomatoes produce chemical signals that attract parasitic wasps, which then prey on 

the aphids. Plant roots often form beneficial relationships with soil fungi called 

arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. In exchange for sugars from the plant, mycorrhizal fungi help the plant by expanding its root system and allowing it to access 

nutrients deeper in the soil. There is evidence that these colonized plants may 

be more resistant to infection from disease-causing pathogens.

When a plant is under stress, it must divert nutritional resources from growth to 

defense. A cropping system that emphasizes soil health and fertility provides 

plants with the resources they need to defend themselves while maintaining growth.

What causes stress and how do pests exploit this?

Stress reduces crop productivity and is caused by environmental conditions like 

poor soils, flooding, drought and other living organisms such as insects, weeds and 

disease-causing pathogens. Poor, compacted soils, for example, stunt root growth 

and reduce the crop’s ability to take up water and to scavenge deeper into soil for 

important nutrients. Crop defenses are weakened under stressful conditions, and 

the impacts of pests on crop plants may be amplified. When crops are stressed, 

weeds can more aggressively compete for water, sunlight, space and nutrients, and 

they are capable of hosting crop diseases. Insect pests defoliate plants and can 

transmit disease-causing pathogens when they eat the crop. Disease-causing 

pathogens can more easily infect stressed plants, which have impaired defenses 

under stressful conditions.

Good agricultural practices should focus on reducing stress to the crop and 

making the environment less favorable for pests.

A mustard cover crop (left) included in rotation with 

potatoes (right) suppresses weeds, improves soil health and, 

when incorporated into the soil, decomposes and releases 

chemicals that suppress disease-causing organisms. Photo by 

Edwin Remsberg
www.SARE.org 7

THE GOAL OF ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT IS TO REDUCE 

pest abundance to tolerable levels through the use of 

multiple pest control tactics that integrate with crop and 

soil management. This is opposed to using silver-bullet 

solutions to control pests. Think of pest management 

strategies as individual tools in a tool box, which together 

create a positive environment for crops and beneficial 

organisms, and a stressful one for pests. Just as you 

wouldn’t rely on a single tool to fix every problem, you 

should avoid relying on a single approach to manage pests.

When you integrate multiple control tactics, your production system benefits in the following ways:

» The impacts of individual strategies are strengthened when used together.

» The risk of crop failure is reduced because you are 

spreading the burden of crop protection across 

many tactics.

» Environmental disruptions and threats to human 

health are minimized.

» Pests’ ability to develop resistance or adapt to 

individual tactics is slowed.

» If properly integrated, operational costs are 

reduced and profitability is improved by reducing 

the need for purchased inputs.

Diverse crop rotations 

are a critical pest 

management tool, 

especially for organic 

producers. Photo by Deb 

Heleba, Northeast SARE

Part Two: 

Applying Ecological Principles to the Farm

Think of pest 

management 

strategies as 

individual tools 

in a tool box.

Diversify Plants and Animals Within

Agroecosystems

With knowledge of the pests and beneficials that inhabit 

your farm, think of ways you can add plant diversity to the 

system both across the farm and throughout the seasons. 

Adding a new crop or cover crop to the rotation can help 

break up the life cycles of soil-borne diseases, pest insects 

and weeds. However, be mindful not to follow a crop or 

cover crop with another from the same plant family 

(e.g., follow a legume with a legume), as this can make 

pest problems worse. For ideas about how to choose and 

integrate new crops into a rotation, explore SARE’s 

Crop Rotation on Organic Farms (www.sare.org/croprotation-on-organic-farms). The SARE book Managing 

Cover Crops Profitably (www.sare.org/mccp) features 

in-depth profiles of common cover crop species and can 

help you think through appropriate cover crops to use. 

Or visit Cover Crops for Sustainable Crop Rotations

(www.sare.org/cover-crops) to explore resources on the 

multifaceted benefits cover crops provide to your farm.

Grafting and Selecting Resistant Varieties

Some vegetable crops, such as tomatoes, peppers and 

squashes, include varieties that are genetically resistant to 

common crop diseases like blights and mildews. Choosing 

a variety that is resistant to diseases typical of your area is 
8 www.SARE.org

a proactive and relatively simple step you can take to 

greatly reduce the severity of crop damage from diseases 

and insects. But it is unlikely to eliminate problems in the 

long term. Pest outbreaks can still occur in spite of having 

planted resistant varieties if environmental conditions or 

poor crop management decisions create the conditions 

that are ideal for them. Also, repeated use of the same 

resistant crop variety in a field can encourage more aggressive pathogens that are unaffected by the resistance to 

thrive. Therefore, you should use resistant varieties in 

combination with other disease management strategies, 

such as crop scouting, equipment sanitation and crop 

rotation. Disease-resistant varieties can have flavor or 

yield characteristics that are different from available 

varieties, and these factors should be taken into account.

Project Highlight: 

Evaluating Winter Squash Varieties

Seeking new ways to help farmers manage soil-borne 

diseases and increase their winter sales, Oregon State 

University researchers used two SARE grants to explore 

the potential of different winter squash varieties 

(SW15-021 and OW16-008). They looked at everything 

from disease management to storage and marketability. In one project, the team shared integrated disease 

management strategies with Willamette Valley farmers, 

including fungal disease symptoms and scouting, crop 

rotation, fungicide treatments and the use of diseaseresistant varieties. In the other project, they used onfarm trials to assess the profitability of different squash 

In Oregon, farmers and Extension specialists worked 

together to expand the local market for winter squash. 

They identified varieties that would produce well using 

integrated disease management strategies, would keep in 

storage, and were marketable to chefs and consumers. 

Photo by Alex Stone, Oregon State University

Weed Control with Sheep

Integrating livestock into cropping systems can bring many benefits to the farm. 

Increasingly, farmers are coming to view grazing sheep as an effective way to 

manage weeds and cover crops instead of chemicals, tillage or mowing. For 

example, sheep can replace the use of herbicides or mowing to manage floor 

vegetation in vineyards and orchards. They are also being used by hops growers 

not only to manage weeds, but also to eat the lower leaves of hops plants. This 

opens up air flow and can help with disease management.

Adding a flock of sheep to the operation represents an opportunity to diversify, but if this isn’t feasible, there might be sheep farms in your area willing to 

rent out their herd. Important considerations when grazing with sheep include 

the need for regular rotations, temporary fencing and protection against predators. Also, make sure sheep cannot eat the crop itself, which is critical to vineyard 

managers, for example. University of California livestock specialists partnered 

with vineyard managers and sheep managers in a SARE-funded project to 

develop workable grazing strategies for both weeds and cover crops (FW08-315). 

The team focused on aversion training, or teaching sheep to avoid eating grape 

leaves while grazing on weeds and cover crops. Dwarf breeds are another option.

Sheep can also be used to manage weeds and cover crops in field crop 

systems. The SARE fact sheet Sheep Grazing to Manage Crop Residues, Insects 

and Weeds in Northern Plains Grain and Alfalfa Systems (www.sare.org/sheepgrazing) describes how sheep can be used to graze crop residue and summer 

fallow as a way to control alfalfa weevils and improve residue management 

without the use of chemical inputs. Separate research at Montana State 

University looks at how sheep can be used to terminate cover crops in organic 

wheat systems instead of tillage, which oftentimes leads to soil erosion problems. Because of their small size, sheep cause less compaction than cattle and are 

easier to transport.

These sheep at a vineyard in Winters, Calif., were trained to ignore grape leaves 

while grazing on vegetation such as weeds and cover crops. Photo courtesy University of 

California Extension
www.SARE.org 9

varieties, worked with chefs to assess characteristics 

such as flavor, and created marketing materials for the 

best-performing varieties. Dozens of farmers in the 

area adopted new practices as a result of this work.

Grafting is an increasingly popular way to gain the 

benefit of disease resistance without sacrificing a crop’s 

desirable characteristics. Grafting is especially useful for 

organic producers, whose disease management options 

are more limited, and for growers of heirloom crops, as 

those crops often lack adequate disease resistance. 

Because grafting is time consuming, you should reserve it 

for high-value crops such as tomatoes, peppers and 

melons. The SARE fact sheet Tomato Grafting for Disease 

Resistance and Increased Productivity (www.sare.org/

tomato-grafting) describes the grafting process in detail 

and presents information on the relative resistance of 

popular tomato varieties to common diseases.

Project Highlight: Grafting Heirloom Tomatoes

A University of Florida horticulture scientist worked 

with Frog Song Organics in Hawthorne, Fla., to assess 

the performance and economics of grafted heirloom 

tomato varieties in an organic high tunnel system 

(OS13-083). In the SARE-funded project conducted 

from 2013 to 2017, the team grafted four heirloom varieties (the “scions”) onto two commercial rootstocks 

and compared them to the heirloom varieties with no 

grafting. They found that grafting was effective at managing Fusarium wilt and resulted in healthier, higheryielding crops overall. In spite of the higher cost of 

grafting, some scion-rootstock combinations increased 

revenue 4.5 times due to improved yields.

Include Natural and Semi-Natural Habitats on

the Farm

Another way to add diversity is to include perennial plants 

such as wildflowers, fruit trees and grasses in and around 

field edges. Flowering perennials stay in place and bloom 

each year, providing undisturbed habitat rich in nectar, 

pollen and alternative prey, all of which are attractive to 

beneficial insects such as lady beetles, ground beetles, 

lacewings, minute pirate bugs and parasitoids. Perennials 

boast other benefits, such as extensive rooting systems 

that trap excess nutrients and pesticides in the soil while 

promoting soil health, soil biology and water infiltration.

Visit the Native Plants and Ecosystem Services 

(www.canr.msu.edu/nativeplants/plant_facts/) website 

developed by University of Michigan researchers, with 

support from SARE, for information about native plants 

and their attractiveness to beneficial insects. Wherever 

possible, consider practicing agroforestry and silvopasture 

Wildflower habitat on 

a Georgia apple farm 

designed to attract 

beneficials and native 

pollinators. Photo by 

Candace Pollock-Moore, 

Southern SARE

Details of the process 

for grafting tomatoes. 

Photo courtesy Cary Rivard, 

Kansas State University
10 www.SARE.org

by combining trees, shrubs and perennial grasses with 

crops and livestock to improve habitat continuity for beneficials throughout the farm. The Center for Agroforestry’s 

(University of Missouri) Agroforestry Training Manual

and Handbook for Agroforestry Planning and Design

describe agroforestry practices and identify particular 

species that can be profitably integrated on your land. 

Enhance Natural Enemies

In the United States, natural enemies provide an 

estimated $4.5 billion worth of pest suppression 

annually. To take advantage of this valuable service, 

avoid cropping practices that harm beneficials and 

instead adopt the practices that support them. In 

addition to perennials, annual cover crops like 

buckwheat and cowpeas can establish quickly and 

provide an early-season food source for natural enemies 

when their prey is typically scarce. The added ground 

cover harbors predators such as ground beetles and rove 

beetles that eat weed seeds and insect pests hiding in the 

soil. Include vegetative borders and corridors around 

crop fields to connect beneficials to field edges. Flowering 

plants established in a field or inside a greenhouse 

(either in designated rows or in a perimeter) can support 

natural enemies that are readily available to move into 

your crop to attack pests. Non-crop vegetation may also 

hide the crop from pest insects capable of colonizing the 

crop. Experiment with small plots of vegetational 

diversity and be sure to consult with local experts.

SARE’s bulletin Cover Cropping for Pollinators and 

Beneficial Insects (www.sare.org/cover-crops-pollinators) 

has information on the ways you can use cover crops to 

support important natural enemies and pollinators, and to 

gain their other benefits. Again, Manage Insects On Your 

Farm (www.sare.org/manage-insects) covers whole-farm 

strategies to support beneficials and includes success 

stories that illustrate farmer innovations.

Manage Soil to Produce Healthy Crops

Understanding the link between soil health and healthy 

plants is fundamental to developing ecological pest management strategies. Practices such as conservation tillage, 

cover cropping and composting promote healthy crops by 

improving their growing conditions.

Conservation tillage reduces disturbance to the soil’s 

structure and to soil food webs. It leaves vegetation on the 

surface that protects the soil from erosion. Cover crops 

add living roots in the soil that compete with weeds, keep 

soil in place and reduce compaction.

Once terminated, cover crop residues add organic 

matter that promotes important beneficial soil biology. 

This includes soil invertebrates and microorganisms 

like mycorrhizal fungi that help your crop scavenge 

otherwise out-of-reach nutrients, as well as other beneficials that prevent disease-causing organisms from 

infecting the crop.

Composts and manures improve water-holding 

capacity, suppress disease organisms and provide stable 

plant-available nutrients to your crop. When grown in 

healthy soils, crops have access to enough nutrients to 

support the natural physical and chemical defenses they 

rely on to resist pathogens and insect pests.

Learn more about soil health practices by exploring 

SARE’s What is Soil Health? (www.sare.org/what-is-soilhealth) interactive infographic and Building Soils for 

Better Crops (www.sare.org/bsbc) book. SARE’s Steel in 

the Field (www.sare.org/steel-in-the-field) includes 

profiles of weed and soil management implements.

An insectary border of 

buckwheat around a 

cornfield can attract 

beneficial insects such 

as lady beetles and 

hoverflies for pest 

suppression (top). 

Lady beetles and 

hoverfly larvae are 

natural predators of 

common corn pests like 

aphids and corn borers 

(bottom). Photos by 

Jermaine Hinds, SARE
www.SARE.org 11

Cowpeas are intercropped with squash to attract pollinators and beneficial insects, and to add nitrogen to the soil. Straw 

mulch adds organic matter, shades out weeds, improves water retention and minimizes disease transmission from the soil 

to plant leaves. Photo by Beatrice Dingha, North Carolina State A&T University

Project Highlight: Rolled Cover Crops

In vegetable production trials (LNE10-295) at Rodale 

Institute in Kutztown, Penn., rolled cover crops 

provided effective weed suppression compared to 

the use of black plastic mulch. At the same time, 

the cover crop significantly reduced labor costs and 

eliminated plastic waste. A rolled rye and rye-vetch 

cover crop had only 5% of the weeds as compared 

to beds planted with black plastic. In addition to 

smothering weeds, the cover crop provided organic 

matter and reduced soil erosion. Learn more about 

ecological approaches to weed management in 

Rodale’s guidebook, Beyond Black Plastic (www.sare.

org/beyond-black-plastic).

Minimize Agricultural Disturbances on

the Farm

Although they are sometimes necessary for pest management, agricultural disturbances should be minimized to 

avoid disrupting the beneficial relationships and processes 

that ecological strategies build. Think of ways to reduce 

excessive tillage. This can be done by adopting conservation tillage options like no-till, strip-till and ridge till, as 

well as by reducing the frequency of tillage. Switching to a 

less disruptive implement like a chisel plow instead of a 

moldboard plow is another way to reduce soil 

disturbances. In no-till settings, growers typically rely on 

residual and pre-emergent herbicide applications to keep 

weeds low, but this encourages herbicide-resistant weeds 

to develop. Combine no-till with high-biomass cover crops 

like cereal rye to ease the pressure of herbicide-resistant 

weeds. Integrate grazing, wherever feasible, to manage 

weeds in reduced-till and no-till fields.

Techniques such as strip 

till and crimping to 

terminate a cover crop, 

as pictured on this 

Colorado farm, minimize 

soil disturbances and 

provide weed control. 

Photo by Michael Nolan, 

Mountain Roots Produce
12 www.SARE.org

The SARE bulletin Cover Crop Economics (www.sare.

org/cover-crop-economics) provides a detailed explanation of how a cereal rye cover crop can pay for itself within 

the first two years when used to manage herbicide-resistant weeds. When the cereal rye produces enough biomass 

to smother weeds, growers can get by with fewer applications of lower-cost residual and post-emergent herbicides.

Pesticides are often another source of disturbance on 

the farm. They reduce biodiversity by destroying non-crop 

vegetation, which is an important overwintering site for 

beneficial organisms. They may also kill non-target insects 

that are beneficial or that serve as alternative prey to 

important natural enemies. Consider strategies like 

perimeter trap cropping, where you surround the 

perimeter of a crop field with another, more attractive 

variety that lures problem pests away from the cash crop. 

Target the trap crop border with a selective pesticide to kill 

the target pests and reduce the total volume of pesticide 

applied.

Project Highlight: Trap Cropping

In muskmelon production in Iowa, a combination 

of perimeter trap cropping and delayed row cover 

removal (LNC13-350) showed promise for managing 

cucumber beetles and the bacterial wilt pathogen that 

these beetles transmit. Researchers found that a tworow perimeter of the more attractive buttercup squash 

lures colonizing cucumber beetles away from the 

muskmelon cash crop. Applying an insecticide to only 

the trap crop reduces the overall amount of insecticide 

used by 59% and maintains effective insect and disease 

suppression.

Create Multiple Stresses for Pests

 A key tenet of ecologically based pest management is to 

create a healthy environment for the crop and one that 

stresses and deters pests. Knowledge of problem pests, 

their behaviors and life cycles is critical when determining 

the tactics to use. Consider the pest’s resource and habitat 

needs, when and how they colonize crop fields, and the 

beneficial organisms that attack them. Then, apply ecological strategies that will work against their preferences.

Project Highlight:

Deterring a Pest with Cover Crops

The flatheaded appletree borer, a longtime orchard 

pest, has a hard time finding host trees to lay eggs in 

when cover crops are involved. A farmer and a team of 

researchers from Tennessee State University (OS14-084) 

overseeded winter cover crops into their maple nurseries 

to manage appletree borers and weeds. They found that 

growing a mix of crimson clover and annual rye between 

transplanted trees reduced borer damage by up to 95%. 

The cover crop created unfavorable habitat for the pest 

by acting as a barrier that hid host tree trunks from 

foraging appletree borers. Further, the cool, shaded environment provided by the cover crop reduced weeds and 

deterred appletree borers, which prefer to lay their eggs 

on warm, sunny, low-lying areas of host trees. The cover 

crop was as effective as the conventional approach, 

which used insecticides and herbicides. 

For example, disrupt a pest’s habitat by rotating to a 

new non-host crop. Insects and diseases that specialize in 

a particular crop will have a hard time without their host. 

Reduce weeds’ access to sunlight by using narrower crop 

row spacing or with cover crop residues. Experiment with 

wider row spacing to minimize the humid conditions that 

fungal and bacterial crop diseases thrive in. Disrupt the 

ability of insect pests to disperse across your farm by 

bordering crop fields with non-host plants. This strategy 

works by jumbling the visual and chemical cues that pest 

insects use to locate host crops. Mating-disruption 

pheromone traps can confuse mate-seeking insects and 

lower the pest’s ability to reproduce. Sanitizing your 

An attracticidal sphere 

deployed in a blueberry 

field attracts and kills 

Spotted wing drosophila, 

an important pest of 

berry crops. Photo by Tracey 

Leskey, USDA Agricultural 

Research Service

Tennessee State 

University (TSU) 

researchers established 

these maple trees in a 

field of crimson clover 

and wheat to see if the 

cover crop could deter 

pests and suppress 

weeds. The cover crop 

needed to be replanted 

in the tree rows, and 

ultimately it provided 

effective pest 

management (right).

Photo by Karla Addesso, TSU
www.SARE.org 13

harvest and weeding equipment between uses can also 

reduce the spread of weed seeds or pathogens across 

your farm.

The SARE fact sheet Ecological Management of Key 

Arthropod Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards (www.sare.

org/apple-pests) provides examples of these strategies in 

action for common orchard pests in the Northeast. 

Project Highlight: Physical Pest Exclusion

Plagued with the invasive spotted wing drosophila 

(SWD) on her farm in New York, berry producer Dale 

Ila Riggs recalled losing 40% of her blueberry crop and 

25% of her raspberry crop to an infestation in 2012. 

With the help of a SARE grant (FNE14-813), she tested 

exclusion netting as a tactic to keep the flies off her 

berry crops and to keep the number of sprays down. 

Riggs found that exclusion netting worked very well 

on her operation, reducing infestation levels of SWD 

in covered berries to less than 1%. The next year, exclusion netting was even more effective at reducing SWD 

compared to uncovered, sprayed berries that received 

as many as five insecticide applications during harvest 

season. Read more about SWD management in these 

related publications:

• Management Recommendations for Spotted Wing 

Drosophila in Organic Berry Crops 

• Integrated Strategies for Management of Spotted 

Wing Drosophila in Organic Small Fruit Production 

• Spotted Wing Drosophila Pest Management Recommendations for Southeastern Blueberries 

For further reading about high tunnel production, 

visit SARE’s High Tunnels and Other Season Extension 

Techniques (www.sare.org/high-tunnels). 

Reduce Excess Sources of Nitrogen

Fertilizers may be important tools in crop production, but 

when applied in excess they can inadvertently support pests 

and impair water quality. For soil fertility, have your soil 

tested regularly to identify and set nutrient management 

goals. Legume cover crops can provide supplemental 

nitrogen and grass cover crops can take up soil nitrogen. 

Manures and composts can provide much-needed nutrients 

in their organic forms. Organic amendments like cover 

crop residues, manures and composts slowly release plantavailable nutrients that feed the crop and soil biology, and 

build soil organic matter. SARE’s Building Soils for Better 

Crops (www.sare.org/bsbc) provides an in-depth discussion on producing resilient crops by managing soil health 

and nutrients. 

Project Highlight: Targeted Sprays Control 

Stink Bugs

Research in New Jersey (ONE14-217) found that producers can reduce insecticide applications by as much 

as 75% to manage brown marmorated stink bugs and 

other orchard pests. Knowing that brown marmorated stink bugs colonize orchards from woody field 

edges, producers targeted the orchard perimeter with 

insecticide applications, instead of targeting the entire 

plot. This method, when combined with IPM-based 

monitoring and trapping, conserved natural enemies in 

the orchard by reducing the total volume of insecticide applied and saved growers 25–60% in application 

costs. Ecological Management of Key Arthropod Pests 

in Northeast Apple Orchards (www.sare.org/applepests) is a related fact sheet that discusses ecological 

strategies to manage this pest complex in apples.

As a Last Resort, Use Targeted Attacks

Because of their potential to reduce on-farm biodiversity 

and harm the environment, pesticides should only be used 

as a last resort. Use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

scouting guidelines to determine if and when a pesticide is 

needed. (Learn more at www.ipmcenters.org/about/whatis-ipm.) Visit the National Integrated Pest Management 

Alabama farmer Will 

Mastin (right) worked 

with Alabama Cooperative 

Extension entomologist 

Ayanava Majumdar (left) 

to evaluate the use of 

shade cloth on his high 

tunnel as a physical 

barrier to large-bodied 

insects. Shade cloth still 

allowed air to flow 

through the structure. 

Photo by Candace Pollock-Moore, 

Southern SARE
14 www.SARE.org

Database and the Regional IPM Centers Resource 

Database. They are searchable databases, maintained by 

USDA’s Regional Integrated Pest Management Centers, 

that contain crop profiles, fact sheets, pest management 

guidelines and strategic plans. 

» Identify: Begin by scouting plants regularly to 

identify problem pests and to monitor their 

numbers. 

» Evaluate: With the help of local Extension 

agents and publications, evaluate whether the 

pests you identify are economically important by 

comparing them against pest thresholds.

» Prevent: Early on, plan for and integrate biological and cultural management options that 

promote beneficial ecosystem services and 

prevent pest problems. 

» Action: In the event that a pest reaches its action 

threshold, take action by determining the appropriate pesticide or biological control tactics to 

use. 

» Monitor and evaluate: After treatment, 

continue to monitor pest numbers in order to 

evaluate the effectiveness of your strategy.

As a general rule, begin with the least toxic products if 

a reactive control is required. Examples include selective 

pesticides, growth regulators, microbial toxins, feeding 

deterrents, pheromones and plant-based oils that target 

problem pests. Natural predators are not as affected by 

these controls and thus are better able to continue their 

attack on crop pests. Be sure to keep a running log of the 

pests and beneficials that visit your fields. This information can help you forecast and plan for pests that may 

show up. You can also use this information to plan and 

refine your pest management plan in future years. 

Project Highlight: Control of White Mold 

with a Biopesticide

White mold, an important fungal disease in snap beans 

and other vegetable crops nationwide, is managed with 

the help of a fungal parasite, Coniothyrium minitans. 

Applied as a fungal biopesticide, C. minitans specifically attacks and kills the pathogen that causes white 

mold. Adding cultural practices like resistant variety 

selection, crop rotation and reduced tillage lowered 

white mold disease severity in beans from 11% to 3% 

during a SARE grant project (SW09-031).

Taking Stock: The Basics of Crop Scouting

The first step in any pest management plan is to properly 

identify and assess the pest and beneficial species that are 

inhabiting your farm. Assessing pest levels is especially 

important when considering the use of pesticides because 

it informs both the type of pesticide needed for your 

specific pest and whether they are at levels threatening 

enough to need an application. Make a habit of getting out 

and regularly scouting your fields, high tunnels and greenhouses. Examine plants and the soil below for pest insects, 

weeds, diseases and their accompanying symptoms and 

Regularly scouting 

your fields to better 

understand your pest 

challenges and to 

look for signs of 

damage is the first 

step of an ecological 

management plan.

Photo by Lance Cheung, USDA
www.SARE.org 15

disorders. Look for beneficial insects such as generalist 

predators and parasitoids. Here are a few broad guidelines 

for scouting your fields for pests and beneficial organisms:

» Scout early and often. Weekly is a good rule of 

thumb, but consult with local experts and 

production manuals to make informed decisions.

» Make a map of your field, high tunnel or greenhouse and inspect individual plants following a 

zig-zag, W or X pattern at a predetermined number 

of locations throughout the area (Figure 1).

» At each location, look for signs of pest activity by 

carefully examining all plant parts, including 

upper and lower leaf surfaces, growing points and 

fruits. Examine the soil below for weed seedlings 

and insect pests.

» Consult with local Extension agents, field 

manuals or local university departments to 

confirm any signs of pests and beneficial species 

you have identified. This is important because 

two pest species may resemble each other but 

may require different management strategies. 

Pests may also resemble beneficial species. 

» Keep a detailed log of pest and beneficial species 

you find, where and when. Be sure to record 

important information related to crop growth 

stage, pest abundance (e.g., number of insects per 

plant, number of weeds per row) and their life 

stages. For diseases, use a simple rating scale to 

measure severity of disease symptoms. Over time 

you can use these notes to anticipate the arrival of 

pest species and, if needed, plan the appropriate 

controls.

» Pay special attention to pest-prone areas. These 

include field edges, waterlogged areas and hightraffic areas where pests are more likely to 

colonize.

» Use regionally available forecasting applications 

like Penn State’s PestWatch, Oregon State’s 

USPest or Cornell’s Network for Environment 

and Weather Applications to forecast the arrival 

of specific pests.

Beyond Pest Management

The strategies outlined in this publication focus on pest 

management, but their benefits do not stop there. Taken 

together, ecologically based practices can result in more 

efficient use of farm resources, lower input costs, a safer 

work environment and greater overall productivity. Cover 

crops are a prime example of a strategy with multifaceted 

benefits. Depending on how they are used, cover crops 

improve nutrient and water management, reduce erosion 

and protect water quality, in addition to managing pests. 

The SARE bulletin Cover Crop Economics (www.sare.org/

cover-crop-economics) describes how cover crops can 

quickly become profitable when they are used in different 

management situations. These situations include when 

herbicide-resistant weeds are present, compaction is an 

issue, available water is at a deficit or irrigation is needed, 

or when nutrients need to be managed. Explore the 

bulletin to read further about different cases where using 

cover crops may be profitable for your operation.

Rotating your crops is another ecologically based 

strategy that provides multiple benefits, including 

breaking pest cycles. Creating conservation buffer strips at 

Managing Pests in a Changing Climate

In a changing climate, unpredictable weather events like flooding and extended 

drought conditions, as well as shifting precipitation and temperature patterns, 

may impact the severity of insect, weed and disease pests. Changes in temperature and precipitation can influence insect pest dispersal patterns, abundance and 

survival. Warmer, wetter growing seasons may result in higher weed and disease 

pressures in important crops. Milder winters may result in higher survival by pests 

that normally die in cold winters. Wetter growing seasons mean less time available for field operations that depend on favorable weather conditions, such as 

cultivation or planting.

Producers are taking advantage of holistic ecological strategies that contribute 

to climate-resilient cropping environments. For example, a well-designed cover 

crop cocktail will oftentimes improve water use during a drought by adding 

surface residue and improving soil structure. This is in addition to the pest- and 

nutrient-management benefits associated with cover crops already described. 

Learn more about these and other strategies producers are using to mitigate 

climate risk in the SARE bulletin, Cultivating Climate Resilience on Farms and 

Ranches (www.sare.org/climate-resilience).

Figure 1. Be sure to sample all areas of the field when monitoring pests. A 

ziz-zag pattern can help you do this.

FIELD

Dots indicate suggested sampling points.
16 www.SARE.org

field edges protects water quality and supports wildlife 

while also providing habitat for important beneficial 

organisms. Along with allowing beneficial soil organisms 

to thrive, conservation tillage leads to lower fuel and labor 

costs. Practices that result in more careful use of inputs, 

such as scouting, monitoring, IPM and variable rate applications, not only create a more favorable growing 

environment for crops, but can also save money and 

protect both the natural environment and the health of 

agricultural workers. 

The goal of ecological pest management is to produce 

healthy, high-quality food in a sustainable manner. 

Strategies that are not economically or socially feasible are 

not sustainable, so the practices outlined in this publication should be tested in small trials before scaling up. State 

and federal cost-share programs like USDA’s 

Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) or 

Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) provide 

financial and technical assistance that can help ease the 

costs of adopting new strategies like high tunnels, conservation buffers and cover crops. Your farming system may 

be unique, but the ecological principles described here are 

universal. Taking the ecological approach means discovering more about the natural processes on your farm and 

managing habitat to strengthen them in ways that 

maintain crop productivity. It represents a long-term commitment to testing, tweaking and learning.

This bulletin was written by Jermaine Hinds, SARE Outreach. It was produced by Sustainable Agriculture Research 

and Education (SARE), supported by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA), U.S. Department of 

Agriculture under award number 2019-38640-29881. USDA is an equal opportunity employer and service provider. 

Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and 

do not necessarily reflect the view of the USDA.

Additional Resources 

To explore ecological pest management further, read this bulletin online at www.sare.org/pest-bulletin, where you will find links to additional resources that were developed by 

SARE and SARE grantees.

Online Publications

Books, bulletins, fact sheets and other 

resources developed by SARE, free to 

access online.

Building Soils for Better Crops 

www.sare.org/bsbc

Cover Crop Economics 

www.sare.org/cover-crop-economics

Cover Cropping for Pollinators and 

Beneficial Insects 

www.sare.org/cover-crops-pollinators

Cover Crops for Sustainable 

Crop Rotations 

www.sare.org/cover-crops

Crop Rotation on Organic Farms 

www.sare.org/crop-rotation-on-organicfarms

Cultivating Climate Resilience on 

Farms and Ranches

www.sare.org/climate-resilience

Ecological Management of Key Arthropod 

Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards 

www.sare.org/apple-pests

High Tunnels and Other Season 

Extension Techniques 

www.sare.org/high-tunnels

Manage Insects On Your Farm 

www.sare.org/manage-insects

Managing Cover Crops Profitably 

www.sare.org/mccp

Organic Production 

www.sare.org/organic

Sheep Grazing to Manage Crop Residues, 

Insects and Weeds in Northern Plains 

Grain and Alfalfa Systems

www.sare.org/sheep-grazing

Steel in the Field 

www.sare.org/steel-in-the-field

Tomato Grafting for Disease Resistance 

and Increased Productivity 

www.sare.org/tomato-grafting

What is Soil Health? 

www.sare.org/what-is-soil-health

Project Highlights

Topics and links to final reports of 

SARE-funded projects highlighted in 

this bulletin. Want to dig deeper? Search 

all project reports at projects.sare.org.

Control of White Mold with a Biopesticide

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

SW09-031

Targeted Sprays Control Stink Bugs

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

ONE14-217

Physical Pest Exclusion

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

FNE14-813

Deterring a Pest with Cover Crops

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

OS14-084

Trap Cropping

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

LNC13-350

Rolled Cover Crops

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

LNE10-295

Grafting Heirloom Tomatoes

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

OS13-083

Evaluating Winter Squash Varieties

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

SW15-021

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

OW16-008

Weed Control with Sheep

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

FW08-315

Cover Crops and No-Till Suppress Weeds

https://projects.sare.org/project-reports/

LS12-252

Aphids on sugar snap 

peas. Photo by Candace 

Pollock-Moore, Southern SARE