DOE/EIA-0064(93) 

Distribution Category UC-950 

Coal Data: A Reference 

February 1995 

Energy Information Administration 

Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels 

U.S. Department of Energy 

Washington, DC 20585 

This report was prepared by the Energy Information Administration, the independent statistical and 

analytical agency within the Department of Energy. The information contained herein should not be 

construed as advocating or reflecting any policy position of the Department of Energy or of any other 

organization. DOCUMENT IS UNLIMITED 

DISTRIBUTION OF i Hl i DOv^UWluN io ^ 

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Contacts 

This report was prepared in the Supply Analysis 

Branch, Analysis and Systems Division, Office of Coal, 

Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels. General 

information regarding this publication may be obtained 

from John Geidl, Director, Office of Coal, Nuclear, 

Electric and Alternate Fuels (202/254-5570); Robert M. 

Schnapp, Director, Analysis and Systems Division 

(202/254-5392); Betsy O'Brien, Chief, Supply Analysis 

Branch; or B. D. Hong (202/254-5365). Specific questions should be addressed to Eugene R. Slatick, (202-

254-5384). Questions on current coal and other energy 

statistics should be directed to NEIC (202/586-8800). 

u 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
DISCLAIMER 

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored 

by an agency of the United States Government. Neither 

the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor 

any of their employees, make any warranty, express or 

implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for 

the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any 

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represents that its use would not infringe privately owned 

rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial 

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manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute 

or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by 

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views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not 

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Preface 

Section 205(a)(2) of the Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-91) requires the 

Administrator of the Energy Information Administration (EIA) to carry out a central, comprehensive, and 

unified energy data and information program that will 

collect, evaluate, assemble, analyze, and disseminate 

data and information relevant to energy resources, 

reserves, and related economic and statistical information. 

The legislation that created EIA vested the organization 

with an element of statutory independence. EIA does 

not take positions on policy questions. EIA's responsibility is to provide timely, high-quality information 

and to perform objective, credible analyses. 

As part of EIA's program to provide information on 

coal, this report, Coal Data: A Reference, summarizes 

basic information on the mining and use of coal, an 

important source of energy in the United States. This 

report is written for a general audience. The goal is to 

cover basic material and strike a reasonable compromise between overly generalized statements and 

detailed analyses. The section "Supplemental Figures 

and Tables" contains statistics, graphs, maps, and other 

illustrations that show trends, patterns, geographic 

locations, and similar coal-related information. The 

section "Coal Terminology and Related Information" 

provides additional information about terms mentioned 

in the text and introduces some new terms. 

The last edition of Coal Data: A Reference was published 

in 1991. The present edition contains updated data as 

well as expanded reviews and additional information. 

Added to the text are discussions of coal quality, coal 

prices, unions, and strikes. The appendix has been 

expanded to provide statistics on a variety of additional 

topics, such as: trends in coal production and royalties 

from Federal and Indian coal leases, hours worked and 

earnings for coal mine employment, railroad coal shipments and revenues, waterbome coal traffic, coal export 

loading terminals, utility coal combustion byproducts, 

and trace elements in coal. 

The information in this report has been gleaned mainly 

from the sources in the bibliography. The reader 

interested in going beyond the scope of this report 

should consult these sources. The statistics are largely 

from reports published by the Energy Information 

Administration. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference m 

Contents pag e 

A Brief History of U.S. Coal 1 

United States Coal: An Overview 3 

Introduction 3 

The Nature of Coal .' 4 

U.S. Coal Deposits 6 

Resources and Reserves 8 

Mining 10 

Production 16 

Employment, Productivity, and Earnings 21 

Health and Safety 23 

Preparation 25 

Transportation • 28 

Supply and Stocks 30 

Use 30 

Coal and Coke Trade 36 

Coal and the Environment 37 

Coal Outlook 40 

Supplemental Figures and Tables 45 

Coal Terminology and Related Information Il l 

Bibliography >. 121 

Sources of Information on Coal 127 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference v 
Tables Page 

1. U.S. Coal Production from the 10 Leading Coalbeds, 1993 8 

2. The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Producing States, 1993 17 

3. Peak Year of U.S. Coal Production by State, Through 1993 18 

4. Cumulative Coal Production by State, 1890-1993 18 

5. The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Producing Companies, 1993 20 

6. The 10 Leading States in U.S. Coal Mine Employment, 1993 21 

7. The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Consuming States, 1993 31 

8. U.S. Demonstrated Reserve Base of Coal by Potential Mining Method and Ranked by State Total, 

January 1, 1993 : 48 

9. Estimates of U.S. Recoverable Coal Reserves by Btu/Sulfur Content and Region, 1992 48 

10. U.S. Coal Production and Related Statistics, Selected Years, 1980, 1985,1990-1993 54 

11. U.S. Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region and State, Selected Years, 1970, 1980, 1990-1993 57 

12. Total U.S. Coal Production and Number of Mines by State and Type of Mining, 1993 58 

13. U.S. Underground Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 ... . 60 

14. U.S. Surface Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 61 

15. U.S. Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 62 

16. Production (Sales Volume) from Federal and Indian Coal Lands Compared with Production from 

Other Sources and Coal Royalties, Selected Years, 1970,1975,1980-1993 63 

17. U.S. Coal Mining Acreage, Production (Sales Volume) and Royalties from Federal and Indian Leases 

by State, 1993 64 

18. U.S. Production Trends in Bituminous Coal and Lignite, 1900-1993 65 

19. Production Trends in Pennsylvania Anthracite, 1900-1993 67 

20. U.S. Labor Productivity in Coal Mining, 1949-1993 69 

21. Profile of U.S. Coal Miners, 1986 70 

22. U.S. Coal Mining Average Employment, Hours Worked, and Earnings, Selected Years, 

1980, 1985, 1990-1993 70 

23. U.S. Coal Mine Injuries, Selected Years, 1975, 1980,1985, 1990-1993 71 

24. U.S. Coal Supply and Disposition, 1949-1993 75 

25. Year-End Stocks of U.S. Coal by End-Use Sector, 1949-1993 77 

26. U.S. Coke Supply and Disposition, 1949-1993 78 

27. U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector, 1949-1993 79 

28. U.S. Coal Consumption by Census Division and State, 1989-1993 81 

29. U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector and by Census Division and State, 1993 82 

30. U.S. Coal Prices, 1949-1993 85 

31. Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by Mining Method, 1980-1993 86 

32. Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by Rank, 1980-1993 86 

33. Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by State and Mining Method, 1993 87 

34. Foreign Direct Investment in U.S. Coal, and Share of Total U.S. Coal Production, 1980-1992 87 

35. U.S. Coal Mining Cost Comparisons by Mining Methods 88 

36. Quality and Cost of Coal Receipts of U.S. Electric Utilities of 50 Megawatts or Larger Nameplate 

Capacity by Coal Rank, 1990-1993 89 

37. Cost of Contract and Spot Coal Receipts at U.S. Electric Utilities of 50 Megawatts of Larger 

Nameplate Capacity, 1981-1993 90 

38. U.S. Coal Receipts and Price by Sulfur Content at Electric Utility Plants, by State of 

Origin and Imports, 1993 91 

39. U.S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source, Selected Years, 1980, 1985, 1990-1993 91 

40. Major U.S. Coal-Carrying Railroad Systems, 1993 92 

41. U.S. Rail Transportation of Coal, 1980-1993 92 

42. Coal Handled and Revenue Received by Major U.S. Coal-Carrying Railroads, 1993 93 

43. U.S. Waterbome Traffic: Coal and Coal Coke as Compared with Other Fossil Fuels and 

Other Commodities, 1991 93 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Tables (Continued) page 

44. U.S. Coal Export Loading Terminals, 1990 94 

45. U.S. Coal Exports by Country of Destination, 1960-1993 97 

46. U.S. Bituminous Coal Exports by Grade of Coal, 1975-1993 98 

47. U.S. Coal Produced for Export, by Origin and Destination, 1993 99 

48. U.S. Air Pollutant Emission Estimates from Coal Combustion as Compared with Total Emissions 

and Total Coal Consumption, Selected Years, 1970,1980,1990-1992 104 

49. U.S. Utility Coal Combustion Byproducts: Production and Use, 1992 105 

50. Trace Elements in U.S. Coal: Highest Average Concentration by Rank and Widest Range by 

Region and Rank of Coal 106 

51. Classification of Coals by Rank 107 

52. Approximate Weights of Unbroken (Solid) Coal in the Ground 107 

53. Representative Analyses of U.S. Coal 108 

54. Standard Anthracite Specifications 109 

Figures Page 

1. Approximate Heat Content of Different Coal Ranks 5 

2. U.S. Coal Deposits 7 

3. Average Thickness of U.S. Coalbeds Mined, by State, in 1993 9 

4. U.S. Demonstrated Reserve Base of Coal, January 1,1993 10 

5. Coal Mining Methods 11 

6. Underground Mining Systems 12 

7. Underground Coal Production by Mining Techniques, 1993 13 

8. Area Surface Mining with Dragline and Shovel 15 

9. U.S. Coal Production, 1890-1993 17 

10. Basic Flow of Coal Through a Preparation Plant 27 

11. U.S. Daily Per Capita Coal Consumption, 1950-1993 31 

12. Schematic of a Coal-Fired Power Plant 32 

13. Using Coal in a Blast Furnace to Make Iron 33 

14. Production of Coke and Coal Chemicals 34 

15. Schematic of Coal Gasification, Great Plains Synfuels Plant, Beulah, North Dakota 35 

16. Major Destinations of U.S. Coal Exports and Shipments from Selected U.S. Coal-Exporting Customs 

Districts, 1993 37 

17. Selected Developments in the History of U.S. Coal Since 1880 46 

18. Estimates of Recoverable Coal Reserves by Btu/Sulfur Ranges and Region, January 1,1992 47 

19. Regional Patterns of U.S. Coal Production, 1993 49 

20. U.S. Production of Energy by Source, 1960-1993 50 

21. U.S. Consumption of Energy by Source, 1960-1993 50 

22. U.S. Coal Production by State, 1993 : 51 

23. U.S. Coal-Producing Counties in the United States, 1993 52 

24. Average Number of U.S. Coal Miners by Type of Mining, 1993 53 

25. U.S. Coal Production by Rank, 1970-1993 56 

26. U.S. Coal Production by Region and Type of Mining, 1970-1993 59 

27. U.S. Coal Mining Fatalities, 1900-1993 71 

28. Coal Distribution from the Three-Leading Coal-Producing States, 1993 72 

29. U.S. Coal Production: End Use Distribution by Supplying Area, 1993 73 

30. Coal Shipments for U.S. Consumption by Supplying Areas and by Transportation Methods, 1993 74 

31. U.S. Coal Supply and Disposition Patterns, 1993 76 

32. U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector, 1950-1993 80 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference vii 
Figures (Continued) Page 

33. Coal-Fired Generating Units: Number, Generating Capability, and Electricity Generation in 1992 

as Compared with Other Energy Sources 83 

34. Percentage of Total Electricity Generating Capability Using Coal, by State, December 31,1992 84 

35. U.S. Coal Exports, 1970-1993 100 

36. World Coal Production and Leading Coal-Producing Countries, 1980-1992 101 

37. Average Quality of Coal Produced for Power Plants by Producing State, 1993 102 

38. Cost and Quality of Coal Shipped to Electric Utilities, by Origin, 1993 103 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
A Brief History of U.S. Coal 

Coal was reportedly used by the Indians of the Southwest long before the early explorers arrived in America. 

The first record of coal in what is now the United 

States is a map prepared in 1673-74 by Louis Joliet. It 

shows "charbon de terra" along the Illinois River in 

northern Illinois. About a quarter of a century later, in 

1701, coal was discovered near Richmond, Virginia. A 

map drawn in 1736 shows the location of several "cole 

mines" along the upper Potomac River, near what is 

now the border of Maryland and West Virginia. Before 

the end of the 1750's coal was reported in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, and West Virginia. Pennsylvania's 

anthracite deposits were found about 1762. 

Blacksmiths in colonial days used small amounts of 

"fossil coal" or "stone coal" to supplement the charcoal 

normally burned in their forges. Farmers dug coal from 

beds exposed at the surface and sold it by the bushel 

Although most of the coal for the larger cities along the 

eastern seaboard was imported from England and Nova 

Scotia, some came from Virginia. The first commercial 

U.S. coal production began near Richmond, Virginia, in 

1748, more than a century before the beginning of the 

domestic oil industry. By the late 1800's, coal was being 

produced in most of the States. 

Coal became the principal fuel used by locomotives. As 

the railroads branched into the coalfields, they became 

a vital link between mines and markets. Coal also 

found growing markets as fuel for households and 

steamboats. Another use of coal was to produce illuminating oil and gas. In 1816, Baltimore, Maryland, 

became the first city to light streets with gas made from 

coal. With the beginning of the U.S. coke industry in 

the latter half of the 1800's, coke soon replaced charcoal 

as the chief fuel for iron blast furnaces. Briquetting of 

coal was introduced in the United States about 1870. 

Coal-fired steam generators began to produce electricity 

in the 1880's. The first practical coal-fired electric 

generating station, developed by Thomas Edison, went 

into operation in New York City in 1882 to supply 

electricity for household lights. 

In the earliest mines, coal was quarried from beds that 

were exposed at the surface. To get more coal, the 

miners had to follow the coalbed underground. Before 

coal-cutting machines became available in the late 

1880's, coal was mined underground by hand. 

Mechanical coal-loading equipment introduced in the 

early 1920's replaced hand loading and increased 

productivity. Mules and, to a lesser degree, horses and 

oxen were used to haul coal and refuse in and around 

the early mines; a few dogs were used in small mines 

working thin coalbeds. In time, the animals were 

replaced by electric locomotives, dubbed "electric 

mules," and other haulage equipment. 

Strip mining began in 1866 near Danville, Illinois, when 

horse-drawn plows and scrapers were used to remove 

overburden so the coal could be dug and hauled away 

in -wheelbarrows and carts. In 1877, a steam-powered 

shovel excavated some 10 feet of overburden from a 3-

foot-thick coalbed near Pittsburg, Kansas. In 1885, a 

converted wooden dredge with a 50-foot boom was 

used to uncover a coalbed under 35 feet of overburden. 

In 1910, surface mining was underway with steam 

shovels specifically designed for coal mining. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 1 
Young workers, mules, open-flame lamps, and soft hats were common in early coal mines. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
United States Coal: An Overview 

Introduction 

The history of America's progress is inextricably linked 

to the use of coal from its abundant coal resources. In 

the early 1900's, coal was so widely used that it reigned 

as the Nation's principal source of energy. Coal fueled 

industries, powered locomotives, and heated homes. 

The coal industry provided jobs for workers numbering 

in the hundreds of thousands and was the foundation 

of the economy in many areas. 

Later, the Nation's use of coal slumped because of 

competition from other energy sources, chiefly oil and 

natural gas, which are cleaner and easier to use. The 

coal industry lost the railroads as consumers of coal, 

nearly all of the home heating market, and many of the 

smaller industries. Some predictions made after World 

War II saw the development of atomic power as 

leading to the demise of the coal industry. However, 

history has shown that coal has weathered competition 

from other energy sources, although the coal rrdning 

workforce has decreased dramatically because of extensive mechanization of mine operations. 

The traumatic Arab oil embargo of the early 1970's 

underscored the Nation's precarious dependence on 

foreign oil and renewed interest in the vast, widely distributed domestic coal deposits. Clean air legislation, 

ushered in around the same time, shifted coal development to the large, easily mined deposits of low-sulfur 

coal in the West. Since then, the market for coal has 

improved almost steadily, and the production and use 

of coal have reached unprecedented levels. Today, however, coal is used mostly to generate electricity and 

accounts for about half of the electricity generated 

annually. So, through its role in generating electricity, 

coal has indirectly recaptured part of the market it lost 

years ago. 

The coal industry has become the Nation's largest 

energy-producing industry, representing nearly onethird of U.S. energy production. Coal also accounts for 

almost one-fourth of total energy consumed and is the 

only energy source for which exports are greater than 

'In this report, "tons" refers to short tons (1 short ton = 2,000 ; 

imports. The coal industry is the Nation's leading mining industry, based on value of production. Of all 

mineral commodities mined, the quantity of coal currently produced ranks second only to that of crushed 

stone. 

The importance of the coal industry to the U.S. economy is illustrated by a study made at Pennsylvania State 

University in 1994 for the National Coal Association. 

Analyzing the coal industry's economic effects in 1992, 

the study found that, while the direct contribution of 

coal production that year was valued at $21 billion, the 

industry's total contribution to the economy was $132 

billion through its impact on other business sectors. 

Similarly, the coal industry's workforce of about 136,000 

persons, including non-production employees, was 

indirectly responsible for another 1.4 million jobs. 

In 1993, the Nation consumed more than 2 million 

tons1 of coal per day—about 20 pounds for each 

person every day. To produce the 1993 coal output, 

valued at about $19 billion, more than 100,000 miners 

worked in some 2,500 mines. Although the coal produced was largely for domestic use, a significant 

amount was shipped to other countries. These coal 

exports, averaging more than $4 billion in value in 

recent years, help the Nation's balance of trade. The 

Nation has always had a trade surplus in coal. 

Internationally, the United States is prominent as both 

a producer and exporter of coal. 

The magnitude of annual U.S. coal output—currently 

about 1 billion tons—is difficult to grasp unless it is 

placed in some familiar perspective. One ton of broken 

coal occupies about 40 cubic feet, so the 1993 coal 

output would cover 1 square mile to a height of more 

than one-fourth of a mile. In other terms, the rate of 

coal production in 1993 averaged around 30 tons per 

second, enough to fill a railroad car every 3 seconds. 

About 58 billion tons of coal have been produced in the 

United States since the first commercial mine was 

opened more than 200 years ago. Even so, U.S. coal 

deposits still contain more than 200 billion tons of 

minable coal, a reserve of energy that contributes to the 

is). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 3 
Nation's security. Furthermore, the coal deposits in 

some States have also become significant sources of 

coalbed methane. Once considered only as a danger to 

miners, coalbed methane is now being produced and 

added to the supply of natural gas. 

Coal Data: A Reference provides an overview of the 

many facets of coal mentioned in this section. It spans 

a range of topics, covering coal deposits, reserves, 

rrtining, employment, transportation, use, and environmental issues. Its principal aim is to summarize basic 

trends, highlighting factors that have influenced the use 

of coal and, therefore, controlled the rate of coal 

production. Also included is a review of new technologies being developed to increase the usefulness of 

coal as a natural resource, making it both a cleanerburning fuel and a source of chemicals. 

The Nature of Coal 

Coal, sometimes called "Nature's Black Diamond," is a 

black or brownish-black, combustible, sedimentary 

organic rock that contains more than 50 percent 

carbonaceous material by weight. In popular usage, 

coal is often called a mineral because it was formed in 

the earth. However, the scientific use of the term 

"mineral" is reserved for a naturally occurring inorganic material that has a definite chemical composition 

and a regular internal structure. Coal is of organic 

origin and has neither of these. 

Compared with other rocks, coal is relatively light, a 

solid piece weighing about 80 pounds per cubic foot, 

less than half the weight of granite, limestone, or most 

other rocks. Coal is also a relatively soft rock, more 

easily excavated than most other mined material. 

Coal is called a fossil fuel because it is derived from 

plants that grew in vast swamps millions of years ago 

and were later buried by sediments when the land 

subsided. Geological and chemical processes involving 

high pressures and temperatures, working over vast 

periods of time, compressed and altered the plant 

remains, increasing the percentage of carbon present, 

and thus producing the different ranks, or varieties, of 

coal: lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite. 

Of the various coal ranks in the United States, 

bituminous coal is the most abundant and widespread. 

The water-saturated plant debris called peat is not 

considered a rank of coal, although it is the first stage 

in the alteration of plants to coal. With increasing rank, 

or degree of coalification, coal becomes harder and 

brighter, and its heat value rises. Coal rank is 

commonly determined by a combination of heat value 

and chemical analysis of organic matter. The rank of 

coal can also be determined by measuring the intensity 

of light reflected from its vitrinite, one of the macerals 

in coal. Macerals are the combustible organic portions 

derived from plant substances and comprise three 

microscopic groups: vitrinite, exinite (or liptinite), and 

inertinite. The reflectivity of vitrinite increases with coal 

rank. Macerals are also helpful in identifying and 

correlating different coals and in predicting the coking 

properties of coal and coal blends. 

Fossil plant material is revealed in this photomicrograph of 

subbituminous coal from Wyoming's Powder River Basin. As 

an indication of magnification, the longer side of the photo 

represents 0.25 millimeters. 

Coal occurs in beds, sometimes called "seams" or 

"veins," that are interlayed between beds of sandstone, 

shale, and limestone. The thin layers of shale 

("partings") sometimes found in a coalbed are mineral 

sediments that settled from muddy flood waters while 

the vegetable matter was accumulating. Coalbeds range 

4 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
in thickness from less than an inch to more than 100 

feet. According to some estimates, an accumulation of 

3 to 10 feet of compacted material was needed for each 

foot of bitaminous coal. Based on estimates that 

hundreds of years were needed to build up enough 

plant material to make a foot of biftuninous coal, thick 

coalbeds represent accumulations of plant material 

spanning many thousands of years. Although generally 

flat lying, coalbeds are sometimes inclined, folded, or 

faulted as a result of geologic forces. 

Coal is a complex material, its chemical structure still 

not completely understood. It is composed chiefly of 

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with smaller amounts of 

sulfur and nitrogen and variable quantities of trace 

elements ranging from aluminum to zirconium. All but 

16 of the 92 naturally occurring elements have been 

detected in coal, mostly as trace elements below 0.1 

percent (1,000 parts per million, or ppm). Coals of the 

same rank may appear similar, but their compositions 

can vary widely, not only from deposit to deposit but 

also within the same coalbed, because of differences in 

the environment of the coal swamps and the nature of 

the original plant debris. The elements found in coal 

were introduced into the coalbed in one or more 

different ways: as material washed into the coal 

swamp, as a biochemical precipitate from the swamp 

water, as a minor constituent of the original plants, or 

as a later addition, after the coal was formed, primarily 

by ground water. 

Fossil plant debris gives coal its most obvious and most 

useful characteristic, namely, that it can be burned. The 

heat energy of coal ranges from an average of 13 

million British thermal units (Btu) per ton for lignite to 

about 30 million Btu per ton for some bitirminous coals 

(Figure 1). Most of the heat produced from coal is 

generated from carbon, by far its major component, 

with the amount present typically more than 70 

percent. Although hydrogen generates about four times 

more heat per pound than carbon, it accounts for a 

small part of coal (generally less than 5 percent) and 

not all of this element is available for heat. During 

combustion, part of it combines with oxygen to form 

water vapor. The higher the oxygen content of coal, the 

lower its heating value. This inverse relationship occurs 

because the oxygen in the coal is bound to the carbon 

and has, therefore, already partially oxidized the carbon, decreasing its ability to generate heat. The amount 

of heat from the combustion of sulfur in coal is very 

small. Because coal has a high ratio of carbon to 

hydrogen, the burning of coal releases more carbon 

dioxide per unit of heat than does the burning of oil or 

natural gas. 

Figure 1. Approximate Heat Content of Different 

Coal Ranks1 

High-Volatile 

Bituminous 

Coal 

Medium- and 

Low-Volatile 

Bituminous 

Coal 

Anthracite 

Subbituminous 

Coal 

Lignite 

1As received. (Includes natural moisture and combustible 

and incombustible materials.) 

The heat content, or Btu value, of coal is approximately related 

to its rank, except for anthracite. 

Although the quantity of coal produced and consumed 

is commonly measured in tons, the heating value of a 

ton of coal varies considerably, reflecting differences by 

rank as well as variations within rank due to the kinds 

of plant material from which the coal was formed. For 

instance, the heating value of bituminous coal delivered 

to electric utilities in 1993 averaged 24 million Btu per 

ton, but the range was from 20 million to 27 million Btu 

per ton. Similarly, the heating value for subbituminous 

coal averaged 18 million Btu per ton, but it ranged 

from 16 million to 19 million Btu per ton. Lignite's 

average heating value of 13 million Btu per ton was 

based on a range of 12 million to 14 million Btu per 

ton. Anthracite production averaged about 23 million 

Btu per ton. Using these averages, 1.3 tons of subbihrminous coal, 1.8 tons of lignite, or a little more than 

1 ton of anthracite would be needed to produce the 

amount of heat in 1 ton of bituminous coal. For this 

reason, coal purchases are often priced in terms of 

"dollars per million Btu" in addition to "dollars per 

ton." 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 5 
Because the annual "mix" in the ranks of coal comprising total coal production includes growing shares of 

low rank coals, which generate relatively less heat, the 

average heat content of U.S. coal production is declining. Currently, it is about 22 million Btu per ton. 

This is approximately equivalent to the energy obtained 

by burning 21,000 cubic feet of natural gas, 160 gallons 

of distillate fuel oil, or 1 cord of seasoned hardwood. 

Among the various elements in coal, sulfur is the most 

undesirable. Burning converts the sulfur in coal mostly 

into sulfur dioxide, an air pollutant as well as the cause 

of corrosion and deposits in boilers. Sulfur in mine 

wastes inhibits the growth of vegetation and causes 

stream pollution. Sulfur in coking coal used by the steel 

industry lowers the quality of both the coke produced 

and the resulting iron and steel products; consequently, 

coal with a low sulfur content is required for making 

coke. Various laws have been enacted to limit the 

amount of sulfur released to the environment. The sulfur content (by weight) of the coal produced for electric 

power plants, the largest market, in recent years ranged 

from less than 1 percent to about 4 percent, and averaged 1 percent (20 pounds per ton). 

Sulfur occurs in coal in three forms: (1) iron sulfides 

(pyrite and marcasite), (2) secondary sulfates (gypsum 

and hydrous ferrous sulfate), and (3) organic sulfur 

chemically bonded to the coal-forming plant material. 

Most of the iron sulfides occur in the form of pyrite, 

which is distributed in many ways: as lenses, bands, 

fractures, and nodules, and as finely disseminated 

particles. The larger particles can be partly removed by 

conventional cleaning processes, but the fine particles 

are difficult to remove unless the coal is finely crushed 

and the pyrite separated by special treatment. Sulfate 

sulfur is less easily removed; however, it is normally 

present in small amounts (generally less than 0.05 

percent) and usually of no great concern. Organic 

sulfur predominates in low-sulfur coal. As the total 

sulfur content of coal increases, the amount of organic 

sulfur can rise to more than 1 percent. Organic sulfur 

cannot be removed by conventional coal-cleaning 

processes. 

High-sulfur coal is a product of swamps that were 

covered by sea water. Bacteria in the swamp converted 

the sulfate in the sea water into pyrite that became part 

of the coal. Low-sulfur coal deposits were developed 

primarily under fresh-water conditions. 

Although the subbituminous coals and lignites mined 

in the West contain much lower levels of sulfur than do 

typical bituminous coals, they contain fairly high levels 

of the alkali metals sodium and potassium. These 

elements, which generally are chemically bound to the 

organic coal matrix, affect the physical and chemical 

properties of the coal ash. Boilers using these coals are 

specially designed to avoid serious ash-related equipment malfunctions. 

Minerals are the incombustible matter in coal that 

becomes ash after burning. Minerals represent the inorganic parts of coal and include clay (the most abundant 

inorganic constituent), carbonates, sulfides, and quartz. 

The ash content of coal produced for electric power 

plants in recent years ranged from about 5 to 19 percent 

(by weight) and averaged about 10 percent (about 200 

pounds per ton). Ash not only poses significant disposal problems, but it can form incombustible residues 

in furnaces, causing combustion problems and erosion 

of boiler components. Some ash is used in land fills and 

in making concrete and cinder blocks. 

Methane in coal is the result of the chemical and 

physical processes involved in coal formation. The 

methane is contained within the structure of the coal 

and in fractures in the coalbed. Higher rank coals such 

as bituminous coal generally contain more methane 

than low ranks such as lignite. Because coal formed 

under high pressure is apt to contain more methane 

than otherwise, the methane content of coalbeds 

increases with depth. 

U.S. Coal Deposits 

The United States contains some of the world's largest 

coal deposits. Coal is present in 38 States and underlies 

a total of 458,600 square miles or 13 percent of the land 

area of the United States (Figure 2). The U.S. Geological 

Survey has identified more than 400 fields and small 

deposits of coal in the United States. They were formed 

during periods of Earth's history when the face and 

climate of what is now North America were markedly 

different than they are today. The coal deposits in the 

East date back mainly to the Pennsylvanian period of 

the Earth's geologic history, approximately 300 million 

years ago, long before the age of dinosaurs. By contrast, 

most of the coal in the West is geologically younger, 

formed less than 140 million years ago in the Cretaceous period, when dinosaurs were alive, and in the 

subsequent Tertiary period, when they became extinct. 

Coal in the East generally occurs in beds that tend to be 

less than 15 feet thick. Geological conditions in the East 

prevented the coal-forming material from building up; 

instead, they led to the formation of numerous coalbeds 

6 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 2. U.S. Coal Deposits 

CentrallaChehaDs 

Field 

Green River 

Region — J 

Uinta 1 

Region — v 

CA 

-•*. 

Wind River 

Region 

w/Tp 

f/ 

OR/ 

NV j 

North 

Central 

Region 

7rvn\ 

, ID 

dy 

Fort 

Powder River union 

Bighorn " ^ ** » 

Appalachian 

Region 

Matanuska Valley 

Relds "" 

Field 

RANK 

Anthracite1 

Bituminous Coal 

Subbituminous Coal J^ ^ 

Lignite ^^ # 

Note: Alaska not to scale of conterminous United States. Small fields and isolated 

occurrences are not showa 

1 Principal anthracite deposits are in Pennsylvania. Small deposits occur in Alaska, Arkansas, 

Colorado, Massachusetts-Rhode Island, New Mexico, Utah, Virginia, Washington, 

and West Virginia. 

Coal is found in 38 States, underlying 458,600 square miles, about 13 percent of the total land area. 

Sources: U.S. Geological Survey, Coalfields of the United States, 1960-61 and Coal Map of North America, 1988; Texas Bureau 

of Economic Geology, Lignite Resources in Texas, 1980; and Louisiana Geological Survey, Near Surface Lignite in Louisiana, 1961. 

located between other strata in repetitive sequences. By 

comparison, thicker coalbeds are common in the West, 

particularly in Wyoming, where geological conditions 

enabled large amounts of vegetation to accumulate. 

Although about 300 coalbeds were mined across the 

United States in 1993, nearly half of the coal produced 

was from only 10 beds (Table 1). The average thickness 

of all coalbeds mined ranged widely, from less than 2 

feet to about 65 feet (Figure 3). Individual coalbeds 

commonly cover large geographic areas. For instance, 

the heavily mined Pittsburgh coalbed underlies parts of 

Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, and Maryland; the 

Wyodak coalbed, the Nation's leading source of coal, is 

estimated to cover at least 10,000 square miles in the 

Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana, 

according to the Wyoming State Geological Survey. 

The most important coal deposits in the East are in the 

Appalachian Region, an area encompassing more than 

72,000 square miles and parts of nine States. The region 

contains the Nation's principal deposits of anthracite (in 

northeastern Pennsylvania) and large deposits of lowand medium-volatile bituminous coal. Historically, the 

Appalachian Region has been the major source of U.S. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 7 
Table 1. U.S. Coal Production from the 10 

Leading Coalbeds, 1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

Coalbed Name" Production 

State with 

Largest 

Production by 

Coalbed 

Wyodak 

Pittsburgh 

No. 9 

Hazard No. 5-A 

No 6 

Beulah-Zap 

Hazard No. 4.. . 

Lower Kittanning 

Lower Elkhom . 

Rosebud 

Total 

Percentage of U.S. Total 

185.7 

49.4 

34.8 

32.4 

30.7 

27.7 

24.5 

22.6 

18.0 

16.2 

442.0 

46.8 

WY 

WV 

KY(W) 

KY(E) 

IL 

ND 

KY(E) 

WV 

KY(E) 

MT 

"Name most commonly used. 

- = Not applicable. 

Note: Total does not equal sum of components because of 

independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 

1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

coal, accounting for about three-fourths of the total 

annual production as recently as 1970. Although the 

region's output currently is less than half of the 

national total because of increased coal production in 

the West, it continues to be the principal source of 

bituminous coal (including coking coal) and anthracite. 

The number of coalbeds mined in the Appalachian 

Region reaches more than 60 in West Virginia, with the 

bed thickness generally ranging from 3 to 8 feet. In the 

northern part of the region is the Pittsburgh coalbed, an 

important source of coal during the development of the 

U.S. iron and steel industry. For many years the Pittsburgh coalbed was the leading source of coal, but it 

now ranks second to the Wyodak coalbed in Wyoming. 

The intensely folded and faulted anthracite fields of 

northeastern Pennsylvania once supplied a large 

amount of coal for domestic heating, a major part of it 

from a series of beds comprising the Mammoth coal 

zone. Two important sources of bituminous coal in the 

southern part of the Appalachian Region are Alabama's 

Blue Creek and Mary Lee coalbeds. 

In contrast with the concentration of coal in Appalachia, 

the coal deposits in the interior region of the United 

States occur in several separate basins located from 

Michigan to Texas. The northern part of the region 

contains large deposits of high-volatile bituminous coal, 

but their generally high percentage of sulfur and ash 

hampers their use as a fuel and for coke production. 

The major sources of bituminous coal are two coalbeds 

commonly known as No. 6 and No. 9, but also known 

locally by other names. These beds, which average 

about 6 feet in thickness, account for a large share of 

the coal produced in Illinois, Indiana, and western 

Kentucky. A small area of anthracite is present in 

Arkansas. In the Gulf Coastal Plain in the southern part 

of the region are large deposits of lignite that have been 

used for electricity generation in Texas since the 1970's 

and in Louisiana since the 1980's. The most important 

lignite beds are in a succession of strata known as the 

Wilcox Group and are generally 3 to 10 feet thick. 

The western part of the United States has a number of 

coal basins that contain all ranks of coal. The largest 

lignite deposit is in the northern Great Plains, 

underlying parts of North Dakota, South Dakota, and 

Montana; most of the lignite produced is from the 

Beulah-Zap bed in North Dakota. In the nearby Powder 

River Basin of northeastern Wyoming and southeastern 

Montana is the Nation's major source of low-sulfur 

subbituminous coal, used primarily for electricity 

generation. The basin has been the fastest growing coalproducing area in the past two decades and today 

accounts for about half of the coal mined in the West. 

The Powder River Basin contains the Wyodak coalbed, 

which is the leading source of U.S. coal production and 

one of the thickest coalbeds, averaging 70 feet and 

exceeding 100 feet in places. The principal deposits of 

bihrminous coal mined in the West are in Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. Alaska has deposits of all coal 

ranks, but currently the only production is subbituminous coal from the Nenana field, north of Anchorage. 

Resources and Reserves 

Coal is by far the Nation's most abundant fossil fuel, 

with the total resources of both identified and undiscovered coal estimated at nearly 4 trillion tons. The 

quantity of coal considered technically and commercially minable constitutes a demonstrated reserve base 

currently estimated at more than 400 billion short tons. 

About half of the tonnage is bituminous coal (Figure 4), 

concentrated in Appalachia and the Interior Region; 

around 38 percent is subbituminous coal in the West, 

about 9 percent is lignite, located mostly in the West 

and the Interior Region; and 1 percent is Pennsylvania 

anthracite. Underground mining is required for about 

two-thirds of the reserve base; the rest can be surface 

mined. The largest reserves of low-sulfur coal are in 

the West. By contrast, the coal reserves with the highest 

heat content are mostly in the East. 

8 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 3. Average Thickness of U.S. Coalbeds Mined, by State, in 1993 

(Weighted Average in Feet) 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

35 

£ 30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Wyoming 

Montana 

Colorado 

Alaska 

Washington 

renrisylVanla 

Anthracite 

Texas 

Arizona 

/ 

Utah 

New Mexico 

Maryland 

Louisiana 

Illinois 

West Virginia 

Kentucky (West) 

Pennsylvania Bituminous 

Kentucky (East) 

Virginia, Indiana — 

Ohio, Alabama 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Tennessee, Iowa — 

Oklahoma 

Kansas 

10 

5 tS 

S. 

The thickest coalbeds mined in the United States are in the West. The average thickness of all coalbeds mined in 1993 was about 

22 feet. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, EIA-7A, "Coal Production Report." 

The amount of coal that can actually be recovered from 

the reserve base varies from area to area and ranges 

from 40 percent at some underground mines to more 

than 90 percent at some surface mines. The recovery 

rate is lower for underground mining because some 

coal must be left untouched to form supporting pillars 

to prevent the mine from collapsing and the surface 

from subsiding. At both underground and surface 

mines, geologic features such as folded, faulted, and 

interlayered rock strata can reduce the amount of coal 

that can be recovered. In some areas, coal deposits 

underlie towns and cities and consequently may not be 

mined. Other factors that limit mining include environmental and legal restrictions, economic constraints, lack 

of suitable technology for using low-quality coal, and 

the fact that many of the highest quality and most 

accessible coal deposits have already been mined. 

Nevertheless, for the Nation as a whole, at least half of 

the reserve base—about 265 billion tons—is estimated 

to be recoverable. U.S. recoverable coal reserves are 

estimated to be the second largest in the world, slightly 

below those in the former Soviet Union. 

Based on coal quality, as measured in pounds of sulfur 

emitted per million Btu, U.S. recoverable coal reserves 

include an estimated 100 billion tons of low-sulfur coal 

(0.60 pounds or less of sulfur per million Btu), with 87 

percent of this in the West. Medium-sulfur recoverable 

coal reserves (0.61-1.67 pounds of sulfur per million 

Btu) are estimated at 84 billion tons, of which 62 

percent is in the West and 24 percent in Appalachia. 

High-sulfur recoverable coal reserves (more than 1.67 

pounds of sulfur per million Btu) total 80 billion tons, 

and are mostly in the interior region (60 percent) and 

Appalachia (28 percent). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 9 
Figure 4. U.S. Demonstrated Reserve Base of Coal, 

January 1,1993 

(Billion Short Tons) 

comprises an estimated 90 trillion cubic feet in the 

lower 48 States and 57 trillion cubic feet in Alaska. 

Total= 474 100 ""—i——^Anthracit e (7) 

Bituminous 

Coal 

40-

30-

20-

10-

o-i 

180 

^^p45^^W 

iJMm. JSSsSiW^SKB 

Subbituminous 

Coal 

-Lignite 

The reserve base is comprised chiefly of two ranks of coalbituminous and subbituminous. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Production 

1992, DOE/EIA-0118(92) (October 1993). 

The recoverable coal reserves reported at active mines 

in 1993 totaled nearly 22 billion tons. About 15 billion 

tons were at surface mines, mostly in the Western 

Region. Of the 7 billion tons in underground mines, 

nearly two-thirds were in Appalachia. 

Another energy source from coal is methane, a gas 

formed by the decomposition of the organic matter in 

coal. Coalbed methane is recovered in some States (for 

example, Alabama, New Mexico, and Wyoming) and 

added to the supply of natural gas, which is composed 

chiefly of methane. Proved reserves of coalbed methane 

total 10 trillion cubic feet, located mostly in the San 

Juan Basin of Colorado and New Mexico. The recoverable resource base for coalbed methane currently 

Mining 

Once a coal deposit has been selected for rruning, some 

4 to 7 years of planning and development are needed 

before production begins. Apart from the market for 

coal, the questions that must be addressed include land 

ownership, mineral rights, the quality and quantity of 

the available coal, and the method of mining and 

transporting the coal. 

The mining method used depends on the depth of the 

coalbed from the surface and the character of the 

terrain (Figure 5). Coalbeds deeper than 200 feet are 

usually mined by underground methods. Those that are 

at shallower depths are worked by surface methods. 

Although most underground mines are less than 1,000 

feet deep, several reach depths of about 2,000 feet. 

Underground mines are classified according to the type 

of opening, or entry, used to reach the coalbed; some 

mines have several different openings. A drift mine is 

one that has a horizontal entry to a coalbed in a 

hillside. In a slope mine, the entry is inclined from the 

surface to the coalbed. A shaft mine, equipped with 

elevators, provides vertical access to a coalbed generally 

deeper than one reached by a slope mine. In addition 

to the passages providing entry to the coalbed, a 

network of other passages are also dug to provide 

access to various parts of the mine and for ventilation. 

When the coalbed is reached, it is sectioned into panels, 

or blocks, several hundred feet wide and several 

thousand feet long (Figure 6). The actual mining of 

these blocks is accomplished by three techniques: roomand-pillar, longwall, and shortwall. Sometimes several 

techniques are used at the same time in different 

sections of a mine. 

Most underground coal is mined by the room-and-pillar system (Figure 7). With this system, the miners 

extract the coal by cutting a series of rooms into the 

coalbed and leaving pillars, or columns of coal, to help 

support the mine roof. As mining advances, a grid-like 

pattern is formed in the panel of coal, which is about 

400 feet wide and more than half a mile long. Generally, the rooms are 20 to 30 feet wide and the pillars 20 

to 90 feet wide; the height usually is the same as the 

coalbed thickness. When mining reaches the end of the 

panel, the direction of rnining usually is reversed. 

During this "retreat" phase of rruning, the miners 

recover as much coal as possible from the pillars in a 

10 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 5. Coal Mining Methods 

Spoil Piles 

Coal 

Coal 

Mamshaft Airshaft 

Area Surface Mine Contour Mine 

Shaft Mine 

Coal 

Coal 

Slope Mine Drift Mine 

The method of mining a coal deposit depends on the depth of the coalbed and the nature of the terrain. 

systematic manner until the roof caves in. When this 

phase of mining is completed, the area is abandoned. 

Although the goal is to extract all of the coal in the 

panel, this is not always possible because of natural 

restraints, such as poor mine roof and floor conditions. 

Furthermore, pillars are usually left to prevent subsidence of the land surface above the mine. Pillars that 

are not mined include those along property lines, 

around shaft bottoms or portals, and around oil and 

gas wells that penetrate the coalbed. Generally, 50 to 60 

percent of the minable coal is recovered with roomand-pillar mining. 

Two basic variations are used in room-and-pillar 

inining: (1) conventional nurring, the oldest, which 

consists of a series of operations that involve cutting 

the coalbed so it breaks easily when blasted and then 

loading the broken coal; and (2) continuous mining, 

which uses a machine called a continuous miner that 

combines cutting, drilling, and loading coal in one 

operation and requires no blasting. Because of the steps 

involved, conventional mining requires a larger crew at 

the coal face—for example, 10 miners as compared with 

6 for continuous mining. Generally, rnining advances 

into the coalbed in steps of about 10 feet for conventional mining and about twice that in continuous 

mining. Since the 1950's, continuous mining has increased and now accounts for 56 percent of the coal 

output from underground mines, whereas the share 

from conventional niining has fallen to about 12 

percent. Regardless of the rnining variation used, roomand-pillar niining usually is not suitable for coalbeds at 

depths greater than about 1,000 feet. As depth 

increases, larger pillars are needed to support the 

overlying strata and less coal can be produced. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 11 
Figure 6. Underground Mining Systems 

Room-and-Pillar Minin g 

5. Bolt Roof 

Conventional 

Mining 

I. Undercut or 

Top-cut Coal 

Face. Drill Holes 

for Explosives 

4. Load Coal 

3. Shoot 

2. Load 

Loading Machine 

Shuttle Car 

Coal-Cutting 

Machine 

Continuous 

Mining Machine 

Conveyor Belt 

Continuous Mining 

Train Haulage 

Longwal l Minin g 

Longwall Mining Machine 

(Works back and forth 

across coal face) 

Brattice 

to Control 

Ventilation 

Room-and-pillar mining is the most common way to mine coal undergound. Longwall mining is used to mine large blocks of coal 

where the bed is relatively flat and thick. A continuous mining operation includes roof bolting equipment and can use a coal-loading 

machine and shuttle cars (not shown) instead of a conveyor belt. 

12 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 7. Underground Coal Production by Mining 

Techniques, 1993 

Longwall 

Continuous 

56% 

Conventional 

12% 

Other' 

1% 

Includes shortwall, scoop loading, and hand loading. 

Underground coal is mined mostly with continuous mining 

machines, which dig and load coal in one operation. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry 

Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 

1994). 

The second technique of underground coal rnining is 

longwall niining, which is gaining importance in the 

United States and can be used at greater depths than 

room-and-pillar mining. Nearly one-third of the coal 

currently produced underground is from about 100 

longwall niining operations, most of them in the 

Appalachian Region. In longwall niining, a cutting 

machine operates back and forth across a panel of coal 

averaging about 800 feet in width and 7,000 in length, 

with the broken coal removed from the coal face by an 

armored flexible conveyor. Two types of cutting devices 

are used, shearers and plows. The shearer, by far the 

more widely used, has a large drum-shaped cutting 

head that strips 20 to 36 inches from the coal face on 

each pass. It rides on a special track on the armored 

flexible conveyor. A plow is a much simpler machine 

that is blade-like and fitted with bits or a saw-tooth 

edge that cuts the coal face into slices up to 6 inches 

deep as the plow is pulled across the coal face. 

Longwall mining is done under movable hydraulic roof 

supports, or shields, that are advanced as the bed is 

cut; the roof in the mined-out area is allowed to fall as 

mining advances, forming an area of broken rock called 

"gob." 

The widely used continuous mining machine excavates coal through the use of cutting heads, while the broken coal is gathered 

by loading arms. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 13 
In longwall mining, a shearing machine excavates coal as it moves back and forth across a coal face hundreds of feet long. 

Production of coal per shift from longwall mining 

generally is higher than that of either conventional or 

continuous mining. The longwall technique often has a 

better recovery rate. It is also safer because the working 

area is protected by overhead steel supports, coal 

haulage is simplified, and ventilation is better 

controlled. However, longwall mining has certain limitations. It is generally not suitable if the coalbed 

thickness varies widely or if the coalbed is broken by 

geologic faults. The mine roof or floor also must be 

strong enough to provide a solid surface for the 

supports, and the mine roof must cave evenly and not 

"hang up." Also constraining are high capital costs for 

equipment and mine development. 

The third technique of underground rnining is shortwall rruning, used in a few mines. Shortwall mining 

involves the use of a continuous rnining machine and 

movable roof supports to shear coal panels 150 to 200 

feet wide and more than half a mile long. Although 

similar to longwall rriining, shortwall mining is generally more flexible because of the smaller working 

area. Productivity is lower than with longwall mining 

because the coal is hauled by shuttle cars rather than by 

conveyor. 

All underground coal rnining is a complex undertaking 

requiring the miners to use not only special machinery 

to cut and remove coal, but also special techniques such 

as roof bolting to prevent the mine roof from 

collapsing. A number of safety procedures must be 

followed to comply with Federal and State health and 

safety regulations. Entries, or passage ways, consist of 

at least three parallel entries, so that if one is accidentally blocked, the others afford a means of escape. 

Multiple entries also provide adequate ventilation 

14 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
to carry away methane, other gases, and coal dust, 

with brattices and other stoppings used to direct the 

flow of air; they also are used to drain water from the 

mine. 

Areas where underground mining has occurred are 

subject to subsidence when the mine roof collapses. 

Subsidence can affect buildings and other structures, 

and can also have hydrologic impacts, disrupting the 

flow of water on the surface and underground. Subsidence from longwall niining is generally more 

uniform and more predictable because it usually begins 

as coal extraction progresses. By contrast, subsidence 

due to room-and-pillar mining is difficult to predict 

because the supporting pillars deteriorate at some later 

time. The amount of subsidence from both types of 

rnining depend on such factors as the depth of rruning, 

the thickness of the coalbed extracted, and the thickness 

and strength of the overlying rock. 

A coalbed can be surface mined when it is less than 200 

feet deep. Surface rnining, also called strip rruning, is 

the least expensive mining method, and sometimes it is 

the only safe and efficient way of mining coal at 

shallow depths. Surface mining is also less restrictive 

than underground rnining, because equipment can be 

easily moved, although heavy equipment requires 

stable ground. Coal-recovery rates at surface mines can 

exceed 90 percent. 

Surface mining is essentially large-scale earthmoving 

that consists of excavating the overburden from the 

coalbed and then removing the coal. At some surface 

mines, mainly those in Appalachia, two or more coalbeds are mined during the same mining operation. The 

amount of overburden, or spoil, excavated per ton of 

coal recovered, called the overburden ratio, ranges from 

1 to more than 30 cubic yards. The lower the overburden ratio, the more productive the mine. The lowest 

overburden ratios are generally in the West. 

Area surface mining is practiced on flat ground and consists of a series of cuts 100 to 200 feet wide, with the 

overburden from one cut used to fill the mined-out 

area of the preceding cut (Figure 8). By comparison, 

contour surface mining follows a coalbed along hillsides. 

When contour mining becomes uneconomical, additional coal can be produced from the mine's highwall 

Figure 8. Area Surface Mining with Dragline and Shovel 

Reclaimed Area 

Spoil Leveling 

Drilling and Blasting 

Overburden 

Coal Loading 

In area mining, long strips are excavated to uncover the coal. 

previously mined. 

The overburden from the strip being mined is deposited in the strip 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 15 
Thick coalbeds that can be easily surface mined, such as this one in Wyoming, enable a mine to achieve a high rate of productivity. 

by the use of augers to drill 100 feet or more into the 

bed, or by opening a small drift mine called a punch 

mine. Open-pit mining is used where thick coalbeds are 

steeply inclined, as in southwestern Wyoming and the 

anthracite area of Pennsylvania. An open-pit mine, 

which combines the techniques of contour rnining and 

area mining, can reach depths of several hundred feet. 

The equipment used at surface mines includes dragline 

excavators, power shovels, hydraulic shovels, bulldozers, front-end loaders, and bucketwheel excavators. 

rivers from early preparation plants or eroded from 

coal stockpiles or coalbeds beneath the rivers. 

Because surface mining disturbs the land and can 

produce unsightly areas, surface mine operators are 

required to reclaim mined land by restoring natural 

vegetation and drainage. Properly reclaimed mining 

areas can be restored to a variety of uses, such as 

farmland, wildlife areas, or parkland. 

Draglines remove overburden while power shovels and 

hydraulic shovels load coal. However, bulldozers and 

front-end loaders are often used to remove overburden 

in small mines; front-end loaders can also load coal. 

The few bucketwheel excavators in use operate in flat 

areas with soft overburden, such as in parts of the 

Midwest and Texas. Continuous surface rnining 

machines equipped with rotating cutting heads and 

conveyors are used in some lignite mines. 

In the anthracite area of Pennsylvania, surface mining 

includes the mining of culm and silt banks—waste 

accumulations of coal and rock from earlier rnining 

operations that are now being used as fuel. Another 

form of surface mining in parts of Appalachia is 

dredging, which recovers coal that was dumped into 

Production 

Coal has been mined commercially in the United States 

for more than 200 years, beginning in 1748 near Richmond, Virginia. Westward expansion across the country 

stimulated local demands for coal, so that by the 

beginning of the 20th century coal was being produced 

in most of the Nation's coalfields. The historical record 

of coal production reflects a record of industrial 

progress, competition from other fuels, coal miners' 

strikes, economic conditions, wars, environmental regulations, and health and safety laws. 

Coal was produced in 26 States in 1993, with more than 

half of the total output (almost 1 billion tons) from 

16 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
three States: Wyoming, Kentucky, and West Virginia 

(Table 2). Although Wyoming was the leader in 

tonnage produced, Kentucky was the leader based on 

the energy content of the coal produced and on the 

value of production. 

Table 2. The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Producing 

States, 1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

States Production 

Percent of 

Total 

Wyoming .. . 

Kentucky .. . 

West Virginia 

Pennsylvania 

Texas 

Illinois 

Virginia ... . 

Montana 

North Dakota 

Indiana 

Total 

U.S. Total 

210.1 

156.3 

130.5 

59.7 

54.6 

41.1 

39.3 

35.9 

32.0 

29.3 

22.2 

16.5 

13.8 

6.3 

5.8 

4.3 

4.1 

3.8 

3.4 

3.1 

788.8 

945.4 

83.4 

100.0 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 

1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

About 60 percent of the coal produced was bituminous 

coal, historically the predominant rank. Most of the 

balance was subbirxraiinous coal and lignite, both of 

which have been produced in increasingly larger 

quantities since 1970 to satisfy the demand for utility 

coal. The share of total production from subbituminous 

coal has risen from 4 percent in 1970 to 29 percent in 

1993, and that from lignite has risen from less than 2 

percent to 9 percent. By contrast, anthracite production, 

which accounted for less than 1 percent of the 1993 

total, has been declining for several decades because of 

competition from other fuels and difficult mining 

conditions, which keep the price of anthracite relatively 

high. Internationally, the 1993 U.S. coal output was 

estimated to rank second to China among the more 

than 50 coal-producing countries. 

Historically, annual coal production, fueling industrial 

development, reached 200 million tons before 1900 

(Figure 9). It then climbed to more than 600 million 

tons before declining during the Depression years. 

Production increased during World War II and peaked 

at nearly 700 million tons in 1947, before trending 

downward in the postwar years as coal markets were 

lost to low-cost oil and natural gas. Not only was oil 

easier and cleaner to handle, with low-cost oil imports 

supplementing the domestic supply, but long-distance 

pipelines were built to bring natural gas from the 

Southwest to eastern markets, where its convenience of 

use cut sharply into the market for coal for home 

heating and other uses. Coal was also confronted with 

another rival in the utility market—the development of 

nuclear generated electricity. Further hampering the use 

of utility coal was a growth in hydroelectric power. As 

the market for coal weakened, coal production dropped 

from more than 500 million tons in the 1950's to a little 

more than 400 million tons in the early 1960's, although 

it rose from time to time mostly because of increased 

exports. 

In the 1970's, however, coal production once again rose. 

Following the Arab oil embargo, which disrupted the 

Figure 9. U.S. Coal Production, 1890-1993 

1200 

1000 

ID 

C 

.o 

o 

05 

c 

o 

800 

600 

400 

200 

1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 

Years 

The trend of U.S. coal production reflects competition from 

other energy sources, economic conditions, strikes and wars. 

The rise since 1960 is due to increased use of coal to 

generate electricity. 

Sources: Energy Information Administration, Sfafe Coal 

Profiles, DOE/EIA-0576 (Washington, DC, January 1994), and 

Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, 

DC, December 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 17 
supply of foreign oil and sharply increased oil prices, 

interest was renewed in the largely unused domestic 

coal reserves as a way of reducing dependence on 

foreign oil. In addition, the enactment of clean air 

standards spurred the opening of large mines in the 

West to supply low-sulfur coal for electric utilities. As 

the coal market improved and new mines opened, coal 

production expanded to record levels, surpassing 800 

million tons in 1980 and 1 billion tons in 1990, dropping only slightly since then. In the last two decades, 

the coal output from many States reached an all-time 

high (Table 3). The upward trend for coal production, 

Table 3. Peak Year of U.S. Coal Production by 

State, Through 1993 

(Thousand Short Tons) 

State Year Production 

Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Michigan 

Missouri 

Montana 

New Mexico . . 

North Carolina 

North Dakota . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma .. . 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania . 

Anthracite . . 

Bituminous . 

South Dakota . 

Tennessee .. . 

Texas 

Utah 

Virginia 

Washington . . 

West Virginia . 

Wyoming ... . 

1990 

1988 

1991 

1907 

1880 

1993 

1903 

1918 

1984 

1917 

1918 

1990 

1992 

1907 

1907 

1984 

1992 

1993 

1922 

1993 

1970 

1978 

1904 

1918 

1917 

1918 

1941 

1972 

1990 

1990 

1990 

1992 

1947 

1993 

29,030 

1,745 

13,203 

2,670 

237 

21,886 

417 

89,291 

37,555 

8,966 

7,562 

173,322 

3,240 

5,533 

2,036 

6,733 

38,889 

28,268 

79 

31,973 

55,351 

6,070 

112 

277,377 

99,612 

178,551 

71 

11,260 

55,755 

22,058 

46,917 

5,251 

176,157 

210,129 

U.S. Total 1990 1,029,076 

Sources: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 

Minerals Yearbook, various issues, and Energy Information 

Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; 

and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, 

DC, December 1994). 

despite several coal miners' strikes, was in notable 

contrast with the generally declining production trends 

(based on total Btu content) for domestic crude oil and 

natural gas. Cumulative U.S. coal production from 1890 

through 1993 is about 58 billion tons (Table 4). 

Table 4. Cumulative Coal Production by State, 

1890-1993 

(Billion Short Tons) 

States Production 

Percent of 

Total 

Pennsylvania 

West Virginia 

Kentucky .. . 

Illinois 

Ohio 

Wyoming .. . 

Indiana 

Virginia 

Alabama .. . 

15.3 

10.8 

7.1 

5.6 

3.5 

2.9 

2.1 

2.0 

1.9 

26.3 

18.5 

12.2 

9.6 

6.0 

5.0 

3.6 

3.5 

3.2 

Other States 

Total 

7.1 

58.1 

12.2 

100.0 

includes 10.7 billion short tons of bituminous coal and 4.6 billion 

short tons of anthracite. 

Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, 

Minerals Yearbook, and Energy Information Administration, Coal 

Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry 

Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 

1994). 

The high level of coal production was accompanied by 

shifts in both the geographic distribution of coal production and in the share of coal produced by surface 

mining. In 1970, most of the coal was mined east of the 

Mississippi River, principally from the Appalachian 

Region. By 1993, however, the share of production from 

eastern coal mines was only about 55 percent, while the 

rest was from western mines. Equally significant, surface mines gained a larger proportion of production, 

about 60 percent in 1993 as opposed to 44 percent in 

1970, most of it in the West. 

The major share of the additional coal production has 

been from leases on federally administered lands, 

principally Federal lands but also Indian lands. Coal 

production from Federal leases—the fastest-growing 

segment of U.S. coal production—has risen from 7 

million tons in 1970, when it accounted for about 1 

percent of the U.S. total, to 258 million tons in 1993, 

when it comprised 30 percent, due chiefly to highly 

productive leases in Wyoming. During the same period, 

the coal output from leases on Indian lands increased 

from 5 million to 28 million tons. Indian coal leases 

18 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Wyoming's Black Thunder surface mine, shown here, is the Nation's largest coal mine. Its 1993 output of 34 million short tons was 

more than the entire production of many States. 

leases are on the tribal lands of the Navajo and Hopi in 

Arizona, the Navajo in New Mexico, and the Crow in 

Montana. They are administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian Affairs. Coal 

sales from Federal coal leases generate substantial 

royalties ($265 million in 1993) that are distributed to 

the U.S. Department of the Treasury and to the States 

in which the leases are located. Royalties from Indian 

coal sales ($65 million) are disbursed to the tribal 

governments and Indian allotment owners. 

The large amount of coal currently produced is from 

fewer but larger mines than in the past. The 1993 coal 

output, for example, was from about 2,500 mines, 

whereas in 1970 about 6,000 mines produced 40 percent 

less coal. The greater output from today's coal mines is 

due to advances in mechanization that brought 

continuous mining machines and longwall mining 

systems to underground mines and large-capacity 

power shovels, draglines, and coal-hauling equipment 

to surface mines. In 1970, mines with an annual output 

of more than 500,000 tons represented about 5 percent 

of the total number of mines and accounted for almost 

60 percent of total coal production. By comparison, in 

1993 this category of mines represented 14 percent of 

the total number, but supplied more than three-fourths 

of a considerably larger output. In addition, nearly 200 

mines in 1993 produced at a level of 1 million tons or 

more, together accounting for two-thirds of the total 

coal mined. Of the 10 leading U.S. coal mines in 1993, 

8 were surface mines in Wyoming. The largest surface 

coal mine was the Black Thunder, which was operated 

by ARCO Coal Company in Wyoming's Powder River 

Basin; it produced 34 million tons—more coal than was 

mined in 18 States. The largest underground coal 

production, 7 million tons, was from the Enlow Fork 

Mine of Consol Energy, Inc., in Pennsylvania. 

Paralleling the trend of increasing mine size, coalproducing companies have also become larger. This has 

occurred because the mechanization of mines requires 

larger capital investments. Some small coal companies, 

lacking the financial resources to continue independently, have merged with other coal companies; 

however, many small mining companies have closed. In 

addition, some large coal consumers, such as electric 

utilities, have acquired interests in coal mining 

companies in order to secure long-term coal supplies. 

Some petroleum companies have expanded their 

interest in energy by acquiring shares in coal-producing 

companies. 

Because the bigger coal companies generally operate a 

number of large mines, often in different States, they 

have gained a greater share of total production. In the 

mid-1950's, for example, the 10 largest coal companies 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 19 
produced about one-third of the Nation's coal output. 

In 1993, with production at a much greater level, the 

top 10 coal companies accounted for more than 40 

percent of the output (Table 5). Although foreign 

companies have interests in U.S. companies, the coal 

industry is predominantly controlled by domestic 

companies. Currently the top three coal-producing 

companies are the Peabody Holding Company, which 

is controlled by Hanson PLC, a British firm; Cyprus 

Minerals, a U.S. company; and Consolidation Coal 

Company, which is affiliated with Du Pont/Rheinbraun 

AG, which represents U.S., Canadian, and German 

interests. In 1993, these three companies together were 

responsible for about one-fifth of the total U.S. coal 

output. 

Table 5. The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Producing 

Companies, 1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

Company Production 

Percent of 

Total 

Production 

Peabody Holding Co., Inc 69.7 7.4 

Cyprus Minerals Co 65.3 6.9 

Consol Energy, Inc 50.7 5.4 

Zeigler Coal Holding Co 37.5 4.0 

ARCOCoaICo 37.4 4.0 

Kennecott Energy Co 36.7 3.9 

Exxon Coal USA Inc 28.1 3.0 

Texas Utilities Co 27.6 2.9 

Montana Power Co 26.4 2.8 

North American Coal Corp 26.3 2.8 

Total 405.6 43.0 

U.S. Total 945.4 100.0 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of 

independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 

1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Quality of Coal Production 

If coal were a uniform product, it could be used with 

fewer problems. However, its composition varies significantly. Although characteristics such as fixed carbon, 

volatile matter, grindability, ash-fusion temperature, 

and coking ability have long been important in using 

and marketing coal, the heat value and the percentage 

of sulfur and ash, by weight, are of special interest. The 

heat value indicates how much energy is purchased per 

dollar. The sulfur content is an environmental concern 

because sulfur dioxide, a pollutant, is emitted when 

coal is burned. The ash content represents the 

incombustible material that can be emitted as particulate matter and also contributes to the erosion of 

boiler components. 

The average heat value of coal is highest in the East, 

where virtually all of the coal is biftiminous in rank, 

and relatively low for coal in the West, which has large 

deposits of subbitiLtninous coal and lignite. Although 

annual coal production has increased, the total heat 

content of production has not risen at the same rate 

because of the greater amounts of low-rank coal mined 

for electric utilities. For example, in 1970, the average 

heat value of the 613 million tons of coal produced was 

23.8 million Btu per ton, resulting in energy production 

of 14.6 quadrillion Btu. By comparison, the 1993 production was nearly 1 billion tons, more than 50 percent 

larger, but the energy value was 20.2 quadrillion Btu, 

only about 38 percent higher, because the average heat 

value of the coal declined to 21.4 million Btu per ton. 

For utility coal, the average heat content dropped from 

22.6 million Btu per short ton in 1970 to 20.6 million 

Btu in 1993, whereas the estimated heat content of 

coking coal was relatively constant during the period, 

averaging 26.8 million Btu per short ton annually. Coal 

consumed by other industrial users declined slightly in 

heat value, from 23.0 million Btu per short ton in 1970 

to 22.2 million Btu in 1993. The small amount of coal 

used by residential and commercial consumers fluctuated between an estimated 22.2 million and 23.7 

million Btu per short ton during the period. 

The average sulfur content of coal production, based on 

utility coal production, has been declining because of 

the larger amounts of low-sulfur coal from the West. 

Over the 1973-1993 period, the average sulfur content 

(by weight) of utility coal fell from 2.3 percent to 1.2 

percent. Similarly, the average ash content (by weight) 

of utility coal also decreased over the period, dropping 

from 13.0 percent to 9.5 percent, due to the greater use 

of Wyoming utility coal, which has a relatively low ash 

content. Coal for industrial use in 1993 contained an 

average of 2.5 percent sulfur and 13.5 percent ash. 

Coal Prices 

In general, coal is the least expensive domestic fossil 

fuel produced, based on its heat content. Coal is about 

one-third as expensive as crude oil and nearly half as 

costly as natural gas. When adjusted for inflation, the 

average price of coal in 1993 (about $20 per ton) was 

about 44 percent lower than it was a decade earlier and 

less than half of the price in the mid 1970's. The highest 

price of coal in "real" dollars (adjusted for inflation and 

expressed in 1987 dollars) was $39 per ton in 1975, 

which amounted to $19 per short ton in current dollars 

20 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
and was the result of the oil embargo in 1973-74. The 

embargo caused a sharp rise in oil prices, and coal 

prices also rose mainly because producers expected a 

rapid and widespread switch from oil to coal. Coal 

prices reached $27 per ton in 1982 (real price of $32 per 

ton) before falling as the price of oil declined and the 

conversion from oil to coal slowed. 

The price of coal varies by coal rank, mining method, 

geographic region, and coal quality. Surface-mined coal 

is generally lower-priced than undergrourtd-mined coal 

Where coalbeds are thick and near the surface, as in 

Wyoming, mining costs and, therefore, coal prices tend 

to be lower than where the beds are thinner and 

deeper, as in Appalachia. The higher cost of coal from 

underground mines reflects the more difficult rnining 

conditions and the need for more miners. Coals with a 

high heat content are generally higher priced. Lowsulfur coals can command a higher price than highsulfur coals. The average price per ton of coal in 1993 

was about $9 for subbituminous coal, $11 for lignite, 

$26 for bituminous coal, and $33 for anthracite. 

Transportation costs add significantly to the delivered 

price of coal. In some cases, as in long-distance shipments of Wyoming coal, transportation costs can be 

more than the price of coal at the mine. The average 

delivered price of coal shipped to electric utilities, the 

major coal consumers, reached highs in the early 1980's 

of about $35 per ton (real price of about $39 per ton). 

Since then, the average delivered price of utility coal 

has generally declined, dropping in 1993 to about $29 

per ton (real price of $24 per ton). 

Employment, Productivity, and 

Earnings 

The number of workers employed in the coal industry 

has declined so precipitously that the size of the coal 

mining labor force today is less than one-third the size 

it was a century ago—despite record levels of coal 

production. In contrast to a range of 400,000 to 800,000 

workers employed in coal mining from 1900 to 1950, 

the number was around 100,000 in 1993. About 6,000 

women were employed by the coal industry in 

production and other work. Before 1973, government 

records showed no women coal miners, reflecting 

biases and superstitions, such as the belief that women 

brought bad luck into the mine. By 1979, however, their 

ranks had grown to about 2,600, and in 1982, 

employment of women coal miners peaked at 11,600. 

The rise was spurred by the 1964 Civil Rights Act, a 

1965 Executive order barring discrimination in employment and requiring affirmative action plans for 

businesses receiving Federal contracts, and a 1978 U.S. 

Department of Labor training program for women who 

wanted to begin coal-mining careers. 

The drop in the size of the total coal mining workforce 

has been due to the replacement of manual labor by 

machines in virtually every phase of rriining. At underground mines, the improvement of equipment and the 

introduction of remote-controlled mining and roofbolting and other innovations have reduced crew sizes 

while improving safety and productivity. At surface 

mines, operations have speeded up and the number of 

employees has dropped through the use of larger and 

faster excavating and transporting equipment and 

improved blasting techniques. At both types of mines, 

computers have become an integral part of mine 

planning and operations and are also having a positive 

influence on productivity. 

The greatest loss of miners has been in the coalfields in 

Appalachia, where the number has been reduced by 

more than half since 1980, falling from 171,000 to 71,000 

in 1993. Nevertheless, Appalachia continues to be the 

center of the U.S. coal mining workforce, with about 7 

out of every 10 U.S. coal miners in 1993. Nearly half of 

the coal miners worked in Kentucky and West Virginia 

(Table 6). 

Table 6. The 10 Leading States in U.S. Coal Mine 

Employment, 1993 

State 

Average 

Number 

of Miners 

Percent of 

Total 

Kentucky .. . 

West Virginia 

Pennsylvania 

Virginia 

Illinois 

Alabama .. . 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Wyoming .. . 

Texas 

Total 

U.S. Total 

24,063 

22,979 

10,940 

8,339 

7,303 

5,399 

3,866 

3,331 

3,159 

1,841 

23.7 

22.7 

10.8 

8.2 

7.2 

5.3 

3.8 

3.3 

3.1 

1.8 

91,220 

101,322 

90.0 

100.0 

Note: Average number working daily. Includes employees 

engaged in production, preparation, processing, development, 

maintenance, repair, shop or yard work at mining operations. 

Excludes office workers and mines producing less than 10,000 short 

tons of coal during the year and preparation plants with less than 

5,000 employee hours. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 

1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 21 
About 100,000 coal miners were employed in 1993. Onaverage, they produced 5 short tons of coal per hour, earning $17 per hour. 

Although coal mine employment has fallen, overall 

productivity in the U.S. coal industry has reached 

record levels. Productivity in 1993 was nearly 5 tons 

per miner per hour, almost six times higher than in 

1950, due mostly to a higher rate at surface mines. 

Productivity at surface mines has consistently been 

higher than at underground mines, primarily because 

fewer workers are required. Productivity rose from 

about 2 tons per miner hour in the 1950's to a peak of 

nearly 5 tons per miner hour in 1974, dropped to about 

3 tons in 1978, and since then steadily grew to 7 tons in 

1993. The decline in 1978 was due to several factors. 

One was the opening of smaller, less efficient mines 

(often worked by younger, inexperienced miners) in 

response to rising coal prices due to the oil embargo in 

the early 1970's. Many of these mines later closed when 

the price of coal dropped and niining became 

uneconomical. Another factor that initially depressed 

surface mining productivity was the enactment of the 

Federal Surface Mining and Reclamation Act of 1977 

and State reclamation laws, which require restoration of 

mined land, thereby diverting some employees and 

equipment from production activities. Factors that have 

been significant in raising the average productivity at 

surface mines are increases in the size and power of 

surface niining equipment and the large-scale rnining of 

very thick coalbeds in the West. 

In underground mines, improvements in productivity 

have been less dramatic. As recently as the early 1950's, 

underground miners averaged less than 1 ton per hour. 

The rate approached 2 tons per hour when the Federal 

Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 imposed 

many new safety regulations (such as the need to stop 

work between coal cuts to install roof supports). These 

initially hampered underground productivity, which 

fell to a low point of about 1 ton per miner hour in 

1978. However, the regulations became less of a 

22 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
constraint as miners learned to adapt to the changes 

without compromising safety. As with surface mines, 

productivity was also hampered by the opening of 

many small, less efficient mines in response to rising 

coal prices and rising demand due to the oil embargo, 

mines that later became uneconomical and closed. Also 

taking their toll on productivity in the 1970's were 

several major coal miners' strikes by the United Mine 

Workers of America. However, by 1993 underground 

productivity reached nearly 3 tons per miner hour, 

reflecting the greater use of contmuous-rnining 

machines and longwall mining. 

Coal miners, in general, are the highest paid workers in 

the mining industry, including oil and gas extraction; 

their wages are above the average paid in the steel, 

automobile, and chemical industries, according to the 

U.S. Department of Labor. In 1993, coal mine production workers averaged $765.90 per week (in current 

dollars), or $17.25 per hour, working an average of 44.4 

hours. A decade earlier they earned $547.83 per week 

(current dollars), or $13.73 per hour, for 39.9 hours. 

Health and Safety 

Coal mining, particularly underground coal rruning, 

historically has been a dangerous occupation, but the 

risk has been reduced dramatically. In recent years, the 

injury incidence rate for coal mining has been generally 

below that in many sectors of the construction and 

manufacturing industries, according to the U.S. Bureau 

of Labor Statistics. 

The Federal Government has been involved in mine 

safety since 1910, when Congress established the 

Bureau of Mines as a research and fact-finding agency 

on coal mining. In 1941, Congress authorized Federal 

inspection—but not regulation—of coal mines. After 119 

miners were killed in a coal mine explosion in West 

Frankfort, Illinois, in 1951, Congress enacted the Federal 

Coal Mine Safety Act of 1952, which increased the 

Bureau's inspection authority and empowered it to 

close underground mines engaged in interstate commerce that did not follow mandatory safety standards 

for underground coal mines; surface mines and 

underground mines operations employing fewer than 

15 workers were exempted. The Federal Coal Mine 

Health and Safety Act of 1969 vastly increased the 

Government's enforcement powers by covering virtually every aspect of coal mining and by mandating 

fines for violations, authorizing criminal penalties for 

intentional violations, and enabling miners to request 

safety inspections. In addition to imposing mandatory 

safety training, the new law requires coal-mine 

operators to have plans for ventilation, roof support, 

and emergency evacuation approved by the Mining 

Enforcement and Safety Aclministration (MESA). MESA 

was created in 1973 in the U.S. Department of the 

Interior to handle mine inspections previously performed by the Bureau of Mines. It is the predecessor of 

today's Mine Safety and Health Administration 

(MSHA), formed in 1978 as part of the U.S. Department 

of Labor. MSHA is required to inspect underground 

coal mines four times per year and surface coal mines 

two times per year. It has the authority to issue 

citations and stop mining operations when conditions 

are dangerous. 

As a result of more stringent safety regulations, mechanization, and roof bolting, the record for mine safety 

has greatly improved. In 1993, coal mining claimed 47 

lives. In the 1980's, an average of 79 coal miners lost 

their lives each year, whereas in the 1970's, the toll 

averaged 129. The worst year in the history of coal 

mining was 1907, when 3,242 miners perished. 

Explosions of coalbed methane and coal dust, which are 

ignited by a flame or spark, cause the major coal mine 

disasters and claim the greatest number of lives where 

coal is mined underground. In the United States, the 

first reported coal mine explosion occurred around 1810 

near Richmond, Virginia. The worst U.S. coal mine 

disaster, taking the lives of 362 miners, was due to an 

explosion at Monongah, West Virginia, in December 

1907. Mine safety regulations and practices have markedly reduced the danger of explosions by requiring 

sufficient mine ventilation to prevent the accumulation 

of high levels of methane and coal dust in the mine 

atmosphere. Coal dust is also controlled by making it 

noncombustible through the use of watersprays and by 

"rockdusting" mine areas with pulverized limestone or 

similar noncombustible material. Other safety measures 

include the use of explosives and electrical equipment 

that have passed certain safety tests and are formally 

approved as "permissible" by MSHA. 

Historically, winter is the most hazardous time for coal 

mine explosions. From October through March, MSHA 

notifies underground coal miners of a "Winter Alert," 

warning them that methane and coal dust explosions 

are more likely to occur during this period than at any 

other time of the year. Hazards increase because dry 

winter air entering a mine becomes warm and absorbs 

moisture from the mine workings. As the mine "dries 

out," more coal dust becomes suspended in the mine 

air, increasing the risk of ignition. In addition, a sudden 

drop of barometric pressure causes methane to expand 

and flow from inactive areas of the mine to areas where 

the miners are working. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 23 
Mining research includes the development of technology that will enable a miner to be located in a safe place while using a 

computer to control a mining machine. 

Although explosions are responsible for the most 

dramatic disasters in underground coal mines, roof falls 

historically have been the single most frequent cause of 

fatal accidents in U.S. coal mines. Roof falls occur when 

part of the mine roof or rib (side) breaks away. Usually 

this occurs within 25 feet of the working face, before 

the area is permanently supported. More roof fall 

fatalities occur with the room-and-pillar mining method 

than with longwall niining. Fatalities at surface mines 

are largely caused by falls of rock from the side of the 

mine and accidents involving machinery. Haulagerelated accidents generally rank second as the cause of 

coal mine fatalities. 

Apart from accidents, coal miners also face the danger 

of contracting coal workers pneumoconiosis, or "black 

lung," the consequence of breathing and retaining too 

much coal dust. When coal dust collects in the small 

passages leading to air spaces in the lungs, the lung 

tissues react with the dust to form masses of dense 

fibrous tissue. Black lung, a progressive disease, causes 

difficulty in breathing and persistent coughing, and can 

put a fatal strain on the heart. Miners with the disease 

are eligible for disability under the Federal Black Lung 

Benefits Act of 1977 and its amendments, a program 

funded through taxes paid on coal production at a rate 

of $1.10 per ton for underground mines and 55 cents 

per ton for surface mines. However, most of the Black 

Lung claims filed before 1973 are administered through 

the Social Security Administration. 

Coal Miners' Unions and Strikes 

The United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) ranks 

first among about 40 labor unions that represent U.S. 

coal miners. Formed in 1890, the UMWA has been the 

leading coal miners union and has been in the forefront 

as a collective bargaining organization representing coal 

miners. It is the major union in the coalfields in the 

East. UMWA coal miners currently account for about 40 

percent of the U.S. coal mining workforce and produce 

about one-fourth of the total coal output. Other unions 

24 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
represent 4 percent of the coal miners and account for 

a 9-percent share of production. By contrast, nonunion 

workers compose about 55 percent of the coal mining 

workforce and account for about twcnthirds of U.S. coal 

production. 

Major coal miners' strikes—those creating a significant 

disruption on coal supplies—are generally precipitated 

when a contract expires and no agreement is reached 

between the UMWA and the Bituminous Coal Operators Association (BCOA) over the terms of a new 

contract. The principal bargaining issues focus on wage 

and fringe benefits, including health and retirement 

benefits. Contract agreements between the UMWA and 

the BCOA traditionally set the pattern for contracts 

between smaller unions representing coal miners and 

other mining companies or associations that do not 

belong to the BCOA, such as the Independent Bituminous Coal Bargaining Alliance. Overall production is 

usually not significantly affected by the small "wildcat" 

strikes that occur locally from time to time, usually 

over miners' grievances and local issues. 

During a major strike, nonunion mines may also be 

idled by pickets or by miners walking out in 

"sympathy" strikes. Generally, strikes by the UMWA 

are most significant at underground mines in Appalachia, the center of UMWA membership. Before 1984, 

major coal miners' strikes were generally nationwide. 

Since then, the UMWA's tactic has been to call selective 

strikes against one or more companies. The striking 

miners are supported through UMWA payroll assessments into a selective strike fund. 

The early history of the coal industry often featured 

long strikes, commonly over needed reforms. In 1922, 

anthracite miners in Pennsylvania went on strike for 

160 days and bituminous coal miners for 140 days. The 

Nation's longest coal miners' strike—166 days in the 

anthracite region—was in the fall and winter of 1925-26, 

before the Taft-Hartley Act for ending strikes was 

enacted. In 1949-1950, a coal miners' strike lasted 116 

days, although the miners went back to work several 

times during that period. Since 1960, major coal miners' 

strikes have occurred in 1966 (16 days), 1968 (13 days), 

1971 (44 days), 1974 (28 days), 1977-78 (111 days), and 

1981 (72 days). In October 1984, a nationwide strike was 

averted for the first time in 20 years with the signing of 

a new UMWA-BCOA contract extending through 

January 1988, and in early February 1988 another new 

agreement was ratified without striking. The new contract was for 5 years, whereas past contracts usually 

lasted about 3 years. 

From April 1989 through most of February 1990, a 

UMWA strike against the Pittston Coal Company, with 

which it was negotiating a separate contract, affected 

the company's mines in Virginia, West Virginia, and 

Kentucky before a 4 1/2-year agreement was reached. 

At issue were job security and health and retirement 

benefits. In 1993, unsuccessful contract negotiations 

between the UMWA and the BCOA led to a series of 

selective strikes that idled more than 16,000 miners in 

seven States in Appalachia. The first selective strikes 

were against the operations of Peabody Holding 

Company, the Nation's top producer, and Eastern 

Associated Coal Corporation. The strikes lasted from 

February 2 to March 3 and ended when the negotiators 

agreed to extend the contract for 60 days. Failing to 

reach an agreement at the end of the period, the union 

expanded its selective strikes to include large mines 

operated by other companies. This new series of strikes 

lasted from May 10 until December 14, 1993, when an 

agreement was reached that will remain in effect 

through August 1,1998. In addition to increasing wages 

and pensions, the new agreement provides for 60 

percent of new job openings to be filled by UMWA 

workers, increases health care benefits, and gives the 

company the right to establish 7-day work schedules. In 

a separate collective bargaining agreement signed June 

20, 1994, the UMWA and the Pittston Coal Company 

concluded a new labor pact in June 1994 that extends 

through 1998. 

Preparation 

Most of the coal produced in the United States undergoes some degree of processing, or preparation, to 

make it a more marketable product. The amount of 

preparation required depends on the customer's specifications. Some coal is blended at the mine where, for 

example, high-sulfur coal from one area can be mixed 

with low-sulfur coal from another to produce a 

medium-sulfur coal that is acceptable to a consumer. 

Roughly half of the bituminous coal currently mined is 

sent to preparation (or processing) plants for some form 

of coal cleaning. About two-thirds of the bitiiminous 

coal mined in the East for electric power plants is 

cleaned, whereas the subbituminous coal and lignite 

shipped from western mines to electric utilities is 

generally only crushed and screened to facilitate 

handling and to remove extraneous material introduced 

during niining. Nearly all of the coal used to make coke 

for steelmaking undergoes a high level of cleaning. 

Cleaning upgrades the quality and heating value of coal 

by removing or reducing the amount of pyritic sulfur, 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 25 
Coal quality is upgraded in a preparation plant. This plant in western Maryland can process 1,500 short tons of coal per hour. 

rock, clay, and other ash-producing material. Cleaning 

also removes materials that becomes mixed with the 

coal during mining, such as wire and wood. Conventional cleaning methods generally remove up to 

one-third of the inorganic (pyritic) sulfur in coal, but 

none of the organic sulfur. Currently, commercial technology is not available for reducing the levels of the 

alkali metals sodium and potassium. In general, about 

30 tons of refuse are removed from every 100 tons of 

raw (as-mined) coal that is cleaned. 

Coal cleaning is based on the principle that coal is 

lighter than the rock and other impurities mixed or embedded in it. The impurities are separated by various 

mechanical devices using pulsating water currents and 

rapidly spinning water. The large buoyancy difference 

between coal's combustible matter and its mineral 

impurities is exploited efficiently with the use of liquids 

of different densities in dense-medium systems, which 

are used in about two-thirds of the plants. The finely 

powdered coal (coal fines) produced during mining, 

handling, and crushing operations is usable but difficult 

to clean and handle. Finely sized coal is cleaned by 

froth flotation, a relatively high-cost chemical/physical 

process in which the coal adheres to air bubbles in a 

reagent and floats to the top of the washing device 

while the refuse sinks to the bottom. About 40 percent 

of the U.S. coal cleaning capacity consists of plants that 

use froth flotation to recover coal fines. The remaining 

plants either discard the coal fines as refuse or mix 

uncleaned coal fines with the cleaned coal for shipment 

to customers. Oil agglomeration has been used to a 

limited extent to clean ultra fine coal. The oil clings 

to the coal surface, causing it to agglomerate while 

other refuse particles remain suspended and are removed. 

26 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Coal cleaning consists of the following basic steps involving physical preparation and physical cleaning: (1) 

crushing, grinding and/or breaking, to prepare the coal 

for the washing process; (2) sizing, to separate coal 

into different dimensions, both to match the specifications for the various cleaning devices and to meet 

market.requirements; (3) washing, to remove ash and 

sulfur components from coal; (4) dewatering and 

drying, to remove excess moisture and prepare the 

cleaned coal for shipment and also to increase its heat 

value (Figure 10). Cleaned coal of different sizes and 

properties can be blended at the plant to meet consumer requirements. 

Figure 10. Basic Flow of Coal Through a Preparation Plant 

Coal preparation reduces the amount of impurities (sulfur and ash-producing minerals) and improves the heating value; coals with 

different characteristics can be blended to meet certain specifications. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 27 
There were 270 coal preparation plants operating in the 

United States in 1993, according to Coal magazine. 

Varying widely in levels of complexity, the plants had 

capacities ranging from 40 tons to 3,200 tons per hour. 

Most of the plants were in the East, with those in West 

Virginia and Pennsylvania accounting for nearly half of 

the U.S. total. The largest preparation plant was the 

Bailey plant of Consol Pennsylvania Coal Company in 

Graysville. Preparation plants in the bituminous coal 

region are sometimes called "tipples," because in the 

past coal cars were "tippled," or dumped, into the top 

of the plant; today, transfer is accomplished by 

conveyor. In the anthracite region, preparation plants 

are often called "breakers," a name originating in the 

fact that anthracite, a relatively hard coal, is broken and 

sized in the plant. 

Transportation 

The coal industry depends heavily on the transportation network for delivering coal to customers across the 

country. The flow of coal is carried by railroads, barges, 

ships, trucks, conveyors, and a slurry pipeline. Coal 

deliveries are usually handled by a combination of 

transportation modes before finally reaching the consumer. The methods of transportation and the shipping 

distance greatly influence the total cost of coal to the 

consumer. For some western coals shipped over a great 

distance, the freight cost may represent three-fourths of 

the delivered cost of coal. 

Railroads are the foundation of the coal distribution 

system, annually handling about 60 percent of the coal 

shipped to domestic customers. Just as railroads are 

important to the coal industry, coal shipments, in turn, 

are the leading source of freight and revenue for the 

railroad industry. In 1993, coal constituted nearly 40 

percent of railroad freight tonnage and provided over 

$6 billion in revenue, generating about 21 cents out of 

every dollar of freight revenue earned, according to the 

Association of American Railroads. 

Since 1970, railroads have accounted for a steadily 

larger share of coal shipments from the West (increasing from 61 percent to nearly 70 percent of the 

total in 1993), reflecting a greater demand for lowsulfur western coal as well as improvements in the 

area's rail transportation system, particularly in Wyoming. Over the same period, railroads handled an 

average of 55 percent of Appalachia's coal shipments. 

Rail's share of coal shipments in the interior region 

dropped from 51 percent to 45 percent, due mainly to 

a fall in the demand for the region's high-sulfur coal to 

produce electricity and for its coking coal. Currently, 

the three leading States in which domestic coal shipments originate by rail are Wyoming (35 percent of U.S. 

rail shipments in 1993), Kentucky (18 percent), and 

West Virginia (10 percent). The largest coal-carrying 

railroads are CSX Transportation Incorporated, Burlington Northern Railroad Company, and Norfolk Southern 

Corporation, which together handle over three-fourths 

of all U.S. coal shipped by rail. 

Unit trains account for more than half of railroad coal 

shipments. Unlike a conventional coal train or a mixed 

freight train carrying individual carloads of coal, a unit 

coal train carries coal from a specified loading facility 

straight through to a specified customer without stopping. It uses dedicated equipment, whereas other trains 

carrying coal generally draw the equipment needed 

from the railroad's operating pool of locomotives and 

cars. Sometimes termed "the train with a one-track 

mind," a unit coal train operates on a predeterrnined 

schedule, following the most direct route and providing 

high productivity and low shipping rates. Comprising 

as many as four or five locomotives and 100 to 110 cars, 

a unit coal train is over a mile long. It can be loaded 

with 10,000 to 11,000 tons of coal in 2.5 to 3 hours and 

unloaded in 4 to 5 hours. In some States, unit coal train 

traffic can be heavy. In Wyoming, the leading coalproducing State, about 40 unit coal trains left the State 

daily in 1990 while a like number returned for 

reloading, according to the Wyoming State Geological 

Survey. 

Two types of railroad cars are used for transporting 

coal, the gondola and the hopper. Gondola cars have 

flat bottoms, straight sides, and open tops and are 

unloaded by being tipped over by rotary dumpers. 

Hopper cars have sloping bottoms with gates that open 

to discharge the coal. Today's rail cars hold an average 

of about 96 tons, nearly 20 percent more than in the 

early 1970's and almost double the capacity of railroad 

cars in the 1930's. Cars used for eastern coal are slightly 

smaller than those for western coal, the difference 

reflecting the density of the coal carried. Eastern coal is 

denser than western coal and so the equipment 

designed to haul it has a smaller capacity. Most cars are 

made of steel, but a large number of aluminum-bodied 

cars are also used. Lighter in weight, aluminum cars 

offer a savings in transportation costs because they can 

carry 5 to 10 tons more than steel cars without 

exceeding track weight lirnitations. On the return trip, 

the lighter cars also result in fuels savings. 

Waterbome shipments rank next to railroads in coal 

shipments, accounting for nearly 2 out of every 10 tons 

of coal shipped annually to domestic markets. 

However, the proportion of total domestic coal 

28 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
The unit coal train is the symbol of coal transportation. Railroads are the foundation of the coal distribution system. Conversely, 

coal is the leading source of railroad freight and revenue. 

shipments moved by water has declined from 29 percent in 1970 to about 17 percent in recent years, 

reflecting in part the shift of coal production away from 

the Northeast and Midwest, the regions with the 

greatest use of water transportation. Kentucky and 

West Virginia are the leaders in water-transport of coal, 

together accounting for a little more than half of the 

total in recent years. Coal's approximate share of total 

domestic shipments of major commodities by type of 

waterway in 1991, according to the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, was as follows: coastal, 5 percent; Great 

Lakes, 17 percent; and inland waterways, 30 percent. 

Barges and ships move coal on rivers, the Great Lakes, 

and tidewater areas. The major inland waterways for 

coal traffic are the Mississippi, Ohio, and Black Warrior-Tombigbee rivers. Towboats plying these waters 

typically push 15 to 20 barges loaded with 20,000 to 

30,000 tons of coal. The amount of coal shipped in a 

single tow (a string of barges) is determined by the lock 

size on the waters navigated. Large tows can be 

handled in the deeper waters of the lower Mississippi 

River. On the Great Lakes, domestic coal traffic generally ranks second to iron ore. Shipments are typically 

made by lake carriers, which are about 700 feet long 

and 70 feet wide and hold about 20,000 tons of coal. 

Several lake carriers are about 1,000 feet long and have 

about three times more capacity. The most extensive 

coal traffic on the lakes is to destinations in the north 

and west. Lake carriers sailing south generally contain 

iron ore or grain. Shipping on the Great Lakes usually 

is immobilized by ice from mid-December through 

mid-March. Some coal deliveries from eastern ports to 

power plants in Massachusetts are carried by a coalburning collier, Energy Independence, placed in service in 

1983. 

Coal deliveries by truck account for about 1 out of 

every 10 tons of coal shipped. The level of coal 

transportation by truck has not varied significantly in 

the past two decades. Although the use of trucks for 

hauling coal is widespread, it is very important in a 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 29 
number of States, including Alabama, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Utah. Trucks are used for short 

hauls, generally of less than 50 miles. Frequently, coal 

transported by rail or barge is first trucked to the 

loading dock or transferred by truck at some point. In 

some areas, such as parts of the Appalachian Region, 

trucks are the only economical way to transport coal. 

Individual coal shipments by truck are relatively small. 

Three-axle dump trucks hold about 20 tons; tractortrailers carry up to 35 tons. The maximum load a truck 

can carry on highways is limited by State regulations. 

Aerial tramways, conveyors, and a coal slurry pipeline 

together account for about the same amount of coal 

deliveries as trucks. The percentage of coal shipped by 

this transportation category has increased from about 4 

percent in 1970 to about 13 percent in recent years. This 

growth was partly due to the rapid growth of coal 

production in the West, where conveyors are often used 

to deliver coal directly from mines to nearby power 

plants. 

Aerial tramways cover relatively short distances, but 

conveyors usually are many miles long, commonly 

linking mines with power plants. The Nation's only 

coal slurry pipeline is the Black Mesa line. Spanning 

273 miles, this pipeline is 18 inches in diameter and 

connects a coal mine in northern Arizona to a power 

plant in southern Nevada. It carries about 4.5 million 

tons of coal annually in a slurry composed equally of 

finely ground coal and water, the journey from mine to 

plant taking about 3 days. About 1 billion gallons of 

groundwater are used annually. There are 9.7 million 

gallons of water and 45,000 tons of coal in the pipeline 

at any one time. The Black Mesa coal slurry pipeline 

began operations in 1970, about 7 years after the closing 

of the Nation's first long-distance coal slurry pipeline, 

the Eastlake, which carried coal from Cadiz, Ohio, to a 

power plant east of Cleveland. 

Supply and Stocks 

In recent years the supply of coal from U.S. mines has 

averaged about 19 million tons per week. This is more 

than enough to provide the fuel required to generate 

electricity for a metropolitan area the size of New York 

City for about a year. The weekly supply of coal from 

the mines varies considerably. Sharp rises occur in 

response to increased demand, including increased use 

of coal-fired electricity generation to offset declines in 

generation from other sources. These declines occur, for 

example, when nuclear power generation drops because 

of scheduled maintenance, when hydroelectric generation falls during periods of low water, or when coal 

stockpiles are built up in anticipation of a coal miners' 

strike. 

Downward swings in weekly coal production and supply usually are caused by miners' vacations and 

holidays. Strikes by coal miners and workers involved 

with coal shipments can sharply curtail the supply of 

coal from the mines. Delays in delivering railroad cars 

to the mines can result in a drop in coal shipments. 

Freezing temperatures can hamper the unloading of 

railroad cars. Although coal shipped by rail in winter 

is generally treated with freeze-control agents, this 

protective treatment can be washed away and the coal 

can freeze solid in the railroad cars. Coal frozen in 

railroad cars is thawed in heated sheds and/or mechanically broken into pieces of manageable size. Heavy 

rains and flooding can also impede mining operations 

and coal shipments. For instance, from June through 

August 1993, severe flooding along the upper Mississippi and Missouri river basins disrupted coal 

deliveries to power plants in about nine Midwest States 

and to power plants in States beyond that area, because 

trains were delayed or rerouted around the flooded 

region. 

As insurance against a disruption in deliveries, large 

coal consumers generally maintain a 45- to 60-day 

stockpile of coal. Large quantities of coal are generally 

stored in open stockpiles on the ground, piled in 

diverse forms, such as cones, blocks, and rows. Coal is 

also stored in covered ground storage—in bins, 

bunkers, and silos. 

Year-end coal stocks since 1990 have averaged nearly 

190 million tons, equivalent to about one-fifth of the 

average annual coal consumption. More than 80 percent of the stockpiled coal was at electric power plants. 

Use 

Coal is used in all 50 States and the District of Columbia. In 1993, 10 States accounted for about half of the 

total coal consumed (Table 7). Of these, Texas, Indiana, 

Ohio, and Pennsylvania consumed the largest amounts, 

with a combined share of 29 percent of the tonnage. 

However, based on the estimated energy content of the 

coal consumed, the ranking was as follows: Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, Texas, and Indiana. 

The use of coal in the United States has risen almost 

steadily since the early 1970's, reaching record levels 

and totaling 926 million tons in 1993. On a per capita 

basis, coal consumption in 1993 was nearly 20 pounds 

per person per day, which continued an upward trend 

30 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 7. The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Consuming

States, 1993

(Million Short Tons)

State Consumption

Percent of

Total

Texas

Indiana

Ohio

Pennsylvania

Kentucky . . .

Illinois

Alabama . . .

Michigan . . .

West Virginia

North Dakota

Total

U.S. Total

477.2

925.9

51.4

100.0

Note: Total does not equal sum of components because of

independent rounding.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report

October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93/4Q) (Washington, DC,

May 1994); and Quarterly Coal Report January-March 1994,

DOE/EIA-0121(94/10.) (Washington, DC, August 1994).

Figure 11. U.S. Daily Per Capita Coal Consumption,

1950-1993

25-i

96.8

60.4

59.0

56.2

39.1

38.1

33.0

32.2

32.0

30.3

10.5

6.5

6.3

6.1

4.2

4.1

3.6

3.5

3.5

3.3

>.

Q

CD

0.

o

| All Other Coal Consumption

] Coal Consumption for Generating Electricity

T 1 1——I——I—— T

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1993

Years

that began in the 1960's (Figure 11). Virtually all of the

growth has been due to the increasing amounts of coal

used to generate electricity.

The upward trend in coal consumption was spurred by

the Arab oil embargo in the first half of the 1970's,

which caused substantial price increases for petroleum,

and by a natural gas shortage in the second half of the

1970's. As a result, the share of total U.S. energy

consumption supplied by coal has increased significantly. At the time of the Arab oil embargo, coal

accounted for 17 percent of U.S. energy consumption.

In 1993 its share was 23 percent. Historically, however,

this is a markedly smaller proportion than in the early

1900's, when coal supplied nearly all of the U.S. energy

needs, or 1940, when it supplied about half.

In recent years, the increase in energy supplied by coal

has not matched the increase in coal tonnage. For

example, the amount of coal consumed increased by 32

percent from 1980 through 1993, but the energy derived

from the coal in 1993 was only 26 percent higher than

in 1980. The difference is due to the greater use of

subbituminous coal and lignite, which are mined in the

West. Both have a relatively low heat content as

compared with biturninous coal, which held a larger

share of consumption in earlier years.

U.S. daily per capita coal consumption has risen since the

1960's due chiefly to an increase in the amount of coal used

for generating electricity.

Source: Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of Interior,

"Mineral Yearbook," various issues; Energy Information

Administration, "Quarterly Coal Report," DOE/EIA-0121,

various issues; and Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of

Commerce, "Statistical Abstracts of the United States," various

issues.

More than 8 out of every 10 tons of the coal used in the

United States are for electricity generation, the most

important market for coal since the 1950's. The coal is

used to produce high-pressure steam for driving an

electrical generator (Figure 12). Due to the cost

advantage that coal offers over oil and gas, the amount

of coal used by utilities annually has trended upwards.

Although electricity generated from nuclear power

increased in the 1970's and 1980's, at the expense of

petroleum and gas, coal's contribution was on an

upward trend, generally keeping pace with the growing

demand for electricity. Part of the reason for the rise

was the Powerplant and Industrial Fuel Act of 1978.

The law prohibited the use of oil or gas in most new

large boilers and compelled utilities to convert many

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 31

*. . ',=7 *-~ - ' r ^ •»>*"•

'•i" -*^£,i

J*- * ■■
Coal

Supply

Pulverizer

Boiler

Burner

Bottom

Ash

Limestone or

Lime Slurry

Flue

Gases

Steam

Electrostatic

Precipitator

— > ■

Flue Gas

Desulfurization

Scrubber

1

Fly Ash

T

Sludge

Smokestack

Steam Turbine Generator Electricity

*>•".*

V

Most coal-fired power plants burn pulverized coal to produce high-pressure steam. The steam, in turn, runs a turbine that drives

an electric generator. Most of the coal ash is carried in flue gas as fly ash and removed chiefly by electrostatic precipitators, but

fabric filters are also used. Plants with scrubbers remove over 90 percent of the sulfur dioxide in the flue gases. About one-third

of the energy released during coal combustion is converted into electricity.

Figure 12. Schematic of a Coal-Fired Power Plant

existing oil- and gas-fired boilers to coal. The law was

amended in 1978 to repeal restrictions on the use of oil

or gas in new baseload power plants if they were

designed to permit future conversion to coal, but the

later regulations became redundant because rapidly

rising petroleum prices and natural gas shortages in the

1970's gave coal the economic advantage.

Utility coal consumption has risen from less than 400

million tons per year during the early 1970's to more

than 800 million tons in 1993. The electricity generated

from coal has increased from 704 billion kilowatthours

in 1970, when it accounted for 46 percent of the total, to

a record 1,580 billion kilowatthours in 1993, when its

share was 57 percent. By comparison, of the total

electricity generated in 1993, nuclear power supplied 21

percent; natural gas and hydropower, 9 percent each;

petroleum, 3 percent; and geothermal and other

sources, 1 percent.

In addition to the electricity produced by utility

companies, a small amount of electricity is generated by

nonutility power producers, chiefly industrial plants

that produce it for their own use. In 1993, coal-fired

generation in this sector totaled about 43 billion

kilowatthours.

Most of the coal used to generate electricity is burned

in pulverized-coal-fired boilers. Pulverized-coal firing,

introduced in the electric utility industry in the early

1920's, is a major improvement over other methods of

coal combustion because it permits the use of larger,

more efficient boilers. Pulverized coal, which is ground

as fine as flour, is blown into the furnace and ignited

instantly to burn in suspension. The most common

pulverized-coal boilers are classified as having a "dry

bottom" because the coal ash does not reach fusion

temperature. About 80 percent of the coal ash produced

is carried in the flue gases as fly ash, while only 20

32 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference
percent of the ash settles to the bottom of the furnace. 

This type of unit operates most efficiently with coals 

that have an ash fusion temperature that is above the 

furnace temperature, so that slag (molten ash) does not 

form. A "wet bottom furnace" is designed so that ash 

fuses to form slag. The coal ash produced consists of 

approximately half fly ash and half bottom ash, which 

is drawn off as slag. 

A smaller amount of utility coal is used in stoker 

furnaces, which are supplied with crushed coal on a 

moving grate; and in cyclone furnaces, which burn 

crushed coal carried in a whirling stream of air. A few 

generating plants use fluidized-bed combustion, a 

technique for burning crushed coal (often of low 

quality) in a bed that behaves like a boiling fluid as 

currents of high-velocity air flows through it. 

Currently, U.S. coal-fired power plants produce about 

90 million tons of combustion byproducts in the form 

of fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, and flue-gas 

desulfurization material. About one-fourth of these 

byproducts are used in various ways, such as in cement 

and concrete production and as roadbase materials; the 

rest is disposed of in surface impoundments, landfills, 

and waste piles. 

Nearly 500 of the 3,000 power plants in the United 

States use coal. In 1993, these coal-burning plants were 

located in 44 States. Eight of the States relied on coal 

for over three-fourths of their generating capability. 

Another 14 States depended on coal for 50 to 75 percent 

of their electricity generation. The five leading States 

generating electricity from coal were Ohio, Texas, 

Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Kentucky. The largest U.S. 

coal-fired power plants are the Scherer plant (3.3 

million kilowatts of summer generating capability) and 

the Bowen plant (3.2 million kilowatts) of Georgia 

Power Company; the Gibson plant (3.1 million kilowatts) of PSI Energy, Inc., in Indiana; and the Monroe 

plant (3.0 million kilowatts) of Detroit Edison 

Company, in Michigan. Each of these power plants can 

generate enough electricity for a city with a population 

of over 1 million. Large power plants consume coal at 

rates of more than 20,000 tons per day, the amount of 

coal held by about 200 railroad cars. Some power plants 

are minemouth plants, constructed near one or more 

mines that provide a convenient source of coal. In 

general, each ton of coal consumed at a power plant 

generates about 2,000 kilowatt hours of electricity. A 

pound of coal supplies enough electricity to light ten 

100-watt bulbs for about an hour. 

Another use of coal is to make coke for the iron and 

steel industry, foundries, and other industries. The 

presence of large domestic deposits of coking coal, or 

metallurgical coal, played an important role in the 

development of the U.S. iron and steel industry. Coke 

is used chiefly to smelt iron ore and other iron-bearing 

materials in blast furnaces, acting both as a source of 

heat and as a chemical reducing agent, to produce pig 

iron, or hot metal (Figure 13). About 1,100 pounds of 

coke are consumed for every ton of pig iron produced. 

Foundries use coke as a source of heat for producing 

metal castings. Other industrial uses of coke include the 

smelting of phosphate rock to produce elemental phosphorous and the production of calcium carbide. Small 

sizes of coke, termed breeze, are used as fuel in 

sintering finely sized particles of iron ore and other 

iron-bearing material to produce an agglomerate that 

can be used in a blast furnace. 

Figure 13. Using Coke in a Blast Furnace to 

Make Iron 

Coke, iron ore, and limestone are fed into the blast furnace, 

which runs continuously. Hot air blown into the furnace bums 

the coke, which serves as a source of heat and an oxygenreducing agent to produce metallic iron. Limestone acts as a 

flux and also combines with impurities to form slag. 

Source: American Iron and Steel Institute. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 33 
Coke is made by baking a blend of selected bituminous 

coals (called metallurgical coal or coking coal) in special 

high-temperature ovens without contact with air until 

almost all of the volatile matter is driven off. The 

resulting product, coke, consists principally of carbon. 

A ton of coal yields about 1,400 pounds of coke and a 

variety of by-products such as crude coal tar, light oils, 

and ammonia, which are refined to obtain various 

chemical products (Figure 14). 

The coke industry was once a major market for coal, 

accounting for about one-fourth of U.S. coal consumption as recently as the late 1950's. Since then, coke 

production has fallen dramatically and its share of total 

coal consumption currently is about 4 percent because 

of a decline in the U.S. iron and steel industry, the 

principal consumer of coke. In general, the iron and 

steel industry now requires less coke because it produces smaller amounts of raw steel, relying on imports 

of finished and semi-finished steel to help meet its 

needs, and because improved blast-furnace technology 

has reduced the amount of coke needed to produce a 

ton of pig iron. Furthermore, less coke is needed due to 

the greater use of certain steel-making technologies, 

such as the basic oxygen furnace, which enables scrap 

iron to replace pig iron in some processes, and the 

electric arc furnace, which produces steel from a charge 

consisting of 99 percent scrap iron and recycled steel 

and 1 percent iron pellets. (The steel industry has not 

used the open-hearth furnace since 1991.) The substitution of other products for steel (such as plastics, 

aluminum, magnesium, and titanium) has also indirectly reduced the need for coke. 

Among the recent technological changes that are 

responsible for reducing the use of traditional coke in 

blast furnaces is the use of pulverized coal injection, a 

process developed in the 1960's by Armco Steel. By 

using pulverized coal injection, steel companies can 

reduce the need for coke by as much as 40 percent, cut 

down on environmental problems associated with coke 

production, and reduce the need for other, more costly 

supplemental blast furnace fuels, such as natural gas. 

Pulverized coal, which has the consistency of face powder, is made from the relatively abundant lower grades 

of coal and blown into the blast furnace. Granular coal, 

similar in size to sugar, is also being tested in blast 

furnaces. 

At the beginning of 1994, 31 coke plants were in operation, less than half the number a decade earlier. 

Although some plants were closed because of the 

decline in the steel industry, many closings targeted 

older plants that were shut down because of the high 

cost of refurbishing them to meet air pollution 

Figure 14. Production of Coke and Coal Chemicals 

(Approximate Yields per Ton of Coal) 

CokeOven Gas, 11,000 cu. ft. 

One Ton (2.000 lbs.) 

of metallurgical 

(coking) coal* CI$ > 

'Typically a low-sulfur 

blend of specially 

.selected bituminous coals 

Recovery of 

Coal Chemicals 

E=S§> 

p Ammonia (as ammonium sulfate). 16 lbs. 

Crude Tar, 7.6 gal. 

(Contains creosote, naphthalene, phenol, pitch, 

pyridine, and other aromatic hydrocarbons) 

Cofce, 1,400 "as. 

Cofce ►#€**. 120 M .

(Smalmed cote; i ^theiron* *

J mtl irXuitry

CokeOven

Gas

39% l\ 61% .

^£223 f-N\'^;. v.1.VM Kmf>> -r Heatand flower,

..-~L~:- . chie%*j»e«l

?**?»*? ? gy^S ... L **H*t« f plants

(Npfnnnvm turn* nmsf

Crude Ugrx Oil, 2.5 gal.

(Mostly benzene, with smaller amounts of

toluene, xylene, solvent naphtha, and

related hydrocarbons)

<Vilr*ht

Metallurgical (coking) coal is converted inspecial high-temperature ovens into coke, which is used in smelting iron orein a blast

furnace. The coking process also yields useful coal chemicals as by-products.

34 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference
standards. More than half of the active plants are 

furnace plants, operated by iron and steel companies to 

produce coke for their blast furnaces; these plants 

account for about 80 percent of the U.S. coke capacity. 

The other coke plants, called merchant plants, sell coke 

on the open market. Both segments of the coke industry 

are faced with the advanced age of many of their coke 

ovens and the rising costs of replacing them with 

environmentally clean ovens. Indiana and Pennsylvania 

are the leading coke-producing States. 

Coal is also used as a source of heat in other industrial, 

manufacturing, and commercial establishments, as well 

as in homes. Most U.S. cement plants burn coal, using 

about a ton for each 3.5 tons of cement produced. A 

number of cogeneration plants consume coal to produce 

steam for generating electricity and for heating. 

Since December 1984, lignite has been converted into 

pipeline-quality gas at the Great Plains Synfuels Plant, 

near Beulah, North Dakota (Figure 15). The first of its 

type to operate commercially in the United States, the 

plant converts an average of 16,000 tons of lignite per 

day into 142 million cubic feet of gas. In 1987, a coal 

gasification facility began operations at Plaquemine, 

Louisiana, to produce gas for the cogeneration of steam 

and electricity for the Dow Chemical Company. The 

plant has a coal processing capacity of 2,400 tons per 

day. 

Some coal is used for transportation, but the amount is 

insignificant. The coal-burning locomotives of the past, 

now replaced by more efficient diesel-electric locomotives, were once major coal consumers requiring a 

coal supply that often exceeded 100 million tons per 

year. Today's coal-burning locomotives are used for 

tourist attractions and excursions, although one was in 

regular, short-haul revenue service in Illinois as 

recently as 1986. (It is interesting to note that research 

is underway to develop a new generation of coal-fired 

locomotives fueled with coal-oil mixtures, coal-derived 

liquids, or coal gas.) A coal-fired ship more than 60 

years old was reported in service on the Great Lakes in 

1991. A large coal-fired ship, the Energy Independence, 

placed in service in 1983, transports coal from eastern 

ports to power plants in Massachusetts. The ship, 665 

feet long and with a coal-capacity of about 36,000 tons, 

is the first of its type built in the United States since 

1929. 

Although primarily a fuel, coal has other uses. The 

process of converting coal into coke yields by-products 

of benzene, coal tars, naphtha, and similar chemicals 

that are used to manufacture solvents, varnishes, 

Figure 15. Schematic of Coal Gasification, Great 

Plains Synfuels Plant, Beulah, North 

Dakota 

Oxygen Lignite steam 

f Gasification \ 

V. (2,200°F) ) 

Gas \ 

Cooling J 

\S Byproducts* 

Hydrogen >* 

Enrichment J 

Gas \ 

Cleanup ) 

J U Impurities 

Methanation ) 

Synthetic Natural Gas 

Includes ammonia, sulfur, liquid nitrogen, krypton, xenon, 

and phenols. 

In coal gasification, the molecular structure of coal is broken 

down to produce hydrogen and carbon, which are combined to 

form (CHJ, the main constituent of natural gas. Synthetic 

natural gas forms when carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide 

react with hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst. 

Source: Dakota Gasification Company. 

perfumes, medicines, dyes, and plastics. In the past, 

coke plants were a major source of chemicals, but today 

their output is overshadowed by chemicals produced 

from petroleum. Coal is also used to manufacture 

diverse products such as calcium carbide, silicon 

carbide, refractory bricks, carbon and graphite 

electrodes, adsorbents, carbon black, and fillers. Since 

1983, coal has been used as a raw material at Eastman 

Kodak's plant in Kingsport, Tennessee, to manufacture 

acetic anhydride, which is used in making photographic 

film base, acetate yarns, and other plastic-based 

materials. Montan wax is extracted from certain lignites 

at lone, in northern California, for use in polishes, 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 35 
waxes, carbon paper, phonograph records, inks, coatings, and electrical insulating materials. Resin recovered 

from coal in Utah is used in making adhesives, rubber, 

varnish, enamel, paint, coating, thermoplastics, and ink. 

Oxidized lignite, or leonardite, from North Dakota has 

been used in oil-drilling mud, in water treatment, in 

certain wood stains, and as soil conditioners. Activated 

carbon is manufactured from lignite in Marshall, Texas. 

Some of the ash from coal-fired power plants is used in 

manufacturing concrete and cinder blocks, in constructing roads, and in reclaiming surface-mined areas. 

Coal and Coke Trade 

Coal exports comprise a small but important market for 

U.S. coal production. The level of coal exports, consisting of nearly all Appalachian bituminous coal, is 

influenced by a number of factors, such as changes in 

the economic conditions in the coal-importing countries, 

coal-miners' strikes in the United States and other coalexporting countries, and price competition, as well as 

changes in the international exchange rate of the U.S. 

dollar, which determines the price foreign consumers 

pay for U.S. coal. 

U.S. coal is currently exported to more than 30 countries (Figure 16). The United States was the world's 

leading coal exporter until 1984, when Australia gained 

first place. Annual U.S. coal exports, valued at $3 

billion to $6 billion from 1980 through 1993, are 

a significant contribution to the Nation's balance of 

trade. 

Since 1960, an average of 1 out of every 10 tons of coal 

mined has been exported. The amount has ranged 

widely, from 36 million tons in 1961 to a record 113 

million tons in 1981 and totaled 75 million tons in 1993. 

The 1993 coal exports were the lowest since 1979, a 

decline generally attributed to a combination of adverse 

factors: a slump in the world economy, a strike by the 

United Mine Workers of America, a slowdown of barge 

shipments due to flooding in the Midwest, and price 

competition from foreign coal producers. Although coal 

was exported in 1993 from 15 States, West Virginia, 

Virginia, and Kentucky predominated, together accounting for three-fourths of the total. 

Metallurgical coal, or coking coal, is the mainstay of 

U.S. coal exports, accounting for 67 percent of the 1993 

total. However, exports of bituminous steam coal have 

expanded because many foreign electric power plants, 

cement plants, and other industries converted from oil 

to coal when oil prices rose in the 1970's. 

Canada, historically, has been the principal export 

market for U.S. coal, including some anthracite for use 

in a smelting process to produce paint pigments. 

Western Europe became a major market for U.S. coal 

following World War n, especially for metallurgical 

coal, with the largest tonnages currently shipped to 

Italy, Belgium and Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. 

Japan has been predominant as a market for metallurgical coal since 1967. Brazil is the largest South 

American importer of U.S. metallurgical coal. 

About half of the total U.S. coal exported is shipped 

from the Norfolk, Virginia, customs district. Other large 

coal-exporting customs districts are New Orleans, 

Louisiana; Cleveland, Ohio; Baltimore, Maryland; and 

Mobile, Alabama. 

Channel depths at most U.S. coal-loading terminals 

limit the vessel size to less than 100,000 deadweight 

tons. When a large collier (more than 100,000 deadweight tons) cannot be fully loaded because of channeldepth restrictions, it is sometimes loaded by a two 

stage "top-off" operation. With this technique, the ship 

is partially loaded at the port and then sails to deeper 

waters where it is topped-off to full capacity with coal 

from a self-unloading barge. However, vessels using 

the Panama Canal are limited in size to 65,000 deadweight tons and are often described as "Panamax" 

ships. "Capesize" ships are oceangoing vessels too large 

for the Panama Canal that must travel routes around 

the capes of Africa or South America. 

Coal imports, contrasted with coal exports, are relatively insignificant. In 1993, the 7 million tons of 

bituminous coal imported were valued at about $219 

million. The coal was imported chiefly from Colombia, 

Venezuela, and Canada. Coal imported from Canada 

was used primarily to meet the needs of U.S areas not 

easily supplied by domestic sources. The coal imported 

from the other countries was delivered to electric 

power plants in the Southeast at prices below those of 

competing U.S. coal. Imported coal typically has a low 

sulfur content and is sometimes blended with highsulfur domestic coal to enable the latter to meet airquality emission standards. 

U.S. coke exports have been small and chiefly to Canada. Coke exports totaled 0.8 million tons in 1993. Coke 

imports over the past two decades typically have been 

less than 1 million tons, although larger amounts have 

been imported when needed to offset a shortfall in the 

domestic supply. Coke imports in 1993 amounted to 1.5 

million tons, mostly from Japan. Some coke was imported from Canada for use by nonferrous industries in 

the West. 

36 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 16. Major Destinations of U.S. Coal Exports and Shipments from Selected U.S. CoalExporting Customs Districts, 1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

In 1993, a total of 75 million short tons of U.S. coal was exported to more than 30 countries. More than half of the coal was 

shipped from Norfolk, Virginia. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Quarteriy Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121 (93/4Q) 

(Washington, DC, May 1994). 

Coal and the Environment 

Coal has played an important role in the advancement 

of civilization, but its use has sometimes been accompanied by environmental penalties, due partly to the 

mining process and partly to the composition of coal 

itself. Because of this, a number of laws have been 

enacted to protect the environment. 

Coal mining, like all other mining, has a direct impact 

on the environment. Most visible are surface-mined 

areas, although proper reclamation can restore the land 

for other uses after mining. The Surface Mining Control 

and Reclamation Act of 1977, which was extended and 

amended by the Abandoned Mine Reclamation Act of 

1990, requires surface mine operators to maintain 

certain environmental standards during rnining and 

reclamation. The Act also requires operators of 

underground mines to take measures to control land 

subsidence, which can have a severe impact on roads, 

water and gas pipelines, buildings, and water-bearing 

strata. Although subsidence can occur during underground mining, as when longwall methods are 

employed, it poses a potential threat many years after 

a room-and-pillar mine has been abandoned because 

the pillars left to support the overlying strata can 

deteriorate and collapse. To help pay the costs of 

reclaiming land and water resources affected by past 

mining operations, the Act imposes fees on coal 

production at both surface and underground mines. 

Companies pay 35 cents per ton of coal mined by 

surface methods, 15 cents per ton mined underground, 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 37 
and 10 cents per ton of lignite. (These fees were 

extended through the year 2004 by the Energy Policy 

Act of 1992.) The 1977 Act also provides funds to 

control fires in abandoned underground mines. Such 

fires can travel long distances, fueled by coal remaining 

in the abandoned workings, and endanger life and 

property in communities situated above the burning 

area. 

Waste piles from mining and coal preparation and from 

coal-fired power plants can also create environmental 

problems. They are regulated by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, the principal law 

governing the disposal of solid wastes. However, much 

of the material piled up during surface mining is used 

during reclamation, when soil and other materials are 

replaced to reflect natural conditions. 

The impact of mining and coal preparation on water 

quality is controlled by the Federal Water Pollution 

Control Act of 1972, which has been incorporated into 

the Clean Water Act of 1977 and its amendments. One 

of the environmental consequences of coal mining is 

acid mine drainage, which contains sulfuric acid 

produced when pyrite and other iron sulfides react 

with air and water. The acid water increases the solubility of toxic heavy metals, such as arsenic, lead, and 

mercury, and renders the water toxic to aquatic life and 

unfit for domestic and municipal use. Acid mine drainage can be reduced by a variety of methods, such as 

adding alkaline minerals to neutralize the acidity, 

sealing abandoned underground mines, controlling 

drainage, and constructing wetlands with cattails, 

mosses, and other plants to clean the mine water. 

When coal is burned, the sulfur in it is converted 

mostly into sulfur dioxide. In addition, nitrogen oxides 

are produced from nitrogen in the coal and the air used 

in combustion, and ash is produced from incombustible 

material. In the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are converted to sulfuric and nitric acids, 

which can react with rain or snow to produce acid rain. 

Most of the ash produced at coal-fired powered plants 

is in the form of powder-like particulates called "fly 

ash," which are carried in the flue gas. Fly ash is 

composed mainly of silica and alumina, and may contain potentially hazardous trace elements. The 

remaining ash is bottom ash, or boiler slag, which is 

collected at the bottom of the boiler or furnace. 

Sulfur dioxide emissions are usually controlled by the 

technique of "flue gas desulfurization," generally with 

the use of "wet scrubbers." These spray the flue gas 

with a mixture of water and lime or limestone, which 

combines with sulfur dioxide to form a sludge. With 

the less common "dry scrubbers," a similar spray 

produces a dry residue. The level of nitrogen oxides 

emissions usually is controlled by reducing the amount 

of air used during combustion and by lowering combustion temperatures. Particulates can be removed from 

flue gas by mechanical devices, but electrostatic 

precipitators and baghouses are more efficient. With 

electrostatic precipitators, the most common device in 

power plants, the particulates are electrically charged 

and collected on metal plates. In baghouses, powerful 

fans draw the flue gases through an array of fabric 

filters that trap the particulates. 

To maintain air quality, emission levels for sulfur 

dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates have been 

established by the New Source Performance Standards 

of the Clean Air Act of 1970 and its amendments. Electric utilities and other industrial coal consumers built 

before 1971 are subject to emission controls set by the 

States and approved by the Environmental Protection 

Agency. Those built after 1971 must meet the following 

Federal limits, in pounds per million Btu: sulfur 

dioxide, 1.2; nitrogen oxides, 0.7; particulates, 0.1. 

Electric generating units constructed or modified after 

September 1978 are subject to the more stringent 

standards of the Revised New Source Performance 

Standards. These are based on the level of uncontrolled 

emissions and defined in terms of percentage reductions. A minimum of 70 percent reduction is required 

for coal with a low-sulfur content, and a 90 percent 

reduction for coal with a high-sulfur content. The 

emission rate for sulfur dioxide under the new standards range from 0.6 to 1.2 pounds per million Btu. For 

nitrogen oxides, the standards range from 0.5 to 0.8 

pound per million Btu, depending on the rank of coal 

burned and the method of combustion. The limit for 

particulates is 0.03 pound per million Btu. The emission 

standards for industrial boilers constructed or modified 

after June 1986 are similar to those for electric generating units. 

In November 1990, the Clean Air Act was amended to 

strengthen the National commitment to improve air 

quality. The new legislation establishes as a goal for the 

year 2000 a reduction in annual sulfur dioxide emissions of at least 10 million tons from the 1980 level. 

Total sulfur dioxide emissions from all power plants 

will be limited to 8.9 million tons annually. The 

reduction will be in two phases. In Phase I (January 1, 

1995, through 1999), the 110 largest sulfur-emitting 

power plants will be allowed to emit an average of 2.5 

pounds of sulfur dioxide per million Btu of heat input. 

In Phase II, beginning in 2000, these plants and almost 

all others will be required to reduce sulfur dioxide 

emissions to 1.2 pounds per million Btu. 

38 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Near Colstrip, Montana, mined land has been reclaimed for livestock grazing as mining continues in the background. 

One of the major breakthroughs in the 1990 Clean Air 

Act is a permit program for power plants that release 

pollutants into the air. The Environmental Protection 

Agency issues annual allowances to power plants, with 

each allowance permitting 1 ton of sulfur dioxide to be 

released from the smokestack. Plants may release only 

as much sulfur dioxide as their allowances cover. If a 

plant expects to release more sulfur dioxide than it has 

allowances, it has to get more allowances. It can buy 

them from another power plant that has reduced its 

sulfur dioxide emissions, due perhaps to switching to 

low-sulfur fuel or installing scrubbers, and therefore 

has allowances to sell or trade. Allowances can also be 

bought and sold by "middlemen," such as brokers, and 

can be traded and sold nationwide. The program provides bonus allowances to power plants for, among 

other things, installing clean coal technology that 

reduces sulfur dioxide emissions, using renewable 

energy sources, or encouraging energy conservation by 

customers. The new legislation also requires a reduction 

of nitrogen oxides by 2 million tons. EPA will establish 

new limits for emissions of nitrogen oxides. All power 

plants under the program will have to install continuous emission monitoring systems to keep track of 

the amount of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides 

released into the atmosphere. 

Since passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, billions of 

dollars have been spent by the Nation's utilities to 

reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide. Because of this huge 

investment, the Nation's air is cleaner today than it was 

about two decades ago. Emissions of sulfur oxides 

(comprised principally of sulfur dioxide) from all coalburning sources are responsible for about three-fourths 

of total sulfur oxide emissions. However, between 1970 

and 1992, coal-generated emissions have fallen by about 

11 percent even though coal consumption increased by 

70 percent. The decline reflects not only a greater 

number of plants meeting air quality standards through 

an increased use of scrubbers, but also a drop in the 

average sulfur content of coal burned. 

Also of environmental concern are emissions of carbon 

dioxide from coal combustion and of methane from 

coal mines, although controls on the emission of these 

gases from the use of coal and other fossil fuels have 

not been imposed. Both carbon dioxide and methane 

are major greenhouse gases and may contribute to 

global warming. 

The amount of carbon dioxide emitted when coal is 

burned varies widely, depending on the rank of coal 

and the State in which it is produced. Potential carbon 

dioxide emissions from the combustion of bititrxtinous 

coal, the leading rank of coal consumed, average 205 

pounds per million Btu, but range from 201 to 212 

pounds per million Btu. By comparison, the average for 

subbitiLrninous coal, the second leading rank of coal 

consumed, is 212 pounds per million Btu, while it 

ranges from 207 to 214 pounds per million Btu. The 

emission factor averages 216 pounds per million Btu for 

lignite and 227 pounds per million Btu for anthracite. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 39 
Estimates of carbon dioxide emissions from coal 

combustion must take into account the "mix" of coals 

received from various sources. A voluntary program for 

companies to report reductions in gas emissions to the 

Energy Information Administration was among the 

provisions of the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The Act 

addresses many energy-related issues, including the 

attainment of higher energy efficiency standards and 

the environmentally sound use of fossil fuels. 

Methane emissions occur mostly during production in 

underground mines. Bituminous coal generally emits 

more methane than the lower rank coals such as lignite. 

The amount of methane contained in a coalbed 

increases with depth. Small amounts of methane can 

also be released when coal is transported and when it 

is pulverized for combustion. 

Coal Outlook 

The Nation's abundant coal reserves are expected to 

continue as an important source of energy in the 

foreseeable future. Annual coal production is projected 

to remain around 1 billion tons into the next century. 

Nearly 90 percent of this is projected to be for domestic 

consumption, principally to generate electricity. The rest 

of the output is expected to be exported. 

Research and development are underway to make coal 

a more competitive and cleaner-burning fuel, as well as 

a greater source of chemicals. All parts of the "coal 

chain" are being investigated, from mine to consumer. 

Both Federal and State pollution control regulations are 

giving impetus to the coal industry's effort to produce 

a cleaner, more efficient fuel. 

Computer-assisted mining systems under development 

have the potential to advance niining technology 

through automation, robotics, and networking programs that can monitor a variety of niining activities, 

resulting in improved health, safety, productivity, 

reliability, and economy. Equally important are studies 

concerned with the human factors involved in coal 

mining. 

Although niining disrupts the land for a period of time, 

considerable progress has been made in reclaiming 

mined land. This includes the restoration of the land 

surface, the rehabilitation of soil materials, and revegetation. The goal of reclamation is to restore the mined 

land to its original use or enable it to be put to another 

use. 

Advanced coal preparation, geared to improving current state-of-the-art techniques, could remove as much 

as 90 percent of the sulfur and ash from the coal, 

improving its burning and environmental qualities. This 

can be accomplished by using sophisticated physical, 

chemical, and biological methods to clean finely ground 

coal. The removal of sulfur not associated with mineral 

impurities and of alkali metal impurities in western 

coals are challenging goals, because these elements are 

generally bonded to the organic coal matrix, requiring 

the use of chemical reagents. Innovative approaches to 

future coal preparation could include use of microwave 

and microbial and enzymatic techniques. 

Drying techniques are being developed to lower the 

moisture content in western coals (30 percent is not 

uncommon). When dried, low-rank coals typically 

crumble and become very dusty. New drying methods 

will produce solid pellets of coal that have about twothirds less moisture and about one-third more heating 

value. This dried coal can be blended with raw subbituminous coal or lignite to raise the overall heating 

value, or with high-sulfur coal to reduce sulfur emissions. 

Traditional coal-burning methods will continue to be 

used for many years. However, clean coal technology 

—a term that entered the energy vocabulary in the 

1980's—offers the potential for a cleaner environment 

and lower power costs. Included are more effective precombustion coal-cleaning processes, such as methods 

for keeping sulfur and nitrogen pollutants inside the 

furnace and scrubber systems capable of removing pollutants in the form of dry solid waste, reducing the 

disposal problems created by wet sludge. Some clean 

coal technologies depart from conventional coalburning methods in that the coal is converted into a gas 

or liquid that is used as fuel. 

Advanced pulverized coal technologies can take pulverized coal combustion—the most widely accepted 

technology for coal-fired power generation—one step 

further, by refining the process to gain major improvements. Included are low emission boiler systems, which 

incorporate emission controls at the outset of design 

and development instead of adding them to a completed system, and cogeneration, which produces both 

steam and power for power generation and also heat 

for process and space heating, and can result in 

improvement in plant efficiency of over 70 percent. 

Coal gasification, an old technology that is being 

modernized, converts coal into a gaseous product by 

heating it with steam and oxygen or air. The gas 

40 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Pristine coal samples are used by researchers investigating 

cleaner and more efficient coal use. 

produced can be cleaned and used as a fuel or processed further to produce synthesis gas. Synthesis gas 

(mostly carbon monoxide and hydrogen) can be converted to a substitute for natural gas, chemicals, or 

liquid fuel. The amount of gas that can be produced 

from a ton of bituminous coal depends on the technology used and ranges from about 15,000 cubic feet of 

high-Btu gas (about 1,000 Btu per cubic foot) to 75,000 

cubic feet of low-Btu gas (up to 200 Btu per cubic foot). 

In 1993, three coal gasification plants were in commercial operation in the United States. The Great Plains 

Synfuels Plant, near Beulah, North Dakota, operated by 

the Dakota Gasification Company to convert lignite into 

pipeline-quality gas, obtaining chemical byproducts as 

part of the process. Tennessee Eastman Company's coal 

gasification plant in Kingsport, Tennessee, converted 

bihirninous coal into chemicals. At Plaquemine, Louisiana, subbituminous coal was converted by Louisiana 

Gasification Technology into gas for use in generating 

electricity and superheated steam for an adjacent chemical complex. 

Coal gasification also has potential in development of 

fuel cells, which generate electricity from the reaction 

of hydrogen and oxygen. Currently, most fuel cells 

approaching commercialization are fueled with natural 

gas. Because hydrogen is produced in coal gasification, 

coal gasifiers could be integrated into future fuel cell 

technologies to provide a new approach to power 

generation. 

The research and development of "mild gasification" is 

aimed at processing coal under lower temperatures and 

pressures than in a typical coal gasification process. 

This leads to the production of liquids and solids that 

can be upgraded into high-value industrial raw 

material and chemical feedstock, in addition to gas, 

which can be used to provide heat for the process. 

Underground coal gasification is the technology of 

converting coal to gas without rnining. Wells are drilled 

into a coalbed, which is ignited and encouraged to 

burn. The burning coal generates combustible gases that 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 41 
can be collected at the surface for use as fuel or as 

feedstock for producing chemicals, such as ammonia 

and urea. The Federal Government has sponsored 

underground gasification tests in Wyoming, West 

Virginia, and Washington. 

Coalbed methane, a danger to mining, is a potentially 

important source of energy. It is currently'produced in 

some States (principally Alabama, New Mexico, and 

Wyoming) to supplement the supply of natural gas, 

which is composed largely of methane; its potential is 

being evaluated in other States. Methane can be 

produced from urtmined beds or in advance of rruning 

a coalbed. Degasification of a coalbed not only supplies 

a useful product, but also provides a safety measure 

because it reduces the amount of methane released into 

the working areas of a mine. 

Coal liquefaction, another old technology, converts coal 

into liquid fuels by three techniques: indirect, direct, 

and pyrolysis. With an indirect process, coal is first 

gasified, and then the coal-derived synthesis gas is 

converted into a variety of liquid fuels, such as 

methanol, gasoline, diesel fuel, and octane enhancers. 

The best-known indirect coal liquefaction facilities are 

operated in South Africa by South African Coal, Oil 

and Gas Corporation, Ltd. (SASOL), which produces a 

range of liquid fuels including gasoline, diesel oil, and 

jet fuel. With a direct coal liquefaction process, finely 

ground coal in a solvent is mixed with hydrogen and 

heated to a high temperature under high pressure to 

produce "synthetic crude oil." This can be upgraded 

into higher quality fuels by further processing with 

existing petroleum-refining techniques. With pyrolysis, 

dry coal is subjected to high temperatures in a 

chemically reducing atmosphere to produce a heavy 

synthetic crude oil, which can be refined, and char, a 

solid residue that can be used as a fuel. Depending on 

the process used, a ton of bituminous coal can be 

converted into 0.5 to 3 barrels (21 to 126 gallons) of 

liquid fuel. 

Solvent-refined coal processes produce a low-ash, lowsulfur fuel from coal high in both ash and sulfur by 

dissolving pulverized coal in a solvent. The final form 

of the fuel, whether a liquid or a solid, is determined 

by the process used. 

Mixtures of finely ground coal and oil or water can be 

substituted for fuel oil in oil-burning facilities. They 

have the advantage of being transported, stored, and 

burned in a manner similar to fuel oil. By weight, coal 

constitutes 40 to 50 percent of coal-oil mixtures and 

about 70 percent of coal-water mixtures; some 

chemicals are added to the mixtures to prevent the coal 

particles from settling out in storage. The technology 

for producing coal-liquid mixtures has been broadened 

to include methanol and solvent-refined coal. The idea 

of using coal-oil mixtures is not new. They were tested 

in the 1930's as an oil substitute for ships in transAtlantic service, and in the 1950's they were evaluated 

as fuel for blast furnaces. The potential of using coalwater mixtures was first demonstrated at a U.S. power 

plant in 1961. More recently, mixtures of coal and 

recycled paper have been tested on a small scale for use 

as fuel. 

Direct coal-fired heat engines represent another aspect 

of clean coal technologies. They include direct coal-fired 

gas turbines, which involve the use of both a coal-water 

slurry and dry pulverized coal, and direct coal-fired 

diesels, which involve the development of diesel 

engines that will burn a coal-water slurry rather than 

distillate petroleum fuels. 

Fluidized-bed combustion, a technology dating back to 

the early 1920's, is well-suited for burning high-sulfur 

and low-quality coals in an environmentally acceptable 

manner. It has become commercially competitive for 

large industrial applications and is currently used to 

generate electricity. With this technology, crushed coal 

is burned on a hot turbulent bed of limestone or 

dolomite, which absorbs most of the sulfur dioxide 

produced. As a result, the need for flue gas desulfurization units is eliminated. Only a small amount of 

nitrogen oxides is produced because of relatively low 

combustion temperatures. The fluidized-bed units in 

operation burn coal under normal atmospheric pressures. Advanced units under development—pressurized 

fluidized-bed combustion systems—operate at higher 

pressures to achieve greater efficiency. 

Formcoke is of potential importance as a blast furnace 

fuel. It is made by heating briquettes of finely 

pulverized coking coal or other coal, including some 

subbituminous coals, that has been carbonized to obtain 

a char, which is further carbonized to produce 

metallurgical coke. Although pulverized coal is being 

used in blast furnaces, replacing some of the coke, a 

clean coal technology project entitled "blast furnace 

granulated-coal injection system" involves retrofitting 

blast furnaces with technology to operate with a variety 

of coal particle sizes. Also under development is 

COREX (Coal/Ore Reduction), a novel "cokeless" 

ironmaking process in which coal can be substituted for 

coke in a special furnace to smelt iron ore. It could 

replace the conventional two-step coke oven/blast 

furnace procedure for producing pig iron, eliminating 

the environmental problems associated with coke 

42 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
making. Sulfur in the coal is captured in the by-product 

slag. 

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) conversion is a potential 

method of burning coal cleanly and at high efficiencies 

to generate electricity. MHD systems differ from other 

advanced coal-fired systems in that coal is burned at 

very high temperatures to produce ionized combustion 

gases that pass through a magnetic field to create 

electricity. Linked with a conventional steam turbinegenerator, commercial MHD systems are expected to 

achieve power generating efficiencies of well above 50 

percent—more than one-and-a-half times those of conventional coal-burning power plants. 

As the complex nature of coal becomes better understood, it could once again become important as a raw 

material for manufacturing a variety of chemicals. 

Many of the organic chemicals made today from 

petroleum were originally by-products of the cokemaking process. With the development of sophisticated 

chemical processes, coal-derived chemicals could provide the building blocks for making special products, 

such as carbon fibers, composite materials, and fullerenes (a form of carbon discovered in 1985 that has 

possible applications in high-temperature lubricants, 

microfilters, more efficient superconductors, and gas 

adsorbents). 

All these and other applied research efforts are being 

supplemented by fundamental studies of the atomic 

and molecular structure, composition, and characteristics of coal. Such work provides the basic information 

that enables practical research to succeed. 

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is investing in a 

Clean Coal Technology (CCT) Demonstration Program, 

a government-industry co-funded effort to develop new 

technology with the dual goals of attaining environmental quality and energy security from coal. The CCT 

program, which started in 1986, is confined to perfecting the early stages of long-term, high-risk research 

that industry is reluctant to pursue. At the end of 1993, 

the program comprised 45 demonstration projects either 

underway or completed in 21 States, representing 

nearly $2.5 billion in Federal funding and more than $4 

billion in cost-sharing from private and State sources. 

DOE also funds coal projects at U.S. colleges and universities. Since 1979, DOE's University Coal Research 

Program has provided $76 million for fundamental 

studies of coal and coal-related topics. 

Looking ahead, there is little doubt that the United 

States has the resources to remain self-sufficient in coal 

well into the 21st century. The Nation has enormous 

coal reserves, a well-developed coal industry, and 

advancing coal technologies. The U.S. coal industry 

continues to adjust to changes in economic conditions, 

governmental actions, and environmental constraints 

that influence the production and use of coal. As a 

producer of an important source of energy, the coal 

industry will continue to directly or indirectly touch on 

almost every phase of our daily lives. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 43 

Supplemental Figures and Tables 

Removing overburden at a surface mine in Illinois continues into the night. 

-XT— "

v

$•' 'iW^'i 
Figure 17. Selected Developments in the History of U.S. Coal Since 1880 

Mechanical stokers introduced, 

Coal-mining machines brought into use 

United Mine Workers of America formed (1890)/ -i RQ Q 

Machine developed to undercut coalbeds A 

5,000-kilowatt steam turbine introduced to generate electricity 

Coal mined with steam-powered stripping shovel, 

Short-flame or "permissible* explosives developed 

Pulverized coal-firing in electric powerplants . 

Mechanical coal-loading machine introduced y^- 1920 -

Dragline excavators built especially for surface coal mining^ 

Walking dragline excavators developed 

World War I, increased demand for coal 

All-time high employment of 

179,679 anthracite miners (1914) 

Anthracite production peak of 99.6 million tons (1917) 

Federal Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 

-time high employment of 704,793 

bituminous coal and lignite miners (1923) 

Auger surface mining Introduced 

Continuous underground mining 

systems developed 

Roof bolting introduced in 

underground mines 

Longwall mining with powered 

roof supports 

World War II: Coal production increase for the war effort 

and the postwar Marshall Plan 

Railroads converting from coal to diesel fuel 

Unit coal trains introduced by railroads 

Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 

Federal Clean Air Act of 1970 

Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 

Arab Oil Embargo; coal production and prices rise 

Federal Coal Leasing Amendments Act of 1976 

Federal Surface Mine Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 

Federal Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 

'Coal production in excess of 1 billion tons 

'Federal Energy Policy Act of 1992 

46 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 18. Estimates of Recoverable Coal Reserves by Btu/Sulfur Ranges and Region,

January 1,1992

(Billion Short Tons)

Sulfur Content

(Pounds per Million Btu)

□ - > 1.68 (High Sulfur)

□ - 0.61-1.67 (Medium Sulfur)

□ - 1 0.60 (Low Sulfur)

148.4

55.1

Appalachian

61.2

48.7

i2.o H H

mtssm^

Interior

,0.5

9.0

87.3

Western

Source: Energy Information Administration, U.S. Coal Reserves: An Update by Heat and Sulfur Content, DOE/EIA-0529(92)

(Washington, DC, February 1993).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 47
Table 8. U.S. Demonstrated Reserve Base of Coal by Potential Mining Method and Ranked by State Total, 

January 1,1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

State 

1 Montana 

2 Illinois 

3 Wyoming 

4 West Virginia 

5 Pennsylvania 

6 Kentucky 

7 Ohio 

8 Colorado 

9 Texas 

10 Indiana 

11 North Dakota 

12 Alaska 

13 Utah 

14 Missouri 

15 Alabama 

16 New Mexico 

17 Virginia 

18 Iowa 

19 Oklahoma 

20 Washington 

21 Kansas 

22 Tennessee 

23 Maryland 

24 Louisiana 

25 Arkansas 

26 South Dakota 

27 Arizona 

28 Michigan 

29 Oregon 

30 North Carolina 

31 Idaho 

32 Georgia 

U.S. Total 

Underground 

70,959 

62,638 

42,535 

31,819 

24,562 

23,517 

17,895 

12,108 

0 

8,885 

0 

5,423 

5,779 

1,479 

1,422 

2,121 

1,747 

1,733 

1,238 

1,332 

0 

551 

660 

0 

273 

0 

102 

123 

15 

11 

4 

2 

Surface 

48,912 

15,369 

26,524 

4,679 

4,510 

5,287 

5,951 

4,817 

13,198 

1,186 

9,550 

711 

268 

4,518 

3,296 

2,278 

720 

457 

347 

80 

976 

291 

84 

480 

145 

366 

119 

5 

3 

0 

0 

2 

Total 

119,870 

78,007 

69,059 

36,498 

29,071 

28,084 

23,845 

16,925 

13,198 

10,071 

9,550 

6,134 

6,047 

5,998 

4,718 

4,399 

2,467 

2,190 

1,584 

1,412 

976 

842 

744 

480 

417 

366 

220 

128 

18 

11 

4 

4 

318,928 155,127 474,055 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Production 1992, DOE/EIA-0118(92) (Washington, DC, October 1993). 

Table 9. Estimates of U.S. Recoverable Coal Reserves by Btu/Sulfur Content and Region, 1992 

(Million Short Tons Remaining as of January 1,1992) 

Region 

Sulfur Content 

(pounds per million Btu) 

<.60 

(low sulfur) 

0.61-1.67 

(medium sulfur) 

>1.68 

(high sulfur) Total 

Appalachian 

Interior ... . 

Western .. . 

12,291 

548 

87,332 

20,237 

11,970 

52,098 

22,558 

48,693 

8,956 

55,086 

61,210 

148,386 

U.S. Total 100,171 84,305 80,206 264,682 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Btu = British thermal unit. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, U.S. Coal Reserves: An Update by Heat and Sulfur Content, DOE/EIA-0529(92) (Washington, 

DC, February 1993). 

48 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 19. Regional Patterns of U.S. Coal Production, 1993 

Production (Total: 945 Million Short Tons) 

Surface: 594 Million Short Tons 

1007 

100 

75 

50 

Underground: 351 Million Short Tons 

Number of Mlners'fTotal: 101,322) 

Surface: 36,718 

20,365 

_8,309_ 

50,956 

75 

50-

25 

e 0 

£ 

• 

100 

Number of Mines (Total: 2,475) 

Surface: 1,279 

1.055 

Appalachian 

1,108 

165 

Interior 

'"54 

Western 

1-

34 

Underground: 1,196 

Appalachian) Va | u e of production (Total: $18.8 Billion) 

Surface: $9.3 Billion 

-..«'*' 

50 

25 

8 0 

S. 

100 

Appalachian 

—$1.9 — 

Interior 

-•".fSHI 

«1 A 

S3.3 

Western 

$0.8 

$7.3 

Underground: 64,604 Underground: $9.5 Billion 

*At mines that produced 10,000 or more short tons. 

The Appalachian Region is the Nation's principle source of coal. In 1993, it accounted for almost half of the total output, most of 

the mines and miners, and more than half of the total value of the coal produced. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 49 
Figure 20. U.S. Production of Energy by Source,

1960-1993

Figure 21. U.S. Consumption of Energy by Source,

1960-1993

m

c

o

T3

CO

3

o

30-

20

10-

Crude Oil and

Natural Gas

Plant Liquids

.-■■' <

Natural

Hydropower, Geothermal

and Other

Nuclear

Power

1960 1970 1980 1990

•o

ca

3

o

100

80

£ 60

c

o

40

20-

/

-

^ ^ ' Coal

Hydropower,

and Other

I i 1

^ / Total \-

.••••.

Natural

^ Gas

N

Geothermal

1 I

Petroleum

Nuclear

Power

I l

1960 1970 1980 1990

Year Year

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy

Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy

Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

50 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference
Figure 22. U.S. Coal Production by State, 1993 

11-100 

1-10 

Less than 1 

Of the 26 States with coal production in 1993, Wyoming, Kentucky, and West Virginia predominated. Together, they accounted 

for about half of total production. 

Note: States with no data did not produce coal. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/E!A-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 51 
Figure 23. U.S. Coal-Producing Counties in the United States, 1993 

Note: There are no counties in Alaska. In 1993, coal was produced from one mine near Healy, south of Fairbanks, in Yukon 

River Borough. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

52 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 24. Average Number of U.S. Coal Miners by Type of Mining, 1993 

Note: Average number of miners excludes mines producing less than 10,000 short tons during the year. States with no data 

did not produce coal. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 53 
Table 10. U.S. Coal Production and Related Statistics, Selected Years, 1980,1985,1990-1993 

Characteristics of Coal Production 

Production (million short tons) 

Total 

Mining Method 

Region 

Appalachian 

Interior 

Federally Administered Lands 

Total 

Federal Coal Leases 

Indian Coal Leases 

Coal Rank 

Anthracite 

Bituminous 

Lignite 

Average Value (dollars per short ton)a 

Total 

Surface 

Number of Mines" 

Total 

Mining Method 

Underground 

Region 

Interior 

Western 

Large Mines0 

Total 

Underground 

Percentage of Production 

Longwall Mining Installations 

Employment (thousands)** 

Total 

Mining Method 

Underground 

Region 

Interior 

Productivity (short tons per miner hour) 

Total 

Mining Method 

Underground 

Surface 

Region 

1980 

830 

338 

492 

444 

176 

209 

93 

69 

24 

6 

629 

148 

47 

24.65 

33.50 

18.78 

3,969 

1,887 

2,082 

3,498 

337 

134 

323 

170 

153 

60 

NA 

229 

151 

78 

171 

40 

18 

1.9 

1.2 

3.2 

1.4 

2.3 

5.6 

1985 

884 

351 

533 

427 

188 

269 

184 

159 

25 

5 

614 

193 

72 

25.61 

33.36 

20.59 

3,355 

1,695 

1,660 

2,962 

278 

115 

343 

186 

157 

67 

108 

169 

107 

62 

122 

32 

15 

2.7 

1.8 

4.2 

1.9 

2.8 

8.6 

1990 

1,029 

425 

605 

489 

206 

334 

273 

246 

28 

4 

693 

244 

88 

21.76 

28.58 

16.98 

2,707 

1,422 

1,285 

2,377 

228 

102 

375 

190 

185 

75 

96 

131 

84 

47 

95 

23 

13 

3.8 

2.5 

5.9 

2.6 

3.9 

11.8 

1991 

996 

407 

589 

458 

195 

343 

269 

240 

27 

3 

651 

255 

87 

21.49 

28.56 

16.60 

2,394 

1,255 

1,139 

2,071 

230 

93 

358 

183 

175 

77 

93 

121 

78 

43 

86 

22 

13 

4.1 

2.7 

6.4 

2.7 

4.0 

12.4 

1992 

998 

407 

590 

457 

196 

345 

267 

239 

28 

3 

651 

252 

90 

21.03 

27.83 

16.34 

2,196 

1,138 

1,058 

1,098 

198 

90 

352 

179 

173 

78 

90 

110 

71 

39 

78 

20 

12 

4.4 

2.9 

6.6 

3.0 

4.2 

12.7 

1993 

945 

351 

594 

410 

167 

369 

286 

258 

28 

4 

577 

275 

90 

19.85 

26.92 

15.67 

2,030 

1,034 

996 

1,743 

199 

88 

348 

162 

186 

78 

85 

101 

65 

37 

71 

19 

11 

4.7 

3.0 

7.2 

3.0 

4.4 

13.6 

See footnotes at end of table. 

54 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 10. U.S. Coal Production and Related Statistics, Selected Years, 1980,1985,1990-1993 (Continued) 

Characteristics of Coal Production 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 

Fatalities 133 68 66 61 54 47 

Average Coal Quality 

Production 

Heat content (million Btu per short ton) 

Utility Coal 

Heat content (million Btu per short ton) 

Average Coal Quality 

Utility Coal 

Sulfur Content 

(percentage by weight) 

Ash Content 

(percentage by weight) 

Cost Disposition (million short tons) 

Domestic Consumption 

Total 

Electric Utilities 

Exports 

22.4 

21.3 

21.9 

21.0 

21.8 

20.9 

21.7 

20.8 

21.6 

20.8 

21.4 

20.6 

1.6 

11.1 

1.4 

10.0 

1.4 

9.9 

1.3 

9.8 

1.3 

9.7 

1.2 

9.6 

703 

569 

92 

818 

694 

93 

895 

774 

106 

888 

772 

109 

892 

780 

103 

926 

814 

75 

"Current dollars. 

"Annual production over 10,000 short tons each. 

cAnnual production over 500,000 short tons each. 

dAt mines that produced over 10,000 short tons per year. 

NA = Not available. 

Note: Totals may not equal the sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Sources: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994); Coal 

Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; Quarterly Coal Report, DOE/EIA-0121, various issues; Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility 

Plants, DOE/EIA-0191, various issues; U.S. Department of the Interior, Mineral Revenues 1993, Report on Receipts from Federal and Indian 

Leases and prior issues; and U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration, Injury Experience in Coal Mining, various 

annual issues; annual longwall census made by Coal magazine, and predecessor Coal Mining and Processing. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 55 
Figure 25. U.S. Coal Production by Rank, 1970-1993 

(0 

c 

o 

c o 

.c 

03 

700 

600 -

500 -

400 

.1 300 

200 

100 -

1970 

Bituminous 

Subbituminous 

Lignite 

1975 1990 

Bituminous coal is the major rank of coal mined in the United States, but lower-rank coals are becoming more important while 

anthracite is declining. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994); and 

Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

56 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 11. U.S. Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region and State, Selected Years, 1970,1980,1990-1993 

(Thousand Short Tons) 

Coal-Producing Region 

and State 

Appalachian Total 

Alabama 

Georgia 

Kentucky, Eastern 

Maryland 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania Total 

Anthracite 

Bituminous 

Tennessee 

Virginia 

WestVirginia 

Interior Total 

Arkansas 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky, Western 

Louisiana 

Missouri 

Oklahoma 

Texas 

Western Total 

Alaska 

Arizona 

California 

Colorado 

Montana 

New Mexico 

North Dakota 

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming 

East of the Miss. River 

West of the Miss. River 

U.S. Total 

1970 1980 1990 1991 1992 1993 

427,569 

20,560 

0 

72,498 

1,615 

55,351 

90,220 

9,729 

80,491 

8,237 

35,016 

144,072 

149,945 

268 

65,119 

22,263 

987 

1,627 

52,807 

0 

4,447 

2,427 

0 

35,145 

549 

132 

0 

6,025 

3,447 

7,361 

5,639 

4,733 

37 

7,222 

567,758 

44,901 

612,659 

444,314 

26,403 

3 

109,186 

3,760 

39,394 

93,125 

6,056 

87,069 

9,850 

41,009 

121,584 

176,309 

319 

62,543 

30,873 

559 

842 

40,958 

0 

5,503 

5,358 

29,354 

209,077 

791 

10,905 

0 

18,846 

29,872 

18,425 

16,975 

13,236 

5,140 

94,887 

578,688 

251,012 

488,993 

29,030 

0 

128,396 

3,487 

35,252 

70,514 

3,506 

67,008 

6,193 

46,917 

169,205 

205,671 

59 

60,393 

35,907 

381 

721 

44,926 

3,186 

2,647 

1,698 

55,755 

334,411 

1,706 

11,304 

61 

18,910 

37,616 

24,292 

29,213 

22,058 

5,001 

184,249 

630,218 

398,858 

457,808 

27,269 

0 

117,220 

3,773 

30,569 

65,381 

3,445 

61,936 

4,290 

41,954 

167,352 

195,418 

52 

60,258 

31,468 

344 

416 

41,760 

3,151 

2,304 

1,841 

53,825 

342,758 

1,436 

13,203 

57 

17,834 

38,237 

21,518 

29,530 

21,945 

5,143 

193,854 

591,294 

404,690 

456,565 

25,796 

0 

119,382 

3,341 

30,403 

68,981 

3,483 

65,498 

3,476 

43,024 

162,164 

195,659 

58 

59,857 

30,466 

289 

363 

41,686 

3,240 

2,886 

1,741 

55,071 

345,321 

1,534 

12,512 

103 

19,226 

38,889 

24,549 

31,744 

21,339 

5,251 

190,172 

588,525 

408,970 

409,718 

24,768 

0 

120,191 

3,355 

28,816 

59,700 

4,306 

55,394 

3,047 

39,317 

130,525 

167,174 

44 

41,098 

29,295 

175 

341 

36,108 

3,134 

653 

1,758 

54,567 

368,532 

1,601 

12,173 

0 

21,886 

35,917 

28,268 

31,973 

21,847 

4,739 

210,129 

516,219 

429,205 

829,700 1,029,076 995,984 997,545 945,424 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of Independent rounding. 

Sources: 1970: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1980-1993: Energy Information Administration, Coal 

Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 57 
Table 12. Total U.S. Coal Production and Number of Mines by State and Type of Mining, 1993 

(Thousand Short Tons) 

Coal-Producing 

State and Region 

Underground 

Number of Mines Production 

Surface 

Number of Mines Production 

Total 

Number of Mines Production 

Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

Colorado 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky, Total 

Kentucky, Eastern 

Kentucky, Western 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Missouri 

Montana 

New Mexico 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Pennsylvania, Total. 

Anthracite 

Bituminous 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia, Total. 

Northern 

Southern 

Wyoming 

12 

0 

0 

1 

13 

26 

5 

0 

0 

446 

425 

21 

0 

4 

0 

1 

1 

0 

9 

1 

116 

52 

64 

22 

0 

15 

181 

0 

339 

73 

266 

4 

15,557 

0 

0 

2 

12,843 

33,096 

2,583 

0 

0 

92,207 

71,919 

20,288 

0 

2,528 

0 

10 

719 

0 

10,437 

98 

36,934 

416 

36,517 

1,896 

0 

21,847 

30,166 

0 

87,997 

27,133 

60,864 

2,136 

73 

1 

2 

5 

7 

13 

51 

2 

2 

250 

197 

53 

2 

17 

7 

7 

6 

8 

126 

16 

408 

96 

312 

15 

14 

0 

56 

3 

163 

64 

99 

25 

9,211 

1,601 

12,173 

43 

9,043 

8,002 

26,713 

175 

341 

64,092 

48,272 

15,820 

3,134 

827 

653 

35,907 

27,549 

31,973 

18,379 

1,661 

22,766 

3,889 

18,877 

1,151 

54,567 

0 

9,151 

4,739 

42,528 

6,669 

35,859 

207,993 

85 

1 

2 

6 

20 

39 

56 

2 

2 

696 

622 

74 

2 

21 

7 

8 

7 

8 

135 

17 

524 

148 

376 

37 

14 

15 

237 

3 

502 

137 

365 

29 

24,768 

1,601 

12,173 

44 

21,886 

41,098 

29,295 

175 

341 

156,299 

120,191 

36,108 

3,134 

3,355 

653 

35,917 

28,268 

31,973 

28,816 

1,758 

59,700 

4,306 

55,394 

3,047 

54,567 

21,847 

39,317 

4,739 

130,525 

33,802 

96,723 

210,129 

Appalachian Total 

Interior Total ... . 

Western Total .. . 

1,108 

54 

34 

257,433 

56,065 

37,555 

1,055 

165 

59 

152,285 

111,109 

330,977 

2,163 

219 

93 

409,718 

167,174 

368,532 

East of the Miss. River . 

West of the Miss. River , 

1,160 

36 

313,399 

37,654 

1,172 

107 

202,820 

391,551 

2,332 

143 

516,219 

429,205 

U.S. Total 1,196 351,053 1,279 594,371 2,475 945,424 

Note: Coal production excludes silt, culm, refuse bank, slurry dam, and dredge operations except for Pennsylvania anthracite. Totals may 

not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

58 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 26. U.S. Coal Production by Region and Type of Mining, 1970-1993 

» 

c 

o H 

o 

sz 

CO 

c 

o 

0" i i 11 11 11 11 i i * i i i 

1970 75 80 85 90 

Western 

1970 75 80 85 90 

Interior 

1970 75 80 

Appalachian 

Surface Underground 

Surface-mined coal production in the West has increased markedly since 1970, largely because of a rapid rise in the coal output 

from the Powder River Basin in northeastern Wyoming. 

Source: 1970-1975: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, 1976 and forward: Energy Information 

Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, 

DC, December 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 59 
Table 13. U.S. Underground Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 

(Thousand Short Tons) 

Coal-Producing Region 

and State 

Less than 

25 Inches 

25-48 

Inches 

49-72 

Inches 

73-96 

Inches 

More than 

96 Inches 

Total 

Production 

Appalachian Total 

Alabama 

Kentucky, Eastern 

Maryland 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania Total .. . 

Anthracite 

Bituminous 

Tennessee , 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Interior Total 

Illinois , 

Indiana 

Kentucky, Western .. , 

Oklahoma , 

Western Total 

Colorado , 

Montana , 

New Mexico , 

Utah 

Wyoming , 

East of the Miss. River . 

West of the Miss. River. 

U.S. Total , 

915 

0 

808 

0 

0 

7 

0 

7 

0 

0 

101 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

915 

0 

113,950 

3,055 

45,862 

14 

4,494 

9,422 

50 

9,371 

1,792 

17,753 

31,559 

3,477 

0 

170 

3,209 

98 

353 

0 

0 

0 

153 

200 

117,329 

451 

106,350 

12,489 

21,043 

0 

5,943 

18,273 

138 

18,135 

64 

11,240 

37,298 

31,898 

13,711 

1,108 

17,079 

0 

410 

410 

0 

0 

0 

0 

138,248 

410 

30,003 

0 

1,885 

2,500 

0 

8,886 

51 

8,836 

0 

1,091 

15,641 

17,670 

16,366 

1,305 

0 

0 

8,846 

2,954 

10 

719 

5,163 

0 

47,673 

8,846 

5,535 

0 

2,085 

0 

0 

207 

41 

166 

0 

13 

3,229 

3,019 

3,019 

0 

0 

0 

27,938 

9,478 

0 

0 

16,525 

1,935 

8,553 

27,938 

256,754 

15,544 

71,683 

2,514 

10,437 

36,795 

280 

36,515 

1,857 

30,096 

87,827 

56,063 

33,096 

2,583 

20,288 

98 

37,548 

12,842 

10 

719 

21,841 

2,136 

312,720 

37,645 

915 117,780 138,658 56,519 36,492 350,365 

Notes: Data for bed thickness and production are given as reported on Form EIA-7A and do not necessarily represent complete coverage; 

they exclude mines that produced less than 10,000 short tons. Total may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-7A, "Coal Production Report." 

60 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 14. U.S. Surface Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 

(Thousand Short Tons) 

Coal-Producing Region 

and State 

Less than 

25 Inches 

25-48 

Inches 

49-72 

Inches 

73-96 

Inches 

More than 

96 Inches 

Total 

Production 

Appalachian Total 17,869 72,592 32,365 13,732 14,594 151,152 

Alabama 5,268 3,255 21 606 0 9,150 

Kentucky, Eastern 4,235 23,498 12,615 4,396 3,367 48,110 

Maryland 41 494 89 195 6 824 

Ohio 2,026 13,740 2,492 0 0 18,258 

Pennsylvania Total 4,176 14,463 2,014 624 904 22,182 

Anthracite 17 1,758 938 228 774 3,715 

Bituminous 4,160 12,705 1,076 395 131 18,467 

Tennessee 106 827 0 211 0 1,144 

Virginia 908 5,019 2,726 464 0 9,118 

West Virginia 1,108 11,296 12,409 7,236 10,317 42,366 

Interior Total 15,947 28,511 22,385 11,914 32,354 111,011 

Arkansas 0 17 0 0 0 17 

Illinois 340 3,054 3,980 622 0 7,996 

Indiana 4,276 12,094 7,362 2,946 15 26,692 

Iowa 0 168 0 0 0 168 

Kansas 341 0 0 0 0 341 

Kentucky, Western 1,250 8,573 4,916 1,064 0 15,802 

Louisiana 0 0 0 3,134 0 3,134 

Missouri 365 284 0 0 0 648 

Oklahoma 744 901 0 0 0 1,645 

Texas 8,632 3,421 6,127 4,148 32,239 54,567 

Western Total 98 2,988 19,087 5,132 303,662 330,966 

Alaska 0 0 0 0 1,601 1,601 

Arizona 0 757 0 1,964 9,451 12,173 

Colorado 0 211 1,293 598 6,938 9,039 

Montana 0 0 0 0 35,907 35,907 

New Mexico 98 1,723 14,895 2,361 8,472 27,549 

North Dakota 0 0 2,141 0 29,825 31,966 

Washington 0 297 0 0 4,443 4,739 

Wyoming 0 0 758 209 207,026 207,993 

East of the Miss. River 23,734 96,313 48,623 18,364 14,608 201,642 

West of the Miss. River 10,180 7,778 25,214 12,414 335,901 391,487 

U.S. Total 33,915 104,090 73,837 30,778 350,510 593,129 

Notes: Data for bed thickness and production are given as reported on Form EIA-7A and do not necessarily represent complete coverage; 

they exclude mines that produced less than 10,000 short tons. Total may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-7A, "Coal Production Report." 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 61 
Table 15. U.S. Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 

(Thousand Short Tons) 

Coal-Producing Region 

and State 

Less than 

25 inches 

18,785 

5,268 

5,043 

41 

2,026 

4,183 

17 

4,166 

106 

908 

1,208 

15,947 

0 

340 

4,276 

0 

341 

1,250 

0 

365 

744 

8,632 

98 

0 

0 

0 

0 

98 

0 

0 

0 

0 

24,650 

10,180 

25-48 

inches 

186,542 

6,310 

69,359 

508 

18,234 

23,885 

1,808 

22,077 

2,619 

22,772 

42,855 

31,987 

17 

3,054 

12,264 

168 

0 

11,782 

0 

284 

998 

3,421 

3,341 

0 

757 

211 

0 

1,723 

0 

153 

297 

200 

213,642 

8,228 

49-72 

inches 

73-96 

inches 

More than 

96 inches 

Total 

Production 

Appalachian Total 

Alabama , 

Kentucky, Eastern 

Maryland 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania Total .. . 

Anthracite 

Bituminous 

Tennessee , 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Interior Total 

Arkansas 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa , 

Kansas , 

Kentucky, Western .. , 

Louisiana 

Missouri 

Oklahoma 

Texas 

Western Total 

Alaska 

Arizona , 

Colorado 

Montana 

New Mexico 

North Dakota 

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming 

East of the Miss. River . 

West of the Miss. River. 

U.S. Total 34,380 221,870 

138,716 

12,510 

33,658 

89 

8,435 

20,288 

1,076 

19,211 

64 

13,966 

49,706 

54,283 

0 

17,692 

8,469 

0 

0 

21,994 

0 

0 

0 

6,127 

19,497 

0 

0 

1,703 

0 

14,895 

2,141 

0 

0 

758 

186,871 

25,624 

212,495 

43,735 

606 

6,281 

2,695 

0 

9,510 

279 

9,231 

211 

1,555 

22,877 

29,585 

0 

16,988 

4,251 

0 

0 

1,064 

3,134 

0 

0 

4,148 

13,978 

0 

1,964 

3,552 

10 

3,080 

0 

5,163 

0 

209 

66,038 

21,260 

87,298 

20,128 

0 

5,452 

6 

0 

1,112 

815 

297 

0 

13 

13,546 

35,272 

0 

3,019 

15 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

32,239 

331,600 

1,601 

9,451 

16,416 

35,907 

8,472 

29,825 

16,825 

4,443 

208,691 

23,162 

363,840 

387,001 

407,906 

24,694 

119,793 

3,339 

28,695 

58,977 

3,995 

54,982 

3,000 

39,214 

130,193 

167,074 

17 

41,091 

29,275 

168 

341 

36,090 

3,134 

648 

1,743 

54,567 

368,514 

1,601 

12,173 

21,881 

35,917 

28,268 

31,966 

21,841 

4,739 

210,129 

514,362 

429,132 

943,494 

Notes: Data for bed thickness and production are given as reported on Form EIA-7A and do not necessarily represent complete coverage; 

they exclude mines that produced less than 10,000 short tons. Total may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-7A, "Coal Production Report." 

62 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 16. Production (Sales Volume) from Federal and Indian Coal Lands Compared with Production from 

Other Sources and Coal Royalties, Selected Years, 1970,1975,1980-1993 

Year 

Production (Sales Volume) from Federally 

Administered Lands 

(million short tons) 

Federal Indian Total 

Production 

from Other 

Sources 

(million short 

tons) 

Total U.S. 

(million short 

tons) 

Coal Royalties' 

million dollarsi 

Federal Indian Total 

1970 

1975 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

7.4 

26.9 

69.1 

116.5 

101.1 

98.7 

115.8 

159.2 

166.7 

171.2 

199.2 

209.3 

245.9 

240.4 

238.5 

257.6 

4.6 

16.7 

23.8 

22.3 

28.9 

25.6 

20.5 

25.4 

22.9 

24.0 

26.2 

27.0 

27.5 

27.4 

28.1 

28.1 

12.0 

43.6 

92.9 

138.8 

130.0 

124.3 

136.3 

184.6 

189.7 

195.2 

225.4 

236.3 

273.4 

267.8 

266.6 

285.7 

600.6 

611.1 

736.8 

685.0 

708.1 

657.8 

759.6 

699.0 

700.6 

723.6 

724.8 

744.5 

755.7 

728.2 

730.9 

659.7 

612.7 

654.6 

829.7 

823.8 

838.1 

782.1 

895.9 

883.6 

890.3 

918.8 

950.3 

980.7 

1,029.1 

996.0 

997.5 

945.4 

1.1 

4.9 

32.3 

43.0 

61.9 

52.3 

69.4 

103.5 

108.4 

152.5 

172.8 

194.5 

236.1 

276.7 

259.5 

264.2 

0.7 

3.5 

7.9 

8.6 

8.5 

9.4 

7.6 

23.4 

29.5 

30.5 

46.7 

47.7 

60.8 

62.9 

65.9 

64.8 

1.8 

8.3 

40.1 

51.6 

70.4 

61.7 

77.0 

126.9 

137.9 

183.0 

219.5 

242.2 

296.9 

339.6 

325.4 

329.0 

"Current dollars. 

Notes: Output from Federal and Indian lands is reported as sales volume, the basis for royalties. It is approximately equivalent to 

production, which includes coal sold and coal added to stockpiles. Total may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Sources: 1970-1975: U.S. Department of the Interior, Energy Resources on Federally Administered Lands; Bureau of Mines, Minerals 

Yearbook. 1980 forward: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Mineral Revenues 1993, Report on Receipts from 

Federal and Indian Leases and prior issues; Energy Information Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal 

Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 63 
Table 17. U.S. Coal Mining Acreage, Production (Sales Volume) and Royalties from Federal and Indian Leases 

by State, 1993 

State 

Federal Leases 

Acres 

Leased 

Production 

(sales volume 

thousand short 

tons) 

Royalties" 

(thousand 

dollars) 

Indian Leases 

Acres 

Leased 

Production 

(sales volume 

thousand short 

tons) 

Royalties" 

(thousand 

dollars) 

Alabama .. . 

Arizona 

Colorado .. . 

Kentucky .. . 

Montana 

New Mexico . 

North Dakota 

Oklahoma .. 

Utah 

Washington . 

Wyoming .. . 

3,456 

0 

38,399 

818 

36,728 

14,142 

5,714 

2,760 

51,243 

241 

14,529 

469 

0 

12,901 

106 

25,955 

4,600 

2,147 

478 

18,856 

686 

191,365 

984 

0 

24,343 

178 

38,665 

16,827 

1,063 

532 

31,025 

116 

150,509 

0 

64,858 

0 

0 

14,746 

36,026 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

12,258 

0 

0 

3,518 

12,316 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

24,286 

0 

0 

1,786 

29,965 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

U.S. Total 268,030 257,564 264,242 115,630 28,091 64,750 

"Current dollars. 

Notes: Output from Federal and Indian lands is reported as sales volume, the basis for royalties. It is approximately equivalent to 

production, which includes coal sold and coal added to stockpiles. Total may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Sources: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Royalty Management Program, Mineral Revenues: The 1993 

Report on Receipts from Federal and Indian Leases. 

64 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 18. U.S. Production Trends in Bituminous Coal and Lignite, 1900-1993

Year

Production

(thousand short tons)

Underground Surface Total Miners" Employed

1900 212,316

1901 225,828

1902 260,217

1903 282,749

1904 278,660

1905 315,063

1906 342,875

1907 394,759

1908 332,574

1909 379,744

1910 417,111

1911 405,907

1912 450,105

1913 478,435

1914 421,436

1915 439,792

1916 498,500

1917 546,273

1918 571,275

1919 460,270

1920 559,807

1921 410,865

1922 412,059

1923 552,625

1924 470,080

1925 503,182

1926 556,444

1927 499,385

1928 480,956

1929 514,721

1930 447,684

1931 363,157

1932 290,069

1933 315,360

1934 338,578

1935 348,726

1936 410,962

1937 413,780

1938 318,138

1939 357,133

1940 417,604

1941 459,078

1942 515,490

1943 . . ■. 510,492

1944 518,678

1945 467,630

1946 420,958

1947 491,229

1948 460,012

1949 331,823

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

1,268

2,832

4,020

5,518

8,111

5,590

8,860

5,057

10,209

11,940

13,607

16,871

16,923

18,378

19,789

20,268

19,842

18,932

19,641

18,270

20,790

23,647

28,126

31,751

30,407

37,722

43,167

55,071

67,203

79,685

100,898

109,987

112,962

139,395

139,506

106,045

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

422,704

442,624

502,520

551,791

579,386

465,860

568,667

415,922

422,268

564,565

483,687

520,053

573,367

517,763

500,745

534,989

467,526

382,089

309,710

333,630

359,368

372,373

439,088

445,531

348,545

394,855

460,771

541,149

582,693

590,177

619,576

577,617

533,922

630,624

599,518

437,868

304,375

340,235

370,056

415,777

437,832

460,629

478,425

516,258

516,264

543,152

555,533

549,775

548,632

571,882

583,506

557,456

561,102

603,143

615,305

621,998

639,547

663,754

687,958

704,793

619,604

588,493

593,647

593,918

522,150

502,993

493,202

480,213

406,380

418,703

458,011

462,403

477,204

491,864

441,333

421,788

439,075

456,981

461,991

416,007

393,347

383,100

396,434

419,182

441,631

433,698

See footnotes at end of table

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference
Table 18. U.S. Production Trends in Bituminous Coal and Lignite, 1900-1993 (Continued) 

Year 

Production 

(thousand short tons) 

Underground Surface Total 

Miners" 

Employed 

1950 

1951 

1952 

1953 

1954 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

1976 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

392,844 

415,842 

356,425 

349,551 

289,112 

343,465 

365,774 

360,649 

286,884 

283,434 

284,888 

272,766 

281,266 

302,256 

321,808 

332,661 

338,524 

349,133 

344,142 

347,132 

338,788 

275,888 

304,103 

299,353 

277,309 

292,826 

294,880 

265,950 

242,177 

320,321 

336,925 

315,875 

338,572 

299,882 

351,474 

350,073 

359,800 

372,238 

381,546 

393,322 

424,119 

406,901 

406,815 

350,637 

123,467 

117,823 

110,416 

107,739 

102,594 

121,168 

135,110 

132,055 

123,562 

128,594 

130,624 

130,211 

140,883 

156,672 

165,190 

179,427 

195,357 

203,494 

201,103 

213,373 

264,144 

276,304 

291,284 

292,384 

326,098 

355,612 

383,805 

425,394 

422,950 

455,978 

486,719 

502,477 

494,951 

478,111 

540,285 

528,856 

526,223 

542,963 

565,164 

584,058 

601,449 

585,638 

587,248 

590,482 

516,311 

533,665 

466,841 

457,290 

391,706 

464,633 

500,874 

492,704 

410,446 

412,028 

415,512 

402,977 

422,149 

458,928 

486,998 

512,088 

533,881 

552,626 

545,245 

560,505 

602,930 

552,192 

595,386 

591,738 

603,406 

648,438 

678,685 

691,344 

665,127 

776,299 

823,644 

818,352 

833,523 

778,003 

891,759 

878,930 

886,023 

915,202 

946,710 

977,381 

1,025,570 

992,539 

994,062 

941,119 

415,582 

372,897 

335,217 

293,106 

227,397 

225,093 

228,163 

228,635 

197,402 

179,636 

169,400 

150,474 

143,822 

141,646 

128,698 

133,732 

131,752 

131,523 

127,894 

124,532 

140,140 

145,664 

149,265 

148,121 

166,701 

189,880 

202,280 

221,428 

242,295 

224,203 

224,938 

226,250 

214,400 

173,543 

175,746 

167,009 

152,668 

141,065 

133,913 

130,103 

129,619 

119,441 

108,979 

100,099 

"After 1978, excludes miners employed at mines that produced less than 10,000 tons. 

NA = Not available; relatively small amounts included with underground. 

Note: Subbituminous coal is included with bituminous coal. Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Sources: 1900-1976: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks; 1977-1978: Energy Information Agency, Bituminous 

Coal & Lignite Production and Mine Operations; 1979-1990: Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, 

DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

66 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 19. Production Trends in Pennsylvania Anthracite, 1900-1993 

Year 

Production 

(thousand short tons) 

Underground Surface15 Total 

Miners" 

Employed 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

1922 

1923 

1924 

1925 

1926 

1927 

1928 

1929 

1930 

1931 

1932 

1933 

1934 

1935 

1936 

1937 

1938 

1939 

1940 

1941 

1942 

1944 

1945 

1946 

1949 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

73,658 

69,725 

69,964 

64,926 

53,460 

43,834 

41,032 

48,575 

43,783 

44,727 

42,566 

38,142 

42,572 

41,517 

43,877 

45,237 

42,736 

41,775 

34,886 

38,084 

36,963 

37,175 

27,031 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

6,438 

5,623 

3,864 

4,459 

6,186 

6,021 

8,509 

8,593 

8,376 

9,853 

9,290 

7,957 

8,915 

9,968 

12,491 

15,091 

17,908 

21,926 

20,048 

22,423 

20,227 

19,965 

15,671 

57,368 

67,472 

41,374 

74,607 

73,157 

77,660 

71,282 

85,604 

83,269 

81,070 

84,485 

90,464 

84,362 

91,525 

90,822 

88,995 

87,578 

99,612 

98,826 

88,092 

89,598 

90,473 

54,683 

93,339 

87,927 

61,817 

84,437 

80,096 

75,348 

73,828 

59,646 

49,855 

49,541 

57,168 

52,159 

54,580 

51,856 

46,099 

51,487 

69,385 

51,485 

56,368 

60,328 

60,644 

63,701 

54,934 

60,507 

57,190 

57,140 

42,702 

144,206 

145,309 

148,141 

150,483 

155,861 

165,406 

162,355 

167,234 

174,174 

171,195 

169,497 

172,585 

174,030 

175,745 

179,679 

176,552 

159,869 

154,174 

147,121 

154,571 

145,074 

159,499 

156,849 

157,743 

160,009 

160,312 

165,386 

165,259 

160,681 

151,501 

150,804 

139,431 

121,243 

104,633 

109,050 

103,269 

102,081 

99,085 

96,417 

93,138 

91,313 

88,054 

82,121 

79,153 

77,591 

72,842 

78,145 

78,600 

16,215 

75,377 

See footnotes at end of table. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 67 

'.t y rr 

"?-;'< ; l '.' ,.;.j!'t;i-'' v"i\V-''V»". ,1^.1.,. , , , J u-j v 
Table 19. Production Trends in Pennsylvania Anthracite, 1900-1993 (Continued) 

Year 

Production 

(thousand short tons) 

Underground Surfaceb Total 

Miners" 

Employed 

1950 

1951 

1952 

1953 

1954 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

1976 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

28,156 

26,342 

24,748 

17,893 

16,852 

14,499 

15,055 

12,616 

10,699 

9,415 

7,696 

6,785 

6,673 

6,715 

5,889 

5,297 

4,088 

3,258 

2,450 

2,106 

1,742 

1,287 

944 

726 

657 

641 

584 

642 

595 

570 

583 

621 

579 

487 

576 

727 

638 

636 

610 

513 

427 

324 

424 

416 

15,921 

16,328 

15,835 

13,056 

12,231 

11,706 

13,845 

12,722 

10,472 

11,234 

11,121 

10,661 

10,221 

11,552 

11,295 

9,569 

8,853 

8,998 

9,011 

8,367 

7,987 

7,440 

6,162 

6,104 

5,960 

5,562 

5,644 

5,219 

4,442 

4,265 

5,473 

4,802 

4,009 

3,602 

3,586 

3,982 

3,654 

2,925 

2,945 

2,835 

3,080 

3,121 

3,058 

3,889 

44,077 

42,670 

40,583 

30,949 

29,083 

26,205 

28,900 

25,338 

21,171 

20,649 

18,817 

17,446 

16,894 

18,267 

17,184 

14,866 

12,941 

12,256 

11,461 

10,473 

9,729 

8,727 

7,106 

6,830 

6,617 

6,203 

6,228 

5,861 

5,037 

4,835 

6,056 

5,423 

4,588 

4,089 

4,162 

4,708 

4,292 

3,560 

3,555 

3,348 

3,506 

3,445 

3,483 

4,306 

72,624 

68,995 

65,923 

57,862 

43,996 

33,523 

31,516 

30,825 

26,540 

23,294 

19,051 

15,792 

14,010 

13,498 

13,144 

11,132 

9,292 

7,750 

6,932 

5,927 

5,938 

5,800 

4,783 

4,083 

3,847 

3,907 

3,686 

3,655 

3,472 

3,094 

3,631 

3,052 

2,717 

2,099 

2,102 

2,272 

1,977 

1,602 

1,453 

1,394 

1,687 

1,161 

1,217 

1,124 

"After 1978, excludes miners employed at mines that produced less than 10,000 tons. 

bSurface production includes culm bank and river dredging operations. 

NA = Not available; relatively small amounts included with underground. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Sources: 1900-1976: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks; 1977-1978: Energy Information Agency, CoalPennsylvania Anthracite; 1979-1990: Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) 

(Washington, DC, December 1994). 

68 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 20. U.S. Labor Productivity in Coal Mining, 1949-1993 

(Average Short Tons per Miner per Hour) 

Bituminous Coal and Lignite Coal Mines 

Year Underground Surface Average 

Anthracite 

Mines All Mines 

1949 0.68 1.92 0.80 0.36 0.72 

1950 

1951 

1952 

1953 

1954 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

1976 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

0.72 

0.76 

0.80 

0.88 

1.00 

1.04 

1.08 

1.11 

1.17 

1.26 

1.33 

1.43 

1.50 

1.60 

1.72 

1.75 

1.83 

1.88 

1.93 

1.95 

1.72 

1.50 

1.49 

1.46 

1.41 

1.19 

1.14 

1.09 

1.04 

1.13 

1.21 

1.29 

1.37 

1.62 

1.72 

1.79 

2.00 

2.21 

2.38 

2.46 

2.54 

2.70 

2.95 

3.24 

1.96 

2.00 

2.10 

2.22 

2.48 

2.65 

2.67 

2.73 

2.73 

2.87 

2.91 

3.16 

3.40 

3.66 

3.76 

4.10 

4.28 

4.48 

4.33 

4.50 

4.53 

4.49 

4.54 

4.58 

4.74 

3.26 

3.25 

3.16 

3.03 

3.12 

3.27 

3.50 

3.48 

3.87 

4.10 

4.32 

4.69 

5.06 

5.41 

5.70 

6.07 

6.51 

6.73 

7.84 

0.85 

0.88 

0.93 

1.02 

1.18 

1.23 

1.29 

1.32 

1.42 

1.53 

1.60 

1.73 

1.84 

1.98 

2.11 

2.19 

2.32 

2.40 

2.42 

2.49 

2.36 

2.25 

2.22 

2.20 

2.35 

1.83 

1.80 

1.82 

1.79 

1.82 

1.94 

2.11 

2.14 

2.52 

2.65 

2.76 

3.04 

3.32 

3.58 

3.73 

3.86 

4.12 

4.41 

4.74 

0.35 

0.37 

0.38 

0.41 

0.50 

0.50 

0.53 

0.52 

0.55 

0.64 

0.70 

0.70 

0.74 

0.78 

0.76 

0.82 

0.86 

0.90 

0.95 

0.93 

0.89 

0.79 

0.86 

0.89 

0.98 

0.93 

0.90 

0.87 

0.81 

1.06 

1.11 

0.92 

0.59 

1.01 

1.02 

1.05 

1.03 

1.13 

1.21 

1.12 

1.03 

1.39 

1.33 

1.85 

0.76 

0.80 

0.84 

0.93 

1.08 

1.14 

1.19 

1.23 

1.31 

1.43 

1.52 

1.64 

1.74 

1.87 

1.99 

2.09 

2.23 

2.31 

2.35 

2.41 

2.30 

2.19 

2.18 

2.16 

2.31 

1.81 

1.78 

1.80 

1.77 

1.81 

1.93 

2.10 

2.11 

2.50 

2.64 

2.74 

3.01 

3.30 

3.55 

3.70 

3.83 

4.09 

4.36 

4.70 

Note: After 1978, excludes miners employed at mines that produced less than 10,000 tons. Subbituminous coal is included wit.h bituminous 

coal. Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding.. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994); and Form EIA-7A, 

"Coal Production Report." 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 69 
Table 21. Profile of U.S. Coal Miners, 1986 

Employment Category 

Worker 

Statistics" 

Age (mean) 

Male (percent) 

Educational (percent) 

High school Diploma 

Vocational School Diploma. 

Some College 

College degree 

Work experience (median, years): 

At present job 

At present company 

Total mining 

Job-related training during the 

last two years (median, hours) 

39 

98 

54 

8 

10 

5 

4 

8 

11 

35 

"Production workers. 

Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Information 

Circular 9192, "Characterization of the 1986 Coal Mining Workforce" 

(1988). 

Table 22. U.S. Coal Mining Average Employment, Hours Worked, and Earnings, Selected Years, 

1980, 1985, 1990-1993 

Employment Category 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 

Average Employment (thousands) 

All Employees 

Women 

Production Workers 

Production Workers 

Average Weekly Hours Worked 

Average Hourly Earnings (current dollars) 

Average Weekly Eamings (current dollars) 

246.3 

10.5 

203.8 

40.5 

10.86 

439.83 

187.3 

10.7 

152.8 

41.1 

15.24 

626.36 

146.5 

8.6 

118.5 

44.0 

16.71 

735.24 

135.5 

8.3 

109.8 

44.6 

17.06 

760.88 

125.5 

7.7 

101.8 

44.0 

17.15 

754.60 

105.3 

6.4 

83.6 

44.4 

17.25 

765.90 

Note: Employment data differ from those collected by the Energy Information Administration due to different survey criteria. 

Sources: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment, Hours, and Eamings, United States, 1909-90, Vol. 1, Bulletin 

2370 (Washington, DC, March 1991), and Employment, Hours, and Earnings, United States, 1981-93, Bulletin 2429 (Washington, DC, August 

1993); 1993: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Data Users and Publication Services Group. 

70 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 27. U.S. Coal Mining Fatalities, 1900-1993 

3500 

i i i i i i i i i I i i i i i i i 1 1 | i i 1 1 i i i 1 1 | i 1 1 i i i i 1 1 | i i i i 1 1 i i 1 1 1 1 i i i i i i i | i 1 1 i i i i i i | i 11 1 i i i i i | i i i i i i i i i 1 1 

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 

Years 

Although still dangerous, coal mining has become safer due to mechanization, roof bolting, and stringent safety 

regulations. In 1907, U.S. coal mining claimed a record 3,242 lives. 

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration, Denver Safety and Health Technology 

Center. 

Table 23. U.S. Coal Mine Injuries, Selected Years, 1975,1980,1985,1990-1993 

Injury Experience" 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993" 

Fatal 155 

Incidence Ratec 0.08 

Nonfatal with Days Lost" 11,119 

Incidence Ratec 5.86 

Nonfatal with No Days Lost 9,652 

Incidence Rate0 5.09 

133 

0.06 

18,720 

8.27 

3,870 

1.71 

68 

0.04 

9,082 

5.06 

2,520 

1.40 

66 

0.04 

12,246 

7.88 

3,513 

2.26 

61 

0.04 

11,325 

7.86 

3,282 

2.28 

54 

0.04 

10,055 

7.28 

2,959 

2.14 

47 

0.04 

7,901 

6.49 

2,416 

1.99 

Total Injuries 20,926 22,723 11,670 15,825 14,668 13,068 10,364 

"Includes office workers and contractors. 

bPreliminary. 

°Numbers of injuries per 200,000 employee-hours. 

includes injuries that result in restricted work activity. 

Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration, Denver Safety and Health Technology Center. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 28. Coal Distribution from the Three-Leading Coal-Producing States, 1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

Amount is less than 0.1 million short tons. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

72 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 29. U.S. Coal Production: End Use Distribution by Supplying Area, 1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

About 80 percent of the coal mined in the United States is sent to electric power plants. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 73 
Figure 30. Coal Shipments for U.S. Consumption by Supplying Areas and by Transportation 

Methods, 1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

"Other" includes tramway/conveyor, slurry pipeline (in Western), and unknown or not revealable methods. 

Railroads are the foundation of the U.S. coal transportation system. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-6, "Coal Distribution Report." 

74 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 24. U.S. Coal Supply and Disposition, 1949-1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

Year 

Supply 

Production 

Underground Surface Total Imports 

Changes in 

Stocks, 

Losses, and 

Unaccounted 

For" Total 

Disposition 

Exports Consumption Total 

1949 358.9 

1950 421.0 

1951 442.2 

1952 381.2 

1953 367.4 

1954 306.0 

1955 358.0 

1956 380.8 

1957 373.6 

1958 297.6 

1959 292.8 

1960 292.6 

1961 279.6 

1962 287.9 

1963 309.0 

1964 327.7 

1965 338.0 

1966 342.6 

1967 352.4 

1968 346.6 

1969 349.2 

1970 340.5 

1971 277.2 

1972 305.0 

1973 300.1 

1974 278.0 

1975 293.5 

1976 295.5 

1977 266.6 

1978 242.8 

1979 320.9 

1980 337.5 

1981 316.5 

1982 339.2 

1983 300.4 

1984 352.1 

1985 350.8 

1986 360.4 

1987 372.9 

1988 382.1 

1989 393.8 

1990 424.5 

1991 407.2 

1992 407.2 

1993 351.1 

121.7 480.6 0.3 35.1 516.0 32.8 483.2 516.0 

139.4 

134.2 

126.3 

120.8 

114.8 

132.9 

148.9 

144.5 

134.0 

139.8 

141.7 

140.9 

151.1 

168.2 

176.5 

189.0 

204.2 

212.5 

210.1 

221.7 

272.1 

283.7 

297.4 

298.5 

332.1 

361.2 

389.4 

430.6 

427.4 

460.2 

492.2 

507.3 

499.0 

481.7 

543.9 

532.8 

529.9 

545.9 

568.1 

586.9 

604.5 

588.8 

590.3 

594.4 

560.4 

576.3 

507.4 

488.2 

420.8 

490.8 

529.8 

518.0 

431.6 

432.7 

434.3 

420.4 

439.0 

477.2 

504.2 

527.0 

546.8 

564.9 

556.7 

571.0 

612.7 

560.9 

602.5 

598.6 

610.0 

654.6 

684.9 

697.2 

670.2 

781.1 

829.7 

823.8 

838.1 

782.1 

895.9 

883.6 

890.3 

918.8 

950.3 

980.7 

1,029.1 

996.0 

997.5 

945.4 

0.4 

0.3 

0.3 

0.3 

0.2 

0.3 

0.4 

0.4 

0.3 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.2 

0.3 

0.3 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.1 

-

0.1 

* 

0.1 

2.1 

0.9 

1.2 

1.6 

3.0 

2.1 

1.2 

1.0 

0.7 

1.3 

1.3 

2.0 

2.2 

1.7 

2.1 

2.9 

2.7 

3.4 

3.8 

7.3 

-37.3 

-8.1 

-1.4 

2.8 

2.8 

10.3 

0.5 

-3.2 

6.4 

-9.0 

1.5 

6.2 

3.3 

-3.6 

-9.3 

-4.2 

0.8 

-23.5 

4.1 

2.2 

-17.7 

-2.0 

-21.5 

17.6 

7.0 

-26.5 

-22.3 

-19.2 

-7.3 

-36.6 

-36.5 

20.3 

-25.6 

31.1 

-24.4 

25.1 

-2.7 

-4.0 

26.3 

7.8 

-30.5 

-2.8 

-6.4 

47.7 

523.5 

568.6 

506.3 

491.3 

423.8 

501.4 

530.7 

515.3 

438.3 

424.1 

436.1 

426.8 

442.6 

473.9 

495.2 

522.9 

547.8 

541.6 

561.0 

573.3 

595.0 

559.0 

581.0 

616.3 

619.1 

629.1 

663.6 

679.7 

665.6 

746.6 

794.4 

845.2 

813.3 

814.5 

872.8 

910.7 

889.8 

916.5 

978.7 

991.4 

1,001.3 

996.6 

994.9 

1,000.5 

29.4 

62.7 

52.2 

36.5 

33.9 

54.4 

73.8 

80.8 

52.6 

39.0 

38.0 

36.4 

40.2 

50.4 

49.5 

51.0 

50.1 

50.1 

51.2 

56.9 

71.7 

57.3 

56.7 

53.6 

60.7 

66.3 

60.0 

54.3 

40.7 

66.0 

91.7 

112.5 

106.3 

77.8 

81.5 

92.7 

85.5 

79.6 

95.0 

100.8 

105.8 

109.0 

102.5 

74.5 

494.1 

505.9 

454.1 

454.8 

389.9 

447.0 

456.9 

434.5 

385.7 

385.1 

398.1 

390.4 

402.3 

423.5 

445.7 

472.0 

497.7 

491.4 

509.8 

516.4 

523.2 

501.6 

524.3 

562.6 

558.4 

562.6 

603.8 

625.3 

625.2 

680.5 

702.7 

732.6 

706.9 

736.7 

791.3 

818.0 

804.2 

836.9 

883.7 

889.7 

895.5 

887.6 

892.4 

925.9 

523.5 

568.6 

506.3 

491.3 

423.8 

501.4 

530.7 

515.3 

438.3 

424.1 

436.1 

426.8 

442.5 

473.9 

495.2 

523.0 

547.8 

541.6 

561.0 

573.3 

595.0 

558.9 

581.0 

616.2 

619.1 

628.9 

663.8 

679.6 

665.9 

746.6 

794.5 

845.2 

813.2 

814.4 

872.8 

910.7 

889.8 

916.5 

978.7 

991.4 

1,001.3 

996.6 

994.9 

1,000.5 

"Balancing item between supply and disposition. 

"Less than 0.05 million short tons. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Sources: 1949-1989: Energy Information Agency, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994); 1990: 

Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118; Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121 (93) (Washington, DC, May 1994); Quarterly 

Coal Report January-March 1994, DOE/EIA-0121(94/10) (Washington, DC, August 1994); and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) 

(Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 75 

KlW 
Figure 31. U.S. Coal Supply and Disposition Patterns, 1993 

c 

CD 

O 

CO 

0_ 

100-

90 -

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

Anthracite 

<-1 

Lignite 

10 

Subbituminous 

29 

Bituminous 

61 

Underground 

37 

Surface 

63 

Other' 

11 

Truck 

13 

Water 

16 

Rail 

60 

Residential 

Commercial 

Other Industry 

8 

Coke - "5" 

Electric 

Power 

Plants 

88 

Coal Rank Mining Domestic Domestic 

Method Transportation Consumption 

Other 

42 

Brazil 

7 

Belgium/ 

Luxembourg 

Netherlands 

7 

Italy 

9 

Canada 

12 

Japan 

16 

— 7 

Exports 

Tramway/Conveyor, slurry pipeline, and unknown or not revealable methods. 

Most of U.S. coal production is surface-mined, shipped by railroad, and used by electric utilities. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994); 

Quarteriy Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93/40) (Washington, DC, May 1994); and Form EIA-6, "Coal 

Distribution Report." 

76 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 25. Year-End Stocks of U.S. Coal by End-Use Sector, 1949-1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

Year Electric Utilities 

Industrial 

Coke Plants Other Industrial" Total 

Residential 

and 

Commercial15 

Total 

Consumer 

Stocks 

1949 

1950 

1951 

1952 

1953 

1954 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

1976 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

22.1 10.0 16.1 26.0 1.4 49.5 

31.8 

38.5 

41.5 

45.6 

46.1 

41.4 

48.8 

53.1 

51.0 

52.1 

51.7 

50.1 

50.4 

50.6 

53.9 

54.5 

53.9 

71.0 

65.5 

61.9 

71.9 

77.8 

99.7 

87.0 

83.5 

110.7 

117.4 

133.2 

128.2 

159.7 

183.0 

168.9 

181.1 

155.6 

179.7 

156.4 

161.8 

170.8 

146.5 

135.9 

156.2 

157.9 

154.1 

111.3 

16.8 

15.3 

14.5 

16.6 

12.4 

13.4 

14.0 

14.2 

13.1 

11.6 

11.1 

10.5 

8.4 

8.1 

10.2 

10.6 

9.3 

11.1 

9.7 

9.1 

9.0 

7.3 

9.1 

7.0 

6.2 

8.8 

9.9 

12.8 

8.3 

10.2 

9.1 

6.5 

4.6 

4.3 

6.2 

3.4 

3.0 

3.9 

3.1 

2.9 

3.3 

2.8 

2.6 

2.4 

26.2 

26.2 

24.7 

22.8 

16.4 

15.9 

17.4 

15.5 

13.7 

13.6 

11.6 

11.9 

12.0 

12.3 

12.2 

13.1 

12.2 

12.3 

11.7 

10.8 

11.8 

5.6 

7.6 

10.4 

6.6 

8.5 

7.1 

11.1 

9.0 

11.8 

12.0 

9.9 

9.5 

8.7 

11.3 

10.4 

10.4 

10.8 

8.8 

7.4 

8.7 

7.1 

7.0 

6.7 

43.0 

41.6 

39.2 

39.4 

28.8 

39.3 

31.5 

29.7 

36.7 

25.2 

22.8 

22.4 

20.4 

20.4 

22.5 

23.8 

21.5 

23.4 

21.3 

19.9 

20.8 

12.9 

16.7 

17.4 

12.8 

17.3 

17.0 

23.9 

17.3 

21.9 

21.0 

16.4 

14.1 

13.1 

17.5 

13.9 

13.4 

14.7 

11.9 

10.2 

12.0 

9.9 

9.6 

9.1 

2.5 

1.8 

1.7 

1.5 

0.8 

1.0 

1.1 

0.9 

0.9 

1.0 

0.7 

0.5 

0.5 

0.5 

0.4 

0.4 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.3 

0.3 

0.3 

0.3 

0.3 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.4 

0.3 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

NA 

77.3 

81.8 

82.4 

86.6 

75.7 

71.7 

81.3 

83.7 

78.7 

78.4 

75.2 

73.0 

71.3 

71.5 

76.7 

78.6 

75.6 

94.6 

87.0 

81.9 

93.0 

91.0 

116.8 

104.6 

96.6 

128.3 

134.7 

157.3 

145.9 

182.0 

204.0 

185.3 

195.3 

168.7 

197.2 

170.2 

175.2 

185.5 

158.4 

146.1 

168.2 

167.7 

163.7 

120.5 

"Includes transportation sector. 

b

Stocks at retail dealers. 

NA = Not available. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Sources: Energy information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994); and Quarterly 

Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93) (Washington, DC, May 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 77 

^ nk^^^y.w-M ^ • f^mm^x^'^--^:: 
Table 26. U.S. Coke Supply and Disposition, 1949-1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

Year 

Supply 

Production Imports Stock Change" Total 

Disposition 

Exports Consumptionb Total 

1949 

1950 

1951 

1952 

1953 

1954 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

1976 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

63.64 0.28 -0.18 63.74 0.55 63.19 63.74 

72.72 

79.33 

68.25 

78.84 

59.66 

75.30 

74.48 

75.95 

53.60 

55.86 

57.23 

51.71 

51.91 

54.28 

62.15 

66.85 

67.40 

64.58 

63.65 

64.76 

66.53 

57.44 

60.51 

64.33 

61.58 

57.21 

58.33 

53.51 

49.01 

52.94 

46.13 

42.79 

28.12 

25.81 

30.40 

28.44 

24.92 

26.30 

28.95 

28.05 

27.62 

24.05 

23.41 

23.18 

0.44 

0.16 

0.31 

0.16 

0.12 

0.13 

0.13 

0.12 

0.12 

0.12 

0.13 

0.13 

0.14 

0.15 

0.10 

0.09 

0.10 

0.09 

0.09 

0.17 

0.15 

0.17 

0.19 

1.08 

3.54 

1.82 

1.31 

1.83 

5.72 

3.97 

0.66 

0.53 

0.12 

0.04 

0.58 

0.58 

0.33 

0.92 

2.69 

2.31 

0.77 

1.10 

1.74 

1.53 

0.66 

-0.37 

-0.42 

-0.78 

-0.27 

1.25 

-0.63 

-0.81 

-0.67 

-0.66 

-0.06 

0.70 

0.14 

1.02 

0.91 

-0.73 

-0.38 

-2.39 

-0.52 

2.87 

-0.99 

0.59 

0.59 

1.76 

0.25 

-4.07 

-1.49 

0.05 

2.91 

-1.65 

-3.44 

1.90 

-1.47 

4.67 

-0.19 

1.16 

0.49 

1.00 

-0.52 

-0.34 

* 

-0.19 

0.22 

0.42 

73.82 

79.12 

68.15 

78.22 

59.51 

76.68 

73.98 

75.26 

53.05 

55.13 

57.30 

52.53 

52.19 

55.45 

63.16 

66.21 

67.12 

62.28 

63.23 

67.80 

65.69 

58.20 

61.28 

67.16 

65.37 

54.96 

58.15 

55.39 

57.64 

55.27 

43.35 

45.22 

26.77 

30.51 

30.79 

30.18 

25.74 

28.22 

31.12 

30.02 

28.39 

24.96 

25.37 

25.13 

0.40 

1.03 

0.79 

0.52 

0.39 

0.53 

0.66 

0.82 

0.39 

0.46 

0.35 

0.45 

0.36 

0.45 

0.52 

0.83 

1.10 

0.71 

0.79 

1.63 

2.48 

1.51 

1.23 

1.40 

1.28 

1.27 

1.32 

1.24 

0.69 

1.44 

2.07 

1.17 

0.99 

0.67 

1.05 

1.12 

1.00 

0.57 

1.09 

1.09 

0.57 

0.74 

0.64 

0.84 

73.42 

78.09 

67.36 

77.70 

59.12 

76.15 

73.32 

74.43 

52.66 

54.67 

56.95 

52.09 

51.82 

55.00 

62.64 

65.38 

66.02 

61.57 

62.44 

66.17 

63.21 

56.69 

60.05 

65.77 

64.09 

53.69 

56.83 

54.14 

56.95 

53.83 

41.28 

44.05 

25.78 

29.85 

29.74 

29.06 

24.73 

27.65 

30.02 

28.93 

27.81 

24.22 

24.73 

24.30 

73.82 

79.12 

68.15 

78.22 

59.51 

76.68 

73.98 

75.26 

53.05 

55.13 

57.30 

52.53 

52.19 

55.45 

63.16 

66.21 

67.12 

62.28 

63.23 

67.80 

65.69 

58.20 

61.28 

67.16 

65.37 

54.96 

58.15 

55.39 

57.64 

55.27 

43.35 

45.22 

26.77 

30.52 

30.79 

30.18 

25.73 

28.22 

31.11 

30.02 

28.38 

24.96 

25.37 

25.14 

"Negative numbers denote a net addition to stocks or a reduction in supply. Positive numbers denote a net withdrawal from stocks resulting 

in an addition to supply. Includes producer and distributor stocks beginning in 1979. 

bApparent consumption 

Less than 0.01 million short tons. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Sources: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994); and Quarterly 

Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121 (93) (Washington, DC, May 1994). 

78 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 27. U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector, 1949-1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

Year 

Electric 

Utilities 

Industry and Miscellaneous 

Coke Plants 

Other Industry 

and 

Miscellaneous Total Transportation 

Residential 

and 

Commercial Total 

1949 

1950 

1951 

1952 

1953 

1954 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

1976 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

84.0 91.4 121.2 212.6 70.2 116.5 483.2 

91.9 

105.8 

107.1 

115.9 

118.4 

143.8 

158.3 

160.8 

155.7 

168.4 

176.7 

182.2 

193.3 

211.3 

225.4 

244.8 

266.5 

274.2 

297.8 

310.6 

320.2 

327.3 

351.8 

389.2 

391.8 

406.0 

448.4 

477.1 

481.2 

527.1 

569.3 

596.8 

593.7 

625.2 

664.4 

693.8 

685.1 

717.9 

758.4 

766.9 

773.5 

772.3 

779.9 

813.5 

104.0 

113.7 

97.8 

113.1 

85.6 

107.7 

106.3 

108.4 

76.8 

79.6 

81.4 

74.2 

74.7 

78.1 

89.2 

95.3 

96.4 

92.8 

91.3 

93.4 

96.5 

83.2 

87.7 

94.1 

90.2 

83.6 

84.7 

77.7 

71.4 

77.4 

66.7 

61.0 

40.9 

37.0 

44.0 

41.1 

36.0 

37.0 

41.9 

40.5 

38.9 

33.9 

32.4 

31.3 

120.6 

128.7 

117.1 

117.0 

98.2 

110.1 

114.3 

106.5 

100.5 

92.7 

96.0 

95.9 

97.1 

101.9 

103.1 

105.6 

108.7 

101.8 

100.4 

93.1 

90.2 

75.6 

72.9 

68.0 

64.9 

63.6 

61.8 

61.5 

63.1 

67.7 

60.3 

67.4 

64.1 

66.0 

73.7 

75.4 

75.6 

75.2 

76.3 

76.1 

76.3 

75.4 

74.0 

74.9 

224.6 

242.4 

214.9 

230.1 

183.9 

217.8 

220.6 

214.9 

177.4 

172.3 

177.4 

170.1 

171.7 

180.0 

192.4 

200.8 

205.1 

194.6 

191.6 

186.6 

186.6 

158.9 

160.6 

162.1 

155.1 

147.2 

146.5 

139.2 

134.5 

145.1 

127.0 

128.4 

105.0 

103.0 

117.8 

116.4 

111.8 

112.1 

118.2 

117.5 

115.2 

109.3 

106.4 

106.2 

63.0 

56.2 

39.8 

29.6 

18.6 

17.0 

13.8 

9.8 

4.7 

3.6 

3.0 

0.8 

0.7 

0.7 

0.7 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 

0.4 

0.3 

0.3 

0.2 

0.2 

0.1 

0.1 

* 

* 

* 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

114.6 

101.5 

92.3 

79.2 

69.1 

68.4 

64.2 

49.0 

47.9 

40.8 

40.9 

37.3 

36.5 

31.5 

27.2 

25.7 

25.6 

22.1 

20.0 

18.9 

16.1 

15.2 

11.7 

11.1 

11.4 

9.4 

8.9 

9.0 

9.5 

8.4 

6.5 

7.4 

8.2 

8.4 

9.1 

7.8 

7.7 

6.9 

7.1 

6.2 

6.7 

6.1 

6.2 

6 2 

494.1 

505.9 

454.1 

454.8 

389.9 

447.0 

456.9 

434.5 

385.7 

385.1 

398.1 

390.4 

402.3 

423.5 

445.7 

472.0 

497.7 

491.4 

509.8 

516.4 

523.2 

501.6 

524.3 

562.6 

558.4 

562.6 

603.8 

625.3 

625 2 

680.5 

702.7 

732.6 

706.9 

736.7 

791.3 

818.0 

804.3 

836.9 

883.7 

889.7 

895.5 

887.6 

892.4 

925.9 

"Included in the Other Industry and Miscellaneous category. 

Less than 0.05 million short tons. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Sources: 1949-1989: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(90) (Washington, DC, July 1994); 

1990 on: Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121 (93) (Washington, DC, May 1991); and Quarterly Coal Report 

January-March 1994, DOE/EIA-0121(94/10) (Washington, DC, August 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 79 
Figure 32. U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector, 1950-1993 

o 

o 

.C 

CO 

c 

o 

1,000-

800-

600 -

= 400 -

200 -

Electric Utilities 

c ~.~ •— _ _ __ 

Residential/ 

Commercial 

i 

Other 

Industry Coke 

I Plants 

1950 1960 1970 

Years 

1980 1990 1993 

The pattern of U.S. coal consumption has changed significantly since 1950. Coal consumption has risen mainly because more coal 

is used to generate electricity. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93)(Washington, DC, July 1994); 

Quarteriy Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93/4Q)(Washington, DC, May 1994); and Quarterly Coal Report 

January-March 1994, DOE/EIA-0121(94/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1994). 

80 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 28. U.S. Coal Consumption by Census Division and State, 1989-1993 

(Thousand Short Tons) 

Census Division and State 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 

New England Total 

Connecticut 

Maine 

Massachusetts 

New Hampshire 

Rhode Island 

Vermont 

Middle Atlantic Total 

New Jersey 

New York 

Pennsylvania 

East North Central Total . 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Michigan 

Ohio 

Wisconsin 

West North Central Total. 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

South Atlantic Total 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Maryland 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

East South Central Total . 

Alabama 

Kentucky 

Mississippi 

Tennessee 

West South Central Total 

Arkansas 

Louisiana 

Oklahoma 

Texas 

Mountain Total 

Arizona 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Montana 

Nevada 

New Mexico 

Utah 

Wyoming 

Pacific Total 

Alaska 

California 

Hawaii..' 

Oregon 

Washington 

Unknown 

U.S. Total 

7,021 

890 

271 

4,641 

1,183 

27 

9 

76,177 

3,545 

14,105 

58,526 

205,586 

32,374 

57,388 

34,885 

61,016 

19,922 

114,245 

17,126 

14,963 

18,279 

26,348 

7,587 

27,401 

2,541 

153,008 

2,357 

60 

25,447 

27,918 

11,541 

22,239 

11,981 

14,279 

37,186 

87,655 

27,537 

32,792 

3,831 

23,496 

130,093 

11,547 

12,471 

15,086 

90,989 

106,212 

16,871 

16,393 

533 

10,458 

7,667 

15,295 

15,044 

23,952 

9,120 

299 

2,551 

32 

396 

5,843 

581 

6,771 

971 

265 

4,337 

1,186 

5 

8 

73,812 

3,029 

13,465 

57,319 

209,619 

33,904 

61,701 

34,713 

59,205 

20,097 

116,268 

17,929 

15,175 

18,377 

25,836 

8,266 

28,114 

2,571 

149,455 

2,293 

69 

25,233 

30,067 

11,193 

21,150 

11,447 

13,105 

34,896 

91,126 

27,640 

34,449 

4,159 

24,878 

131,478 

12,092 

12,547 

15,423 

91,415 

107,158 

16,419 

16,710 

549 

9,676 

7,442 

15,111 

15,738 

25,514 

9,792 

784 

2,899 

28 

934 

5,147 

0 

7,012 

856 

374 

4,451 

1,315 

4 

12 

70,594 

2,326 

13,338 

54,931 

208,583 

34,677 

60,790 

33,879 

58,578 

20,659 

116,707 

18,741 

14,881 

16,993 

25,773 

8,859 

28,597 

2,863 

144,073 

2,186 

66 

26,004 

26,957 

10,709 

20,877 

11,451 

13,980 

31,843 

90,785 

29,349 

34,517 

3,812 

23,107 

133,635 

12,261 

12,965 

16,345 

92,064 

105,177 

16,805 

16,218 

673 

10,549 

8,091 

12,858 

14,834 

25,150 

11,055 

802 

2,816 

37 

1,940 

5,461 

0 

7,298 

849 

856 

4,257 

1,311 

5 

20 

71,418 

2,348 

12,996 

56,074 

200,660 

31,599 

58,765 

31,554 

58,671 

20,071 

115,505 

17,992 

14,227 

16,924 

25,180 

8,212 

30,301 

2,670 

144,178 

1,770 

50 

26,368 

25,481 

9,713 

24,075 

11,285 

13,418 

32,019 

93,804 

31,510 

34,704 

3,485 

24,106 

135,210 

12,538 

13,674 

17,430 

91,568 

112,163 

17,915 

16,696 

535 

11,040 

8,088 

14,832 

15,719 

27,339 

12,186 

792 

2,821 

47 

2,124 

6,402 

0 

6,485 

788 

449 

3,811 

1,428 

3 

6 

70,389 

2,353 

11,878 

56,158 

210,632 

38,135 

60,353 

32,217 

59,031 

20,887 

120,940 

19,188 

17,386 

18,321 

23,381 

9,666 

30,302 

2,696 

150,580 

2,446 

51 

26,430 

27,081 

10,268 

25,760 

12,914 

13,584 

32,046 

104,027 

33,047 

39,095 

4,030 

27,854 

140,797 

11,447 

13,676 

18,866 

96,809 

110,673 

18,991 

17,070 

528 

9,247 

7,806 

15,012 

15,848 

26,171 

11,422 

863 

2,453 

73 

2,099 

5,934 

0 

889,699 895,480 887,621 892,421 925,944 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of Independent rounding. 

Sources: Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report, DOE/EIA-0121 (October-December issues); and Quarterly Coal Report JanuaryMarch 1994, DOE/EIA-0121 (94/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 81 
Table 29. U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector and by Census Division and State, 1993 

(Thousand Short Tons) 

Census Division and State Electric Utilities Coke Plants Other Industrial 

Residential and 

Commercial Total 

New England Total 5,936 

Connecticut 745 

Maine 0 

Massachusetts 3,852 

New Hampshire 1,339 

Rhode Island 0 

Vermont 0 

Middle Atlantic Total 51,079 

New Jersey 2,123 

New York 8,699 

Pennsylvania 40,257 

East North Central Total 179,833 

Illinois 31,744 

Indiana 48,836 

Michigan 28,479 

Ohio 51,456 

Wisconsin 19,049 

West North Central Total 107,584 

Iowa 16,623 

Kansas 17,226 

Minnesota 16,844 

Missouri 21,945 

Nebraska 9,297 

North Dakota 23,290 

South Dakota 2,360 

South Atlantic Total 132,885 

Delaware 2,223 

District of Columbia 0 

Florida 25,108 

Georgia 25,339 

Maryland 9,521 

North Carolina 23,055 

South Carolina 10,410 

Virginia 9,447 

West Virginia 27,782 

East South Central Total 90,365 

Alabama 27,533 

Kentucky 35,264 

Mississippi 3,767 

Tennessee 23,801 

West South Central Total 134,009 

Arkansas 11,116 

Louisiana 13,089 

Oklahoma 17,668 

Texas 92,135 

Mountain Total 104,093 

Arizona 18,316 

Colorado 16,252 

Idaho 0 

Montana 8,869 

Nevada 7,608 

New Mexico 14,942 

Utah 13,995 

Wyoming 24,111 

Pacific Total 7,924 

Alaska 298 

California 0 

Hawaii 0 

Oregon 1,981 

Washington 5,646 

U.S. Total 813,508 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

w 

0 

W 

* 

11,643 

W 

6,591 

W 

2,892 

W 

W 

0 

0 

0 

W 

0 

0 

0 

W 

0 

0 

0 

0 

W 

0 

0 

W 

W 

w 3,206 

W 

0 

W 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

w 0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

W 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

647 

W 

W 

W 

W 

W 

W 

w 

w 

17,699 

3,970 

4,587 

3,230 

4,100 

1,811 

12,753 

2,494 

137 

1,370 

1,177 

W 

W 

W 

W 

W 

0 

1,307 

1,720 

731 

2,476 

2,395 

2,863 

2,406 

W 

2,268 

2,392 

W 

3,942 

6,780 

330 

W 

W 

4,667 

5,163 

674 

780 

486 

W 

W 

W 

727 

1,873 

2,677 

2 

2,311 

W 

W 

174 

102 

W 

W 

W 

W 

W 

W 

1,498 

w 

w 1,257 

1,458 

W 

339 

W 

584 

W 

W 

70 

23 

107 

W 

W 

W 

W 

904 

W 

51 

16 

22 

W 

229 

109 

W 

W 

417 

40 

W 

W 

W 

8 

1 

W 

W 

6 

W 

1 

38 

43 

W 

W 

W 

W 

187 

821 

563 

142 

W 

W 

114 

6,485 

788 

449 

3,811 

1,428 

3 

6 

70,383 

2,353 

11,878 

56,158 

210,632 

38,135 

60,353 

32,217 

59,031 

20,897 

120,940 

19,188 

17,386 

18,321 

23,381 

9,666 

30,302 

2,696 

150,580 

2,446 

51 

26,430 

27,081 

10,268 

25,760 

12,914 

13,584 

32,046 

104,027 

33,047 

39,095 

4,030 

27,854 

140,797 

11,447 

13,676 

18,866 

96,809 

110,673 

18,991 

17,070 

528 

9,247 

7,806 

15,012 

15,848 

26,171 

11,422 

863 

2,453 

73 

2,099 

5,934 

31,323 74,892 6,221 925,944 

Less than 0.05 million short tons. 

W = Withheld to avoid disclosure of individual company data. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of Independent rounding. 

Sources: Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121 (93/4Q) (Washington, DC, May 1994); 

and Quarterly Coal Report January-March 1994, DOE/EIA-0121(94/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1994). 

82 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 33. Coal-Fired Generating Units: Number, Generating Capability, and Electricity Generation 

in 1992 as Compared with Other Energy Sources 

100-

80-

60-

CD f j 

CD 

0_ 

40-

20— 

10,268 

Gas 

2,088 

Other* 

„ 105 

•Nuclear 

109 

695 Other* 

Coal 

1,238 

Nuclear 

99 

Hydro 

93 

* 

Gas 

127 

D 

Coal 

301 

2,797 Other* 

^10 

Nuclear 

619 

Hydro 

- 240 

Gas 

264 

Coal 

1,576 

Number Summer Electricity 

of Units Capability Generation in 1992 

(December 31, 1992) (Billion Watts) (Billion Killowatthours) 

(December 31, 1992) 

"Geothermal, wood, wind, waste, refuse, and solar. 

For their number and capability, coal-fired generating units account for a large share of electricity generation. This is because they 

are mostly base-load units, operating continuously and supplying electricity at a generally constant rate. 

Note: Total may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. 

Sources: Energy Information Administration, Inventory of Power Plants in the United States 1992, DOE/EIA-0095(92) 

(Washington, DC, October 1993); and Monthly Energy Review July 1994, DOE/EIA-0035(94/O7) (Washington, DC, July 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 83 
Figure 34. Percentage of Total Electricity Generating Capability Using Coal, by State, 

December 31,1992 

(Billion Short Tons) 

At the end of 1992, coal was the primary fuel for 300,547 megawatts of electric generating capability, or 43 percent of the U.S. 

total of 695,059 megawatts. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Inventory of Power Plants in the United States 1992, DOE/EIA-009(92) (Washington, 

DC, October 1993). 

84 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 30. U.S. Coal Prices, 1949-1993 

(Dollars per Short Ton) 

Year 

Bituminous Coal" and Lignite 

F.O.B." Mines 

Current 1987 Dollars" 

Anthracite 

At Plants and Mines6 

Current 1987 Dollars" 

All Coal 

CIF* Electric Utility Power Plants 

Current 1987 Dollars8 

1949 4.88 24.52 8.90 44.72 NA NA 

1950 

1951 

1952 

1953 

1954 

1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

1976 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

4.84 

4.92 

4.90 

4.92 

4.52 

4.50 

4.82 

5.08 

4.86 

4.77 

4.69 

4.58 

4.48 

4.39 

4.45 

4.44 

4.54 

4.62 

4.67 

4.99 

6.26 

7.07 

7.66 

8.53 

15.75 

19.23 

19.43 

19.82 

21.76 

23.65 

24.52 

26.29 

27.14 

25.85 

25.51 

25.10 

23.70 

23.00 

22.00 

21.76 

21.71 

21.45 

20.98 

^0.56 

23.96 

23.10 

22.79 

22.36 

20.36 

19.65 

20.42 

20.82 

19.52 

18.63 

18.04 

17.41 

16.65 

16.14 

16.06 

15.63 

15.44 

15.25 

14.69 

14.94 

17.78 

19.06 

19.74 

20.65 

35.08 

39.09 

37.15 

35.46 

36.12 

36.11 

34.20 

33.32 

32.39 

29.64 

28.03 

26.59 

24.46 

23.00 

21.17 

20.06 

19.16 

18.22 

17.32 

16.55 

9.34 

9.94 

9.58 

9.87 

8.76 

8.00 

8.33 

9.11 

9.14 

8.55 

8.01 

8.26 

7.99 

8.64 

8.93 

8.51 

8.08 

8.15 

8.78 

9.91 

11.03 

12.08 

12.40 

13.65 

22.19 

32.26 

33.92 

34.86 

35.25 

41.06 

42.51 

44.28 

49.85 

52.29 

48.22 

45.80 

44.12 

43.65 

44.16 

42.93 

39.40 

36.34 

34.24 

E

37.80 

46.24 

46.67 

44.56 

44.86 

39.46 

34.93 

35.30 

37.34 

36.71 

33.40 

30.81 

31.41 

29.70 

31.76 

32.24 

29.96 

27.48 

26.90 

27.61 

29.67 

31.34 

32.56 

31.96 

33.05 

49.42 

65.57 

64.86 

62.36 

58.46 

62.69 

59.29 

56.12 

59.49 

59.97 

52.99 

48.52 

45.53 

43.65 

42.50 

39.57 

34.77 

30.88 

28.27 

30.43 

NA 

NA 

6.61 

6.61 

6.31 

6.07 

6.32 

6.64 

6.58 

6.37 

6.26 

6.20 

6.02 

5.86 

5.74 

5.71 

5.76 

5.85 

5.93 

6.13 

7.13 

8.00 

8.44 

9.01 

15.46 

17.63 

18.38 

20.37 

23.75 

26.15 

28.76 

32.32 

34.91 

34.99 

35.12 

34.53 

33.30 

31.83 

30.64 

30.15 

30.45 

30.02 

29.36 

p

28.64 

NA 

NA 

30.74 

30.05 

28.42 

26.51 

26.78 

27.21 

26.43 

24.88 

24.08 

23.57 

22.38 

21.54 

20.72 

20.11 

19.59 

19.31 

18.65 

18.35 

20.26 

21.56 

21.75 

21.82 

34.43 

35.83 

35.14 

36.44 

39.39 

39.92 

40.11 

40.96 

41.66 

40.13 

38.59 

36.58 

34.37 

31.83 

29.49 

27.79 

26.88 

25.51 

24.24 

23.06 

"Includes subbituminous coal. 

b

Free on board. 

"For 1949-1979, prices are f.o.b. preparation plants. For 1979 forward, prices are f.o.b. mines. 

dCost, insurance and freight. 

"Calculated by using gross domestic product implicit price deflators. 

P = Preliminary data. E = Estimate. NA = Not available. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 85 
Table 31. Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by Mining 

Method, 1980-1993 

(Dollars per Short Ton) 

Year 

Underground Surface Total 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

33.50 

35.78 

35.78 

34.47 

33.36 

32.91 

30.33 

29.63 

28.97 

28.44 

28.58 

28.56 

27.83 

26.92 

18.78 

20.60 

21.46 

20.68 

20.59 

20.13 

19.34 

18.58 

17.43 

17.38 

16.98 

16.60 

16.34 

15.67 

24.65 

26.40 

27.25 

25.98 

25.61 

25.20 

23.79 

23.07 

22.07 

21.82 

21.76 

21.49 

21.03 

19.85 

Note: Average mine price is in current dollars. 

Sources: Energy Infonnation Administration, Coal Production, 

DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, 

DOE/ElA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Table 32. Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by Rank, 1980-1993 

(Dollars per Short Ton) 

Year Lignite Subbituminous Coal Bituminous Coal Anthracite" 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

W 

W 

W 

W 

10.45 

10.68 

10.64 

10.85 

10.06 

9.91 

10.13 

10.89 

10.81 

11.11 

11.08 

12.18 

13.37 

13.03 

12.41 

12.57 

12.26 

11.32 

10.45 

10.16 

9.70 

9.68 

9.68 

9.33 

29.17 

31.51 

32.15 

31.11 

30.63 

30.78 

28.84 

28.19 

27.66 

27.40 

27.43 

27.49 

26.78 

26.15 

42.51 

44.28 

49.85 

59.29 

48.22 

45.80 

44.12 

43.65 

44.16 

42.93 

39.40 

36.34 

34.24 

32.94 

"Produced in Pennsylvania. 

Note: Average mine price is in current dollars. 

W = Withheld to avoid disclosure of individual company data. 

Sources: Energy Infonnation Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

86 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 33. Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by State 

and Mining Method, 1993 

(Dollars Per Short Ton) 

State 

Type of Mining 

Underground Surface 

Alabama 42.00 

Alaska -

Arizona -

Arkansas -

Colorado 20.53 

Illinois 25.54 

Indiana W 

Iowa 

Kansas -

Kentucky Total 25.07 

Eastern 

Western .. . 

Louisiana .. . 

Maryland .. . 

Missouri 

Montana 

New Mexico . 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma . . 

25.42 

23.84 

W 

W 

W 

30.73 

W 

Pennsylvania Total 27.35 

Anthracite 36.02 

Bituminous 27.29 

Tennessee W 

Texas -

Utah 20.81 

Virginia 27.26 

Washington 

West Virginia 28.54 

Wyoming W 

U.S. Total 26.92 

42.91 

W 

W 

W 

20.10 

24.18 

W 

W 

W 

24.35 

25.63 

20.45 

W 

W 

W 

W 

W 

7.63 

26.51 

W 

25.09 

32.71 

23.55 

W 

12.87 

25.29 

W 

25.57 

W 

15.67 

Total 

42.34 

W 

W 

W 

20.35 

25.27 

22.89 

W 

W 

24.77 

25.50 

22.36 

W 

25.21 

W 

11.05 

22.96 

7.63 

28.04 

24.91 

26.50 

32.94 

26.03 

27.23 

12.87 

20.81 

26.80 

W 

27.58 

7.32 

19.85 

- = Not applicable. 

W = Withheld to avoid disclosure of individual company data. 

Notes: Average mine price is in current dollars. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 

1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994). 

Table 34. Foreign Direct Investment in U.S. Coal, 

and Share of Total U.S. Coal Production, 

1980-1992 

Year 

Foreign Direct 

Investment in 

U.S. Coal" 

(billion dollars)b 

Foreign Share of 

U.S. Coal 

Production 

(percent) 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

0.5 

1.1 

1.2 

1.3 

2.6 

2.9 

3.5 

3.3 

5.3 

0.9 

0.8 

1.3 

1.6 

3.8 

12.9 

16.6 

16.5 

17.2 

16.8 

16.5 

19.8 

20.6 

21.2 

24.7 

24.0 

26.0 

"Foreign Direct Investment is the value of foreign parent 

companies' net equity in, and outstanding loans to, affiliates in the 

United States at the end of the year. A U.S. affiliate is a U.S 

business enterprise in which a single foreign direct investor owns at 

least 10 percent of the voting securities, or the equivalent. 

bCurrent dollars. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Profiles of Foreign 

Direct Investment in U.S. Energy 1992, DOE/EIA-0466(92) 

(Washington, DC, May 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 87 
Table 35. U.S. Coal Mining Cost Comparisons by Mining Methods 

(January 1989 Dollars per Short Ton of Raw Coal) 

At 15 Percent DCFROR" 

Underground 

Room and Pillar 

Continuous Mining 

Minimum Maximum 

Conventional Mining 

Minimum Maximum 

Longwall Mining 

Minimum Maximum 

Surface 

Few Flat-Lying Thick 

Coalbeds 

Minimum Maximum 

Multiple 

Steeply 

Dipping 

Coalbeds 

(one mine) 

Capital Costs 

Return of equity capital ... . 

15 percent return on capital . 

Mine operating costs 

Labor 

Equipment and supplies ... . 

1.42 

0.59 

0.65 

11.50 

7.07 

2.99 

4.18 

2.68 

1.50 

14.98 

11.99 

5.28 

0.61 

0.17 

0.44 

7.48 

4.07 

3.41 

1.11 

0.49 

0.62 

12.57 

7.65 

4.92 

1.97 

1.42 

0.55 

9.52 

6.57 

2.96 

4.31 

2.02 

2.29 

16.51 

9.67 

7.61 

0.72 

0.41 

0.31 

2.72 

1.35 

1.37 

1.00 

0.63 

0.37 

3.26 

1.72 

1.68 

3.91 

2.64 

1.27 

9.89 

4.92 

4.97 

Land Costs, 0.04 1.65 1.62 3.40 0.00 1.16 0.22 0.78 1.86 

Taxes 

Federal income 

State income 

Property and ad 

valorem 

Severance and excise 

levy 

Black lung 

Reclamation 

0.92 

0.19 

0.03 

2.31 

0.44 

0.08 

1.96 

0.09 

0.01 

2.23 

0.16 

0.03 

1.58 

0.38 

0.07 

2.71 

0.61 

0.14 

1.35 

0.09 

0.00 

1.64 

0.10 

0.02 

3.37 

0.28 

0.00 

0.01 0.10 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.07 0.16 0.37 0.26 

0.00 

0.58 

0.08 

0.85 

0.74 

0.10 

0.61 

0.93 

0.13 

0.78 

1.10 

0.15 

0.19 

0.59 

0.09 

1.04 

0.74 

0.11 

0.47 

0.24 

0.35 

0.57 

0.26 

0.35 

1.83 

0.61 

0.39 

Total mining costs 15.81 21.90 13.45 17.34 15.12 23.15 5.52 6.30 19.36 

"Discounted cash flow rate of return. 

Note: Annual production capacity by mining method are as follow, in million short tons: continuous, 0.4-0.9; conventional, 0.4-1.6; longwall, 

1.1-2.3; surface, flat-lying thick coalbeds, 3.5-21.03; multiple steeply dipping coalbed, 16.5. The sum of line items may not match totals 

because line items and totals may be from different mines. 

Source: U.S Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, A Cost Comparison of Selected Coal Mines from Australia, Canada, Colombia, South 

Africa, and the United States, Special Publication (August 1993). 

88 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 36. Quality and Cost of Coal Receipts of U.S. Electric Utilities of 50 Megawatts or Larger Nameplate 

Capacity by Coal Rank, 1990-1993 

Coal Rank 

Receipts 

(thousand 

short tons) 

Average Quality 

Btu 

(per pound) 

Sulfur 

(percent by 

weight) 

Sulfur 

(pounds per 

million Btu) 

Ash 

(percent by 

weight) 

Average Delivered Cost" 

(cents per 

million Btu) 

(dollars per 

short ton) 

1990 

Anthracite" .. , 

Bituminous .. . 

Subbituminous 

Lignite 

Total 

1991 

Anthracite" .. . 

Bituminous .. . 

Subbituminous 

Lignite 

Total 

1992 

Anthracite" .. . 

Bituminous .. . 

Subbituminous 

Lignite 

Total 

1993 

Anthracite" .. . 

Bituminous .. . 

Subbituminous 

Lignite 

Total 

753 

477,782 

232,660 

75,432 

786,627 

723 

450,462 

239,929 

78,810 

769,923 

503 

453,732 

241,291 

80,438 

775,963 

392 

422,690 

265,180 

80,890 

769,152 

8,070 

11,945 

8,741 

6,433 

10,465 

7,961 

11,964 

8,722 

6,372 

10,378 

8,470 

11,987 

8,754 

6,346 

10,395 

8,267 

12,042 

8,763 

6,374 

10,315 

0.71 

1.86 

0.43 

0.92 

1.35 

0.64 

1.84 

0.42 

0.95 

1.30 

0.67 

1.81 

0.43 

0.97 

1.29 

0.69 

1.71 

0.41 

0.94 

1.18 

0.90 

1.58 

0.50 

1.46 

1.25 

0.82 

1.56 

0.48 

1.51 

1.22 

0.81 

1.53 

0.49 

1.55 

1.21 

0.84 

1.44 

0.47 

1.51 

1.11 

32.7 

10.5 

7.2 

14.0 

9.9 

33.4 

10.3 

6.9 

14.9 

9.8 

32.0 

10.2 

7.0 

14.6 

9.7 

33.0 

10.2 

7.0 

14.4 

9.6 

97.7 

153.8 

133.5 

98.3 

145.5 

94.1 

153.2 

132.3 

104.9 

144.7 

93.7 

149.6 

128.5 

105.4 

141.2 

91.1 

147.6 

126.5 

103.9 

138.5 

15.77 

36.75 

23.34 

12.65 

30.45 

14.98 

36.66 

23.08 

13.37 

30.02 

15.88 

35.86 

22.49 

13.38 

29.36 

15.05 

35.55 

22.17 

13.25 

28.58 

"Current dollars. 

"includes culm and silt. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants 1993, DOE/EIA-0191 (93) (Washington, DC, 

July 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 89 
Table 37. Cost of Contract and Spot Coal Receipts at U.S. Electric Utilities of 50 Megawatts of Larger 

Nameplate Capacity, 1981-1993 

Year 

Contract 

Receipts 

(million 

short tons) 

Cost 

(dollars per 

short ton) 

Spot 

Receipts 

(million 

short tons) 

Cost 

(dollars per 

short ton) 

Average Cost 

(dollars per 

short ton) 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

500.9 

540.6 

523.6 

584.9 

592.4 

601.0 

610.2 

627.8 

620.9 

648.6 

655.5 

649.5 

616.0 

31.34 

34.63 

35.21 

35.06 

34.63 

33.51 

32.01 

30.88 

30.38 

30.74 

30.55 

29.89 

28.93 

75.5 

57.0 

69.2 

99.3 

74.3 

86.0 

111.1 

100.0 

132.3 

138.0 

114.5 

126.5 

153.2 

38.79 

37.60 

33.34 

35.49 

33.73 

31.81 

30.86 

29.30 

29.07 

29.11 

27.02 

26.64 

27.19 

32.32 

34.91 

34.99 

35.12 

34.53 

33.30 

31.83 

30.64 

30.15 

30.45 

30.02 

29.36 

28.58 

Note: Cost is in current dollars. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Cosf and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants 1993, DOE/EIA-0191 (93) (Washington, DC, 

July 1994) and previous issues. 

90 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 38. U.S. Coal Receipts and Price by Sulfur Content at Electric Utility Plants, by State of Origin and 

Imports, 1993 

State 

< 0.60 lbs Sulfur 

per MM Btu 

Quantity 

(thousand 

short tons) 

Cents 

per 

MM Btu 

0.61-1.67 lbs Sulfur 

per MM Btu 

Quantity 

(thousand 

short tons) 

Cents 

per 

MM Btu 

> 1.67 lbs. Sulfur 

per MM Btu 

Quantity 

(thousand 

short tons) 

Cents 

per 

MM Btu 

Total 

Quantity 

(thousand 

short tons) 

Cents 

per 

MM Btu 

Lbs. Sulfur 

per 

MM Btu 

Alabama 5,038 

Arizona 12,122 

Colorado 17,761 

Illinois 25 

Indiana 538 

Iowa 0 

Kansas 0 

Kentucky 14,980 

Louisiana 0 

Maryland 8 

Missouri 0 

Montana 16,906 

New Mexico .. . 9,206 

North Dakota . . 0 

Ohio 2 

Oklahoma 2 

Pennsylvania . . 1,390 

Tennessee ... . 128 

Texas 0 

Utah 15,091 

Virginia 4,213 

Washington .. . 19 

West Virginia . . 25,295 

Wyoming 189,065 

Imports 3,816 

U.S. Total 315,605 

252 

111 

139 

161 

139 

-

-

161 

-

191 

-

168 

157 

-

138 

43 

163 

130 

-

119 

169 

127 

169 

126 

153 

140 

11,102 

0 

292 

10,511 

2,594 

0 

0 

69,812 

2,662 

2,964 

0 

16,996 

17,894 

25,227 

1,794 

1 

28,885 

1,678 

30,763 

9 

12,388 

4,545 

33,775 

12,792 

811 

287,494 

178 

-

90 

151 

121 

~ 

-

156 

139 

141 

-

97 

141 

74 

120 

23 

145 

139 

112 

82 

161 

138 

148 

95 

153 

140 

599 

0 

0 

29,842 

19,784 

18 

326 

34,963 

441 

12 

330 

0 

0 

523 

26,471 

35 

14,863 

162 

21,075 

0 

103 

0 

16,370 

0 

0 

165,919 

143 

~ 

-

151 

123 

175 

130 

122 

142 

111 

206 

-

-

77 

143 

110 

127 

110 

123 

-

125 

-

142 

-

-

134 

16,739 

12,122 

18,053 

40,378 

22,916 

18 

326 

119,755 

3,103 

2,984 

330 

33,901 

27,099 

25,750 

28,267 

38 

45,138 

1,968 

51,839 

15,100 

16,704 

4,564 

75,440 

201,858 

4,628 

769,018 

200 

111 

138 

151 

123 

175 

130 

147 

139 

141 

206 

134 

147 

74 

142 

106 

140 

136 

116 

119 

163 

138 

154 

124 

153 

139 

0.98 

0.46 

0.40 

2.24 

2.23 

3.11 

2.93 

1.37 

1.12 

1.33 

4.21 

0.57 

0.70 

1.15 

2.81 

2.68 

1.54 

1.07 

1.66 

0.41 

0.82 

0.96 

1.13 

0.42 

0.54 

1.14 

- = Not applicable. 

Notes: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. MM Btu = million British thermal units. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121 (93/4Q) (Washington, DC, May 

1994). 

Table 39. U.S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source, Selected Years, 1980,1985,1990-1993 

(Billion Kilowatthours) 

Energy Source 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 

Coal 

Natural Gas 

Petroleum 

Nuclear Power 

Hydroelectric Power 

Geothermal Energy . 

Other" 

1,162 

346 

246 

251 

276 

5 

b 

1,402 

292 

100 

384 

281 

9 

1 

1,560 

264 

117 

577 

280 

9 

2 

1,551 

264 

111 

613 

276 

8 

2 

1,576 

264 

89 

619 

240 

8 

2 

1,639 

259 

100 

610 

265 

8 

2 

Total 2,286 2,470 2,808 2,825 2,797 2,883 

"Wood, waste, wind, photovoltaic, and solar. 

"Less than 1 billion kilowatthours. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review June 1994, DOE/EIA-0035(94-06) (Washington, DC, June 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 91 
Table 40. Major U.S. Coal-Carrying Railroad 

Systems, 1993 

Railroad System 

Coal 

Originated" 

(million short 

tons) 

Percent 

of Total 

Burlington Northern Railroad 

Company 

CSX Transportation 

Norfolk Southern Corporation .. . 

Consolidated Rail Corporation .. . 

Denver, Rio Grand & Western .. . 

Illinois Central Railroad Company 

Union Pacific Railroad Company . 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe .. . 

Soo Line 

Top Nine 

Others .. 

148.8 

148.2 

110.4 

41.4 

22.7 

17.1 

15.8 

14.1 

9.6 

528.1 

5.5 

27.9 

27.8 

20.7 

7.8 

4.3 

3.2 

3.0 

2.6 

1.8 

99.0 

1.0 

Total 533.6 100.0 

""Originated" refers to coal that is loaded for the first time and begins 

its journey on a particular railroad. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of 

independent rounding. 

Source: Association of American Railroads, Freight Commodity 

Statistics 1993. 

Table 41. U.S. Rail Transportation of Coal, 1980-1993 

Year 

Tons Originated" 

(million 

short tons) 

Coal Revenue 

(million 

dollars) 

Coal as Percent of Total Traffic 

Tons Revenue 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

522 

528 

524 

494 

567 

538 

518 

523 

543 

551 

579 

560 

554 

534 

4,956 

5,977 

6,307 

5,969 

6,965 

6,556 

6,089 

6,096 

6,430 

6,581 

6,954 

6,903 

6,717 

6,481 

35.0 

36.3 

41.0 

38.2 

39.6 

40.8 

39.6 

38.1 

37.8 

39.3 

40.7 

40.5 

39.6 

38.2 

18.4 

20.2 

23.8 

22.4 

23.3 

23.2 

22.4 

22.1 

21.7 

22.4 

23.4 

23.5 

22.6 

21.4 

""Originated" refers to coal that is loaded for the first time and begins its journey on a particular railroad. 

Note: Revenue is in current dollars. 

Sources: Association of American Railroads, Economics and Finance Department, Railroad Ten-Year Trends, Volume No. 3 

Railroad Ten-Year Trends, Volume No. 10 (1993), and Freight Commodity Statistics 1993. 

(1986), 

92 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 42. Coal Handled and Revenue Received by Major U.S. Coal-Carrying Railroads, 1993 

Railroad 

Coal Originated" 

Amount 

(million 

short tons) 

Share of All 

Commodities 

(percent) 

Coal Revenues 

Amount 

(million dollars) 

Share of All 

Commodities 

(percent) 

Burlington Northern 

CSX Corporation 

Norfolk Southern 

Consolidated Rail Corporation . 

Denver, Rio Grande & Western 

Illinois Central Gulf 

Union Pacific 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe . 

Soo Line 

148.8 

148.2 

110.4 

41.4 

22.7 

17.1 

15.8 

14.1 

9.6 

55.2 

49.6 

52.5 

32.8 

84.3 

34.6 

10.4 

17.8 

27.5 

1,575.9 

1,464.8 

1,257.8 

491.7 

144.2 

71.1 

872.9 

223.3 

60.4 

32.0 

29.9 

32.9 

14.3 

40.1 

12.7 

16.8 

8.7 

9.1 

""Originated" refers to coal that is loaded for the first time and begins its journey on a particular railroad. 

Source: Association of American Railroads, Freight Commodity Statistics 1993. 

Table 43. U.S. Waterbome Traffic: Coal and Coal Coke as Compared with Other Fossil Fuels and 

Other Commodities, 1991 

(Million Short Tons) 

Commodity Total" 

Domestic 

Coastwise Lakewise Internal 

Foreign 

Imports Exports 

Coal 

Coal Coke 

Crude Petroleum 

Petroleum Products 

Chemical and Related Products 

Forest Products, Wood, and Chips 

Pulp and Waste Paper 

Soil, Sand, Gravel, Rock, and Stone 

Iron Ore and Scrap 

Non-Ferrous Ores and Scrap 

Sulfur, Clay, and Salt 

Primary Manufactured Goods 

Food and Farm Products 

All Manufactured Equipment 

Waste and Scrap, Not Elsewhere Classified 

331.8 

6.1 

464.3 

420.8 

216.5 

52.0 

12.3 

134.7 

91.6 

30.9 

7.6 

106.3 

263.9 

43.6 

11.1 

13.5 

b 

122.8 

108.0 

22.9 

1.6 

b 

11.6 

0.1 

0.1 

b 

7.1 

8.3 

5.9 

0.5 

18.1 

b 

0 

2.0 

0.3 

b 

0 

23.4 

55.3 

b 

b 

3.0 

0.9 

b 

b 

180.0 

4.0 

45.5 

110.6 

80.5 

16.0 

0.4 

63.9 

6.8 

4.6 

0.9 

24.9 

88.7 

3.2 

6.9 

2.7 

1.2 

293.0 

96.1 

26.3 

2.9 

0.9 

14.8 

15.1 

21.6 

2.1 

49.6 

22.6 

24.1 

0 

113.8 

0.6 

0.1 

55.9 

72.7 

29.4 

10.9 

10.7 

13.8 

4.6 

4.5 

21.2 

143.2 

10.3 

0 

Total" 2,092.5 293.4 103.4 602.9 553.5 459.2 

"Total Is greater than column sums because of commodity groups not included and greater than row sums because of local and intra 

territories not Included. 

"Less than 100,000 tons. 

Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, The U.S. Waterway System—Facts (January 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 93 
Table 44. U.S. Coal Export Loading Terminals, 1990 

Port/Terminal 

EAST COAST 

Philadelphia, PA 

Pier No. 124; Conrail 

Port Richmond Conrail 

Camden, NJ 

Broadway Terminal 

Baltimore, MD 

Curtis Bay Chessie System 

Curtis Bay Co 

Consol Marine Terminal 

Norfolk, VA 

Pier 6 

Newport News, VA 

Pier 9 

Dominion Terminal 

Morehead City, NC 

North Carolina State Port Authority Bulk Facility . 

Charleston, SC 

Massey Coal Terminal 

Total 

GULF COAST 

Mobile, AL 

McDuffie Island 

Bulk Plant 

Mississippi River 

Public Bulk Terminal (MRGO)a 

Electro-Coal 

International Marine Terminal 

At-Sea Operation 

Burnside, LA 

Burnside Terminal 

Mid-Stream Operation 

Delta Trans, Cooper/T. Smith, Paulina, & Darrow 

See footnotes at end of table. 

Existing Annual 

Terminal Capacity 

(million short tons) 

Storage 

Capacity 

Serving 

Railroads 

10.0 

0.5 

0.5 

12.0 

10.0 

10.0 

43.0 

12.0 

15.0 

3.0 

2.5 

18.5 

800 railcars 

100,000 short tons 

500,000 short tons 

100 railcars 

350,000 short tons 

750,000 short tons 

7,000 railcars 

NA 

180 railcars/ 

2.05 million short tons 

NA 

300 railcars/ 

275,000 short tons 

CONRAIL 

CONRAIL 

CONRAIL 

CSX 

CSX 

CONRAIL, CSX 

Norfolk Southern 

CSX 

CSX 

Norfolk Southern 

CSX; Norfolk 

Southern 

23.0 

2.0 

5.0 

25.0 

15.0 

1.0b 

6.0 

56.5 

2,000,000 short tons 

1,200,000 short tons 

750,000 metric tons 

4,500,000 short tons 

1,500,000 short tons 

475,000 metric tons 

Burlington Northern; 

CSX; Illinois Central; 

Norfolk Southern 

Burlington Northern; 

CSX; Illinois Central; 

Norfolk Southern 

CSX; Illinois Central; 

Kansas City Southern; 

Norfolk Southern; Public 

Belt; Southern Pacific; 

Union Pacific 

None 

None 

Illinois Central 

94 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 44. U.S. Coal Export Loading Terminals, 1990 (Continued) 

Port/Terminal 

Lake Charles, LA 

Bulk Terminal #1 

Port Arthur, TX 

PABTEX 

Houston, TX 

Bulk Materials Handling Plant 

Bulk Dock 1 

Bulk Dock 2 

Total 

WEST COAST 

Los Angeles, CA 

Berth 49-50 

Long Beach, CA 

Pier G 214-215 

Pier G 212-213 

Stockton, CA 

Bulk Terminal 

Seward, AK 

Seward Coal Terminal 

Total 

GREAT LAKES" 

Con Rail Dock, Ashtabula 

Pittsburgh & Conneaut Dock Co., Conneaut 

Codan Marine, Erie 

Lower Lake Dock Co., Sandusky 

Toledo Docks, Toledo 

See footnotes at end of table. 

Existing Annual 

Terminal Capacity 

(million short tons) 

Storage 

Capacity 

Serving 

Railroads 

4.5 

4.0 

3.0 

2.5 

5.0 

152.5 

5.5 

325,000 short tons 

500,000 metric tons 

125 railcars 

2,000 railcars 

2,000 railcars 

170,000 metric tons 

Kansas City Southern; 

Southern Pacific; Union 

Pacific 

Kansas City Southern 

Atchison, Topeka and 

Santa Fe; Burlington 

Northern; Southern 

Pacific; Union Pacific 

Corpus Christi Terminal 

Assn; Southern Pacific; 

Texas Mexican; Union 

Pacific 

Corpus Christi Terminal 

Assn; Southern Pacific; 

Texas Mexican; Union 

Pacific 

Atchison Topeka and 

Santa Fe; Southern 

Pacific; Union Pacific 

1.0r 

4.5 r 

2.2 

50,000 tons/ 

168 railcars 

2,000,000 short tons/ 

300 railcars 

Atchison Topeka and 

Santa Fe; Southern 

Pacific; Union Pacific 

Atchison Topeka and 

Santa Fe; Denver and 

Rio Grande Western; 

Southern Pacific; 

Union Pacific 

3.3 

16.5 

7.0 

13.5 

0.4 

7.5 

16.0 

120,000 metric tons 

-

1,500,000 short tons 

6,000,000 short tons 

100,000 short tons 

1,000,000 short 

tons + railcars0 

400,000 short tons 

Alaska Railroad 

-

CONRAIL 

Bessemer & Lake 

Erie 

CONRAIL 

Norfolk Southern 

CONRAIL; CSX 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 95 
Table 44. U.S. Coal Export Loading Terminals, 1990 (Continued) 

Port/Terminal 

Existing Annual 

Terminal Capacity 

(million short tons) 

Storage 

Capacity 

Serving 

Railroads 

Total Lake Erie Terminals 44.4 

Other Coal Terminals 

KCBX South Chicago 8.0 450,000 short tons + Belt Line Railway 

railcars0 Co. of Chicago 

Superior Midwest Energy Terminal Superior 18.0 7,000,000 short tons Burlington Northern 

Total Other Terminals 26.0 

Grand Total Great Lakes Ports 70.4 

U.S. TOTAL 357.9 

"Terminal is actually on the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet. 

bAt-sea transfer capability from sea-going barges. 

cNumber of railcars not reported. 

"Great Lakes ports are restricted in vessel size to the allowable St. Lawrence Seaway dock dimensions of 730 feet in length, 76 feet 

beam, and 26 feet draft. 

- = Not applicable. 

NA = Not available. 

Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration, Office of Port and Intermodel Development, Existing and 

Potential U.S. Coal Export Loading Terminals (Washington, DC, January 1992). 

96 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 45. U.S. Coal Exports by Country of Destination, 1960-1993 

(Million Short Tons) 

Year 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

1976 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

Canada 

12.8 

12.1 

12.3 

14.6 

14.8 

16.3 

16.5 

15.8 

17.1 

17.3 

19.1 

18.0 

18.7 

16.7 

14.2 

17.3 

16.9 

17.7 

15.7 

19.5 

17.5 

18.2 

18.6 

17.2 

20.4 

16.4 

14.5 

16.2 

19.2 

16.8 

15.5 

11.2 

15.1 

8.9 

Brazil 

1.1 

1.0 

1.3 

1.2 

1.1 

1.2 

1.7 

1.7 

1.8 

1.8 

2.0 

1.9 

1.9 

1.6 

1.3 

2.0 

2.2 

2.3 

1.5 

2.8 

3.3 

2.7 

3.1 

3.6 

4.7 

5.9 

5.7 

5.8 

5.3 

5.7 

5.8 

7.1 

6.4 

5.2 

Europe 

Belgium 

and 

Luxembourg 

1.1 

1.0 

1.3 

2.7 

2.3 

2.2 

1.8 

1.4 

1.1 

0.9 

1.9 

0.8 

1.1 

1.2 

1.1 

0.6 

2.2 

1.5 

1.1 

3.2 

4.6 

4.3 

4.8 

2.5 

3.9 

4.4 

4.4 

4.6 

6.5 

7.1 

8.5 

7.5 

7.2 

5.2 

Denmark 

0.1 

0.1 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

0 

b 

0 

b 

0 

b 

0 

0 

0 

b 

0.1 

b 

0.2 

1.6 

3.9 

2.8 

1.7 

0.6 

2.2 

2.1 

0.9 

2.8 

3.2 

3.2 

4.7 

3.8 

0.3 

France 

0.8 

0.7 

0.9 

2.7 

2.2 

2.1 

1.6 

2.1 

1.5 

2.3 

3.6 

3.2 

1.7 

2.0 

2.7 

3.6 

3.5 

2.1 

1.7 

3.9 

7.8 

9.7 

9.0 

4.2 

3.8 

4.5 

5.4 

2.9 

4.3 

6.5 

6.9 

9.5 

8.1 

4.0 

Germany3 

4.6 

4.3 

5.1 

5.6 

5.2 

4.7 

4.9 

4.7 

3.8 

3.5 

5.0 

2.9 

2.4 

1.6 

1.5 

2.0 

1.0 

0.9 

0.6 

2.6 

2.5 

4.3 

2.3 

1.5 

0.9 

1.1 

0.8 

0.5 

0.7 

0.7 

1.1 

1.7 

1.0 

0.5 

Italy 

4.9 

4.8 

6.0 

7.9 

8.1 

9.0 

7.8 

5.9 

4.3 

3.7 

4.3 

2.7 

3.7 

3.3 

3.9 

4.5 

4.2 

4.1 

3.2 

5.0 

7.1 

10.5 

11.3 

8.1 

7.6 

10.3 

10.4 

9.5 

11.1 

11.2 

11.9 

11.3 

9.3 

6.9 

Netherlands 

2.8 

2.6 

3.3 

5.0 

4.2 

3.4 

3.2 

2.2 

1.5 

1.6 

2.1 

1.6 

2.3 

1.8 

2.6 

2.1 

3.5 

2.0 

1.1 

2.0 

4.7 

6.8 

5.9 

4.2 

5.5 

6.3 

5.6 

4.1 

5.1 

6.1 

8.4 

9.6 

9.1 

5.6 

Spain 

0.3 

0.2 

0.8 

1.5 

1.4 

1.4 

1.2 

1.0 

1.5 

1.8 

3.2 

2.6 

2.1 

2.2 

2.0 

2.7 

2.5 

1.6 

0.8 

1.4 

3.4 

6.4 

5.6 

3.3 

2.3 

3.5 

2.6 

2.5 

2.5 

3.3 

3.8 

4.7 

4.5 

4.1 

United 

Kingdom 

0 

0 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

0 

b 

b 

b 

1.7 

2.4 

0.9 

1.4 

1.9 

0.8 

0.6 

0.4 

1.4 

4.1 

2.3 

2.0 

1.2 

2.9 

2.7 

2.9 

2.6 

3.7 

4.5 

5.2 

6.2 

5.6 

4.1 

Other 

2.4 

2.0 

1.8 

2.4 

2.6 

2.3 

2.5 

2.1 

1.9 

1.3 

1.8 

1.1 

1.1 

1.3 

0.9 

1.6 

2.1 

2.1 

2.2 

4.4 

6.0 

8.8 

7.6 

6.4 

5 3 

10.3 

8.4 

6.6 

8.5 

8.9 

9.5 

10.4 

8.5 

6.9 

Total 

17.1 

15.7 

19.1 

27.7 

26.0 

25.1 

23.1 

19.4 

15.5 

15.2 

21.8 

16.6 

16.9 

14.4 

16.1 

19.0 

19.9 

15.0 

11.0 

23.9 

41.9 

57.0 

51.3 

33.1 

32.8 

45.1 

42.6 

34.2 

45.1 

51.6 

58.4 

65.5 

57.3 

37.6 

Japan 

5.6 

6.6 

6.5 

6.1 

6.5 

7.5 

7.8 

12.2 

15.8 

21.4 

27.6 

19.7 

18.0 

19.3 

27.3 

25.4 

18.8 

15.9 

10.1 

15.7 

23.1 

25.9 

25.8 

17.9 

16.3 

15.4 

11.4 

11.1 

14.1 

13.8 

13.3 

12.3 

12.3 

11.9 

Other 

1.3 

1.0 

1.0 

0.9 

1.1 

0.9 

1.0 

1.0 

0.9 

1.2 

1.2 

1.1 

1.2 

1.6 

1.8 

2.6 

2.1 

3.5 

2.5 

4.1 

6.0 

8.7 

7.5 

6.1 

7.2 

9.9 

11.4 

12.3 

11.3 

12.9 

12.7 

13.0 

11.4 

10.9 

Total 

38.0 

36.4 

40.2 

50.4 

49.5 

51.0 

50.1 

50.1 

51.2 

56.9 

71.7 

57.3 

56.7 

53.6 

60.7 

66.3 

60.0 

54.3 

40.7 

66.0 

91.7 

112.5 

106.3 

77.8 

81.5 

92.7 

85.5 

79.6 

95.0 

100.8 

105.8 

109.0 

102.5 

74.5 

a

Through 1990, the data for Germany are for the former West Germany only. Beginning with 1991, the data for Germany are for the unified Germany, the 

former East Germany and West Germany. 

"Less than 50,000 tons. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 97 
Table 46. U.S. Bituminous Coal Exports by Grade of Coal, 1975-1993 

(Thousand Short Tons) 

Year 

1975 

1976 

1977 '. 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

Metallurgical 

51,587 

47,804 

41,891 

30,240 

50,698 

63,103 

65,234 

64,585 

49,964 

56,975 

60,313 

54,977 

51,679 

61,950 

65,128 

63,459 

64,652 

59,446 

49,687 

Steam 

14,072 

11,602 

11,796 

9,585 

14,085 

26,779 

45,010 

40,659 

26,905 

23,818 

31,048 

29,040 

26,713 

32,057 

34,910 

41,578 

43,832 

42,509 

24,359 

Total 

65,669 

59,406 

53,687 

39,825 

64,783 

89,882 

110,243 

105,244 

76,870 

80,793 

91,361 

84,017 

78,392 

94,007 

100,038 

105,037 

108,484 

101,954 

74,046 

Notes: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Sources: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, "Monthly Report EM 522" (Washington, DC, 1974), and National Coal 

Association, International Coal Review Annual 1994 (Washington, DC, 1974). 

98 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 47. U.S. Coal Produced for Export, by Origin and Destination, 1993 

(Thousand Short Tons) 

Coal-Producing State and 

Region of Origin 

Destination 

Canada Overseas8 Total 

Alabama 

Alaska 

Colorado 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Kentucky Total .. . 

Eastern 

Western 

Maryland 

Montana 

Oklahoma 

Pennsylvania Total 

Anthracite 

Bituminous 

Utah 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia Total 

Northern 

Southern 

Wyoming 

Appalachian Total 

Interior Total 

Western Total .. . 

East of the Mississippi River 

West of the Mississippi River 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1,416 

1,416 

0 

0 

54 

0 

597 

293 

304 

346 

1,229 

1 

4,108 

920 

3,187 

0 

7,350 

0 

401 

7,350 

401 

5,888 

743 

1,128 

670 

188 

8,106 

7,902 

204 

295 

67 

11 

4,911 

24 

4,887 

2,613 

13,021 

93 

29,052 

1,607 

27,445 

974 

61,069 

1,073 

5,617 

62,131 

5,628 

5,888 

743 

1,128 

670 

188 

9,521 

9,318 

204 

295 

121 

11 

5,508 

316 

5,192 

2,959 

14,251 

94 

33,159 

2,527 

30,632 

974 

68,419 

1,073 

6,018 

69,481 

6,030 

U.S. Total 7,751 67,759 75,510 

"Also includes Mexico. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-6, "Coal Distribution Report." 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 35. U.S. Coal Exports, 1970-1993

w

c

o

I-

■c

o

s:

CO

c

o

120

100-

8 0 -

6 0 -

4 0 -

2 0 -

T 1 P

1970

r

1975

-l r

1980 1985

n ] — . r

1990

Years

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

100 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference
Figure 36. World Coal Production and Leading Coal-Producing Countries, 1980-1992

c

i2

r

sz

CO

c

o

i

o.tu u —

5,200 -

5,000 -

4,800 -

4,600 -

4,400 -

4,200 -

4,000 -

3,800 -

3,600 -

3,400 -

3,200 -

0 ■

(0

c

o

t -

t

o

. c

CO

c

o

5

1,200-

1,000-

800-

600-

n

:

1980

I

World Total ^ S

Leading Coal-Producing Countries

,, —

- - ~~JlS——-—^'

S*"

1984 1988

Years

I ' I ' I

_ — China

U.S.

Former

U.S.S.R.

1992

1

1

i

1980 1982 1984 1986

Years

1988 1990 1992

World coalproduction rose from about 4.2 billion tons in 1980 toa record 5.3 billion tons in 1989 and was about 5.0billion tons

in 1992. The United States is a major coal producer; it ranked first from 1980 through 1982 andagain in 1984.

Note: Coal production in 1992 from countries that composed the former U.S.S.R. was as follows, in million short tons:

Kazakhstan, 139; Russia, 372; Ukraine, 148.

Source: Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 1992, DOE/EIA-0219(92) (Washington, DC, January

1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 101

^xi^;y ^■m^,..^km^.A ■ ^^-^m^rrScs;.''^,
Figure 37. Average Quality of Coal Produced for Power Plants by Producing State, 1993 

Heat Value 

(MM btu per short ton) 

26 -

25 -

24 -

23 -

22 — 

21 — 

20 — 

19 — 

18 — 

17 — 

16 — 

15 — 

14 — 

13 -

12 — 

VA.TN.M D 

PA.WV 

KY.AL.KS 

OK.O H 

UT 

IL.IN 

AZ 

CO.M O 

(US average) 

IA 

NM 

MT 

WY 

WA 

LA 

ND 

TX 

Sulfur Content 

(average weight percent) 

Sulfur 

(pounds per MM Btu) 

2 — 

MO 

KS 

OH,OK 

— IA 

IL 

IN 

PA 

KY, MD 

WV.TN 

AL, (US Average) 

TX.VA 

LA 

ND.WA 

NM 

MT.AZ 

UT 

CO.WY 

4 — 

3 — 

2 — 

1 — 

Ash Content 

(average weight percent) 

19 — 

MO 

IA 

KS 

OH 

OK 

IL 

IN 

TX 

PA.KY.ND 

MD,WV.(U S Average) 

TN.LA 

AL 

VA.W A 

NM 

MT 

AZ 

WY.UT.CO 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

1 1 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

-

-

-

TX 

WA 

IA 

M O 

M D 

LA.KS.AL 

PA 

OH 

WV.UT.OK 

VA.KY 

ND.T N 

AZ,(U S Average) 

IL.I N 

CO 

M T 

WY 

NM 

Note: MMBtu = million British thermal units. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants 1993, DOE/EIA-0191 (93) 

(Washington, DC, July 1994). 

102 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Figure 38. Cost and Quality of Coal Shipped to Electric Utilities, by Origin, 1993 

Lignite 

(LA,MT,ND,TX) 

Btu/lb: 6,374 

Sulfur: 

Percent by Weight 0.94 

Pounds per Million Btu 1.51 

Ash, Percent by Weight: 14.43 

Delivered Cost: 

Per Million Btu $1.04 

Per Short Ton $13.25 

Quantity: 80.9 Million Short Tons 

Western Region 

Btu/lb: 9,112 

Sulfur: 

Percent by Weight 0.43 

Pounds per Million Btu 0.47 

Ash, Percent by Weight: 7.42 

Delivered Cost: 

Per Million Btu $1.27 

Per Short Ton: $23.23 

^Quantity: 312.6 Million Short Tons 

Interior Region 

(Excludes Lignite) 

Btu/lb: 11,383 

Sulfur: 

Percent by Weight 2.72 

Pounds per Million Btu 2.41 

Ash, Percent by Weight: 9.86 

Delivered Cost: 

Per Million Btu $1.34 

Per Short Ton: $30.60 

^Quantity: 98.5 Million Short Tons 

Appalachian Region 

Btu/lb: 12,451 

Sulfur. 

Percent by Weight 1.57 

Pounds per Million Btu 1.27 

Ash, Percent by Weight: 10.49 

Delivered Cost: 

Per Million Btu $1.54 

Per Short Ton: $38.41 

Quantity: 272.5 Million Short Tons , 

Imports 

Btu/lb: 12,019 

Sulfur: 

Percent by Weight 0.65 

Pounds per Million Btu 0.54 

Ash, Percent by Weight: 6.78 

Delivered Cost: 

Per Million Btu $1.53 

Per Short Ton $36.82 

Quantity: 4.6 Million Short Tons 

United States 

Btu/lb: 10,315 

Sulfur: 

Percent by Weight 1.18 

Pounds per Million Btu 1.11 

Ash, Percent by Weight: 9.55 

Delivered Cost: 

Per Million Btu $1.38 

Per Short Ton $28.58 

Quantity: 769.2 Million Short Tons 

Coal was mined in 26 States in 1993. 

Source: Energy Information Administration, Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants 1993, DOE/EIA-019(93) 

(Washington, DC, July 1994). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 103 
Table 48. U.S. Air Pollutant Emission Estimates from Coal Combustion as Compared with Total Emissions 

and Total Coal Consumption, Selected Years, 1970,1980,1990-1992 

(Million Short Tons) 

Emission/Source 1970 1980 1990 

22.8 

17.3 

23.6 

7.3 

92.4 

0.3 

1991 

22.8 

17.1 

23.4 

7.3 

90.7 

0.3 

1992 

22.7 

17.3 

23.1 

7.3 

87.2 

0.3 

Sulfur Oxides Total 

Coal 

Nitrogen Oxides Total 

Coal 

Carbon Monoxide Total 

Coal 

31.3 

19.3 

20.9 

4.3 

118.7 

0.7 

26.2 

23.7 

6.1 

129.0 

0.3 

Reactive Volatile Organic Compounds Total" 

Coal 

29.7 

0.1 

28.4 

c 

23.7 23.4 22.7 

Particulates (PM-10) Total" 

Coal 

12.1e 

0.2 

7.0e 

0.1 

50.8 

0.2 

55.4 

0.2 

51.4 

0.2 

Coal Consumption 

Electric Utilities (percent) 

523.2 

61.2 

702.7 

81.0 

895.5 

86.4 

887.6 

87.0 

892.4 

87.4 

"Data not detailed for coal and other fossil fuels, but contained in aggregate estimate. 

"These compounds along with nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of ozone and other photochemical oxidants in the atmosphere. 

c

Less than .05 million short tons. 

d

Less than 10 microns in aerodynamic diameter. 

"Excludes fugitive dust from sources such as agricultural tilling, construction activities, mining and quarrying, and wind erosion. 

Notes: Estimate for 1990-1992 are preliminary. Emissions of lead from coal combustion totaled less than 100 short tons in recent years. 

Sources: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1992 (October 1993); and Energy Information 

Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994). 

104 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 49. U.S. Utility Coal Combustion Byproducts: Production and Use, 1992 

(Million Short Tons) 

Production/Use Fly Ash Bottom Ash Boiler Slag 

Flue Gas 

Desulfurization 

Material 

Byproduct Production8 

Byproduct Use 

External Markets 

Cement and Concrete Products 

Structural Fill 

Road Base/Subbase 

Mineral Filler In Asphalt 

Snow and Ice Control 

Blasting Grit/Roofing Granules . 

Grouting 

Coal Mining Applications 

Wall Board 

Waste Stabilization 

Other 

Subtotal 

Internal Utility Applications 

Cement and Concrete Products 

Structural Rll 

RoadBase/Subbase 

Snow and Ice Control 

Other 

Subtotal 

Total 

48.1 13.9 4.1 15.9 

7.1 

0.8 

1.2 

0.2 

0 

0 

b 

b 

0 

0.5 

0.5 

10.4 

b 

1.3 

b 

0 

1.4 

2.7 

13.1 

0.5 

0.3 

0.4 

0.2 

0.5 

b 

0 

b 

0 

b 

b 

1.9 

0 

0.1 

0.6 

b 

1.2 

1.9 

3.9 

0.3 

0.2 

b 

0.1 

0.3 

2.0 

0 

0 

0 

b 

0 

3.0 

0 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

3.1 

0 

0 

b 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0.2 

b 

b 

0.3 

0 

0 

b 

0 

0 

b 

0.3 

"Based on consumption of 779.8 million short tons. 

b

Less than 100,000 short tons. 

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. 

Source: American Coal Ash Association. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 105 
Table 50. Trace Elements in U.S. Coal: Highest Average Concentration by Rank and Widest Range by 

Region and Rank of Coal 

Trace Element8 

Chemical 

Symbol 

Highest Average 

Average 

(parts per 

million) Coal Rank 

Widest Range 

Amount 

(parts per 

million) Region and Coal Rank 

Antimony . . 

Arsenic .. . 

Beryllium . . 

Cadmium . . 

Chlorine .. . 

Chromium . 

Cobalt 

Fluorine .. . 

Lead 

Manganese 

Mercury .. . 

Nickel 

Phosphorus 

Selenium . . 

Thorium .. . 

Uranium .. . 

Sb 

As 

Be 

Cd. 

CI 

Cr 

Co 

F 

Pb 

Mn 

Hg 

Ni 

P 

Se 

Th 

U 

1.2 

23 

2.2 

0.9 

NA 

47 

9.7 

191 

14 

300 

0.23 

28 

1,800 

3.4 

7.1 

3.4 

Bituminous 

Lignite 

Bituminous 

Bituminous 

NA 

Anthracite 

Bituminous 

Lignite 

Bituminous 

Lignite 

Anthracite 

Anthracite 

Lignite 

Bituminous 

Lignite 

Lignite 

0.04-43 Rocky Mountain subbituminous 

0.2-420 Northern Plains subbituminous 

0.08-32 Rocky Mountain subbituminous 

0.01-170 Interior bituminous 

50-8,000 Appalachian bituminous 

1.5-220 Appalachian bituminous 

0.7-930 Appalachian bituminous 

20-1,900 Appalachian bituminous 

0.78-590 Interior bituminous 

1.4-3,500 Rocky Mountain subbituminous 

0.01-12 Northern Plains lignite 

0.87-580 Interior bituminous 

<4-6,000 Appalachian bituminous 

0.12-150 Appalachian bituminous 

0.04-79 Interior bituminous 

0.06-76 Rocky Mountain subbituminous 

aElements identified as hazardous air pollutants by the Clean Air Act, as amended in 1990. 

Note: 100 parts per million = 0.01 percent; 1,000 parts per million = 0.1 percent. When coal is burned in a power plant, the trace elements 

are concentrated as follows: in fly ash—Sb, As, Be, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Se; in both fly ash and bottom ash—Co, Mn, Th, U, and probably P; as 

a vapor—CI, F, and Hg. 

NA = Not available. 

Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory, Environmental Assessment and Information Sciences Division, Air Toxic 

Emissions from the Combustion of Coal: Identifying and Quantifying Hazardous Air Pollutants from U.S. Coals, ANL/EAIS/TM-83 (Argonne, IL, 

September 1992). 

106 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 51. Classification of Coals by Rank 

Coal Rank 

Coals Classifi 

I. Anthracite 

II. Bituminous 

Coals Classifi 

II. Bituminous 

III. Subbituminous 

IV. Lignitic 

Coal Group 

sd by Fixed Carbon 

1. Meta-anthracite 

2. Anthracite 

3. Semianthraciteb 

1. Low-volatile bituminous 

2. Medium-volatile bituminous 

3. High-volatile A bituminous 

ed by Heat Content 

4. High-volatile B bituminous 

5. High-volatile C bituminous 

6. High-volatile C bituminous 

1. Subbituminous A 

2. Subbituminous B 

3. Subbituminous C 

1. Lignite A 

2. Lignite B 

Basis of Classification 

Fixed Carbon Percentage8 

Equal to or 

Greater than 

98 

92 

86 

78 

d

69 

— 

Heat Content in 

Equal to or Greater 

than 

13,000 

11,500 

10,500 

10,500 

9,500 

8,300 

6,300 

-

Less than 

98 

92 

86 

78 

d

69 

Btu per Pound8 

Less than 

14,000 

13,000 

11,500 

11,500 

10,500 

9,500 

8,300 

6,300 

Agglomerating Character 

Non-agglomerating 

Non-agglomerating 

Non-agglomerating 

Commonly agglomerating0 

Commonly agglomerating0 

Commonly agglomerating0 

Commonly agglomerating0 

Commonly agglomerating0 

agglomerating 

Non-agglomerating 

Non-agglomerating 

Non-agglomerating 

Non-agglomerating 

Non-agglomerating 

"Percentages are based on dry-mineral-matter-free coal. Volatile matter (not shown) is the complement of fixed carbon; that is, the 

percentages of fixed carbon and volatile matter sum to 100 percent. Therefore, as fixed carbon percentage decreases, volatile matter 

percentage increases by the same amount 

b

lf agglomerating, classify in low-volatile group of the bituminous class. 

There may be nonglomerating varieties in the bituminous class, most notable in the high-volatile C bituminous group. 

dCoals having 69 percent or more fixed carbon are classified according to fixed carbon, regardless of Btu value. Coals with less than 69 

percent fixed carbon, but with 14,000 or more Btu per pound, are classified as high-volatile A bituminous. 

eCalorific values in Btu per pound, on a moist-mineral-matter-free basis. 

Note: Terms in this table are defined in the Glossary. 

Source: Adapted from American Society for Testing and Materials 1988, Standard Classification of Coal by Rank, ASTM Designation D388-

84. 

Table 52. Approximate Weights of Unbroken (Solid) Coal in the Ground 

Coal Rank 

Pounds per 

Cubic Foot 

Tons per 

Acre-Foot 

Tons per 

Square Mile-Foot 

Anthracite 

Bituminous Coal .. . 

Subbituminous Coal 

Lignite 

91.7 

82.4 

81.1 

80.5 

2,000 

1,800 

1,770 

1,750 

1,280,000 

1,150,000 

1,130,000 

1,120,000 

Notes: The weight of broken coal varies with the size of the coal. In general, a cubic foot of broken bituminous coal weighs 47 to 52 

pounds and a cubic foot of broken anthracite weighs 52 to 56 pounds. (By comparison, a cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds, and a cubic 

foot of limestone weighs about 165 pounds.) A ton of broken coal occupies approximately 40 cubic feet. 

Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1412, Coal Resources of the United States, (Washington, DC, 

1975). 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 107 
Table 53. Representative Analyses of U.S. Coal 

Classification by 

Rank State/County Bed 

Type 

Sample' 

Proximate Percent 

Moisture 

Volatile 

Matter 

Fixed 

Carbon Ash 

Ultimate Percent" 

Sulfur Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen 

Calorific 

Value, 

Btu per 

pound 

Meta-anthracite . . 

Semianthracite . 

Low-volatile 

Bituminous Coal 

Medium-volatile 

Bituminous Coal 

High-volatile A 

Bituminous Coal 

High-volatile B 

Bituminous Coal 

High-volatile C 

Bituminous Coal 

Subbituminous A 

Coal 

Subbituminous B 

Coal 

Subbituminous C 

Coal 

Lignite 

Rhode Island 

Newport 

Pennsylvania 

Lackawana 

Arkansas 

Johnson 

West Virginia 

Wyoming 

Pennsylvania 

Clearfield 

West Virginia 

Marion 

Kentucky 

(Western field] 

Muhlenburg 

Illinois 

Sangamon 

Wyoming 

Sweetwater 

Wyoming 

Sheridan 

Wyoming 

Campbell 

North Dakota 

McLean 

Middle 

Clark 

Lower 

Hartshorne 

Pocahontas 

No. 3 

Upper 

Kittanning 

Pittsburgh 

No. 9 

No. 5 

No. 3 

Monarch 

Wyodak 

Unnamed 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

3 

13.2 

4.3 

2.6 

2.9 

2.1 

2.3 

8.5 

14.4 

16.9 

22.2 

26.6 

36.8 

2.6 

2.9 

3.8 

5.1 

5.3 

5.9 

10.6 

10.8 

11.7 

17.7 

18.2 

19.3 

24.4 

24.9 

26.5 

36.5 

37.4 

39.5 

36.4 

39.8 

45.0 

35.4 

41.4 

46.6 

34.8 

41.8 

43.7 

33.2 

42.7 

45.2 

33.2 

45.2 

49.1 

27.8 

43.9 

48.4 

65.3 

75.3 

96.2 

81.0 

84.6 

94.1 

79.3 

81.5 

88.3 

74.0 

76.3 

80.7 

67.4 

68.8 

73.5 

56.0 

57.2 

60.5 

44.3 

48.5 

55.0 

40.6 

47.4 

53.4 

44.7 

53.8 

56.3 

40.3 

51.7 

54.8 

34.4 

46.9 

50.9 

29.5 

46.7 

51.6 

18.9 

21.6 

-

9.6 

10.1 

-

7.5 

7.7 

-

5.4 

5.5 

-

6.1 

6.3 

-

5.2 

5.4 

-

10.8 

11.7 

-

9.6 

11.2 

-

3.6 

4.4 

-

4.3 

5.6 

-

5.8 

7.9 

-

5.9 

9.4 

-

0.3 

0.3 

0.4 

0.8 

0.8 

0.9 

1.7 

1.8 

1.9 

0.8 

0.8 

0.8 

1.0 

1.1 

1.1 

0.8 

0.8 

0.8 

2.8 

3.0 

3.4 

3.8 

4.4 

5.0 

1.4 

1.7 

1.8 

0.5 

0.6 

0.6 

0.6 

0.8 

0.9 

0.9 

1.4 

1.6 

1.9 

0.5 

0.6 

2.9 

2.5 

2.8 

3.8 

3.6 

3.9 

4.6 

4.4 

4.6 

5.0 

4.8 

5.2 

5.5 

5.4 

5.7 

5.4 

4.9 

5.5 

5.8 

4.9 

5.6 

6.0 

4.9 

5.2 

6.9 

5.6 

6.0 

6.5 

4.8 

5.0 

6.9 

4.5 

5.0 

64.2 

74.1 

94.7 

79.7 

83.3 

92.5 

81.4 

83.6 

90.6 

83.2 

85.7 

90.7 

81.6 

83.3 

88.9 

78.4 

80.2 

84.8 

65.1 

71.2 

80.6 

59.7 

69.8 

78.6 

60.4 

72.7 

76.0 

53.9 

69.3 

73.4 

50.0 

67.6 

73.3 

40.6 

64.3 

70.9 

0.2 

0.2 

0.3 

0.9 

0.9 

1.0 

1.6 

1.6 

1.8 

1.3 

1.3 

1.4 

1.4 

1.5 

1.6 

1.6 

1.6 

1.7 

1.3 

1.5 

1.7 

1.0 

1.2 

1.3 

1.2 

1.5 

1.5 

1.0 

1.2 

1.3 

0.9 

1.2 

1.3 

0.6 

1.0 

1.1 

14.5 

3.1 

4.0 

6.1 

2.4 

2.8 

4.0 

1.7 

1.8 

4.7 

2.3 

2.5 

4.9 

3.0 

3.2 

8.5 

6.6 

7.0 

14.6 

7.7 

8.8 

20.1 

8.5 

9.5 

27.4 

14.8 

15.5 

33.4 

17.7 

18.7 

36.2 

17.7 

19.5 

45.1 

19.4 

21.4 

9,310 

10,740 

13,720 

12,880 

13,470 

14,980 

13,880 

14,240 

15,430 

14,400 

14,830 

15,690 

14,310 

14,610 

15,590 

14,040 

14,370 

15,180 

11,680 

12,760 

14,460 

10,810 

12,630 

14,230 

10,650 

12,810 

13,390 

9,610 

12,350 

13,080 

8,630 

11,760 

12,780 

7,000 

11,080 

12,230 

8

1 . Sample as received 2. Moisture-free 3. Moisture- and ash-free. 

- = Not applicable. 

Notes: Source and analysis of coal were selected to represent the various ranks of the specifications for classification of rank adopted by 

the American Society for Testing and materials. 

Sources: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines; and Wyoming State Geological Survey (Wyodak bed). 

108 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Table 54. Standard Anthracite Specifications 

State 

State Round Test Mesh 

(Inches) 

Percent 

Undersize 

Maximum Minimum 

Maximum Impurities" 

State Bone Ashb 

Broken .. 

Egg ... . 

Stove .. . 

Chestnut 

Pea 

Buckwheat No. 1 

Buckwheat No. 2 (rice) .. 

Buckwheat No. 3 (barley) 

Buckwheat No. 4 

Buckwheat No. 5 

Through 4-3/8 

Over 3-1/4 to 3 

Through 3-1/4 to 3 

Over 2-7/16 

Through 2-7/16 

Over 1-5/8 

Through 1-5/8 

Over 13/16 

Through 13/16 

Over 9/16 

Through 9/16 

Over 5/16 

Through 5/16 

Over 3/16 

Through 3/16 

Over 3/32 

Through 3/32 

Over 3/64 

Through 3/64 

15 

15 

15 

15 

15 

15 

17 

20 

30 

No limit 

7-1/2 

7-1/2 

7-1/2 

7-1/2 

7-1/2 

7-1/2 

7-1/2 

10 

10 

1-1/2 

1-1/2 2 

3 

11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

12 

13 

13 

15 

15 

16 

"When slate content in the sizes from broken to chestnut, inclusive, is less than above standards, bone content may be increased by 1-1/2 

times the decrease in slate content under the allowable limits, but slate content specified above shall not be exceeded In any event. A 

tolerance of 1 percent Is allowed on maximum percentage of undersize and maximum percentage of content Maximum percentage of 

undersize Is applicable only to anthracite as it is produced at preparation plant Slate is defined as any material that has less than 40 percent 

fixed carbon. Bone is defined as any material that has 40 percent or more, but less than 75 percent, fixed carbon. 

bAsh determinations are on a dry basis. 

Note: Standard anthracite specifications as approved and adopted by the Anthracite Committee, an agency of the Commonwealth of 

Pennsylvania, effective July 28, 1947, and amended July 20, 1953. Approximate size classification for bituminous coal are: Run-of-mine, 8 

inches; lump, 5 inches; egg, 2 to 5 inches; nut 1-1/4 to 2 inches; stoker, 3/4 to 1-1/4 inches; slack, less than 3/4 inches. 

- = Not applicable. 

Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, "Anthracite," Mineral Facts and Problems, Washington, DC, 1965. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 109 

Coal Terminology and Related Information 

An electric drill prepares overburden for blasting by bonng holes in a prescnbed pattern, making it easier to excavate. The spoil 

pile in the background is overburden removed from another part of the mine. 

Coal Terminology and Related Information 

Acid Mine Drainage: This refers to water pollution 

that results when sulfur-bearing minerals associated 

with coal are exposed to air and water and form 

sulfuric acid and ferrous sulfate. The ferrous sulfate can 

further react to form ferric hydroxide, or yellowboy, a 

yellow-orange iron precipitate found in streams and 

rivers polluted by acid mine drainage. 

Acid Rain: Also called acid precipitation or acid 

deposition, acid rain is precipitation containing harmful 

amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids formed primarily 

by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into the 

atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. It can be wet 

precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation 

(absorbed gaseous and particulate matter, aerosol 

particles, or dust). Acid rain has a pH below 5.6. 

Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6, which is slightly 

acidic. The term pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity 

on a range from 0 to 14. Readings below 7, which is 

neutral, indicate increased acidity; readings above 7 

indicate increased alkalinity. 

As-Received Coal: Coal in the condition as received by 

the consumer or the laboratory analyzing the coal. 

Bone Coal: Coal with a high ash content (25 to 50 

percent, by weight); it is dull in appearance, hard, and 

compact. 

Btu (British thermal unit): A measure of energy, the 

Btu is the amount of heat needed to raise the 

temperature of 1 pound of water (approximately 1 pint) 

by 1 degree Fahrenheit. The Btu is a convenient 

measure by which to compare the energy content of 

various fuels. One Btu of energy is approximately 

equivalent to the heat from one match tip. Heat 

available from coal, expressed as Btu per pound or ton, 

is a major factor in coal price. 

Captive Coal: This refers to coal produced and 

consumed by the mine operator, a subsidiary, or the 

parent company (for example, steel companies and 

electric utilities). 

Coal Analysis: This determines the composition and 

properties of coal so it can be ranked and used most 

effectively. 

Proximate analysis determines the behavior of a coal 

when burned. It measures (in percent) the moisture 

content, volatile matter (gases released when coal is 

heated, principally hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon 

monoxide, and various compounds of carbon and 

hydrogen), fixed carbon (solid combustible residue 

remaining after the volatile matter is driven off— 

principally carbon, but may contain sulfur, hydrogen, 

nitrogen, and oxygen), and ash (incombustible matter 

consisting of silica, iron, alumina, and other material 

similar to ordinary sand, silt, and clay). The moisture 

content affects the ease with which coal can be handled 

and burned. Volatile matter and fixed carbon provide 

guidelines for determining the intensity of the heat 

produced (volatile matter influences the ignitability and 

overall combustion of a coal and contributes about 25 

to 40 percent of the heat; fixed carbon, 60 to 75 

percent). Ash increases the weight of coal, adds to the 

cost of handling, and can cause fuel bed and furnace 

problems due to the formation of clinkers (fused ash) 

and slag (melted ash that sticks to furnace walls). 

Proximate analysis may be reported in several ways, 

such as "as received," "dry," and "dry, mineral-matterfree (dmmf)." Proximate analysis is commonly used in 

industrial applications, such as in the purchase of coal 

for electricity generation. 

Ultimate analysis determines the percentage of carbon, 

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and ash. It may be 

reported in several ways, such as "as received," "dry," 

and "dry, mineral-matter-free (dmmf)." Ultimate 

analysis is used for a more thorough scientific 

investigation of coal. 

Heating value, or heat content, is determined in terms of 

Btu, both on an as-received basis (including moisture) 

and on a dry basis. It is the amount of heat released by 

the complete combustion of a specified quantity of coal 

(usually 1 pound or 1 short ton) as carbon and 

hydrogen combine with oxygen in the air to produce 

carbon dioxide and water. Higher heating value (HHV), 

or gross heat content, includes the amount of energy 

used to transform the water into steam. Lower heating 

value, or net heat content, excludes the energy used to 

vaporize the water and is generally calculated to be 93 

to 97 percent of the gross heat value. EIA conversion 

factors typically represent gross heat content. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 113 
Proximate Analysis 

Moisture 

Ultimate Analysis 

Ash 

Sulfur 

itrogen 

Two different types of analyses of a bituminous coal. 

Agglomerating refers to coal that softens when heated 

and forms a hard gray coke; this coal is called caking 

coal. Not all caking coals are coking coals. The 

agglomerating value is used to differentiate between 

coal ranks and also is a guide to determine how a 

particular coal reacts in a furnace. 

Agglutinating refers to the binding qualities of a coal. 

The agglutinating value is an indication of how well a 

coke made from a particular coal will perform in a blast 

furnace. It is also called a caking index. 

Other analyses include the determination of the ashsoftening temperature, the ash-fusion temperature (the 

temperature at which the ash forms clinkers or slag), 

the free-swelling index (a guide to a coal's coking 

characteristics), the Gray-King assay (determines the 

suitability of coal for making coke), and the Hardgrove 

Grindability Index, or HGI (a measure of the ease with 

which coal can be pulverized as compared with a 

"standard" coal with a 100 HGI value; the lower the 

index, the harder to grind and vice-versa). In a 

petrographic analysis, thin sections of coal or highly 

polished blocks of coal are studied with a microscope 

to determine the physical composition, both for 

scientific purposes and for estimating the rank and 

coking potential. 

Coal Blending: The process of combining two or more 

coals with different characteristics to obtain coal with a 

certain quality, such as a low sulfur content. 

Coal Chemicals: Coal chemicals are obtained from the 

gases and vapor recovered from the manufacturing of 

coke. Generally, crude tar, ammonia, crude light oil, 

and gas are the basic products recovered. They are 

refined or processed to yield a variety of chemical 

materials. 

114 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Coal Classification: In the United States, coals are 

classified by rank progressively from lignite (least 

carbonaceous) to anthracite (most carbonaceous) based 

on the proximate analyses of various properties (fixed 

carbon, volatile matter, heating value, and agglomerating character), following methods prescribed by the 

American Society for Testing and Materials. The 

International Coal Classification of the Economic 

Commission for Europe recognizes two broad categories of coal, "brown coal" and "hard coal." In terms 

of U.S. coal classification, the international classification 

of brown coal includes lignite and lower-ranked 

subbituminous coal, whereas hard coal includes all 

higher rank coals. 

Coal Face: This is the exposed area from which coal is 

extracted. 

Coal Fines: Coal with a maximum particle size usually 

less than one-sixteenth inch and rarely above oneeighth inch. 

Coal Grade: This classification refers to coal quality 

and use. The classification includes the following 

categories: 

Briquettes are made from compressed coal dust, with or 

without a binding agent such as asphalt. 

Cleaned coal or prepared coal has been processed to 

reduce the amount of impurities present and improve 

the burning characteristics. 

Compliance coal is a coal, or a blend of coal, that meets 

sulfur dioxide emission standards for air quality 

without the need for flue gas desulfurization. 

Culm and silt are waste materials from preparation 

plants. In the anthracite region, culm consists of coarse 

rock fragments containing as much as 30 percent smallsized coal. Silt is a mixture of very fine coal particles 

(approximately 40 percent) and rock dust that has 

settled out from waste water from the plants. The terms 

culm and silt are sometimes used interchangeably and 

are sometimes called refuse. Culm and silt have a heat 

value ranging from 8 to 17 million Btu per ton. 

Low-ash coal contains less than 8 percent ash by weight; 

medium-ash coal, 8 percent to less than 15 percent by 

weight; high-ash coal, more than 15 percent ash by 

weight. 

Low-sulfur coal contains 1 percent or less sulfur by 

weight. For air quality standards, "low-sulfur coal" 

contains 0.6 pounds or less sulfur per million Btu 

(equivalent to 1.2 pounds of sulfur dioxide per million 

Btu). Medium-sulfur coal contains more than 1 percent to 

less than 3 percent sulfur by weight; 0.61 to 1.67 

pounds of sulfur per million Btu. High-sulfur coal 

contains more than 3 percent sulfur by weight; more 

than 1.67 pounds of sulfur per million Btu. 

Metallurgical coal (or coking coal) is a coal that can be 

converted into coke. It must have a low ash and sulfur 

content and form a coke that is strong enough to 

support the weight of iron ore and limestone in a blast 

furnace. A blend of two or more bituminous coals is 

usually required to make coke. 

Pulverized coal is coal that has been crushed to a fine 

dust in a grinding mill. It is blown into the combustion 

zone of a furnace and burns very rapidly and 

efficiently. 

Slack coal usually refers to bititminous coal one-half inch 

or smaller in size. 

Steam coal refers to coal used in boilers to generate 

steam to produce electricity or for other purposes. 

Stoker coal refers to coal that has been crushed to 

specific sizes (but not powdered) for burning on a grate 

in automatic firing equipment. 

Coal Preparation (Cleaning/Beneficiation/Processing) 

Processes: 

Dense (heavy) medium processes use a thick solution, 

usually a mixture of magnetite and water, to separate 

coal from impurities by gravity separation. 

Flotation processes treat fine-sized coal with an oil-based 

reagent that attracts air bubbles in a liquid medium; the 

coal floats to the surface as a froth, leaving the refuse 

below. 

Hydraulic processes use currents of water to separate coal 

from impurities. 

Pneumatic processes use currents of air to separate coal 

from impurities. 

Coal Rank: This classification is based on the fixed 

carbon, volatile matter, and heating value. It is an 

indication of the progressive alteration, or coalification, 

from lignite to anthracite. Rank can also be determined 

by measuring the reflectance of vitrinite, one of the 

several organic components (macerals) of coal. 

Lignite, the lowest rank of coal, is brownish black and 

has a high moisture content, sometimes as high as 45 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 115 
percent. It tends to disintegrate when exposed to 

weather. The heat content of lignite ranges from 9 to 17 

million Btu per ton as received and averages about 14 

million Btu per ton. The ignition temperature is 

approximately 600 degrees Fahrenheit. Lignite is mined 

in California, Louisiana, Montana, North Dakota, and 

Texas, and is used mainly to generate electricity in 

power plants that are relatively close to the mines. The 

term "lignite" is used interchangeably with "brown 

coal" in other countries. 

Subbituminous coal, or black lignite, is dull black and 

usually contains 20 to 30 percent moisture. The heat 

content of subbitiurunous coal ranges from 16 to 24 

million Btu per ton as received and averages about 18 

million Btu per ton. Subbitiiminous coal, mined in 

western coal fields (notably the Powder River Basin), is 

used mostly for generating electricity. 

Bituminous coal, or soft coal, is the most common coal. It 

is dense, black, often with well-defined bands of bright 

and dull material. Its moisture content usually is less 

than 20 percent. The heating value ranges from 19 to 30 

million Btu per ton as received and averages about 24 

million Btu per ton. The ignition temperature ranges 

from about 700 to almost 900 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Bitiurtinous coal is mined chiefly in Appalachian and 

interior coal fields. It is used for generating electricity, 

making coke, and space heating. 

Anthracite, or hard coal, is the highest rank of 

economically usable coal. It is jet black with a high 

luster. The moisture content generally is less than 15 

percent. Anthracite contains approximately 22 to 28 

million Btu per ton as received and averages about 25 

million Btu per ton. Its ignition temperature is 

approximately 925 to 970 degrees Fahrenheit. Virtually 

all of the anthracite mined is from northeastern 

Pennsylvania. It is used mostly for space heating and 

generating electricity. 

Meta-anthracite, the highest rank of coal, is a low-quality 

fuel. It is dull gray or black, and has a high ash content. 

It was intermittently mined in the Narragansett Basin 

of Rhode Island and Massachusetts. The last mine, at 

Cranston, Rhode Island, closed in 1959. Coal from the 

area averaged about 19 million Btu per ton as received. 

Coal Sulfur: Coal sulfur occurs in three forms: organic, 

sulfate, and pyritic. Organic sulfur is an integral part of 

the coal matrix and cannot be removed by conventional 

physical separation. Sulfate sulfur is usually negligible. 

Pyritic sulfur occurs as the minerals pyrite and 

marcasite; larger sizes generally can be removed by 

cleaning the coal. 

Coal Type: This classification is based on physical 

characteristics or microscopic constituents. Examples of 

coal types are banded coal, boghead coal, bright coal, cannel 

coal, and splint coal. The term is also used to classify 

coal according to heat and sulfur content. (See Coal 

Grade.) 

Coalbed Degasification: This refers to the removal of 

methane, or coalbed gas, from a coal mine before or 

during mining. 

Coalbed Methane: Methane is generated during coal 

formation and is contained in the coal microstructure. 

Typical recovery entails pumping water out of the coal 

to allow the gas to escape. Methane is the principal 

component of natural gas. Coalbed methane can be 

added to natural gas pipelines without any special 

treatment. 

Coke: Coke is a combustible residue consisting of 

residual ash and fixed carbon made from bitiiminous 

coal (or blends of bituminous coal) from which the 

volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven 

at temperatures as high as 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit. 

The process is called carbonization. Coke is hard and 

porous, has a gray, submetallic luster, and is strong 

enough to support a load of iron ore in a blast furnace. 

It is used chiefly as a fuel and reducing agent in 

smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Coke has a heat 

value of about 25 million Btu per ton. 

Coke Battery: A series of adjacent coke ovens, usually 

45 or more, sharing coal charging and byproduct 

control equipment. 

Coke Breeze: The term refers to the fine sizes of 

crushed coke that will pass through a Vi-inch or

 3/4-inch 

screen opening. It is commonly used for sintering 

(agglomerating) iron ore, a process in which fine ore is 

mixed with coke and ignited to produce semifused 

lumps of ore. 

Coke Button: A button-shaped piece of coke resulting 

from a standard laboratory test that indicates the coking 

or free-swelling characteristics of a coal; expressed in 

numbers and compared with a standard. 

Coke Oven: An individual coking chamber made of 

silica brick walls and ranging from 4 to 14 feet in 

height, 30 to 45 feet in length, and 1 to 2 feet in width. 

Byproduct ovens contain a series of long, narrow 

chambers arranged in rows and heated by flues in 

which are burned a portion of the combustible gases 

generated by the coking of coal. All the volatile 

116 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
products are collected as ammonia, tar, and gas, and 

may be further processed into other byproducts. 

Coke-Oven Gas: This by-product of coke production 

is used as fuel for heating coke ovens, generating 

steam and producing heat for other purposes. 

Fossil Fuel: Fuel such as coal, crude oil, or natural gas, 

formed from the fossil remains of organic material. 

Foundry Coke: This is a special coke, generally 3 

inches and larger in size, that is used in furnaces to 

produce cast and ductile iron products. It is a source of 

heat and also helps maintain the required carbon 

content of the metal product. Foundry coke production 

requires lower temperatures and longer times than blast 

furnace coke. 

Fuel Ratio: The ratio of fixed carbon to volatile matter 

in cc al. 

Gob: This refers to the caved area of broken rock in an 

underground mine. A gob pile is a heap of waste from 

preparation plants. 

Interburden: The material that separates the coalbeds 

of a surface deposit. 

Middlings: In coal preparation, this material, also 

called mid-coal, is neither clean coal nor refuse; due to 

their intermediate specific gravity, middlings sink only 

partway in the washing vessels and are removed by 

auxiliary means. 

Open-Market Coal: Coal that is sold on the 

commercial market, in contrast to captive coal. 

Overburden: Any material, consolidated or 

unconsolidated, that overlies a coal deposit. Overburden 

ratio (stripping ratio) refers to the amount of overburden 

that must be removed to excavate a given quantity of 

coal. It is commonly expressed in cubic yards per ton 

of coal, but is sometimes expressed as a ratio 

comparing the thickness of the overburden with the 

thickness of the coalbed. Spoil is the overburden 

removed in gaining access to a coalbed in surface 

mining. Swell factor is the ratio of the increase in 

volume, normally expressed as a percentage, that 

occurs in the overburden material when it is excavated 

and deposited in a loose state. 

Parting: A layer of rock within a coalbed that lies 

roughly parallel to the coalbed and has the effect of 

splitting the bed into two divisions. 

Peat: Peat is partially decomposed plant debris, and is 

considered an early stage in the development of coal. 

Peat is distinguished from lignite by the presence of 

free cellulose and a high moisture content (exceeding 70 

percent). The heat content of air-dried peat (about 50 

percent moisture) is about 9 million Btu per ton. Most 

U.S. peat is used as a soil conditioner. The first U.S. 

electric power plant fueled by peat began operation in 

Maine in 1990. 

Raw Coal: Coal that has received no preparation other 

than possibly screening. 

Round Test Mesh: A sieving screen with round holes, 

the dimensions of which are of specific sizes to allow 

certain sizes of coal to pass through while retaining 

other sizes. 

Run-of-Mine Coal: Coal as it comes from the mine 

prior to screening or any other treatment. 

Screenings: The undersized coal from a screening 

process, usually one-half inch or smaller. 

Solvent Refined Coal (SRC): A tar-like fuel produced 

from coal when it is crushed and mixed with a 

hydrocarbon solvent at high temperature and pressure. 

Spontaneous Combustion, or Self-Heating, of Coal: 

A naturally occurring procei. caused by the oxidation 

of coal. It is most common in low-rank coals and is a 

potential problem in storing and transporting coal for 

extended periods. Factors involved in spontaneous 

combustion include the size of the coal (the smaller 

sizes are more susceptible), the moisture content, and 

the sulfur content. Heat buildup in stored coal can 

degrade the quality of coal, cause it to smolder, and 

lead to a fire. 

Surface Mining Equipment: 

An auger machine is a large horizontal drill, generally 3 

feet or more in diameter and up to about 100 feet long. 

It can remove coal at a rate of more than 25 tons per 

minute. 

A bucket-wheel excavator is a continuous-digging 

machine equipped with a boom that has a rotating 

wheel with buckets along its edge. The buckets scoop 

up material, then empty onto a conveyor leading to a 

spoil bank. This excavator is best suited for removing 

overburden that does not require blasting. It is also 

used in combination with conveyors to move topsoil 

from areas to be mined to storage. 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 117 
A bulldozer is a tractor with a movable steel blade 

mounted on the front. It can be used to remove 

overburden that needs little or no blasting. 

A carryall scraper (or pan scraper) is a self-loading 

machine, usually self-propelled, with a scraper-like 

retractable bottom. It is used to excavate and haul 

overburden. 

A continuous surface miner, used in some lignite mines, 

is equipped with crawlers, a rotating cutting head, and 

a conveyor. It travels over the bed, excavating a swath 

up to 13 feet wide and 2 feet deep. 

A dragline excavator removes overburden to expose the 

coal by means of a scoop bucket that is suspended from 

a long boom. The dragline digs by pulling the bucket 

toward the machine by means of a wire rope. 

A walking dragline is equipped with large outrigger 

platforms, or walking beams, instead of crawler tracks. 

It "walks" by the alternate movement of the walking 

beams. 

A drilling rig is used to determine the amount and type 

of overburden overlying a coal deposit and the extent 

of the deposit, to delineate major geologic features, and 

to drill holes for explosives to fragment the overburden 

for easier removal. 

A front-end loader is a tractor with a digging bucket 

mounted and operated on the front. It is often used to 

remove overburden in contour mining and to load coal. 

A hydraulic shovel excavates and loads by means of a 

bucket attached to a rigid arm that is hinged to a boom. 

A power shovel removes overburden and loads coal by 

means of a digging bucket mounted at the end of an 

arm suspended from a boom. The shovel digs by 

pushing the bucket forward and upward. It does not 

dig below the level at which it stands. 

A thin-seam miner resembles an auger machine but has 

a drum-type cutting head that cuts a rectangular cross 

section. 

Surface Mining Methods: 

An auger mine recovers coal through the use of a largediameter drill driven into a coalbed in the side of a 

surface mine pit. It usually follows contour surface 

mining, particularly when the overburden is too costly 

to excavate. (See also punch mine, a type of underground mine.) 

Area mining is practiced on relatively flat or gently 

rolling terrain. It recovers coal by mining long strips 

successively; the material excavated from the strip 

being mined is deposited in the strip pit previously 

mined. 

A bench is a ledge in a surface mine that forms a step 

from which excavation will take place at a constant 

level. 

A box cut is the first cut made to remove the 

overburden from the coal where no open side exists; 

this results in a highwall on both sides of the cut. The 

overburden is placed on unmined land, normally 

outside the area to be mined. 

Contour mining is practiced when the coal is mined on 

hillsides. The mining follows the contour of the hillside 

until the overburden becomes uneconomical to remove. 

This method creates a shelf, or bench, on the hillside. 

Several variations of contour mining have been 

developed to control environmental problems. These 

methods include slope reduction (overburden is spread 

so that the angle of the slope on the hillside is 

reduced), head-of-hollow fill (overburden is placed in 

narrow V-shaped valleys to control erosion), and blockcut (overburden from current mining is backfilled into 

a previously mined cut). 

Explosives casting is a technique designed to blast up to 

65 percent of the overburden into the mine pit for 

easier removal. It differs from conventional overburden 

blasting, which only fractures the overburden before it 

is removed by excavating equipment. 

A highwall is the unexcavated face of exposed 

overburden and coal in a surface mine. 

Mountaintop mining, sometimes considered a variation 

of contour mining, refers to the mining of a coalbed 

that underlies the top of a mountain. The overburden, 

which is the mountaintop, is completely removed so 

that all of the coal can be recovered. The overburden 

material is later replaced in the mined-out area. This 

method leaves large plateaus of level land. 

Open-pit coal mining is essentially a combination of 

contour and area mining methods and is used to mine 

thick, steeply inclined coalbeds. The overburden is 

removed by power shovels and trucks. 

Tipple: Originally, the place on the surface where 

mine cars were tipped or emptied of their coal, but 

now expanded to include the place where trucks, railroad cars, or conveyors hauling coal from a mine dump 

118 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
the coal. Sometimes applied to the surface structures of 

a mine, including the preparation plant and loading 

tracks. 

Underground Mining Equipment: 

An armored face conveyor is used to transport coal from 

the face of a longwall operation and also to support the 

shearing machine or plow. 

A coal-cutting machine is used in conventional rnining to 

undercut, topcut, or shear the coal face so that coal can 

be fractured easily when blasted. It cuts 9 to 13 feet into 

the bed. 

A continuous auger machine is used in rnining coalbeds 

less than 3 feet thick. The auger has a cutting depth of 

about 5 feet and is 20 to 28 inches in diameter. 

Continuous auger rruning usually uses a conveyor belt 

to haul the coal to the surface. 

A continuous-mining machine, used during continuous 

mining, cuts or rips coal from the face and loads it into 

shuttle cars or conveyors in one operation. It eliminates 

the use of blasting devices and performs many 

functions of other equipment such as drills, cutting 

machines, and loaders. A continuous-mining machine 

typically has a turning "drum" with sharp bits that cut 

and dig out the coal for 16 to 22 feet before mining 

stops so that the mined area can be supported with roof 

bolts. This machine can mine coal at the rate of 8 to 15 

tons per minute. 

Conveyor systems consist of two types. A mainline 

conveyor is usually a permanent installation that carries 

coal to the surface. A section conveyor connects the 

working face to the mainline conveyor. 

A face drill is used in conventional mining to drill 

shotholes in the coalbed for explosive charges. 

A loading machine is used in conventional mining to 

scoop broken coal from the working area and load it 

into a shuttle car, which hauls the coal to mine cars or 

conveyors for delivery to the surface. 

A mine locomotive, operating on tracks, is used to haul 

mine cars containing coal and other material, and to 

move personnel in specially designed "mantrip" cars. 

Large locomotives can haul more than 20 tons at a 

speed of about 10 miles per hour. Most mine 

locomotives run on electricity provided by a trolley 

wire; some are battery-powered. 

A plow is a longwaU-rruning machine with a blade that 

has fixed bits or a saw-toothed edge. 

A ram car, or shuttle ram, is a rubber-tired haulage 

vehicle that is unloaded through the use of a movable 

steel plate located at the back of the haulage bed. 

A roof-bolting machine, or roof bolter, is used to drill holes 

and place bolts to support the mine roof. Roof bolting 

units can be installed on a continuous-rrtining machine. 

A scoop is a rubber-tired haulage vehicle used in thin 

coalbeds. 

A shearer is a longwaU-rnining machine with one or two 

rotating cutting drums. 

A shield is a movable roof support used in longwall 

mining. 

A shortwall-mining machine generally is a continuousmining machine used with a powered, self-advancing 

roof support system. It shears coal from a short coal 

face (up to about 150 feet long). The broken coal is 

hauled by shuttle cars to a conveyor belt. 

A shuttle car is a rubber-tired haulage vehicle that is 

unloaded by a built-in conveyor. 

Underground Mining Methods: 

A cross cut in an underground mine is a short tunnel 

connecting two parallel entries. 

Development refers to the n^ning needed to provide 

access to the area to be produced. It includes driving 

shafts and slopes. 

A drift mine is driven horizontally into coal that is 

exposed or accessible in a hillside. 

An entry in an underground mine is a tunnel-like 

passage, usually driven entirely within the coalbed and 

rectangular in cross section, typically about 6 feet high 

and 20 feet wide. The number of entries is determined 

by the requirements for ventilation, haulage, 

escapeways, and mine services such as power, water, 

and drainage. 

In a hydraulic mine, high-pressure water jets break the 

coal from a steeply inclined, thick coalbed that would 

be difficult to mine with the usual underground 

methods. The coal is then transported to the surface by 

a system of flumes or by pipeline. Although currently 

not in commercial use in the United States, hydraulic 

rnining is used in western Canada. 

In longwall mining, a panel, or block, of coal generally 

about 700 feet wide and often over 1 mile long is 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 119 
completely extracted, leaving no pillars to support the 

mined-out area. The working area is protected by a 

movable, powered roof support system. The caved area 

(gob) compacts and, after initial subsidence, supports 

the overlying strata. Longwall mining is used where the 

coalbed is thick and generally flat, and where surface 

subsidence is acceptable. 

A portal is the surface entrance to an underground 

mine. It is the point where the main haulage and 

ventilation entries of the mine intersect the earth's 

surface. 

A punch mine is a type of small drift mine used to 

recover coal from strip-mine highwalls or from small, 

otherwise uneconomical, coal deposits. 

Rock dusting, sprayed in an underground coal mine, 

reduces the possibility of coal dust explosions. Rock 

dust is a very fine noncombustible material, usually 

pulverized limestone. 

Roof bolting is the principal method of supporting the 

mine roof. In roof bolting, long bolts, 2 to 10 feet long 

with an expansion shell or with resin grouting, are 

placed in the mine roof. The bolts reinforce the roof by 

pulling together rock strata to make a strong beam, or 

by fastening weak strata to strong strata. 

In a room-and-pillar mining system, the most common 

method, the mine roof is supported mainly by coal 

pillars left at regular intervals. Rooms are places where 

the coal is mined; pillars are areas of coal left between 

the rooms. Room-and-pillar mining is done either by (1) 

conventional mining, which involves a series of 

operations that require cutting the working face of the 

coalbed so that it breaks easily when blasted with 

explosives or high-pressure air, and then loading the 

broken coal or (2) continuous mining, in which a 

continuous mining machine extracts and removes coal 

from the working face in one operation. When a section 

of a mine has been fully developed, additional coal 

may be extracted by mining the supportive pillars until 

the roof caves in; this procedure is called room-and-pillar 

retreat mining. 

A shaft mine is driven vertically to the coal deposit. 

A shortwall mining system generally refers to room-andpillar mining in which the working face is wider than 

usual but smaller (less than 150 feet) than that in 

longwall rruning. 

A slope mine is driven at an angle to reach the coal 

deposit. 

Ventilation, accomplished with large fans, is essential to 

supply fresh air and to remove gases and dust from the 

mine. 

120 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
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126 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 
Sources of Information on Coal 

Many publications about coal and coal-related subjects 

are sold by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. 

Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, Telephone: (202) 783-3238. Reference copies of many of 

these publications are available to the public in Federal 

Depository libraries located nationwide. A list of 

depository libraries is available free upon request from: 

Federal Depository Library Program, Office of the 

Public Printer, Washington, DC 20401. 

Energy Research Abstracts (ERA) provides abstracting 

and indexing coverage of all scientific and technical 

reports, journal articles, conference papers and proceedings, books, patents, theses, and monographs 

originated by the U.S. Department of Energy, its laboratories, energy center and contractors. ERA also covers 

other energy information prepared in report form by 

Federal and State government organizations, foreign 

governments, and domestic and foreign universities 

and research organizations. ERA coverage of nonreport 

U.S. Department Of Energy 

National Energy Information Center, EI-231 

Forrestal Building 

Washington, DC 20585 

(202) 586-8800 

Public Inquires 

Office of Public Affairs 

Forrestal Building 

Washington, DC 20585 

(202) 586-5575 

Office of Scientific and Technical Information 

P.O.Box 62 

Oak Ridge, TN 37831 

(615) 576-1301 

Morgantown Energy Technology Center 

P.O.Box 880 

Morgantown, WV 26507 

(304) 285-4764 

Pittsburgh Energy Technology Center 

P.O. Box 10940 

Pittsburgh, PA 15236 

(412) 892-6029 

literature is limited to that generated by Department 

of Energy activity. DOE and DOE contractors who 

have OSTI deposit accounts can obtain ERA from the 

Office of Scientific and Technical Information, P.O. Box 

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Services. For further information, call (615) 576-1155. 

ERA is available to the public on a subscription basis 

from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 20402. 

Coal Abstracts provides comprehensive world-wide 

coverage of books, journals, report, dissertations, and 

conference proceedings in the field of coal science and 

technology from the evaluation of deposits to the 

ultimate uses of coal as an energy source and raw 

material, including environmental effects. Coal Abstracts 

is published by the International Energy Agency (IEA), 

Coal Research, Gemini House, 10-18 Putney Hill, 

London SW15 6AA, United Kingdom. 

Other Sources 

American Boiler Manufacturers Association 

950 North Glebe Road, Suite 160 

Arlington, VA 22203 

(703) 522-7350 

American Coal Ash Association, Inc., 

2760 Eisenhower Ave, Suit 304 

Alexandria, VA 22314 

(703) 317-2400 

American Coal Foundation 

918 16th Street, N.W. 

Washington, DC 20006 

(202) 466-8630 

American Coke & Coal Chemicals Institute 

1225 23rd Street, N.W. 

Washington, DC 20037 

(202) 452-1140 

Bureau of Land Management 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

18th & C Streets, NW. 

Washington, DC 20240 

(202) 208-3435 

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 127 
Bureau of Mines 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Pittsburgh Research Center 

Cochran Mill Rd. 

P.O. Box 18070 

Pittsburgh, PA 15236 

(412) 892-6602 

Coal & Slurry Technology Association 

1156 15th Street, N.W. 

Washington, DC 20005 

(202) 296-1133 

Geological Survey 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

The National Center 

12201 Sunrise Valley Drive 

Reston, VA 22092 

(703) 648-4000 

Mine Safety and Health Administration 

U.S. Department of Labor 

40154 Wilson Blvd. 

Arlington, VA 22203 

(703) 235-1456 

Minerals Information Office 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

18th & C Streets, N.W. 

Washington, DC 20240 

(202) 208-5520 

Minerals Management Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

18th & C Streets, N.W. 

Washington, DC 20240 

(202) 208-3983 

National Coal Association 

1130 17th Street, N.W. 

Washington, DC 20036 

(202) 463-2625 

National Technical Information Service 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

5285 Port Royal Rd. 

Springfield, VA 22161 

(703) 487-4650; (800) 553-NTIS 

Office of Surface Mining 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

1951 Constitution Ave., NW 

Washington, DC 20240 

(202) 208-2553 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

401 M Street S.W. 

Washington, DC 20460 

(202) 260-2080 or 7751 

In coal-producing States: State Mine Agencies and 

Geological Surveys. 

128 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference