1910 Wells open to the 

Clayton aquifer ceased 

flowing at Albany

(Clarke and others, 1984)

1881 First flowing-artesian

well in Georgia near Albany.

Albany designated as Artesian 

City (accessed April 21, 2003, at 

http://www.albanyga.com/cvb/hist1871.html)

1916 Flood,

 8–21 inches

 rainfall (Golden 

 and Hess, 1991)

1925 Flood, 

8–11 inches 

rainfall (Golden 

and Hess, 1991)

1927 U.S. Congress authorized 

the Army Corps of Engineers

to study the Apalachicola River 

and its tributaries (U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, 1973)

1930 Construction on 

dam completed, creating 

Lake Blackshear

1948 Flood, 

6–13 inches 

rainfall (Golden 

and Hess, 1991)

1994 Flood, more 

 than 13 inches rainfall 

 from Tropical Storm 

 Alberto during 24-hour

 period (Stamey,1996) 

 

1977 USGS began cooperative 

water-resources program 

with Albany Water, Gas,

and Light Commission

1972 Georgia General Assembly

passed Ground-Water Use Act

requiring permitting of all nonagricultural users withdrawing

100,000 gallons per day or more

1970s Rapid expansion

of irrigation pumpage

Photo by Dab and Clay Taylor, Albany, Georgia

1984 U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers completed 

water assessment for 

ACF River Basin

Water Management Study

(U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, 1984)

1985 USGS began

 cooperative study 

with U.S. Army

Corps of Engineers

1988 Permit required 

by GaEPD for

agricultural irrigation 

2002 State of

Georgia purchases

a portion of

Swamp of Toa

for wildlife

management area

2003 Portion of Swamp of Toa designated as National Important Bird Area;

passage of House Bill 579 requiring measurement of all agricultural water use;

 Compact negotiations lapse 

1990 Alabama sues

U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers over plan

to increase surfacewater allocation

to serve Atlanta

1991 Federal

lawsuit suspended 

in lieu of Comprehensive Study

1993 USGS addressed

Ground-Water Supply 

Element of

Comprehensive Study

Timeline of Scientific Studies, Water Management, and Major Events Affecting Water Resources

1960

1968–71

Drought,

variable

severity

1950–57

Severe

regional

drought

(Golden and 

Hess, 1991)

1930–35 

Severe drought

throughout

United States

(Golden and 

Hess, 1991)

1938–44

Regional

drought

(Golden and 

Hess, 1991)

1903–05

Severe

drought

1980–82 

Regional

drought

(Golden and 

Hess, 1991)

Recurrence interval, in years

Insignificant

Drought

10 to 25 (Between 1 in 10 chance and 1 in 

25 chance of occurring in any given year)

Greater than 50 (At least 1 in 50

chance of occurring in any given year)

Flooding at Albany State 

University after Tropical Storm 

Alberto (July 1994). Photo by

Timothy W. Hale, USGS

Apalachicola–Chattahoochee–Flint 

River Basin Conflict 

2001 Georgia 

General Assembly 

created Joint 

Comprehensive

Water Plan Study 

Committee (SR142)

(accessed August 10, 

2004, at http://www.

cviog.uga.edu/water/

sr142.html)

1957 Construction 

on Jim Woodruff 

Lock and Dam 

completed, creating 

Lake Seminole

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1970 1980 1990 2000 2004

1997 Water supply concerns led 

Alabama, Florida, and Georgia to 

sign a preliminary interstate water 

compact, intended to lay groundwork for the equitable use and 

availability of water resources in the 

region while protecting river ecology 

Currently, “the states... are battling over water sharing in federal courts in Washington, 

DC, Gainesville, Ga., and Birmingham [, Alabama, and] many legal experts have 

predicted the fight will end in the U.S. Supreme Court” (Shelton, 2004)

1970–80 Irrigation water use 

in Georgia increased by a factor 

of about 12 (Pierce and others, 1984)

Photo by Alan M. Cressler, USGS

ALBANY, GEORGIA

WATER, GAS & LIGHT COMMISSION

Flood

Explanation for drought and flood maps

1985–89 

Regional drought

(Golden and Hess, 1991)

2000 Flint River 

Drought Protection 

Act was enacted by 

GaEPD to ensure 

that Flint River 

flows are adequate 

to support fish and 

wildlife during times

of severe drought

2004 House Bill 237 

enacted, creating 

Comprehensive 

Statewide Water 

Management 

Planning Act

(accessed August 10, 2004,

at http://www.legis.state.

ga.us/legis/2003_04/ 

fulltext/hb237.htm)

DAILY MEAN DEPTH BELO

W

LAND SURFACE, IN FEET

DAILY MEAN DEPTH BELO

W

LAND SURFACE, IN FEET

Hydrograph showing steady 

decline of Clayton aquifer 

water levels in Albany area

Hydrograph shows increased water levels 

in the Upper Floridan aquifer resulting 

from Tropical Storm Alberto. Water levels 

remained high through early 1995.

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

5

10

15

20

25

30

Well 12L028

19741976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990199219941996199820002002

20

60

100

140

180

Well 11L002

The Flint River Drought Protection 

Act of 2001 authorizes compensation 

to farmers for removing agricultural 

acreage from irrigation during a 

severe drought year.

YES—an auction 

is held allowing all 

eligible farmers to 

bid voluntarily on 

a price per acre 

basis for acreage 

they are willing to 

refrain from irrigating. Starting with lowest, bids are 

accepted until target acres have 

been removed (Georgia Department 

of Natural Resources, 2001).

AUCTION ACRES LESS THAN TARGET?

YES—“non-voluntary irrigation acreage reduction” begins with the most recent 

permit issued and continues with the next most “junior in time” permits (“last-in, 

first-out” or LIFO). These permit owners would be required, in LIFO order, to forgo 

use of their water permit at a price per acre equal to the average price paid in the 

voluntary auction (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, 2001).

Information used to make drought decision:

• Water levels in nine USGS monitoring wells open to the Upper Floridan aquifer, 

• Flow data from five USGS streamgaging stations in the lower Flint River Basin, and 

• Precipitation forecast from The University of Georgia environmental 

monitoring network.

NO—farmers are allowed to irrigate 

using streams that flow year-round.

Ground-Water/Surface-Water Interactions Drought Protection Act—Influences agricultural water use

WILL DROUGHT BE DECLARED ON MARCH 1? Each March 1st, 

as long as this legislation is in effect, the Director of the GaEPD

must announce whether or not drought conditions exist.

Civic Center parking

lot is inundated

Area around

Courthouse

is inundated

46

44

42

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

22

20

18

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

18

32

30

28

26

24

22

18

42

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

34.70

38.40

34.39

38.00

45.73

1949

1994

1929

1971

1990

Flint River near Culloden (02347500) 1913–31,1937–2000

EXAMPLE: Flint River near Culloden (02347500) 

If stage equals 33.30 feet, and sea level conversion factor (datum) equals 

334.54 feet, elevation above sea level is 33.30 + 334.54 = 367.84 feet

17.90 17.00

18.00

16.70

24.22

1929

1994

1942

1949

1971

Flint River near Griffin (02344500) 1929, 1937–2000

27.40

25.20 26.00 26.05

34.11

1949

1994

1929

1897

1990

Flint River at Montezuma (02349500) 1897, 1905–2000

11.40

9.70

12.16 11.66

10.0

*National Weather Service flood stage

1978

1943

1994

1990

1948

Kinchafoonee Creek at Preston (02350600) 1943, 1948–78, 1987–2000

17.20

16.20

15.08

23.20

19.59

1994

1916

1978

1925

1998

Ichawaynochaway Creek at Milford

(02353500) 1906–07, 1916, 1925, 1940–2000

23.00

20.46 20.44

26.56

21.59

1994

1943

1966

1998

1990

Kinchafoonee Creek near Dawson

(02350900) 1943, 1948–66, 1973, 1985–2000

19.90 19.43 18.86

19.95

24.40

1948

1994

1975

1995

1998

Spring Creek near Iron City (02357000) 1938–78, 1983–2000

37.80

34.40 34.72

43.00

36.92

1929

1994

1925

1966

1998

Flint River at Albany (02352500) 1893–2000

14.66 13.91 13.48

29.10

17.06

*15

*13

*7

1985

1994

1948

1991

1998

Muckalee Creek at State Highway 195 near Leesburg

(02351890) 1943, 1948, 1980–2000

31.70

41.30

34.90

45.25

36.54

1925

1994

1944

1966

1998

Flint River at Newton (02353000) 1925, 1929, 1938–2000

To convert Stage to Sea Level

33.20

40.90

37.70 37.20

34.30

1925

1994

1912

1897

1929

Flint River at Bainbridge (02356000) 1897, 1905–96, 1999–2000

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

14

12

10

8

6

STAGE, IN FEET STAGE, IN FEET STAGE, IN FEET STAGE, IN FEET

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

22

20

18

16

14

12

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

STAGE, IN FEET STAGE, IN FEET STAGE, IN FEET STAGE, IN FEET STAGE, IN FEET

STAGE, IN FEETSTAGE, IN FEET

Predicted

flood crest:

Predicted

date and time:

Add 334.54 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Add 255.83 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Add 711.44 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Add 150.03 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Add 110.2 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Add 58.06 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Add 150.3 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Add 85.7 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Add 220.0 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Add 211.74 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Add 337.7 to 

stage to convert 

to elevation 

above sea level

Predicted

flood crest:

Predicted

date and time:

Predicted

flood crest:

Predicted

date and time:

Predicted

flood crest:

Predicted

date and time:

Predicted

flood crest:

Predicted

date and time:

Predicted

flood crest:

Predicted

date and time:

Predicted

flood crest:

Predicted

date and time:

Predicted

flood crest:

Predicted

date and time:

Not a National

Weather Service

forecast point

Not a National

Weather Service

forecast point

*25

*24

*20

*20

*18

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

NOTE: It's important to know your home's elevation. feet Not a National

Weather Service

forecast point

Flood-Tracking Chart for the Flint River Basin, Georgia

This Flint River Basin Flood-Tracking Chart can be used by local citizens and emergency response personnel 

to record the latest river stage and predicted flood-crest information along the Flint River and Kinchafoonee, 

Muckalee, Ichawaynochaway, and Spring Creeks. By comparing the current stage (water-surface level above 

a datum) and predicted flood crest to the recorded peak stages of previous floods, emergency response 

personnel and residents can make informed decisions concerning the threat to life and property.

This chart shows a map of the basin with the location 

of selected real-time river stage stations, which are 

listed by name and station number. For each site, 

colored bars represent the five highest recorded peak 

stages and the years in which they occurred. The 

white bar provides a scale on which to record the most 

recently reported river stage from the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS). The USGS Georgia District displays 

available real-time river stage data on the World 

Wide Web at http://water.usgs.gov/ga/nwis/rt. 

For each of the selected stations that is a floodforecast point, the predicted flood-crest information 

from the National Weather Service (NWS) can be 

recorded. USGS data are used by the NWS for their 

flood forecasting models. The NWS routinely 

broadcasts this forecast information to the news 

media and on National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio (NWR). 

Current NWR broadcast frequencies can be 

accessed at http://www.srh.noaa.gov.

For real-time streamflow data and other water-resources information,

access the USGS Water Resources of Georgia Home Page at 

http://ga.water.usgs.gov

For NWS predicted peaks and other information,

access the Southeast River Forecast Center Home Page at

http://www.srh.noaa.gov/serfc

Open-File Report 01-325

Real-time river 

 stage station

Flint River Basin

0

0

10

10

20

20

30 MILES

30 KILOMETERS

GEORGIA

Flood-Tracking Chart prepared in cooperation with

Gage

house

N

Flood Tracking

Flood-Tracking Chart

Flint River Basin, Georgia

Prepared in cooperation with

Eocene

Middle Upper Lo

wer

Paleocene

Oligocene

Pliocene

Pleistocene

Miocene

Quaternary

Holocene

Cretaceous

Mesozoic

Upper Cretaceous

Tertiary

Cenozoic

SERIES AQUIFER OR CONFINING UNIT LITHOLOGY REMARKS

20–270

10–100

20–80

0–270

0–260

0–265

0–390

0–300

0–700

0–150

200–1,200

Upper Floridan

aquifer

Surficial aquifer/

upper semiconfining unit

Lisbon confining unit

Upper water-bearing zone

Middle unit

Lower water-bearing zone

Blufftown aquifer

Eutaw and Tuscaloosa Formations

Claiborne aquifer Major source of water 

for public supply.

Major source of water 

for irrigation and 

domestic use.

Not a primary source of 

water, but has been used 

for domestic purposes.

In some areas, sand and 

limestone layers in the 

Hatchetigbee Formation, 

Tuscahoma Formation, 

Nanafalia Formation, and 

upper Clayton Formation 

provide ample supplies 

for domestic use.

Major source of water for 

irrigation, industrial, and 

public-supply use. In the 

carbonate area, the aquifer 

consists primarily of limestone and provides ample 

water for municipal, agricultural, and industrial supply.

Where absent, the Providence Sand, 

Ripley Formation, and upper Cusseta 

Sand form a single aquifer

Forms a single aquifer with the 

Providence Sand and Ripley 

Formation downdip and eastward

Providence aquifer

Hydrogeology of the Southern Flint River Basin

Modified from Clarke and others, 1984 (lower Eocene and deeper); and Hicks and others, 1987 (middle Eocene and upper)

ERA

SYSTEM

THEM

THICKNESS

(feet)

Wilcox confining unit

Clayton aquifer

Providence–Ripley confining unit

Cusseta aquifer

Sand

and

clay

Weathered

limestone

Sandy

limestone

Sand

Sand

Sand

Sand

Sand

Silty sand

Clay

Limestone

Glauconitic

limestone

Fossiliferous

limestone

Glauconitic

limestone

Glauconitic sand

Glauconitic sand

Clay and marl

Sand and clay

62

91

Road

91

Hard Up Road

Vanderbilt Drive

River Road

Lonesome Road

Old Pretoria

Wellfield

12K101

12K129

12K175

12L357

12L344

12L061

12L348

12L277 12L350

12L339

12L373

N

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 1:100,000-scale digital data

0 0.5

0 0.5 1 KILOMETER

1 MILE

Less than 4

4 to 6

6 to 10

Greater than 10

EXPLANATION

Well and NO3 as N 

 concentration,

 in mg/L,

 November 2001

DECATUR

MILLER

EARLY

BAKER

MITCHELL

COLQUITT

WORTH

TURNER

CRISP

DOOLY

SUMTER

CALHOUN DOUGHERTY

TERRELL LEE

GRADY

SEMINOLE

0

0

10

10

20 MILES

20 KILOMETERS

Base from U.S. Geological Survey

1:100,000-scale digital files

Chattahoochee R

Flint River

EXPLANATION

Simulated stream reach sensitivity to additional pumpage

 Low Medium High

Site containing federally protected mussel species purple 

bankclimber (Elliptoideus sloatianus)

N

Southern Flint River Basin

Cotton field in the Kinchafoonee–Muckalee Creek 

subbasin. Photo by L. Elliott Jones, USGS

Spring

Sinkhole

RECHARGE

Unconsolidated

sediments

Land

surface

Solution

Clay

cavity

Limestone

and dolomite

Stream

UPPER FLORIDAN AQUIFER

CONFINING UNIT

SURFICIAL AQUIFER

SYSTEM

EXPLANATION

Direction of ground-

 water flow

NOT TO SCALE Modified from Spechler and Schiffer, 1995

300

520

91

280

280

26

82

82

19

19

41

19

84

27

27

84

75

62

Urban and suburban data from 

U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1991;

Data for other categories from 

U.S. Geological Survey, 1977–80

Urban and suburban

Agriculture

Forest

Forested wetland

Water

EXPLANATION

Land use in the southern

 Flint River Basin

0

0

5 10

5 10

15 MILES

15 KILOMETERS

Base modified from 

U.S. Geological Survey

1:100,000-scale digital data

Flint

River

 Lake 

Seminole

Lake

Blackshear

Lake

Chehaw

0

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS

10 20 30 MILES

Albany

Lake Seminole

Flint River

31°

84°30'

32°30'

32°

84°

84°

31°30'

Atlanta

FLORIDA

Gulf of Mexico

ALABAMA GEORGIA

APALACHICOLA–

CHATTAHOOCHEE–FLINT

(ACF) RIVER BASIN

Southern Flint

River Basin

Flint

River

Basin

Chattahoochee River

Flint

River

N

(A) October 1999

(B) August 2000

Base modified from U.S. Geological Survey

1:100,000-scale digital data 

Stream seepage along Muckalee Creek near 

Leesburg, Georgia, (A) October 1999 and 

(B) August 2000. The Upper Floridan aquifer typically discharges water to stream channels, which 

constitutes the majority of baseflow. Drought 

conditions typically decrease both runoff and 

ground-water discharge to streams. These 

decreases, from May 1998 through August 2000, 

resulted in record or near-record low streamflows 

occurred throughout the subbasins (Mosner, 2002).

Water from the Upper Floridan aquifer forms a 

pool in Climax Cave, Grady County. The crystalclear pool is about 10 feet in diameter and 8 feet 

deep. Water levels fluctuate as much as 5 feet. 

Caves are common in karst areas, such as the 

lower Flint River subbasin, causing much of 

the drainage to go underground.

DOUGHERTY

WORTH

LEE

Albany

Leesburg

DOUGHERTY

WORTH

LEE

Albany

Leesburg

0

0

3 MILES

1 2 3 KILOMETERS

1 2

149

126

151

36

126

126

45.1

River

EXPLANATION

Stream seepage—Hachures indicate net 

loss in stream discharge between stations

Surface-water monitoring station 

and measured stream discharge—

In cubic feet per second

N

Flint

River

Flint

Muckalee

Cr

Muckalee Cr Climax Cave in the lower Flint River subbasin.

Photo by Alan M. Cressler, USGS

Irrigation is costly, so farmers are 

enhancing the efficiency of irrigation 

water use by installing low-pressure 

nozzles and endgun shutoffs, and 

improving uniformity and efficiency 

of their systems (Flint River 

Regional Water Council, 2001). 

Several organizations in the area work together to provide 

irrigation management and technology development research 

to assist farmers in improving efficiency of agricultural water 

use and enhance net revenue. These organizations include:

• Albany State University, Flint River Water Planning and 

 Policy Center; 

• Georgia Soil and Water Conservation Commission;

• U.S. Department of Agriculture National Peanut Research 

Laboratory; and

• The University of Georgia, Stripling Irrigation Research Park. 

The swamps and wetlands of southwestern 

Georgia provide unique 

plant and animal habitats. The Swamp of 

Toa—also referred to as 

the Chickasawhatchee 

Swamp—is one of the 

largest remaining, 

relatively intact, freshwater swamps in the Southeastern United States. The swamp 

is a critical site for migratory birds, freshwater fish and mussels, and animal and plant communities. Many of these 

plant and animal species—such as the bald eagle, wood 

stork, mussels (shinyrayed pocketbook, oval pigtoe, gulf 

moccasinshell), swamp buckthorn, and variable-leaved 

Indian plantain—are listed as federally or State threatened or endangered. “The Chickasawhatchee 

Swamp purchase is our largest single 

land purchase in recent history,” said 

David Waller, Director of the Wildlife 

Resource Division of the Georgia 

Department of Natural Resources 

(GaDNR) “... and will allow us to 

preserve an environmentally significant piece of property for future 

generations as well as provide many 

opportunities for outdoor education 

and recreational activities such 

as hunting, fishing, bird watching, hiking and canoeing”

(accessed April 21, 2003, at http://nature.org/ 

wherewework/northamerica/states/ 

georgia/press/press438.html).

A portion of the area was 

recently designated as the 

Swamp of Toa Important Bird 

Area (IBA). The aim of the 

National IBA program is to 

identify and conserve key 

breeding and feeding sites for birds. IBAs are considered by 

the North American Bird Conservation Initiative to be exceptionally important for bird conservation (accessed April 21, 

2003, at http://www.audubon.org/bird/iba).

Concentrations of nitrate greater than 10 mg/L have been detected in 

water from the Upper Floridan aquifer near Albany. These nitrate levels 

occur in a small area and are not indicative of a regional problem. The 

USGS is conducting a study—in cooperation with Albany Water, Gas, 

and Light Commission—to monitor ground-water levels and water 

quality in the Upper Floridan aquifer near the wellfield. 

Albertson, P.N., and L.J. Torak, 2002, Simulated effects of ground-water pumpage on stream-aquifer flow in the vicinity of federally protected species 

of freshwater mussels in the lower Apalachicola–Chattahoochee–Flint River basin (Subarea 4), southeastern Alabama, northwestern Florida, and 

southwestern Georgia: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4016, 23 p.

Barber, N.L., and T.C. Stamey, 2000, Droughts in Georgia: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 00-380, 2 p.

Clarke, J.S., R.E. Faye, and Rebekah Brooks, 1984, Hydrogeology of the Clayton aquifer of southwest Georgia: U.S. Geological Survey 

Hydrologic Atlas 13, 6 sheets.

Cochran, B.L., B.E. McCallum, T.C. Stamey, and C.J. Wipperfurth, 2001, Flood-tracking chart—Flint River Basin, Georgia:. U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 01-325, 1 sheet.

Flint River Regional Water Council, Inc., Winter 2001, Lower Flint Drought Protection Act: Water Stewards, p. 19.

Flint River Regional Water Council, Inc., Spring 2002, State conducts second drought auction: Water Stewards, p. 9.

Frick, E.A., D.J. Hippe, G.R. Buell, C.A. Couch, E.H. Hopkins, D.J. Wangsness, and J.W. Garrett, 1998, Water quality in the Apalachicola–

Chattahoochee–Flint River basin, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, 1992–95: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1164, 38 p.

Georgia Department of Agriculture, 2003, Georgia agricultural facts: Georgia Agricultural Statistics Service, Edition, 91 p.

Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Environmental Protection Division, 2001, Flint River Drought Protection Environmental Rule, chap. 391-3-28.

Golden, H.G., and G.W. Hess, 1991, Georgia Floods and Droughts in Paulson, R.W., E.B. Chase, R.S. Roberts, and D.W. Moody, compilers, National water 

summary 1988–89—hydrologic events and floods and droughts: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2375, p. 239–246.

Hicks, D.W., H.E. Gill, and S.A. Longsworth, 1987, Hydrogeology, chemical quality, and availability of ground water in the Upper Floridan aquifer, Albany 

area, Georgia: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 87-4145, 52 p.

Hutson, S.S., N.L. Barber, J.F. Kenny, K.S. Linsey, D.S. Lumia, and M.A. Maupin, 2004, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2000: 

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1268, 46 p.

McDowell, Robin, 2002, Going once, going twice . . . Georgia’s Flint River Drought Protection Irrigation Auction Program: Groundwater Management 

Districts Association (GMDA) News, v. 2, no. 2, p. 2–3.

Mosner, M.S., 2002, Stream-aquifer relations and the potentiometric surface of the Upper Floridan aquifer in the lower Apalachicola–Chattahoochee–Flint 

River Basin in parts of Georgia, Florida, and Alabama, 1999–2000: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4244, 30 p.

Pierce, R.R, N.L. Barber, and H.R. Stiles, 1984, Georgia irrigation, 1970–80: A decade of growth: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 

Report 83-4177, 29 p.

Shelton, Stacy, Reporter, Atlanta Journal-Constitution, January 19, 2004, accessed on March 15, 2004, at http://www.ajc.com/metro/content/ 

metro/0104/19waterwars.html

Spechler, R.M., and D.M. Schiffer, 1995, Springs of Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS-151-95.

Stamey, T.C., 1996, Summary of data-collection activities and effects of flooding from Tropical Storm Alberto in parts of Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, 

July 1994: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 96-228, 23 p.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1973, Survey report on Apalachicola, Chattahoochee, and Flint Rivers, Alabama, Florida, and Georgia: U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, 44 p.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1984, Ground water section in Apalachicola–Chattahoochee–Flint River Basin water management study: U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers, and States of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, variously paged.

U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1991, Census of population and housing, 1990: Public Law 94-171 (Alabama, Florida, and Georgia): Washington, D.C., 

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, digital data series, CD–ROM.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, Maximum contaminant levels (Subpart B of part 141, National Primary Drinking-water Regulations). 

U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, parts 100–149, revised as of July 1, 2000, p. 334–560. Accessed January 15, 2003, at 

http:/www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html

U.S. Geological Survey, 1977–80, Land use and land cover digital data, 1972–78, Apalachicola, Atlanta, Athens, Dothan, Greenville, Macon, Phenix City, 

Rome, Tallahassee, and Waycross quadrangles: U.S. Geological Survey, scale 1:250,000.

To ensure that adequate water supplies are available in southwestern Georgia, the GaEPD—in cooperation with the USGS—

has implemented scientific studies to better understand the 

hydrologic system in the southern Flint River Basin. In these 

studies, researchers are:

• Collecting new hydraulic-property data for the Upper 

Floridan and surficial aquifers;

• Obtaining accurate locations of pumping wells;

• Collecting and compiling ground-water-level, stream 

seepage, and offstream spring-discharge data; and

• Developing a transient finite-element model of ground-water 

flow to simulate seasonal ground-water levels, streamaquifer interaction, and pumping-induced streamflow 

reduction. Computer simulations are used to help scientifically predict future water availability. 

In addition to these scientific studies, the USGS—in cooperation with the GaEPD—operates continuous streamflow and 

ground-water-level monitoring networks in the southern Flint 

River Basin. Many of the sites are “real time” and are linked 

by satellite telemetry (http://waterdata.usgs.gov/ga/nwis/rt). 

These data provide water planners with information necessary 

to manage the area’s water resources.

Abundant water resources of the Flint River Basin have played 

a major role in the history and development of southwestern 

Georgia. The Flint River—along with its tributaries, wetlands, and 

swamps—and the productive aquifers of the river basin are 

essential components of the area’s diverse ecosystems. These 

resources also are necessary for sustained agricultural, industrial, 

and municipal activities. Increasing, and in some cases conflicting, 

demand for water makes careful monitoring and wise planning and 

management of southwestern Georgia’s water resources critical to 

the ecological and economic future of the area. This poster 

presents the major issues associated with increasing competition 

for water resources in the southern Flint River Basin.

1998–2002 

Regional drought

(Barber and Stamey, 2000)

By Debbie Warner, Hydrologist, U.S. Geological Survey, and 

Virgil Norton, Director, Flint River Water Planning and Policy Center 

 (FRWPPC), Albany State University (ASU)

Design and layout by Caryl J. Wipperfurth, U.S. Geological Survey

Special thanks to Nancy A. Norton, Associate Professor, FRWPPC, ASU

and Charles Irwin, President, Albany Audubon Society

The Flint River is free 

flowing (no impoundments) for about 21 

miles between Lake 

Blackshear Dam 

(Crisp County Hydroelectric Dam) and the 

upper end of Lake 

Chehaw. Downstream to Lake 

Seminole are approximately 75 miles of 

free-flowing river. 

Wilson Blue Spring south of Albany. Water discharges 

from the Upper Floridan aquifer into the Flint River. 

Photo by Debbie Warner, USGS 

Ground water is the principal source of water for irrigation, 

industry, and domestic uses in the southern Flint River Basin. 

Aquifers consist of layers of sand or limestone that are separated 

by confining units of low permeability. Discharge of water from 

the aquifers to wetlands, streams, and springs is vital to maintain 

wildlife and plant species. 

Water— Essential Resource of the Southern Flint River Basin, Georgia

The lower Flint River subbasin is characterized 

by karst topography in which sinkholes, 

caves, and underground drainage have formed 

because of dissolution of limestone comprising 

the Upper Floridan aquifer. Lack of tributaries 

and little surface-water drainage between 

Albany and Lake Seminole indicates underground drainage; most surface water either 

flows into wetlands and then seeps into the 

ground, or infiltrates directly into the ground. 

A ground-water model was used to simulate stream reach 

sensitivity to ground-water pumpage for sites containing 

federally protected mussel species such as the purple 

bankclimber (Elliptoideus sloatianus) in the lower 

Apalachicola–Chattahoochee–Flint River Basin 

(Albertson and Torak, 2002).

Georgia ranks 

among the top 

five states in 

production of 

peanuts, pecans, 

cotton, peaches, 

rye, and tomatoes (Georgia 

Department of 

Agriculture, 2003). Irrigated agriculture provides 

much of the employment and income of the 

southern Flint River Basin as well as the tax base 

that supports education, health care, and other 

local community services. Abundant water 

resources in the subbasins have been a factor in 

industry location decisions.

Hunting and fishing are important to the economy 

of the area. Reservoirs—such as Lakes Blackshear, 

Chehaw, and Seminole—are widely used by 

residents and visitors. Participation in nonconsumptive activities—such as canoeing, bird 

watching, 

outdoor 

photography, 

and hiking— 

is increasing. 

Economic Activity

Overall, there are few surface- or ground-water 

quality issues in the area. Pesticide and nutrient 

concentrations in stream water within the 

subbasins generally are below current drinkingwater standards (Frick and others, 1998). 

Nitrate concentrations in ground water rarely 

exceed the drinking-water standard of 10 milligrams per liter (mg/L) (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2000; Frick and others, 1998).

Lake Chehaw, just north of Albany, Georgia.

Photo by Nancy A. Norton, FRWPPC

Water-quality sampling. Photo by Debbie Warner, USGS

Wood stork, an endangered species.

Photo by George Gentry 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Shinyrayed pocketbook, an endangered mussel.

Photo by Sean Kelly and Stephen W. Golladay,

J.W. Jones Ecological Research Center, Newton, Georgia 

Cypress trees in swamp. Photo by Nancy A. Norton, FRWPPC

Center-pivot irrigation

Photo by Mark Masters, FRWPPC

Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam.

Photo by Lynn J. Torak, USGS

Swamp of Toa

Swamp of Toa. Photo courtesy of Chip Evans,

Lenz Design and Communications, Inc.

Bird watching is becoming increasingly

popular. Photo above by Nancy A. Norton, 

Flint River Water Planning and Policy 

Center (FRWPPC). Photo at right by 

Mark R. Welford, Georgia Southern 

University.

The Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam impounds the 

Flint and Chattahoochee Rivers at their confluence, 

creating Lake Seminole. The USGS is conducting a 

study on Lake Seminole, in cooperation with the 

Georgia Environmental Protection Division (GaEPD), to:

• develop a water budget for the lake; 

• compare 2001 and pre-Lake Seminole ground-water 

and surface-water flows; 

• evaluate possibility of a substantial amount of water 

entering the ground-water system from the lake, 

flowing beneath Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam, and 

entering Florida; and 

• assess the likelihood of increased dissolution in 

the karst limestone of the lake bottom leading to 

sinkhole collapse and sudden lake drainage. 

Jim Woodruff

Lock and Dam

Lower Flint River

subbasin

Middle Flint River subbasin

Kinchafoonee–

Muckalee Creek 

subbasin

Ichawaynochaway Creek subbasin

Spring Creek subbasin

Climax

Cave

U.S. Department of the Interior

Gale A. Norton, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Charles G. Groat, Director

The Flint River Drought Protection Act was enacted to better 

manage the water resources of Georgia during periods of 

drought. A drought was declared on March 1, 2001, and 

an irrigated-acreage auction was held. The result was to 

voluntarily eliminate, for the balance of 2001, surface-water 

irrigation on 33,101 acres at an average accepted bid of 

$135 per acre. A drought also was declared for the 2002 

growing season, and 40,894 acres were voluntarily removed 

from irrigation. The average 2002 bid was $128 per acre 

(Flint River Regional Water Council, Inc., 2002; McDowell, 

2002). No drought was declared for 2003 or 2004.

Floods have played an important role in Georgia’s history. 

The USGS—in cooperation with other Federal, State, and local 

agencies—operates a Flood Monitoring System in the Flint 

River Basin. To receive a copy of the above Flood-Tracking 

Chart—Flint River Basin, Georgia (Cochran and others, 2001), 

which includes flood emergency phone numbers and a chart 

for recording current stage to compare to predicted flood crest, 

contact the USGS Georgia District Office at 770-903-9100 or 

at http://ga2.er.usgs.gov/HydroWatch/FloodTracking.cfm.

Real-time river-stage data can be accessed at 

http://waterdata.usgs.gov/ga/nwis/rt

U.S. Geological Survey General Interest Publication 4

Reston, Virgina: 2004

To request a copy call 770-903-9100 or 

access at http://ga.water.usgs.gov/pubs/galist-gw.html

For more information, please write to:

 District Chief

 U.S. Geological Survey

 Peachtree Business Center

 3039 Amwiler Road, Suite 130

 Atlanta, GA 30360-2824

Lake Blackshear Dam

Purple bankclimber mussel.

Photo by Sean Kelly and 

Stephen W. Golladay, J.W. Jones

Ecological Research Center, 

Newton, Georgia 

Special funding contributed by The Flint River Regional Water Council, Inc.

New Hole

Heli Hole

Hog Parlor

Wilson Blue

Spring

Wall Spring

Crystal Cove Spring

Vine Spring

Punks Ramp Spring

Radium Spring

Mercer Mill

Spring

Abrams

Blue Hole

Cow

Pasture

Spring

Blow Hole

Seminole 

State Park

Georgia Veterans

State Park

Ground

water

397

Mgal/d

Surface

water 

382

Mgal/d

2000 water use from 

counties within the

Southern Flint River Basin

(Hutson and others, 2004)

108 million gallons

per day (Mgal/d)

of surface water

were used by one site 

in the ACF River Basin 

in Early County

Introduction Water Quality Wildlife and Endangered Species What Is Being Done to Protect Water Resources?

References Cited

Agricultural Water Conservation 

Scientific Studies and Monitoring

Flint

River

Flin

t

River

Creek

Ich

a

w

a

y

n

och

a

way

Sprin

g

Creek

Kinchafoonee Creek

C

hick

asa

wh

atchee

Cr

Coolee

wa

h

e

e

Cr

M

u

ckalee

Creek

EARLY

MILLER

BAKER

DECATUR

SEMINOLE

CALHOUN

MITCHELL

LEE

TERRELL

WEBSTER

CRISPTURNER

RANDOLPH

MACON

STEWART

MARION

WORTH

SUMTER

SCHLEY

DOOLY

GRADY

DOUGHERTY

Cordele

Americus

Vienna

Oglethorpe

Ellaville

Buena

Vista

Preston

Dawson Cuthbert

Blakely

Newton

Camilla

Bainbridge

Donalsonville

Colquitt

Morgan

Albany

Leesburg

12L028

11L002

Pelham

EXPLANATION

Continuous (48)

Ground-water monitoring well

Drainage subbasin boundary in the southern Flint River Basin—

 Southern Flint River Basin encompasses approximately 5,800 square miles

Real-time streamflow data-collection gaging station (21)

Real-time (12)—Continuous recorder with satellite telemetry 

 updated every 4 hours and displayed on the Web Real-time data at wells

and gaging stations 

can be accessed on 

the World Wide Web at 

http://waterdata.usgs.

gov/ga/nwis/rt