?.eferenc©

IMBS

PubliNAT'L INST, OF STAND & TECH )ns

AlllDS TVm^T

» ^ \

^'"fEAU O*

in NBS TECHNICAL NOTE 1174

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/National Bureau of Standards

Energy and Cost

Evaluation of Solar Window

Film Use in an Office

Building

l-QC

100

.05753

1174

1983
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The National Bureau of Standards' was established by an act of Congress on March 3, 1901. The Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the Nation's science and technology

and facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the Bureau conducts

research and provides: (1) a basis for the Nation's physical measurement system, (2) scientific and technological services for industry and government, (3) a technical basis for equity in trade, and (4) technical services to promote public safety. The Bureau's technical work is per- formed by the National Measurement Laboratory, the National Engineering Laboratory, and

the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology.

THE NATIONAL MEASUREMENT LABORATORY provides the national system of

physical and chemical and materials measurement; coordinates the system with measurement

systems of other nations and furnishes essential services leading to accurate and uniform

physical and chemical measurement throughout the Nation's scientific community, industry,

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standards, and data on the properties of materials needed by industry, commerce, educational

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agencies; develops, produces, and distributes Standard Reference Materials; and provides

calibration services. The Laboratory consists of the following centers:

Absolute Physical Quantities^ — Radiation Research — Chemical Physics —

Analytical Chemistry — Materials Science

THE NATIONAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY provides technology and technical ser- vices to the public and private sectors to address national needs and to solve national problems; conducts research in engineering and applied science in support of these efforts; builds and maintains competence in the necessary disciplines required to carry out this research and technical service; develops engineering data and measurement capabilities;

provides engineering measurement traceability services; develops test methods and proposes

engineering standards and code changes; develops and proposes new engineering practices;

and develops and improves mechanisms to transfer results of its research to the ultimate user. The Laboratory consists of the following centers:

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Engineering — Building Technology — Fire Research — Chemical Engineering^

THE INSTITUTE FOR COMPUTER SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY conducts

research and provides scientific and technical services to aid Federal agencies in the selection, acquisition, application, and use of computer technology to improve effectiveness and

economy in Government operations in accordance with Public Law 89-306 (40 U.S.C. 759), relevant Executive Orders, and other directives; carries out this mission by managing the Federal Information Processing Standards Program, developing Federal ADP standards

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The Institute consists of the following centers:

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'Headquarters and Laboratories at Gaithersburg, MD, unless otherwise noted; mailing address Washington, DC 20234. 'Some divisions within the center are located at Boulder, CO 80303.
Energy and Cost Evaluation of Solar

Window Film Use in an Office Building

OF STANDAflDS MAY 3 1 1983

notacc • -

G^O ICO

S. Treado

J. Barnett

T. Kusuda

Center for Building Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, DC 20234

M3^ kcMucoJ />t^^^

e •»

Prepared for: General Services Administration

National Capital Region

Design and Construction Division

Washington, DC 20407

Kt^^ °' c,

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director

Issued March 1983
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS TECHNICAL NOTE 1174

Natl. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note 1174, 127 pages (Mar. 1983)

CODEN: NBTNAE

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1983

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402

Price $6.00

(Add 25 percent for other than U.S. mailing)
Energy and Cost Evaluation of Solar Window

Film Use in an Office Building

ABSTRACT

The impact of solar window film utilization on building HVAC system loads,

energy consumption and costs, is examined for a typical office building.

The evaluation includes characterization and measurement of important film

properties, performance of single-glazing window systems with and without

film, simulation of annual building energy performance using the DOE-2 com- puter program, and a life-cycle cost analysis. Six window film options are compared to clear glass performance for seven climatic regions throughout

the United States.

Guidelines are developed for effective solar film utilization in office

buildings, in terms of energy performance and cost-effectiveness. Results

indicate that solar films can be effective in reducing building energy

requirements and costs in areas with high cooling loads, with less savings

expected in areas with lower cooling loads and higher heating loads, and no savings in regions with high heating loads.

Key words: building energy analysis; cooling loads; heating loads; solar

film; solar heat gain; window management.

Ill
PREFACE

A. AUTHORITY

This study has been executed pursuant to a GSA/NBS agreement, through the

National Capital Region Design and Construction Division.

B. PURPOSE

The objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of solar window film

utilization on building HVAC system loads and energy requirements, and to determine the cost-effectiveness of solar film use for an office building for seven climatic regions of the United States. Guidelines are developed and presented

to enable effective utilization of solar window films in office building

applications.

C. DISCLAIMER OF APPLICATION

The results and analysis are intended to be used only for the purpose described

herein, and may not be applicable to other cases. Neither GSA nor NBS are responsible for any other use or application of the data, results or conclusions

contained in this report.

The user is cautioned to evaluate the local weather conditions, building design

and type of construction, location, height, usage and other relevant factors

prior to any application of the data, results or conclusions contained in this

report. Each building must be considered on an individual basis.

XV
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT iii

PREFACE iv

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES viil

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xiii

1

.

INTRODUCTION 1

2. SOLAR FILM BACKGROUND 2

2 .

1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION 2

2.2 SOLAR FILM CHARACTERISTICS 3

2.2.1 Physical Properties 3

2.2.2 Application and Care 7 2.2.3 Cost 9

3. WINDOW HEAT TRANSFER 10

3.1 BACKGROUND 10

3.2 THERMAL PERFORMANCE 14

3.3 SOLAR CONTROL PERFORMANCE 15

3.4 COMFORT 16

4. MEASUREMENTS 18

4.1 PURPOSE 18

4.2 SMALL SAMPLE TESTS 19

4.2.1 Solar Transmlttance and Reflectance 19

4.2.2 Infrared Surface Eralttance 20

4.3 FULL SIZE WINDOW TESTS 20

4.3.1 Apparatus 21

4.3.2 Data Acquisition System 22

4.3.3 Test Procedure 23

4 .

4

MEASUREMENT RESULTS 25

4.4.1 Thermal Transmlttance (U-factor) 25

4.4.2 Shading Factor (F) 25

4.4.3 Solar Transmlttance (t) 26

5. BUILDING SIMULATION 27

5.1 THE DoE COMPUTER PROGRAM 27

5.2 THE BUILDING MODEL 27

5.3 CLIMATIC ZONES 27

5.4 SIMULATION VERIFICATION 28

5.5 COMPUTER SIMULATION RESULTS FOR SEVEN CLIMATIC ZONES 29

5.6 ECONOMICS OF SOLAR FILMS 31

6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 42
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

7. GLOSSARY 43

8

.

REFERENCES 45

APPENDIX A DESCRIPTION OF BUILDING MODEL 47

APPENDIX B MODIFIED UNIFORM PRESENT WORTH DISCOUNT FACTORS 49

VI
LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Typical Physical Properties of Films 7

Table 2. Major Factors Influencing Solar and Thermal Heat Transfer .... 13

Table 3. Design Values for Solar and Thermal Properties of Six

Solar Films 16

Table 4. Measurement Parameters , Apparatus and Method 18

Table 5. Measured Integrated Average Solar Properties of Six Films

and Clear Glass 20

Table 6. Measurement Sensors 23

Table 7. TRY Heating and Cooling Degree Days (Base 18.3 C) for

Study Cities 28

Table 8. Energy Consumptions (MBTU) for the Subsystems of the

Simulated Building 30

Table 9. Annual Heating and Electrical Consumptions for Simulated

Building Without and With Solar Films for Study Locations .... 30

Table 10. Annual Electrical Consumption Decreases and Heating

Consumption Increases Due to Solar Films for Study

Locations 31

Table 11. Minimum Ratio of Unit Cost of Electricity to Unit Cost of

Heating Fuel That Must Exist in Order for Solar Film to

Show First Year Dollar Savings 33

Table 12. Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness for Phoenix 34

Table 13. Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness for Houston 35

Table 14

.

Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness for Atlanta 36

Table 15. Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness for Washington 37

Table 16. Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness for Chicago 38

Table 17. Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness for Boston 39

Table 18. Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness for San Jose 40

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Construction of typical solar window films 5

Figure 2 . Impact of window on incident solar radiation 6

Figure 3a. Calculated thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature differences, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film A 60

Figure 3b. Calculated thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film B 61

Figure 3c. Calculated thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film C 62

Figure 3d. Calculated thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film D 63

Figure 3e. Calculated thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film E 64

Figure 3f. Calculated thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film F 65

Figure 3g. Calculated thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for clear

glass 66

Figure 4a. Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film A 67

Figure 4b. Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film B 68

Figure 4c. Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film C 69

Figure 4d. Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film D 70

Figure 4e. Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film E 71

vili
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)

Page

Figure 4f. Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film F 72

Figure 4g. Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for clear glass 73

Figure 5a. Measured spectral transmit tance t, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film A 74

Figure 5b. Measured spectral transraittance x, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film 6 75

Figure 5c. Measured spectral transmittance t, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film C 76

Figure 5d. Measured spectral transmittance t, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film D 77

Figure 5e. Measured spectral transmittance t, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film E 78

Figure 5f. Measured spectral transmittance x, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film F 79

Figure 5g. Measured spectral transmittance x, reflectance p and

absorptance a for clear glass 80

Figure 5h. Measured spectral emittance for film A 81

Figure 5i. Measured spectral emittance for f ilm B 82

Figure 5j

.

Measured spectral emittance for film C 83

Figure 5k. Measured spectral emittance for clear glass 84

Figure 6

.

Schematic diagram of window calorimeter 85

Figure 7. Photograph of window calorimeter apparatus 86

Figure 8a. Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film A .... 87

Figure 8b. Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film B .... 88

Figure 8c. Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film C .... 89

ix
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)

Page

Figure 8d, Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film D .... 90

Figure 8e. Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film E .... 91

Figure 8f. Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film F .... 92

Figure 8g. Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for clear

glass 93

Figure 9a. Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for film A 94

Figure 9b. Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for film 6 95

Figure 9c. Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

Irradiance for film C 96

Figure 9d. Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for film D 97

Figure 9e. Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for film E 98

Figure 9f. Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for film F 99

Figure 9g. Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for clear glass 100

Figure 10a. Measured solar transmittance as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film A 101

Figure 10b. Measured solar transmittance as a function of level of

Incident irradiance for film 6 102

Figure 10c. Measured solar transmittance as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film C 103

Figure lOd. Measured solar transmittance as a function of level of

Incident irradiance for film D 104
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)

Page

Figure lOe. Measured solar transmlttance as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film E 105

Figure lOf. Measured solar transmlttance as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film F 106

Figure lOg. Measured solar transmlttance as a function of level of

incident irradiance for clear glass 107

Figure 11. Photograph of study building 108

Figure 12. Map showing locations of climatic regions 109

Figure 13. Monthly energy consumptions for actual and simulated

building 110

Figure 14. Annual heating and electrical consumptions for simulated

building with clear glass as a function of heating and

cooling degree days, respectively Ill

xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work described in this report was performed by the authors with the

assistance of M. Lemay, W. Roberts, S. Heldebrand, W. Remmert , and M. Strand

of the NBS staff.

W. S. Fleming & Associates were consulted to develop the initial building

simulation file for the DOE-2 computer procedure.

This work was supported by the National Capital Region of the General Services

Administration.

xii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A. PROBLEM STATEMENT

This report focuses on the evaluation of the impact of solar films on the

annual building energy requirements for a typical office building with single

glazing amounting to 54 percent of the exterior building envelope. This type

of evaluation is complex due to the many factors influencing window performance, including the solar and thermal properties and environmental conditions.

The heat transfer through the window must be determined with and without the

solar films for a wide variety of climatic conditions. Then the change in the

annual heating and cooling requirements of the building and the corresponding

changes in energy usage must be determined for each film type evaluated.

Lastly, the cost of heating and cooling energy must be determined, along with

the material and installation costs and the expected useful lifetime, so that

the cost effectiveness of solar film use can be determined on a life-cycle

cost basis.

The results of this evaluation are presented in terms of guidelines for

effective solar film utilization for seven climatic regions of the United

States.

B. EVALUATION PROCEDURE

Six different solar films on clear glass were compared to clear glass without

film. The evaluation procedure consisted of three phases, namely:

1. Characterization and measurement of the important solar film properties and

the solar/thermal performance of a typical window system with each of the

solar films. (Phase 1)

2. Computer simulation of building annual heating and cooling loads and energy

requirements using the DOE-2 analysis program and a typical GSA office

building, for seven regions of the United States. (Phase 2)

3. Economic analysis of the cost effectiveness of solar film utilization,

including net savings, savings-to-investment ratio and payback period.

The solar film characteristics determined in phase one were used as input data

for the computer simulation in phase two. Calculated building energy requirements for the Washington, D.C. location (the actual location of the building)

were compared to the actual metered energy consumption, to validate the

building model and simulation procedure. The calculated energy requirements

were analyzed to determine the associated energy costs, using regional energy

cost information provided by GSA, and including the effect of escalating energy

prices. The energy costs were used to perform a life-cycle cost analysis for

each film option at each location. The cost information was compared to

determine the most effective film type for each location, and to determine

if a net annual savings would occur.

xiii
C. GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS AND COST-EFFECTIVENESS

The general recommendations are most easily explained through the use of tables

due to the large number of options. These tables are found in section 5.

Briefly, as would be expected, a net energy savings is realized in locations

with high ratios of cooling loads to heating loads. This would be the case in

the south and southwest areas of the country in particular. The life-cycle

cost savings is dependent upon the energy savings together with initial cost

and expected life of the film. Most films are warranted for five years, but

the expected life could be much longer if the films are properly installed and

maintained. Several installations have lasted through 15 years, but it is

difficult to predict expected life for all situations.

Since the life expectancy is difficult to determine, calculations were

performed using a ten year life and a fifteen year life, so a range of

expected cost effectiveness could be determined. The results of this analysis

indicate that solar films are likely to be cost effective in the southern half

of the United States. The cost effectiveness calculations are strongly dependent upon energy costs, and each combination of heating and cooling energy

costs would give different results.

D. MAJOR CONCERNS AND LIMITATIONS

The use of solar films in special situations requires special consideration.

Since solar films can absorb a significant amount of solar radiation, the

window glass may experience a temperature rise leading to thermal stresses and

possible cracking in the glass and at the glass-frame interface. In most

instances the temperature rise should cause no problem, as long as the glass

is able to dissipate heat to the surroundings through convection and radiation.

Thus, solar film should not be installed on the inner surface of a double-pane

window if the glass is rigidly restrained on all sides preventing thermal expansion, nor on a heat absorbing glass. Suitability of a window for installation

of solar film can be determined by examining the framing for flexibility and

thermal expansion capability, and by consulting the window manufacturer.

If good visibility from inside to outside at night is required a highly

reflective solar film may cause problems. This is because the film appears to

be reflective when viewed from the bright side, meaning that the building occupants can see out during the day, but outsiders can see in at night. In most

cases this would be only of minor concern.

One drawback to solar film use is that films are usually installed permanently.

Thus, the beneficial summer film performance is counteracted by the undesirable

winter performance. Some other window management systems are variable, either

manually or automatically, and allow for adjustment to suit the weather conditions. Removable/reuseable solar films are available, but are not practical

in many cases due to inaccessibility and labor costs. One should consider

alternatives to solar films, such as shades, blinds, or louvers, if variable

window management is required.

XIV
Solar films can have other impacts in buildings including glare reduction,

shaving of peak cooling loads, reduced cooling plant capacity requirements and

safety considerations.

XV

1 . INTRODUCTION

Window heat transfer has a significant impact on building energy requirements

for heating and cooling [1,2], Various systems are available for controlling

window heat transfer [3,4,5], including shades, screens, drapes, special

glasses, louvers and films. While evaluations have been conducted to assess

the performance of these types of window management systems under different

environmental conditions [6,7], very little information is available concerning

the net annual energy performance of such systems. That is, it is obvious that

reducing solar heat gain in summer results in a savings in cooling energy, but

it is possible that an increase in the heating energy requirement in winter

might offset the summer savings.

This report focuses on the evaluation of the impact of solar films on the

annual building energy requirements for a typical office building with single

glazing amounting to 54 percent of the exterior building envelope. This type

of evaluation is complex due to the many factors influencing window performance, including the solar and thermal properties and environmental conditions.

The heat transfer through the window must be determined with and without the

solar films for a wide variety of climatic conditions. Then the change in the

annual heating and cooling requirements of the building and the corresponding

changes in energy usage must be determined for each film typed evaluated.

Lastly, the cost of heating and cooling energy must be determined, along with

the material and installation costs and the expected useful lifetime, so that

the cost effectiveness of solar film use can be determined on a life-cycle

cost basis [8]

.

The results of this evaluation are presented as guidelines for effective solar

film utilization for seven climatic regions of the United States.
2. SOLAR FILM BACKGROUND

2.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Solar window films have been utilized in buildings for a variety of reasons. The main impacts of solar film include:

a. Reduction in Peak HVAC System Loads

Solar films reduce the rate of heat transfer through the glazing, by

reflecting and absorbing incident solar radiation, and by reducing convection and radiation heat transfer at the inner glazing surface. Peak load

reduction is beneficial because it reduces cooling capacity requirements

and electricity demand charges.

b. Energy Conservation

The reduction in peak HVAC system loads may reduce annual building energy

requirements, if the reduction in cooling energy requirements due to

shading offsets the usual increase in heating energy requirements due to

reduction in free solar heat in winter.

c. Occupant Comfort

Comfort is a somewhat subjective parameter, but can be quantified to the

extent that certain combinations of temperature, air flow, and radiation

conditions are acceptable to most people, while other combinations are outside the comfort range.

Since clear glazing transmits large amounts of solar radiation,

overheating can occur near the windows due to a combination of the greenhouse effect and insufficient air mixing, a condition which results in a lack of distribution of the solar heat gain to the rest of the building

interior. In addition, building occupants are usually not comfortable if

working in an area in which the rays of direct solar radiation strike them.

d. Glare Control

This aspect is related to occupant comfort. High levels of solar radiation,

either direct or reflected from exterior or interior surfaces, can lead to

unacceptable glare conditions due to high luminance ratios between the

bright surface(s) and the remainder of the room [9].

e. Safety

Application of window film will significantly reduce to possibility of

shattering of the glass due to impact, because of the reinforced/adhesive

quality of the plastic film. Upon impact, the glass may break, but in

many cases the broken pieces will be held together by the film.
f. Aesthetics

The aesthetic qualities of solar films are largely subjective and are related to the mirror-like reflectance and/or the tinted color. Some

privacy is obtained for building occupants when the exterior is brighter

than the interior (i.e., daytime), since the films appear to be reflective

mainly as viewed from the brighter side. However, this phenomenon reverses

at night, when it becomes difficult to view out the window,

g. Reduction in Ultraviolet Radiation Transmission

Ultraviolet radiation can contribute significantly to accelerated

material aging and deteriorization, such as fading of drapes and carpets.

Some films have a very low ultraviolet transmittance, less than two percent, due to reflection or absorption of most of the radiation in the UV

region.

There are some tradeoffs among the previously listed solar film uses, mostly

relating to the relationships between window heat transfer, solar heat gain,

energy conservation, and comfort. Briefly stated, the application of a solar

window film will typically reduce solar heat gain on a year-round basis, resulting in a savings in cooling energy and an increase in heating energy. There

will also be a decrease in the amount of daylight available, and thus a possible increase in electric lighting requirements, although that aspect was not

considered in this study.

Another trade-off involves comfort versus winter solar heat gain. Consider the case in which the south-facing offices of a building are subjected to overheating on sunny winter days, due to the low sun angle. Application of a solarcontrol film would reduce overheating and improve comfort. However, since the

building is in a heating mode, the solar heat gain is reducing heating energy

requirements, so a reduction in solar heat gain would improve comfort at the

expense of increasing heating costs. These aspects are considered in more

detail in the section on window heat transfer.

2.2 SOLAR FILM CHARACTERISTICS

2.2.1 Physical Properties

Solar window films are constructed of two or more thin plastic layers laminated

into a thin sheet. If the film is reflective, one of the film layers is metallized through a vacuum deposition procedure which leaves a controlled density

of aluminum sandwiched between two plastic layers. Additional layers of film

can be added to obtain a particular tint or color. The base material of the

film is usually transparent polyester, and the inner layer is polyester for

normal emittance films, and polypropylene for a low emittance films.

A protective release sheet covers the adhesive side of the film, which faces

the inner surface of the window glass. Currently, most films have a wateractivated, pressure-sensitive adhesive system. Once the release sheet is

removed, the adhesive and glass surface are sprayed with water, allowing the
film to be positioned on the glass and trimmed. Figure 1 shows several typical

variations of film construction.

The other film properties fall under the category of solar/thermal

characteristics. These are reflectance (p), absorptance (a), transmittance (t),

and emittance (e). See figure 2.

p = reflectance; percentage of incident radiation reflected from the

film.

a = absorptance; percentage of incident radiation absorbed by the film.

T = transmittance; percentage of incident radiation transmitted through

the film.

£ = emittance; the ratio of radiation intensity from a surface to that

from a black body at the same temperature.

All of these properties are functions of the wavelength of the incident

radiation; however, averaged or integrated values are usually determined from

measurement and/or calculation. Since the following relation is true,

p + a + T = 1

specification of the values of any two of these parameters also determines the

third. The reflectance and absorptance are determined by the film materials

and construction. The reflectance properties are controlled by the density of

the vacuum deposited aluminum layer, with greater densities producing greater

reflectances. The highest reflectance films in normal use have a p of about

55 percent, to allow some visibility through the film. However, any degree of

reflectance can be obtained through use of the proper aluminum density. In

contrast, the reflectance of clear glass is less than 10 percent. The absorptance of a film is controlled by the darkness of the tint, and the number and

thickness of the tinted layer(s). While clear glass exhibits an absorptance

of less than 10 percent, most films have an absorptance of 30 percent or more,

and may range over 60 percent. By varying the reflectance and absorptance,

the transmittance can be set at any level, but usually ranges from 10 to 50

percent.

The surface emittance of a film determines the ability of the film to reflect

infrared radiation. A low emittance film installed on an inner window surface

will reduce radiative heat exchange between the window and the room thereby

reducing conductive heat loss through the window during heating periods and

radiative heat gain to the room interior from the warmer window surface during

cooling periods. Typically, the films are available with normal emittance (e » 0.80) and low emittance (e « 0.25). Some films which are considered normal

emittance actually exhibit a slightly lower emittence in the range of 0.6 to

0.7, The values of p, a, and x for the six test films are listed in the

measurements section (4.2) of this report.

Typical film properties are listed in table 1.

4
FILM TYPES

SILVER FILMS

Solid Base

SUN

.. ,. Protective resin

Film base Full reflective coating

0.001"

Laminated

SUN

Film base

Laminating adhesive

Film base

' ''"" ^^*'^^*'^^ ^°2*'"2

TINTED FILMS

Film base

m Color on One Side

g

g M. SUN

^ ^Tinted laminate

I Laminating adhesive

Full reflective coating

Tinted

laminate

Color on Two Sides

SUN

Tinted laminate

Laminating adhesive

Semi -reflective coating

Clear film base

Laminating adhesive

Figure 1 Construction of typical solar window films

5
CROSS SECTION

OF GLASS

It

I^V^I

I = incident irradiance

p = reflectance

a = absorptance

T = transmittance

Figure 2 limpact of window on incident solar radiation
Table 1.

Title: Typical Physical Properties of Films

Description: This table lists the major film characteristics along with a range of typical values of each parameter.

Parameter

o thickness

o tensile strength

o maximum elongation

to break

o colors

o reflectance

o absorptance

o transmittance

o emittance

o ultraviolet transmittance

Range

0.0254-0.0127 m (0.01-0.005 in)

4202-17513 N/m (24-100 lbs/in) of width

100-200%

silver, grey, gold bronze, clear

and others

0.20-0.55

0.30-0.60

0.10-0.50

0.25-0.85

1-30%

2.2.2 Application of Solar Films

Solar films are bonded directly to the inner surface of the window glass.

Most films are permanently installed, although some are reusable and can be

removed and replaced on a periodic basis. These reusable films are not included

in this analysis since the labor involved in removing and replacing all of the

films in an office building with a large window area would probably cost more

than any savings which would be attributed to that procedure. Reusuable films

are used mainly for residential or special applications.

Solar film installation is simple in concept, but requires skill and attention

to detail to provide for a good, optically clear bonding of the film to the

glass. Typical installation instructions are as follows:

Film Installation Instructions

Whether you use professional installers, or "in-house" personnel to install

film, satisfactory results require careful attention to:

a. Window cleaning before application.

b. Edge trimming to leave narrow, uniform lines.

c. Squeegee work to avoid creases, marks.

d. Preventing dust and dirt under the film.

e. Eliminating air bubbles and "pools" of liquid.
f. Maintaining smooth, non-distorted, non-grainy exterior appearance.

g. Silicone polishing of film after installation.

Using In-house Installers:

When windows are conventionally sized and positioned, the use of in-house

personnel can save money. Results can be as good as professional work if the

installers will follow the simple routine for window cleaning, film handling,

squeegee work, trimming and cleanup. With proper training and guidance, inhouse personnel can install film economically because set-up time is minimal.

One man, or a team of two, can use "stand-by" time to complete an installation.

Film can be installed on only one window or in one office at a time, unlike

other maintenance work which must be completed once it is started. In-house

personnel should acquire some experience before tackling large windows that

require two pieces of film to be seamed together.

The potential waste factor when Installing films on windows that are difficult

to reach, or have drop ceilings or are high in the air may make it more economical to use the professional installer. However, when windows have small panes

or are in areas where prime appearance is not a factor, the shortcomings of the

in-house installer may not be visible or objectionable. Generally on large jobs

it may cost less to use professional installers, particularly if the windows

are in prime office areas. Also, manufacturers may not offer a full five-year

guarantee if work is not done by factory-trained installers.

Care and maintenance of windows with solar film is similar to that of glass,

except abrasive cleaners should not be used. Typical care instructions are

as follows

1. Wait three (3) weeks before cleaning the film for the first time after the

installation.

2. Use any of the following solutions: mild soap and water; or isopropyl

alcohol (1 part) and water (20 parts) - the latter produces sparkling clean

windows and no residue to be rubbed away. Ammonia and/or ammonia-based

cleaning solutions are not recommended.

3. Spray the film lightly, all over, with the cleaning solution, using a hand

sprayer. (You may also apply the cleaning solution with a cloth, if

desired, but this method takes longer to apply and clean.)

4. Remove the cleaning solution with a squeegee, applying light pressure (just

enough to remove the moisture of the cleaning solution). A soft cloth or soft paper towel or sponge may also be used.

5. Do NOT squeegee dry film - slight scratches may result. Respray if

necessary.

6. Dry the edges of the window (and film) thoroughly with a soft cloth or paper towel, so that no moisture remains to seep under the film at the

edges.

8
7. If the film is spliced, exercise caution around the splice. Do NOT pull

the squeegee (or cloth, etc.) across the splice. Always pull the squeegee

(or cloth, etc.) along the splice, carefully. Be sure that the splice

edges are dry afterwards - blot if necessary.

A few cautions should be observed:

1. Do NOT use hard brushes or abrasives in cleaning the film - scratches or tears will result.

2. Do NOT rub or clean the film when condensation is present.

3a Do NOT rub or brush sharp-edged articles such as scrapers, razors, or even jewelry against the film.

4. Do NOT post heavy gummed signs, Christmas spray-on snow, etc., on the film.

If signs or decorations are desired, a lightly gummed tape may be used,

with caution. If the tape leaves a residue, dampen a soft cloth with

lighter fluid and rub that area gently.

2.2.3 Cost

The cost of installing solar film includes both material and labor costs. As

with any product, considerable variation in costs exists, depending upon the

type of film, size of the job, special installation requirements and other

market factors. Recent government installations have cost approximately one

to two dollars per square foot of film. It is not possible to predict the

future course of film costs, as changes in materials and processing procedures

may produce changes in costs. The magnitude of the installation costs depends

upon whether the labor is performed by in-house personnel or contractors and

on site location, since considerable variation exists in labor costs throughout

the country. For the purpose of performing the economic analysis found later

in the report, the actual film cost for the study building was used. This cost was approximately one dollar per square foot including installation.
3. WINDOW HEAT TRANSFER

3.1 BACKGROUND

Heat transfer through fenestration systems consists two components, namely solar

energy transmitted by the glazing, and energy convected and radiated between

the glazing and the building interior. Heat transfer occurs as a result of two

major driving forces, incident solar radiation and inside-to-outside air temperature differences. Analyzing and quantifying the solar/thermal performance

of fenestration systems is a complex task due to the many factors influencing

the two heat transfer components, especially when complicated or variable window systems are considered. However, in the case of single glazing with no auxiliary shading, some simplifications and assumptions lead to procedures for

estimating window heat transfer on the basis of a few key parameters.

The thermal and solar properties of window systems have been characterized in

terms of two standard parameters:

1) Thermal transmittance (U-factor); the ratio of the heat gain through

the window to the temperature difference between the inside and outside

air, and

2) Shading coefficient (SC); the ratio of the amount of solar heat gain

for the actual window to the solar heat gain for a single pane

reference glass.

The value for the solar heat gain for the reference glass must be known or computed to use the shading coefficient to compute heat transfer. A more direct

calculation of window heat transfer can be obtained using the shading factor.

3) Shading factor (F); the ratio of solar heat gain through a window to

the level of incident solar radiation.

The solar heat gain can be calculated from the product of the incident

irradiance and the shading factor.

For window glass with or without solar film, the U-factor, SC, and F are dependent upon the particular combination of the parameters of reflectance,

absorptance, transmittance and emittance. The relationships between the factors

can be summarized as follows.

The U-factor is essentially dependent upon the emittance of the surface, with

lower values of emittance producing lower U-f actors. This is due to a reduction of radiant heat transfer from the room to the interior surface. The

absorptance can also influence the U-factor by causing an increase in the

glazing temperature which can in turn influence heat transfer due to free

convection.

The shading coefficient and shading factor are directly related by the constant

reference glass shading factor, so both are similarly affected by the U-factor,

absorptance and transmittance. Shading factor increases with larger values for

10
either transmittance, absorptance or U-f actor, with transmittance usually being

the most significant component.

The ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals [10] describes the procedures for

calculating both solar and total heat gain through fenestration areas. The

procedures and parameters involved are summarized below for the case of single

glazing. Similar procedures are available for multiple glazing systems. The

heat balance between a unit area of sunlit single glazing material and its

thermal environment is:

I + u(Tq-Tj) = qR + qg +qT "^Rc "^ ^rc - ' ^^^

o i

where I = incident solar radiation,

U = thermal transmittance of glazing,

Tq = outdoor air temperature,

Tj = indoor air temperature,

q^ = reflected solar radiation,

qg = stored solar radiation,

q-j = transmitted solar radiation,

^RC ~ radiation and convection to exterior, and

o

•iRC ~ radiation and convection to interior.

i

The heat storage term, qg, is usually quite small and can be neglected. The

reflected term, q^ , and the radiation and convection to exterior term, qRC , represent the heat rejection to the exterior, leaving the transmitted term,

q,T, and the radiation and convection to interior term, qRC., to represent the

heat gain.

Equation 1 neglects the effect of transmission of solar radiation through the

glazing in an outward direction, which occurs due to reflection of solar radiation from interior surfaces. This effect is usually quite small in relation

to the level of incident solar radiation [11], since most of the solar energy

would have to undergo multiple reflections before leaving the room through the

window. Also, since glass is opaque to longwave infrared radiation beyond

3500 Nm (3.5 microns), any absorbed solar radiation which is subsequently

reradiated from room surfaces will be trapped in the room. This is commonly

called the "greenhouse effect".

In terms of the driving forces, net window heat transfer at any point in time

is given by:

Q = It + Ni(al) + U(To-Ti). (2)

y ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals , Chapter 26, Fenestration, ASHRAE, New York,

1977, (equations 1-7).

11
where Q = net heat transfer,

T = solar transtnittance of glazing,

Nj^ = inward-flowing fraction of the absorbed solar radiation,

a = solar absorptance of glazing.

Since the first two terms of eq. 2 are related to the solar radiation, they

can be combined to produce:

Q = IF + U(To-Ti). (3)

where F = shading factor.

Thus, the shading factor is defined as the ratio of the solar heat gain to the

level of incident solar radiation, and includes both the transmitted solar

radiation and the fraction of the absorbed solar radiation which is transferred

to the interior space. For single glazing, resistance to heat transfer is com- posed of the interior and exterior air films and the thermal resistance of the

glass itself. Very little resistance is provided by the glass, however, due

to its small thickness [12].

The thermal transmittance (U-f actor), being the inverse of the thermal

resistance, is given by:

i = 2_ + 1_ or U = ill-^ (4)

U hi ho hi+ho

where:

hi = combined interior surface coefficient,

ho = combined exterior surface coefficient.

The nature and magnitudes of the surface coefficients are described in a later

section of this report. Manipulation of eqs. 2, 3, and 4 leads to the following

relations

:

N = IL (5)

and F = X + U^ (6)

It should be noted that the parameters on the right side of eqs. 4 and 6 are not constants, although they tend to fall in particular ranges as a function

of the environmental conditions. The functional dependencies of the variable

parameters are listed in table 2.

12
Table 2.

Title: Major Factors Influencing Solar and Thermal Heat Transfer

Description: The solar and thermal performance of window is dependent upon

several parameters which, in turn, are dependent upon material

and environmental parameters.

Parameter Dependence

hj,hQ,U ° Surface properties of window (i.e. emittance),

° airflow conditions near window, glass surface temperature,

° temperature difference between glass surface and air,

° temperature of surrounding surfaces,

T, a ° solar radiation spectral composition and incident angle.

The shading coefficient (SC) is defined as the ratio of the shading factor of

a particular fenestration system to the shading factor of a reference glass,

namely double-strength, single pane clear glass:

SC =1 (7)

Fref

The shading coefficient concept is used to relate the solar heat gain to a baseline case, so that the solar heat gain can be calculated for any case simply by scaling the heat gain which would occur for the reference glass.

While the shading factor of the reference glass is nearly constant for most

cases (approx. 0.87), the shading factor of the window of interest may vary,

particularly if the window has a significant solar absorptance. Thus, although

shading coefficient values are usually considered to be constants for each

window type, some variation can occur with different weather conditions.

The solar transmittance of most fenestration systems is a function of the

incident angle and the spectral composition of the incoming solar radiation.

The solar radiation incident upon a window is composed of a direct beam component and a diffuse sky component. The diffuse component exhibits little variation in incident angle so the diffuse transmittance varies only through a small

range. The incident angle of the direct beam radiation is a function of the

position of the solar disk relative to the window. For clear glass, the transmittance remains fairly constant until the incident angle exceeds 50", at which

point the transmittance begins to decrease sharply.

13
The effect of varying spectral distribution of incoming solar radiation on actual transmit tance is much smaller than the effect of incident angle, but can contribute to small variations if atmospheric conditions are unusual.

3.2 THERMAL PERFORMANCE

As described earlier, the thermal transmittance (U-factor) is determined by

the interior and exterior surface coefficients. Each surface coefficient is

composed of a convective component and a radiative component, and is dependent

upon the airflow conditions and the temperatures of the window and its sur- roundings. Considerable variation can occur in the values of these parameters,

depending upon the design and location of the window.

For the case of free convection along a vertical panel such as a window, the

interior convective heat transfer coefficient can be estimated from the

relation2/:

where

h^ = 0.19(AT)0.33 (8)

h(, = convective surface coefficient

AT = temperature difference between window surface and interior air

(°F) (A°F = 1.8AT°C).

For the case of forced convection, when air continuously sweeps across the

window, such as would occur if a fan unit was near the window, h^, could be

larger. Sometimes a fixed value is used, such as 8.29 w/m2»K (1.46 Btu/

hr-ft2.°F) [10].

The radiative surface coefficient is a function of the temperatures and

emittances of the radiating surfaces. If the room is assumed to be a cavity,

it would appear to have an emittence of one. Thus:

Tg-Tj,

where hj- = radiative surface coefficient

e = emittance of interior window surface

= Stef an-Boltzmann constant

Tq = interior glass surface temperature, absolute units

Tj^ = mean radiant temperature of room, absolute units.

From eq. 8 it is seen that hj. can be reduced if the emittence is reduced, as can be accomplished through application of a low emittence film to the interior glass surface. The total interior surface coefficient is the sum of the

two components:

_2/ Op.cit. Chapter 2, Heat Transfer (equations 8-10).

14
hj = h^ + h^ (10)

The exterior surface coefficient is more difficult to quantify objectively, due

to the difficulty in specifying the temperature of the surroundings and the

air-flow conditions at the exterior window surface. The ASHRAE handbook estimates the exterior surface coefficient on the basis of wind speed, with a value

of 22.7 w/m2»K (4.0 Btu/h»ft2»F) for a wind speed of 6.7 m/s (7.5 mph), and a value of 34.1 w/m2«K (6.0 Btu/h*ft2»F) for a wind speed of 3.4 m/s (15.0 mph).

These values are only estimates since exterior surface coefficients are also

dependent upon wind direction and exposure conditions [13]. However, these

values are useful for comparing the performance of different window systems on

a relative basis under equivalent conditions.

Equations 3 through 10 were used to develop an analytical model of a typical

window system. Using the measured material properties of the films and various

combinations of solar radiation, wind, and air temperature conditions as input

parameters, an iterative computer procedure was used to solve for the window

temperature, the interior surface coefficient components and the thermal transmittance. The model assumes that the interior surfaces are at the same temperature as the interior air, and that free convection occurs at the interior

window surface.

The model was used to generate plots of the nighttime thermal transmittance as

a function of the indoor-outdoor air temperature difference, for values of the

exterior surface coefficient of 5.7, 11.4, 22.7 and 34.1 w/m2»K (one, two, four,

and six Btu/h»ft2«F). These plots indicate a range of expected U-values for

each glass/film combination estimated in this report, plus the clear glass case,

and are found in figures 3a-g, located at the back of the report.

As seen in these figures, the magnitude of the U-factor increases with greater

temperature differences, but changes very slowly once the temperature difference is greater than 8.3°C (15°F). The exterior surface coefficient is seen to

have a stronger impact on the U-value, with variations of 20 percent or more

possible due to a typical change in Yiq,

3.3 SOLAR CONTROL PERFORMANCE

The computer model was also used to calculate the shading factor F for each

glass/film option. Because F is a function of U, it will also vary with the

exterior surface coefficient and the air temperature difference. The level of

solar radiation will also impact the shading factor, especially if the window

system has a significant absorptance, since absorbed solar radiation will cause

the glass temperature to increase. The calculated shading factor plots are presented in figures 4a-g.

For design purposes, ASHRAE specifies particular conditions under which U-values

and shading factors are to be calculated. These conditions are

winter U-f act or ° 38.9°C (70°F) temperature difference

° no solar radiation

° YXq = 34.1 w/m2.K (6.0 Btu/h»ft2.F)

15
summer shading factor ° 5.6°C (10°F) temperature difference

° hp = 22.7 w/m2.K (4.0 Btu/h»ft2.F).

Values of these parameters, calculated using the foregoing conditions, are listed in table 3 along with shading coefficients.

Table 3.

Title: Design Values for Solar and Thermal Properties of Six Solar Films

Description: The winter thermal transmittance (U-value), shading factor and

shading coefficient are listed as calculated using standard

ASHRAE procedure, for each film and clear glass

Winter u-•value

(Bt u/h«ft2.F) (w/m2.K) Shading Factor Shading Coefficient

Type

Clear 1.17 6.6 87 1.0

Film A 0.84 4.8 0.17 0.20

B 1.17 6.6 0.20 0.23

C 0.84 4.8 0.27 0.31

D 1.17 6.6 0.30 0.34

E 1.07 6.1 0.32 0.37

F 1.18 6.7 0.62 0.71

3.4 COMFORT

Alteration of the solar/thermal properties of a window through application of

a solar film may significantly influence comfort conditions within the interior

space near the window. This would be especially true for office areas near

large windows subject to high levels of incident solar radiation. The use of

solar film impacts comfort conditions in two main ways:

1. Rejection of solar heat through reflection and/or absorption of

incident solar radiation.

2. Reflection of room temperature infrared radiation from the interior

window surface (requires the use of a low emittance film). This results

in a higher mean radiant temperature, improving comfort conditions near

the window.

The effect of rejection of solar heat is more significant than the effect of

infrared radiation reflection, due to the relative magnitudes of the radiation

16
components. As a general rule, building occupants would not be comfortable if

they were working at a location near a window such that direct beam solar

radiation was striking them for long periods of time. In addition, high rates

of solar heat gain can result in an increase in air and surface temperatures

within the interior space near the window, since a finite amount of time is

required for the HVAC system to respond to the solar heat gain. This situation

can occur during any season, depending on the solar radiation levels and window

exposures. Overheating may be experienced near a south-facing window even in

the dead of winter, due to the low solar altitudes during this time. However,

reducing solar heat gain in winter through the use of a solar control device

may improve comfort at the expense of energy, since the solar heat gain may be

reducing the heating energy requirement for the entire building. During the

cooling season a solar control device would be beneficial both from the

standpoint of comfort and energy.

While solar films do provide significant reduction in solar heat gain,

additional solar control strategies may be required in areas with high cooling

loads and high levels of solar radiation. This may be accomplished through the use of interior shading such as blinds, drapes or louvers [14]. These types of

interior shading devices can be adjusted by building occupants as required to

maintain comfort conditions, and to reduce undesirable solar heat gain.

17
4. MEASUREMENTS

4.1 PURPOSE

The purpose of the measurement portion of the study was to determine the

physical, thermal, and optical characteristics and properties of the solar

films, and to monitor the energy related performance of a window with and without solar film installed. This allows for verification of the calculated Uvalues and shading coefficients, and provides a detailed look at the various

window heat-transfer mechanisms.

The measurements are summarized in table 4.

Table 4.

Title: Measurement Parameters, Apparatus and Method

Description: The individual measurement parameters, measurement apparatus and

methods are listed for each of the components of the measurement

portion of the study

Parameter Apparatus Method

Small samples:

solar transmittance ^ spectrophotometer ASTM E424 A

solar reflectance

infrared transmittance

surface emittance infrared ref lectometer

Full size windows:

solar transmittance pyranometers ASTM E424 B Ratio of

transmitted to incident solar radiation

Net window heat calorimeter Energy balance of

transfer guarded window

U-factor, shading calorimeter

factor

Window temperature calorimeter Type T thermocouples

,

30 gage

18
4.2 SMALL SAMPLE TESTS

Highly accurate measurements were made of the solar transmittance and

reflectance, the Infrared transmittance and the surface emittance for clear

glass and for each film/glass combination. These laboratory measurements use

an artificial energy source to simulate solar radiation, so the spectral com- position and level of the incident radiation is constant and reproducible for

each test, providing a good basis for comparison of the physical properties of

the solar films. When actually installed in a building exposed to sunlight (as

will be described in the next section), the actual transmitance of any window

will vary as a function of the spectral distribution and incident angle of the

incoming solar radiation. The transmittance of a window to direct beam (parallel ray) solar radiation is strongly dependent upon incident angle due to the

increased reflectance at sharp incident angles. Of the energy not reflected

at one of the glass or film surfaces, the portion transmitted is determined by

the product of the spectral distribution of the incident solar radiation and

the spectral transmittance.

4.2.1 Solar Transmittance and Reflectance

The spectral transmittance of the glass/film materials was measured utilizing a Gary 17D Spectrophotometer! with a 76 mm (3 in) diameter integrating sphere

[15]. Measurements of spectral transmittance relative to air were made over

the spectral range from 300 to 2150 mm. The illumination and viewing mode were normal-diffuse. The transmittance measurements were made by placing the test

specimen in direct contact with the sphere aperture so that the incident monochromatic radiation was normal to the plane of the specimen. The sphere aperture had approximate dimensions of 25 by 10 mm (1 by 3/8 in). The incident

beam was approximately 24.4 x 6.2 mm (0.96 by 0.24 in) and it intersected the

test specimen near the center. The solar energy transmitted was obtained by

integrating over the spectral solar energy distribution, as reported by

Parry Moon [16], for sea level and air mass 2 (AM 2 sun's rays 60° from normal),

The weighted ordinates calculation method from ASTM E 424 was used to integrate

the solar energy distribution at 50 Nm intervals, normalized to 100 percent.

The spectral transmittance data were digitized by the spectrophotometer and fed

directly into a computer which performed the integration calculations after

correcting for the baseline. Due to the optics associated with the integrating

sphere and moisture in the atmosphere, the 100 percent baseline contained

several absorption bands for which corrections were made.

The solar reflectance was measured in a similar manner, with the positions of

the light source and sample reversed, and the absorptance was calculated from

the reflectance and transmittance.

1 Certain trade names and company products are identified in order to

adequately specify the experimental procedure. In no case does such identification imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Bureau of

Standards, nor does it imply that the products are necessarily the best

available for the purpose.

19
The integrated values of the transmittance , reflectance and absorptance are listed in table 4, while the detailed spectral plots are found in figures 5a-g.

4.2.2 Infrared Surface Emittance

The surface emittance was determined using an infrared ref lectometer , with a low temperature heat source. Since all of the materials are essentially opaque

to infrared radiation, the emittance (e) is found by:

e = (1-p) (11)

The measured emittances are listed in table 5. As seen there, the low emittance

films were found to have surface emittance as low as 0.28, compared to a high

of 0.87 for film F and 0.85 for clear glass. Even some of the so-called normal

emittance films exhibit a lower surface emittance than the clear glass, a characteristic which would lead to reduced heat loss. Spectral emittance

measurements of films A, B, C, and clear glass, are found in figures 5h-k.

Table 5.

Title: Measured Integrated Average Solar Properties of Six Films and Clear

Glass

Description: The measured solar properties are listed for each of the films and

clear glass

Type Reflectance, p Abs orptance, a Transmittance, t Emittance, e

Clear 0.08 0.11 0.82 0.85

Film A 0.55 0.33 0.12 0.28

B 0.53 0.32 0.15 0.61

C 0.41 0.37 0.22 0.39

D 0.25 0.58 0.17 0.64

E 0.19 0.63 0.18 0.67

F 0.07 0.41 0.52 0.87

4.3 FULL SIZE WINDOW TESTS

Measurements were made using full size windows in a manner such as would be

found in a typical office building, to determine typical data regarding window

heat gain and thermal/solar performance characteristics. The intent of this

portion of the study was to measure the important parameters as they occur

while a window is exposed to typical interior and exterior conditions, including solar radiation, outdoor wind and air temperature conditions and interior

temperature and airflow conditions.

20
These measurements were accomplished through the use of a specially constructed

window calorimeter, suitably instrumented to monitor and record all the data

required to perform and complete the analysis. The calorimeter, or box, was operated continuously, and each of the seven window types was installed periodically and tested under various conditions through summer, fall, and winter

seasons.

Additional measurements of glazing surface temperature and transmittance were

made using four side-by-side test windows.

The calorimeter was constructed in the shape of a large box (approximately 100

ft3; 2.8 m3), without an absorber plate located inside the window opening. This

design was chosen since it more closely resembles a typical office space, and

allows for air circulation across the inner glass surface, as would typically

occur. Solar energy transmitted by the window will be absorbed and reflected

by the box walls and floor, possibly causing an increase in surface temperature.

This, in turn, leads to heat transfer from the box walls and floor to the box

air, as would occur in a typical office. Due to the low thermal conductance of

the box walls, virtually all of the absorbed solar radiation eventually is

transferred as heat to the air. However, during those periods when the walls

or floor are at an elevated temperature, heat exchange with the glazing may be

influenced, as would be expected in a typical office space.

Measurements included net window heat transfer, incident and transmitted solar

radiation, incident infrared radiation, surface and air temperatures, thermal

transmittance, shading factor and surface heat transfer coefficients.

4.3.1 Apparatus

The window calorimeter was constructed of polystyrene with 12.7 cm (5 in.)

thick walls. The overall dimensions of the box are 144.8 cm (57 in.) wide x

132.1 cm, (52 in.) deep x 198.1 cm (78 in.) high, with a window opening of

153.5 X 96.4 cm (25 x 38 in.) (see figure 6). The box is mounted flush with a south facing exterior wall (R40) with a cutout for the window so 1.5 m2 (16 ft2)

of box wall and 0.6 m2 (6.6 ft2) of window area are exposed to exterior conditions. The box was mounted in the room so that none of the remaining five surfaces (floor, wall, ceiling, etc.) touched the walls, floor or ceiling of the

room, thus, maintaining an air space all around the box. The room air temperature was controlled to match the box air, so no heat transfer would occur

through any portions of the box envelope except for the exterior wall. The

window frame was constructed of polystyrene and was 20.3 cm (8 in.) deep total,

with the glass inset 2.5 cm (1 in.) from the exterior. A photograph of the

window calorimeter is shown in figure 7,

The air temperature in the box was controlled using a water-to-air heat

exchanger mounted inside the box, with a constantly operating circulation fan.

The heat exchanger fan was a constant heat source in the box, releasing 94.1 w

(321 Btu/hr). The supply air was directed downward 0.5 m (1.5 ft) above the

floor, with the return located near the box ceiling facing the window opening.

Thus, supply air tended to sweep the walls of the box and good mixing was achieved. An individual HVAC system, consisting of a water chiller, in-line

21
electric heater, pump, and storage tank in series with the box heat exchanger,

enabled precise control of box air temperature. A temperature sensor in the

heat exchanger return air stream was used to automatically control the operation of the chiller and heater to maintain box air temperature within a small

band.

The amount of heat added or extracted from the box (Q) was determined from

the following equation:

Q = VdCpAT (12)

where

:

•V = volumetric flow rate of water,

d = density of water

Cp = specific heat of water

AT = temperature change of water flowing through box heat-exchanger.

The water flow rate was held constant, the specific heat of water was assumed

to be a constant 4.2 (103) j/Kg»K (1 Btu/lb«°F) and the density of water was assumed to be a constant 1000 Kg/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3).

The temperature rise of the circulating water was measured using a copper-constantan thermopile with 21 pairs of junctions which produced a millivolt signal proportional to the difference between the inlet and outlet water

temperatures of the box heat-exchanger. The millivolt signal was read by an analog integrator which printed hourly integrated average values of the temperature difference for each hour. A rise in water temperature indicates heat

extracted from the box (cooling), while a negative temperature difference

indicates heating has occurred.

The window calorimeter test set-up was instrumented with Type T thermocouples

to measure various surface and air temperatures, solar pyranometers to measure

incident and transmitted radiation, and infrared prygeometer to measure incident long wave (4-50 ym) (4000-50,000 Nm) radiation. Additional measurements

were made of the weather parameters such as wind speed and other solar radiation components. A complete list of measurement parameters is given in

table 6.

4.3.2 Data Acquisition System

All of the sensors, except the box flowmeter and thermopile, were monitored

using a micro-computer controlled data acquisition system. The sensor outputs were connected to a data logger which provided thermocouple compensation and

analog-to-digital conversion. The micro-computer continuously scanned all

sensors, computing and printing average and instantaneous values every hour.

Subsequent processing provided separate files of reduced data, including

temperature differences, derived quantities and calculated components, and

allowed inclusion of the box flowmeter and thermopile readings.

22
Thus, the hourly measurements of box heat loss /gain, temperature, and

environmental conditions enabled determination of U-values , shading factors,

shading coefficients, and window energy performance.

Table 6.

Title: Measurement Sensors

Description: Each measured quantity is listed, along with the conventional

units.

Quantity

a) total horizontal irradiance

b) diffuse horizontal irradiance

c) total vertical irradiance

south exterior

d) total vertical irradiance,

inside glazing

• calorimeter

• four test windows

e) longwave infrared radiation,

south exterior vertical

f) wind speed

g) wind direction

h) temperatures

• all box walls, floor,

ceiling surfaces

• five test windows,

interior surface

• indoor, outdoor air

• exterior ground surface

Units

w/m2 (Btu/h»ft2)

m/s

degrees

(mph)

(°F)

4.3.3 Test Procedure

The test procedure consisted of installing one of the test windows in the

calorimeter, and monitoring the energy requirements of the box, along with the

environmental conditions. After correcting for heat gain to the box from

the heat exchanger fan, and any heat transfer between the box and the room air

surrounding the interior box walls, an overall heat balance for the calorimeter

yields:

Qnet ~ Qwindow "^ Qwall (13)

or

Qnet = IFAg + UgAgCTq-Ti) + U^^CTq-Ti)

23

(14)
where

Qnet ~ ^^^ ^°^ heat transfer,

Aq = total window area,

A^ = total wall area,

I = incident solar radiation,

F = shading factor,

Uq = glass thermal transmittance

,

U^ = wall thermal transmittance « 0.142 w/m2.K, (0.025 Btu/hr» °F«f t2)

,

To = outdoor air temperature,

Tj = indoor air temperature « 26°C, (78°F).

The term U^A^(Tq-Tj) is the heat transfer through the small portion of exterior

wall (less the window opening) and must be subtracted from Q^et ^° determine

the heat transfer due to the window. Thus,

Qwindow = Qnet " Qwall ^1^)

and

q = MB^ow ^ jp ^ U(To-Tj) (16)

where

q = heat gain per unit window area.

From this relation, it is seen that when solar radiation I is zero:

q = U(To-Ti) (17)

or

U = 3 (18)

To-Tl

Thus, the U-factor can be determined through measurement of q, Tq, and Tj.

The shading factor, F, cannot be measured directly, since there will nearly

always be an inside-to-outside temperature difference causing some heat flow

through the window and contributing to q. However, F is given by:

F = ^-"<"°-"I>

(19)

I

This relation indicates that if the U-factor is known, F can be determined.

Since the U-factor is measured continuously, the pre-dawn and post-dusk Ufactors can be adjusted for daylight hours by considering the glazing temperature and wind conditions. By choosing days with constant wind conditions and

correcting the U-value to account for heating of the glazing due to solar

absorption, the U-factor can be calcuated and the thermal heat transfer

24
component subtracted from the overall box heat gain, leaving only the solar

component. The ratio of the solar heat gain to the incident solar radiation

gives the shading factor F. The ratio of the measured F to F for the reference

double-strength, single-pane glass gives the shading coefficient. F^^p is

approximately 0.87, but varies with I as previously described.

If the air temperature inside the box had been maintained at a different

temperature, say 18°C (65°F) representing winter conditions, the determination

of the thermal transmittance and shading factor values would have been

unaffected. This is due to the fact that the thermal transmittance was determined using the indoor-to-outdoor air temperature difference, not the absolute

indoor air temperature. The shading factor is defined independently of the

indoor air temperature, although the thermal transmittance does play a small

part in the determination of the value of the shading factor. The impact of

any small nonlinear behavior of the thermal transmittance with indoor air

temperature would be overshadowed by the influence of the various driving

forces including wind conditions, solar conditions and outdoor temperature.

The indoor air temperature has no effect on the solar/optical properties such

as transmittance.

4.4 MEASUREMENT RESULTS

4.4.1 Thermal Transmittance (U-f actor)

Measurements were made of the thermal transmittance of each window type under

a variety of weather conditions, covering a range of inside-to-outside temperature differences. Only nighttime measurements were used, eliminating the need

to adjust for solar radiation effects. As was shown previously, the U-factor

is strongly influenced by the exterior surface coefficient and the temperature

difference. The measured values of U are plotted as a function of the temperature difference in figures 8a-g, for each film and clear glass. These values

fall in the range that would be expected, based on the analytical considerations previously described. The vertical scatter in the plots is due to the

effect of a varying exterior surface heat transfer coefficient, caused by

variations in wind conditions or incident infrared radiation.

The measured U-factors indicate that the exterior surface coefficient hQ

remained in the range between 11.4 and 22.7 w/m2»K (2 and 4 Btu/(hr»ft2» °F))

for most of the testing. Separate measurements of hQ using a heat-flow meter

and thermopile also indicated that this was the case.

4.4.2 Shading Factor (F)

Shading factors were determined under a variety of solar radiation conditions

for each window type, as previously described, and are presented as a function

of incident solar radiation in figures 9a-g.

These measurements indicate that for the films with significant absorptance, F

increases with solar radiation and is frequently greater than the design value.

For the clear glass and low absorptance films, less variation in F is seen, as would be expected.

25
4.4.3 Solar Transmittance (t)

The measured transmlttances are plotted for each window type, as a function of

the level of incident irradiance, in figure lOa-g. The scatter in these plots

is due to the fact that the angular dependance of the transmittance applies

mainly to the direct component of the incident solar radiation, since the

diffuse component, by definition, is arriving from all angles. Thus, the effect

of incident angle is much stronger during clear days than during overcast days.

26
5. BUILDING SIMULATION

5.1 THE DOE COMPUTER PROGRAM

The DOE computer program [17] (version 2.1) was used in this study to predict

the annual building energy requirements. The DOE program is a building energy

analysis tool developed by the Department of Energy for improving the energy

performance of buildings. The program uses dynamic rather than steady-state

calculation procedures and thus accounts for the thermal lag due to the building envelope construction. The algorithms used by the program are based on procedures developed by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and

Air-Conditioning Engineers. The program performs hour-by-hour simulations of

the plant (e.g. boilers, chillers, cooling towers, etc.) and HVAC system (e.g.

fans, coils, pumps, etc.) as they respond to variations in the weather induced

envelope load and internal heat gains.

5.2 THE BUILDING MODEL

The building considered in this study is a six-story federal office building

located in Washington, D.C. The building is approximately 132 m (434 ft.)

long, 29 m (96 ft.) wide, and 22 m (71 ft.) high, having a gross above grade

floor area of approximately 2322 m2 (249,984 ft2). The north and south facades

of the building each have approximately 1608 m2 (17313 ft. 2) of glass area and

the east and west facades each have approximately 342 m2 (3686 ft. 2) of glass

area. The windows are single pane, clear glass with no operable sash, overhangs, or fins, and are mounted flush with exterior wall surface. Overall,

approximately 54 percent of the gross exterior wall area consists of glass

(see figure 11 for photograph). The long axis of the building ran in an eastwest direction, with greatest exposures to the north and south. The percentage

of glass area is the same on each facade.

After obtaining blueprints of the building, a walk-through was conducted in

order to gather additional information on space temperatures, occupancy, light,

and equipment use. Interviews were also conducted with the personnel operating

the building central equipment and operating records reviewed. On the basis of

this information the building model was developed, a description of which can

be found in appendix A.

5.3 CLIMATIC ZONES

The "Test Reference Year" (TRY) [18] hourly climate data tapes, prepared by the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) , were used in this study.

Each TRY data tape consists of one year's climate records chosen from a population of 27 years of records of the U.S. National Weather Service. The year

chosen as the TRY year varies with location. The weather data are generally

recorded at nearby airport weather stations. The weather variables used by the

DOE program are:

Dry-bulb temperature

Wet-bulb temperature

Atmospheric pressure

27
Wind speed

Wind direction

Cloud amount

Cloud type

The GSA selected the following seven locations, giving a broad climatic

variation, for this study:

Phoenix, Arizona

Houston, Texas

Atlanta, Georgia

Washington, D.C.

Chicago, Illinois

Boston, Massachusetts

San Jose, California

Table 7 lists the cities and their TRY annual heating and cooling degree-days.

Figure 12 shows a map of the United States with each of the seven locations

used in the study.

Table 7.

Title: TRY Heating and Cooling Degree Days (Base 18.3 C)* for Study Cities

CITY HDD CDD

Phoenix 842 1852

Houston 888 1525

Atlanta 1627 816

Washington, D.C. 2312 828

Chicago 3439 396

Boston 3238 374

San Jose 465 223

* Multiplication of the above HDD's and CDD's by 1.8 will give values in degree

days base 65 °F.

5.4 SIMULATION VERIFICATION

A computer run was made on the Washington, D.C. TRY weather tape. The results

of this run were then compared with the most recent annual energy consumption

records (1980) for the building, to assure that the building model, together

with the DOE computer program, adequately simulated the actual building.

Figure 13 shows the monthly energy consumptions for both the simulated and

actual building.

28
The predicted values for steam consumption track the metered values extremely

well (with the exception of the very high February metered value). It should

be noted that the TRY weather tape was from a different year than the measured

data. The predicted results for the prime heating months were expected to be

somewhat greater than the metered values since the TRY weather tape heating

degree-days (base 18.2°C) are 7 percent greater than for the year 1980 (2133

vs. 2162).

The predicted values for electric consumption also track the metered values

well except for the extremely low metered values for the months of March, April,

and June. The previous years metered values show an average increase of slightly

less than 10 percent each month in electric energy consumption from February

thru July. This correlates very well with the predicted results. It is

unclear why the metered results are so low for March, April, and June in 1980.

The metered results for the prime cooling months were expected to be higher

than the predicted values since the cooling degreedays for 1980 are much

higher than for the Washington, D.C. TRY weather tape (1115 vs. 828).

5.5 COMPUTER SIMULATION RESULTS FOR SEVEN CLIMATIC ZONES

Seven computer simulations were run for each city. A baseline run was made to

establish the energy performance of the building with clear window glass. In

this run it was assumed that clear glass covered the window areas on all four

building facades. Six additional runs were made, one for each different solar

film. In these runs it was assumed that the solar film had been placed on the

east, south, and west glazing surfaces of the building. The U-values and

shading coefficients used in this study for the clear glass and clear glass

with six different solar films are listed in table 3. A total of 49 computer

simulations were run.

Figure 14 shows the heating and electrical consumption results of the baseline

runs for the building in each of the seven different locations plotted as functions of heating and cooling degree days, respectively. The building

heating energy consumption is highly climate dependent, since it is primarily

driven by ambient temperature and wind conditions. The building electric

energy consumption, on the other hand, does not exhibit much climatic variation.

This is because this building (like most office buildings) consumes a large

quantity of electric energy for lighting and office equipment (see table 8)

and the majority of the electric cooling energy is used to eliminate these

internal heat gains. Thus there is little climate dependence in the electric

cooling energy consumption and even less in the total electric energy consumption. The cooling energy consumption is about 5 percent of the total electric

energy consumption for this building as simulated.

Table 9 lists the annual heating and electric energy consumptions for all seven

locations. The table shows that the effect of the solar films, in all cases was to decrease the annual electric energy consumptions and increase the annual

heating energy consumptions. The annual electric energy consumptions decrease

due to the reduction (by the solar films) in solar heat gains during cooling

periods. Likewise, the annual heating energy consumptions increase due to the

reduction in beneficial solar heat gains during heating periods. Table 10

29
Table 8.

Title: Energy Consumptions (MBTU) for the Subsystems of the Simulated

Building (Washington, D.C. with Clear Glass)

Energy Type

Steam Electricity

In Situ MBtu (GJ) MBtu (GJ)

Category of Use

Space Heat 10383.52 (10954..61)

Space Cool 1250.56 (1319.34)

HVAC Auxiliary 3637.84 (3837.92)

Domestic Hot Water 1067.16 (1125..85)

Auxiliary Solar

Lights 11073.30 (11682.33)

Vertical Trans. 1491.62 (1573.60)

Miscellaneous Equipment 2350.68 (2479.97)

TOTAL 11450.68 (12080..47) 19803.89 (20893.10)

Table 9.

Title: Annual Heating and Electrical Consumptions for Simulated Building

Without and With Solar Films for Study Locations

Electrical Consumption (Megawatt Hours)

City Clear Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F

A*** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** Phoenix 5908.6 5780.8 5795.2 5796.7 5810.1 5811.3 5863.5

Houston 5893.3 5775.6 5784.4 5792.0 5800.2 5803.4 5852.0

Atlanta 5809.6 5692.9 5698.5 5708.8 5713.7 5717.8 5769.1

Washington 5802.5 5698.2 5705.0 5710.2 5716.7 5718.7 5763.3

Chicago 5759.2 5657.8 5666.6 5668.6 5675.9 5677.7 5719.6

Boston 5756.5 5661.3 5668.9 5670.4 5676.5 5678.6 5719.9

San Jose 5652.8 5560.5 5564.6 5570.2 5574.0 5576.3 5614.4

Heating Consumption (Megawatt Hours)

City Clear Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F   ** ****** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** Phoenix 1205.1 1289.8 1307.1 1271.6 1288.6 1277.2 1237.6

Houston 1278.6 1346.0 1369.5 1330.2 1354.5 1341.9 1309.1

Atlanta 2289.2 2383.5 2424.8 2361.6 2402.9 2382.4 2336.7

Washington 3355.1 3471.4 3533.3 3440.7 3501.6 3471.7 3415.8

Chicago 5042.8 5171.7 5271.6 5135.1 5232.1 5189.3 5120.1

Boston 4967.2 5107.8 5209.8 5066.2 5165.5 5120.7 5049.5

San Jose 1172.9 1304.4 1322.9 1274.8 1295.3 1279.8 1216.8

30
Table 10.

Title: Annual Electrical Consumption Decreases and Heating Consumption

Increases Due to Solar Films for Study Locations

Decrease in Electrical Consumption (Megawatt Hours)

City Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ********** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** Phoenix 127.7 113.4 111.9 98.4 97.3 45.1

Houston 117.8 109.0 101.4 93.2 90.0 41.3

Atlanta 116.6 111.0 100.8 95.8 91.7 40.4

Washington 104.3 97.6 92.3 85.8 83.8 93.3

Chicago 101.4 92.6 90.5 83.2 81.5 39.6

Boston 95.2 87.6 86.1 80.0 77.9 36.6

San Jose 92.3 88.2 82.6 78.8 76.5 38.4

Increase in Heating Consumption (Megawatt Hours)

City Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ********** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** Phoenix 84.7 102.0 66.5 83.5 72.1 32.5

Houston 67.4 90.8 51.6 75.9 63.3 30.5

Atlanta 94.3 135.7 72.4 113.7 93.2 47.5

Washington 116.3 178.1 85.6 146.5 116.6 60.7

Chicago 128.9 228.8 92.3 189.3 146.5 77.4

Boston 140.6 242.6 99.0 198.4 153.5 82.3

San Jose 131.6 150.0 102.0 122.5 106.9 43.9

lists the annual electric energy decreases and heating energy increases for all

the cities. A comparison of increases and decreases in energy use for each city

shows that none of the solar films produce a net annual decrease in energy con- sumption for Chicago, Boston, and San Jose. In fact, of the locations examined,

those that have fewer cooling degree-days than Washington, D.C. are not, in

general, good candidates for the use of solar films on glazed areas, unless

cooling energy is significantly more costly than heating energy. Table 10 also

shows that solar films having both a low U-value and a low shading coefficient

are most effective in reducing overall energy consumption. This is because

the low shading coefficient value results in a decrease in the solar heat gain.

This causes a decrease in the cooling energy and an increase in the heating

energy. However, the low U-value results in a reduced conduction heat loss

during heating periods which tends to offset some of the heating energy

increases due to reduced solar heat gain.

5.6 ECONOMICS OF SOLAR FILMS

In order to determine if a particular solar film is cost effective consideration

must be given to energy costs, purchase and installation costs, and maintenance

costs. In this report the first year dollar savings, the discounted payback

31
period, and the savings to investment ratio are used to determined if a solar

film is cost effective. An installed film cost of one dollar per square foot

is used in this analysis.

Table 11 shows the minimum ratio of the cost of electric energy per kWh to

heating energy per kWh that must exist in order for the particular solar film

to show a first year dollar savings (table 11 is calculated from the results

of table 10). For example, if the cost of electric energy were $0.073/kWh

($25.00/MBtu) and the cost of heating energy (steam) were $0.044/kWh ($15.00/

MBtu) then any solar film showing a ratio of 1.6 or less in table 11 would have

a first year dollar savings. Thus, for Washington, D.C., solar films A, C, E,

and F would have a first year dollar savings.

Tables 12-18 show the first year dollar savings, discounted payback periods,

and savings to investment ratios for gas, oil, or steam as the heating energy

for all six solar films under given conditions for all seven locations for a useful life of 10 and 15 years.

The first year dollar savings were calculated from the following equation:

First year dollar savings = (EC * ECD) - (HEC * HCI) (20)

Where

EC = electricity cost per kWh,

ECD = electrical consumption decrease (from table 9),

HEC = heating energy cost per kWh,

HCI = heating consumption increase (from table 9).

In the above calculation, electrical demand rates were not considered and for

gas and oil savings an annual system efficiency of 70 percent was assumed (i.e.,

the heating energy increase from table 9 were divided by 0.7). The first year

energy costs were typical costs for each region.

The discounted payback period was determined by calculating the cumulative

savings in energy costs at yearly intervals until the savings met or exceeded

the investment cost. That is, MPWF^ and MPWFjj were found for a year (Y) such

that the following equation was satisfied:

E$ * MPWFg(Y) - H$ * MPWFjj(Y) >_ COST (21)

where

COST = material, installation, and maintenance costs for useful life

of solar film,

ULIFE = useful life of solar film,

E$ = EC * ECD = base year electricity dollar savings,

MPWFg(Y) = modified uniform present worth discount factor for electricity for

given year (Y) (the values for MPWFg are taken from the tables in

32
appendix B and are based on a 7 percent real discount rate and

include projected real escalation rates in energy cost), [19]

H$ = HEC * HCI = base year increase in cost for heating,

MPWFjjCY) = modified uniform present worth discount factor for heating energy

for a given year(Y) (from tables in appendix B).

Table 11.

Title: Minimum Ratio of Unit Cost of Electricity to Unit Cost of Heating

Fuel* that Must Exist in order for Solar Film to Show First Year

Dollar Savings

City Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ********** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** Phoenix .7 .9 .6 .8 .7 .7

Houston .6 .8 .5 .8 .7 .7

Atlanta .8 1.2 .7 1.2 1.0 1.2

Washington 1.1 1.8 .9 1.7 1.4 1.5

Chicago 1.3 2.5 1.0 2.3 1.8 2.0

Boston 1.5 2.8 1.1 2.5 2.0 2.2

San Jose 1.4 1.7 1.2 1.6 1.4 1.1

NOTE: The ratio of actual cooling to heating energy costs calculated for a particular location must be at least equal to the minimum ratio shown

in the table for that film to show a first year dollar savings. For

example, in Phoenix the electricity cost per kWh divided by heating

cost per kWh must be at least equal to 0.7 for Film A to show a first

year dollar savings, while Film B would require a ratio of at least 0.9,

The savings-to-investment ratios were calculated from the following equation:

E$*MPWFe(ULIFE) - H$*MPWFh(ULIFE)

Savings-to-investment ratio = COST

(22)

Tables 12-18 shows that in all locations either Film A or Film C is the most

cost effective. The solar films are most cost effective when gas is the heating energy, followed by oil and then steam. This is because, for a given unit

of energy, gas is less expensive than oil, and oil is less expensive than steam.

The solar films tend to be more cost effective in the warmer climates (e.g..

Phoenix, Houston, and Atlanta) where there are substantial cooling requirements

rather than in colder climates (e.g., Chicago and Boston) or very mild climates

(e.g., San Jose) where there are typically small cooling requirements.

In applying the results of tables 12-18 to determining if solar films should be

used on a specific building the following points should be kept in mind:

* The costs mentioned in table 11 are the costs the building owner /operator

must pay. The table was calculated assuming the heating fuel was purchased

steam (i.e., efficiency = 100%).

33
Table 12.

Title: Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness For Phoenix

First Year Energy Savings (Dollars) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 5939. 4644. 5383. 4149. 4344. 2036.

Oil 4676. 3124. 4391. 2905. 3270. 1552.

Steam 4151. 2491. 3978. 2386. 2822. 1350.

Pay-Back Periods (Years) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 5.0 6.0 5.0 7.0 7.0 20.0

Oil 6.0 9.0 6.0 10.0 8.0 >25.0

Steam 7.0 17.0 7.0 17.0 12.0 >25.0

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (10 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 2.0 1.5 1.8 1.4 1.5 .7

Oil 1.7 1.1 1.6 1.0 1.2 .6

Steam 1.4 .8 1.3 .8 .9 .4

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (15 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 2.6 2.0 2.4 1.8 1.9 .9

Oil 2.0 1.3 1.9 1.2 1.4 .7

Steam 1.7 1.0 1.7 .9 1.2 .6

Assumptions: Electricity Cost

Heating Fuel Cost

10 Year Present Worth Factor

15 Year Present Worth Factor

Material and Installment Cost

$ .062/kWh

$ .016 (Gas), .027 (Oil), .045 (Steam)/kWh

9.2 (Gas), 8.0 (Oil), 8.7 (Steam), 8.3 (Elec.)

12.1 (Gas), 11.5 (Oil), 11.5 (Steam), 10.7 (Elec.)

$23476, ($1.0 per sq. ft. of glass)

34
Table 13.

Title: Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness For Houston

First Year Energy Savings (Dollars) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy

**************

Gas

Oil

Steam

Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

4871. 4077. 4289. 3512. 3541. 1605.

3308. 1970. 3093. 1752. 2073. 898.

2889. 1406. 2773. 1280. 1680. 709.

Heating Energy

**************

Gas

Oil

Steam

Pay-Back Periods (Years) for Six Solar Films

Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

6.0 7.0 7.0 8.0 8.0 >25.0

8.0 >25.0 9.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

11.0 >25.0 11.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (10 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.2 1.2 .6

Oil 1.2 .7 1.1 .7 .8 .3

Steam 1.0 .4 .9 .4 .5 .2

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (15 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 1.8 1.8 2.0 1.6 1.6 .7

Oil 1.5 .9 1.4 .8 .9 .4

Steam 1.3 .5 1.2 .5 .7 .3

Assumptions: Electricity Cost

Heating Fuel Cost

10 Year Present Worth Factor

15 Year Present Worth Factor

Material and Installment Cost

$ .050/kWh

$ .011 (Gas), .027 (Oil), .045 (Steam)/kWh

9.3 (Gas), 8.0 (Oil), 8.8 (Steam), 8.3 (Elec.)

12.5 (Gas), 11.4 (Oil), 11.8 (Steam), 11.0 (Elec.)

$23476. ($1.0 per sq. ft. of glass)

35
Table 14.

Title: Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness For Atlanta

First Year Energy Savings (Dollars) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 4110. 2909. 3754. 2584. 2816. 1102.

Oil 2566. 688. 2569. 723. 1291. 325.

Steam 1980. -154. 2120. 17. 713. 30.

Pay-Back Periods (Years) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy **************

Gas

Oil

Steam

Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

7.0 14.0 8.0 18.0 13.0 >25.0

10.0 >25.0 11.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

21.0 >25.0 18.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (10 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 1.4 .9 1.3 .8 .9 .3

Oil 1.0 .4 1.0 .4 .5 .2

Steam .6 .7 .2

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (15 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 1.7 1.1 1.6 1.0 1.1 .4

Oil 1.2 .3 1.2 .3 .6 .2

Steam .8 .9 .2

Assumptions: Electricity Cost

Heating Fuel Cost

10 Year Present Worth Factor

15 Year Present Worth Factor

Material and Installment Cost

$ .053/kWh

$ .015 (Gas), .027 (Oil), .045 (Steam)/kWh

10.0 (Gas), 8.0 (Oil), 9.0 (Steam), 8.5 (Elec.)

14.1 (Gas), 11.4 (Oil), 12.0 (Steam), 11.3 (Elec.)

$23476. ($1.0 per sq. ft. of glass)

36
Table 15.

Title: Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness For Washington

First Year Energy Savings (Dollars) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 4325. 2085. 4318. 2124. 2819. 1151.

Oil 3239. 422. 3520. 757. 1731. 585.

Steam 2436. -808. 2929. -255. 926. 166.

Pay-Back Periods (Years) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy

**************

Gas

Oil

Steam

Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

7.0 >25.0 7.0 >25.0 16.0 >25.0

8.0 >25.0 7.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

17.0 >25.0 11.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (10 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 1.4 .5 1.4 .5 .8 .3

Oil 1.2 .3 1.3 .4 .7 .2

Steam .8 1.0 .2 .0

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (15 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 1.7 .5 1.8 .6 1.0 .4

Oil 1.5 .1 1.6 .3 .8 .2

Steam 1.0 1.2 .2

Assumptions: Electricity Cost

Heating Fuel Cost

10 Year Present Worth Factor

15 Year Present Worth Factor

Material and Installment Cost

$ .073/kWh

$ .020 (Gas), .026 (Oil), .045 (Steam) /kWh

9.0 (Gas), 8.0 (Oil), 8.9 (Steam), 8.4 (Elec.)

13.5 (Gas), 11.4 (Oil), 11.9 (Steam), 11.1 (Elec.)

$23476. ($1.0 per sq. ft. of glass)

37
Table 16.

Title: Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness For Chicago

First Year Energy Savings (Dollars) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F

AAA*********** A***** AAAAAA ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 4065. 1275. 4131. 1506. 2325. 993.

Oil 1955. -2470. 2621. -1593. -73. -274.

Steam 1155. -3891. 2048. -2768. -983. -754.

Pay-Back Periods (Years) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F

AAAAAA AAAAAAAA A*****  AA AAAAAA AAAAAA A** AAA A*****

Gas 7.0 >25.0 7.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

Oil >25.0 >25.0 10.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

Steam >25.0 >25.0 23.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (10 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** AAA*** AAA*** AAAAAA

Gas 1.3 .2 1.4 .3 .7 .3

Oil .8 1.0 .1

Steam .3 .7

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (15 Years)

Heating Ene rgy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F

************AA AAA*** ****** ****** *AAAAA AAAAAA ******

Gas 1.7 .1 1.8 .3 .8 .3

Oil .9 1.2 —

Steam .4 .8

Assumptions: Electricity Cost

Heating Fuel Cost

10 Year Present Worth Factor

15 Year Present Worth Factor

Material and Installment Cost

$ .068/kWh

$ .015 (Gas), .027 (Oil), .045 (Steam) /kWh

9.6 (Gas), 8.0 (Oil), 8.8 (Steam), 8.4 (Elec.)

13.5 (Gas), 11.4 (Oil), 11.8 (Steam), 11.1 (Elec.)

$23476. ($1.0 per sq. ft. of glass)

38
Table 17.

Title: Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness For Boston

First Year Energy Savings (Dollars) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy

************** Film A

****** Film B ****** Film C ****** Film D ****** Film E ****** Film F ******

Gas

Oil

Steam

4239.

3387.

1606.

643.

-827.

-3898.

4645.

4045.

2792.

1253.

51.

-2460.

2364.

1434.

-510.

818.

319.

-723.

Pay-Back Periods (Years) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy

**************

Gas

Oil

Steam

Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

8.0 >25.0 6.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

8.0 >25.0 7.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

>25.0 >25.0 12.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (10 Years)

Heating Energy

************** Film A ****** Film B ****** Film C ****** Film D ****** Film E ****** Film F ******

Gas 1.2 1.4 .1 .5 .1

Oil 1.2 1.4 .0 .5 .1

Steam .5 .9

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (15 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 1.4 1.7 .5 .1

Oil 1.2 1.6 -.3

Steam .6 1.1 .

Assumptions: Electricity Cost

Heating Fuel Cost

10 Year Present Worth Factor

15 Year Present Worth Factor

Material and Installment Cost

$ .087/kWh

$ .020 (Gas), .024 (Oil), .047 (Steam)/kWh

9.5 (Gas), 8.0 (Oil), 8.1 (Steam), 8.1 (Elec.)

12.9 (Gas), 11.4 (Oil), 10.5 (Steam), 10.1 (Elec.)

$23476. ($1.0 per sq. ft. of glass)

39
Table 18.

Title: Solar Film Cost-Effectiveness For San Jose

First Year Energy Savings (Dollars) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy

Gas

Oil

Steam

Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

2643. 1957. 2736. 2020 2238. 1351.

682. -279. 1217. 195. 644. 696.

-134. -1210. 584. -566. -20. 423.

Pay-Back Periods (Years) for Six Solar Films

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 15.0 >25.0 13.0 >25.0 22.0 >25.0

Oil >25.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0

Steam >25.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25.0 >25,0 >25.0

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (10 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas .8 .6 .9 .6 .7 .4

Oil .3 .5 .1 .3 .3

Steam .1 .1

Savings-to-Investment Ratios for Six Solar Films (15 Years)

Heating Energy Film A Film B Film C Film D Film E Film F ************** ****** ****** ****** ****** ****** ******

Gas 1.0 .7 1.1 .7 .9 .6

Oil .1 .4 .2 .3

Steam .1 .1

Assumptions: Electricity Cost

Heating Fuel Cost

10 Year Present Worth Factor

15 Year Present Worth Factor

Material and Installment Cost

$ .062/kWh

$ .016 (Gas), .027 (Oil), .045 (Steam)/kWh

9.2 (Gas), 8.0 (Oil), 8.7 (Steam), 8.3 (Elec.)

12.1 (Gas), 11.5 (Oil), 11.5 (Steam), 10.7 (Elec.)

$23476. ($1.0 per sq. ft. of glass)

40
1. The cost effectiveness of the films will be somewhat better than shown

because demand electrical charges will be less for a building having solar

films on the glazing surfaces.

2. The cost effectiveness of solar films is directly related to internal heat

generation (i.e., the higher the building internal heat generation the more

cost effective are solar films).

3. The cost effectiveness of solar films is dependent on the glass orientation,

Buildings with the major glazing areas in the east/west facades (buildings

with major axis running north/south) are better candidates for solar films

than buildings with the major glazing areas in the north/south facades

(buildings with major axis running east/west). This is due to the fact

that south facing windows provide beneficial solar heat gain in winter

when solar altitudes are low, but not as much solar heat gain in summer,

when solar altitudes are higher.

41
6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The results of this investigation indicate that solar films can be

cost-effective and produce a net annual reduction in building energy requirements in some cases, particularly for buildings with high cooling loads relative to heating loads. This is due to the fact that the major benefit derived

from solar film utilization stems from its solar energy rejection capabilities.

Thus solar films will reduce cooling energy requirements in almost all cases. However, during the heating season solar film use will reduce beneficial solar

heat gains, leading to increased heating energy requirements. A net reduction

in annual building energy requirements will occur if the reduction in cooling

energy exceeds the increase in heating energy.

The magnitude of any energy cost savings will be dependent upon the relative

costs of heating and cooling energy. If the cost of heating energy is significantly less than the cost of cooling energy, a change in cooling energy

requirements would produce a larger dollar savings than a equivalent change in

heating energy requirements. As explained in detail in section 5, solar films

are most effective in the southern and southwest regions of the United States,

with no savings apparent in the northern regions. Regions with climates similar to Washington, D.C. are near the crossover point, where heating requirements begin to dominate cooling requirements and expected savings are small.

In all cases, the most cost-effective films are the low emittance ones. The

optimum shading coefficient is dependent on the magnitude of the cooling energy

requirements, with lower values of shading coefficient most effective in

regions with large cooling loads. Of the films examined in this study, film A

(low emittance, low shading coefficient) was the most cost-effective in the

regions with high cooling requirements, while film C (low emittance, moderate

shading coefficient) was most cost-effective in regions similar to Washington,

D.C.

Solar films can also improve comfort and glare conditions near windows, and

this factor may make it desirable to use solar films even if the expected

energy or dollar savings is marginal. Additional benefits of solar film use include reduction in transmission of ultra-violet radiation (a major cause of

material degradation) and reduced chance of glass breakage or shattering due to

impact.

The building used for this study was oriented with its major axis east-west, so the south facade presented a large glass surface area. In this configuration,

the use of solar film on the southern building glazing greatly reduces beneficial solar heat gain in winter when the sun is low in the south sky, causing

an increase in heating energy requirements. If the building had been oriented

with major glazing facades east and west (major axis in a north/south direction)

the cost effectiveness of the films would be expected to be enhanced. This is

because solar film would significantly reduce cooling requirements due to solar

heat gain during late afternoon hours when low solar altitudes would lead to

high cooling loads.

42
7. GLOSSARY

1. Absorptance - the total amount of radiant solar energy neither reflected

nor transmitted by the glazing.

2. Building energy analysis program - a computer procedure for dynamically

simulating the annual energy performance of a building, usually on an hourly basis.

3. Calorimeter - an apparatus for measuring total window heat transfer.

4. Convective heat transfer - heat transfer which occurs in a fluid by the

mixing of one portion of the fluid with another portion due to gross

movements of the mass of fluid.

5. Daylighting - the utilization of natural light in interior spaces, in

place of electric lighting.

6. Emittance - the ratio of radiation intensity from a surface to the

radiation intensity from a black body at the same temperature.

7. Greenhouse effect - a phenomenon which occurs due to the fact that glass

transmits a large amount of shorter wavelength solar radiation, but is

essentially opaque to infrared radiation emitted by room surfaces,

resulting in 'oneway' transmission of energy.

8. Illuminance - the luminous flux (visible light) per unit area on a surface

exposed to radianet energy.

9. Infrared radiation - energy emitted at the surface of a body which has

been thermally excited.

10. Pyranometer - sensor used to measure the level of incident solar radiation.

11. Radiative heat transfer - thermal energy exchange between two bodies.

12. Reflectance - the ratio of the total radiant flux reflected by a surface

to the total incident on the surface.

13. Ref lectometer - device used to measure the reflectance of a material,

within a specified wavelength band.

14. Shading coefficient (SC) - the ratio of solar heat gain for a particular

fenestration to the solar heat gain for a reference single glazing.

15. Shading factor (F) - the ratio of solar heat gain to the incident solar

radiation level.

16. Spectrophotometer - device used to measure the spectral solar-optical

properties, such as reflectance and transmittance of a material.

43
17. Solar heat gain - heat gain due to the incidence of solar radiation,

including both transmitted energy and energy absorbed by the glazing

which is subsequently transferred to the interior by convection and

radiation.

18. Solar radiation (irradiance) - electromagnetic energy from the sun,

composed of diffuse (sky) and direct (beam) radiation within the

ultraviolet, visible and short-wave infrared portions of the spectrum.

19. Solar window film - thin plastic sheet which is bonded directly to the

glass surace; designed to alter the solar/thermal properties of the

window to improve performance.

20. Surface (film) heat transfer coefficient - the thermal transmission, in

unit time, to or from unit area of a surface in contact with its surroundings for unit difference between the temperature of the surface and the

surroundings.

21. Thermal transmittance (U-factor) - the thermal transmission per unit time

through a unit area of a body, including its boundary films, divided by

the difference between the fluid temperature on either side of the body.

22. Transmittance - the ratio of radiant energy flux transmitted by a body to

the amount incident upon it.

23. Window management - selectively altering the solar/thermal characteristics

of a window system, either manually or automatically, through the use of

various items such as films, screens, shades, drapers or louvers.

44
8. REFERENCES

1. Kusuda, T. and Collins, B.L., Simplified Analysis of Thermal and Lighting

Characteristics of Windows: Two Case Studies , National Bureau of

Standards, BSS 109; 1978.

2. Owens, P.G.T., Analysis of the Energy Requirement of Buildings with

Particular Reference to the Window , Glass in Buildings Conference,

International Council for Building Research, Studies and Documentation

(CIB); 1977.

3. King, W.J., High Performance Solar Control Office Windows , Lawrence

Berkeley Laboratory Report 7825, 1977.

4. Selkowitz, S.E., Thermal Performance of Insulating Window Systems,

ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 85, Part 2, 1980.

5. Bitterice, M.G. and McKinley, R.W. , Use Solar Daylight and Heat from

Windows to Save Fossil Fuel , PPG Industries, Inc., 1978.

6. Treado, S. and Kusuda, T. , Daylighting. Window Management Systems and

Lighting Controls , NBSIR Sept. 80-2147, December 1980.

7. Yellott, J.I., Selective Reflectance - A New Approach to Solar Heat

Control , ASHRAE, June 1963.

8. Ruegg, R.T. and Chapman, R.E., Economic Evaluation of Windows in

Buildings: Methodology , National Bureau of Standards, BSS 119, 1979.

9. Collins, B.L., Windows and People: A Literature Survey , National Bureau

of Standards, BSS 70, 1975.

10. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals , published by ASHRAE New York, 1977.

11. Barakat, S.A. , Solar Heat Gain through Windows in Canada , National

Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Paper No. 944,

October 1980.

12. Yellott, J.I., Shading Coefficients and the Sun-Control Capability of

Single-Glazing, ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 72, Part 1, 1966.

13. Ito, N. , Kimura, K. , and Oka, J., A Field Experiment Study on the

Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient on the Exterior Surface of a Building, Transactions of the Architectural Institute of Japan , 1968.

14. Yellott, J.I., Schuyler, P.V.R. , and Timmons, R.D. , The Phoenix

Fenestration Tests of 1977 - Thermal Aspects, ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 85, Part 2, 1980.

45
15. Clark, E.J., Roberts, W.E. , Grimes, J.W. , and Embree , E.J., Solar Energy

Systems-Standards for Cover Plates for Flat Plate Solar Collectors , National Bureau of Standards Technical Note 1132, December 1980.

16. Smithsonian Phys. Tables, 1954, p. 96.

17. DOE-2 Users Guide , Prepared by the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and Los

Alamos Scientific Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy under

Contracts W-7405-ENG-48, 1979.

18. National Climatic Center, 1976, Tape Reference Manual " Test Reference

Year," National Climatic Center, Asheville, N.C., Also published in the

ASHRAE Journal, February 1977, p. 47.

19. Ruegg, R.T., Life-Cycle Costing Manual for the Federal Energy Management

Programs, National Bureau of Standards Handbook 135, December 1980.

46
APPENDIX A

A.l DESCRIPTION OF BUILDING MODEL

° Infiltration was simulated using air change (AC) method - the rates and

profile were as follows:

1

.

Basement - none

2. Garage .8AC - all hours

3. All Floors - .6AC when main fans are off for perimeter zones - none for interior zone

4. Lobby - 2.0AC peak during entry and exit of occupants

° Partitions between zones were treated as having a U factor of

5.68 W(m2°K) ( 1.0/(f t2hr°C) representing a fairly free convective flow

with doors open [10].

° Lighting levels were simulated at 21.5 W/m2 (2 W/ft2) in office areas

and 10.8 W/m2 (1 W/ft2) watt per sq. ft. in Basement and Garage.

° Equipment levels (typewriters, copy machines, CRTs, etc.) were simulated at 16.1 W/m2 (1.5 W/ft2) in office areas.

° Computers and associated air conditioning systems were simulated as a single energy user at 150KW for all hours.

° Custom Weighting Factor method was used to generate weighting factors

for the simulation.

° Average Domestic Hot Water load was estimated at 0.88 KW (3000 Btu/hr).

° Thermostat Setpoints simulated were as follows:

1. Basement - 18.3°C (65°F)

2. Garage - 12.8°C (55°F)

3. Offices - 18.3°C (65°F) heating - 25.6°C (78°F) cooling

° Elevator loads were included in the simulation

Occupant loads were simulated using standard operating schedules

Air Handling System type and fan operating hours input were as follows:

1. Basement - Single Zone Heat and Vent - 100 percent

outside air - fans on all hours

2. Garage - same as basement

3. Perimeter Offices - Two pipe fan coil heating only October 15

through May 15 - cooling only May 16 to

October 14

47
Fan hours on at 0600 - off at 1700 Weekdays

only off weekends and holidays

4. Interior Offices - Interior Offices - Reheat fan system heating

only October 15 through May 15 - cooling only

May 16 through October 14

Fan hours on at 0600 - off at 1700 Weekdays

only off weekends and holidays

ASSUMPTIONS OR SIMPLIFICATIONS USED FOR PREPARING INPUT

The DOE 2 program can only accept three (3) separate plenum inputs.

The ground floor, 1st floor and lobby were all simulated as being

served by a single interior air system with a common return air plenum.

This left a plenum for the typical floors (2 through 5), and another

for the top floor (6).

Since the second floor was treated as a typical floor with a typical

plenum, the conference rooms over the lobby areas were treated as office space.

The penthouse equipment room was not input as an unconditioned space.

The roof areas of the 6th floor plenum excluded the surface area in

contact with the penthouse.

A standard outdoor reset of supply air temperatures on the reheat fan

systems was input to simulate the combined effect of manual daily

settings of preheat, outside air, and chilled water reset.

A minimum percent outside air for the reheat fan systems was input as

5 percent even though the operator maintains dampers "closed" in very

cold weather. The 5 percent was used to reflect leakage of dampers in

the closed position.

The chilled water plant in the study building (A) also serves an adjacent building (B). To simulate Building B two chillers were input

of a size to accommodate Building B's load, with no attempt to evaluate

the loading of Building A.

The exhaust fans in the building were assumed to have the same operating schedules as supply units. The fan static air pressure and

fan efficiencies were combined into a single input.

48
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20 30 40 50

Temperature Difference (**F)

70

Figure 3a Calculated thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature differences, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film A

60
1*2

u

0)o

e

(0 4J •H6

CO

nJMH

g

<u

1*0 -

0,8 -

e»6 -

e«4

lemperature Difference (°F)

Figure 3b Calculated thermal transmit tance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film B

61
3'

b

3 NJ

PQ

U

U

4J •Ha

CO

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0*4 -

0*2 I I I I

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I

' I I I 20 30

I I I I I I I I I I I I 40 50 60

Temperature Difference (°F)

Figure 3c Calculated thermal transmit tance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film C

62
1«2

o

c«

4J •Hs

COC

CDMH

H

i.e -

0.8 -

0.6 -

0.4

10 80 30 40 50 60 70

Temperature Difference {°?)

Figure 3d Calculated thermal transmlttance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film D

63
i«a

3' n

ttCO

CO H

i.e -

e.8 -

e«6

e«4

Temperature Difference ("F)

Figure 3e Calculated thermal transmlttance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film E

64
0)u

C!

4->

a

(4

1«2

1.0

e*8

e*6 -

e«4 I I I 1 i I I I

'

I I I I i i

v^

i I I I 'I I I I

' I I I I 10 80 30 40 50 60

Temperature Difference (**F)

70

Figure 3f Calculated thermal transmit tance (U-value) as a function

of inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and

exterior surface heat transfer coefficient for film F

65
B

COMH

l.S

1*0 -

e»8 -

e*6 -

0.4

10 80 30 40 50 60 70

Temperature Difference (°F)

Figure 3g Calculated thermal transmlttance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference, and exterior

surface heat transfer coefficient for clear glass

66
s-o

u

«0

D>

i.e

e*8

e«6

e«4

e*2

e*e 1 i i

e

1—I I I—' I I I I

'—I—I—I—I'—I—f—I—f—"^—I—I—I—

50 lee 150 see 25e

Btu

Incident Irradiance (h-ft^«F)

Figure 4a Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film A

67
i«e

3

e«8

o•pu e«6

C7»

T3

ro CO e.4

ho=l

ho=2

e«2

ho=6

e«e T 1 1 1

' 1 1 1 1 ^ e 50

I I I I I I I 100 150

Btu

Incident Irradiance (h'ft^.F)

T—1—r—

T

S00 250

Figure 4b Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film B

68
i.e

0*8

o+Jo

en

0.6

0.4

0«S

ho=l

V2

h =6

o

0*0 '—rn—r—T—'—I I I I ^—I—I—I—I—^—I—I—r—

50 100 150 200 250

Btu

Incident Irradiance (h-ft^.p)

Figure 4c Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film C

69
i.e

o

o

c»>

00

e*8

e«6

0*4

e»a -

e.e T r e

T

'—r—

r

50 100

VI

I ' I—r—

r

150

Btu

T—I—

r

800 850

Incident Irradiance (h'ft^-F)

Figure Ad Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film D

70
i«e

e.8 -

o

u

C71 ato

i/>

d.B -

6*4 -

e.2 -

e.e

Incident Irradiance (h'ft^-F)

Figure 4e Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film E

71
i*e

o

o

CO

e.8

0*6 -

0.4 -

0.2 -

0.0

Incident Irradiance (h'ft^'F)

1—I—I—I

' I—I—r—

r

1S0 200 2S0

Btu

Figure 4f Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film F

72
i«e

0*8

o

U

o

00

e«6

e«4

e«s

e«e

ho=l

fV2 fTi;

T—r-T i

e

1 T—If-n—'—

S0 lee

1—I—r—I— I I—I—

150 see ase

Btu

Incident Irradiance (h*ft 'F)

Figure 4g Calculated shading factor (F) as a function of level of

incident irradiance for clear glass

73
i«e

e.8 -

e*6 -

e»4 -

0.a -

^•0 '

I I I I ' I I 1 1 '

I 1 1 I '

I I I I '

I I I I ' I I 1 1

'

I 1 1 I '

1 1 I I ase 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 5a Measured spectral transmlttance t, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film A

74
i«e

e*8

e«6

e«4

e.a

e«e

1^^-

1

T I r I I I I i TTi 1 1 I I I r I I I I I I vvm':-; I I '

I I I I 850 see 75e leee lase isee i75e eeee ease

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 5b Measured spectral transmittance t, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film B

75
1*0

6*8 "

e.6 -

e.4 -

e.a -

C»0 '

1 I I I '

I I I I 250 see 75e

I I '

I I I I ' I I I I

'

I I I I 'I I I I leee lase isee iTse eeee

Wavelength (nm)

rr

225e

Figure 5c Measured spectral transmlttance t, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film C

76
i.e

\

e.8

0.6

e*4 -

9.2

e.e I I I I

'

I 850 500

I 1

'

I I I I '

I I I I

'

I I I i

'

I 1 I I

' I 1 I I '> I I II 750 1000 1850 1500 1750 2000 8850

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 5d Measured spectral transmit tance t, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film D

77
i.e

0*8

e.6

e«4

e*2

e«e

25e 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 5e Measured spectral transmittance t, reflectance p and

absorptance a for film E

78
i.e

• *8

e.6

e*4

e*2

e.e

^>

I I I I 1 1 I r till i TT T

1 I I I i I I I I 250 see 75e leee is5e

Wavelength (nm)

isee i75e aeee ease

Figure 5f Measured spectral transmit tance t, reflectance a and

absorptance a for film F

79
i.e

e.8 -

e*s -

e.4 -

e.2 -

©•6 '

I I I I

'

I 1 I I '

I I I I '

I I I I

' I t I I '

I I I I

'

I I I I

' I I I I 250 see 75e leee isse isee i75e eeee aase

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 5g Measured spectral transmlttance t, reflectance a and

absorptance a for clear glass

80
1

0.9

8 10 la

UAUELENGTH (NH)

14 16 18

THOUSANDS

20

Figure 5h Measured spectral emittance for film A

81
8 10 12

UAUELENGTH (NH)

14 16 18

THOUSANDS

20

Figure 51 Measured spectral emlttance for film B

82
le

WAVELENGTH (NM) THOUSANDS

Figure 5j Measured spectral emittance for film C

83
WAVELENGTH (NM)

THOUSANDS

Figure 5k Measured spectral emlttance for clear glass

84
Maintain air temp. 78°F

r

Pump

Interior

n

^zzzz^zzzz^l

WINDOW CALORIMETER ^

e

Water-to-air

heat exchanger

Box air temp. - 78°F

^

Window

1^

/A

L

/77////////////AI R25 box walls

I

Exterior

e Thermocouple

\ Solar pyranometer Plan View

Figure 6 Schematic diagram of window calorimeter

85
Figure 7 Photograph of window calorimeter apparatus

86
1.2

M-l

u

to 4J

e

0)§

H

1*C -

0*8 -

0»6 -

0*4

80 40 60 80

Temperature Difference (°r)

Figure 8a Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film A

87
i.a

3

(Uo

a

CO 4J

4J •HB

COMH

1.0 -

0.8

0.6

0.4

20 40 60 80

Temperature Difference (°F)

Figure 8b Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film B

88
1.2

0)aH

1.0 -

0.8 -

0.6 -

0«4

20 40 60

Temperature Difference (®F)

80

Figure 8c Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film C

89
i*a

N

4J

<uo

mH

i*e

0»8 -

0.6 -

0*4

20 40 60

Temperature Difference (''F)

Figure 8d Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film D

90
1*2

3<H

4J 1.0

PQ

0)a

G

00MH

(U

0.8 -

0*6 -

0*4

20 40 60 80

Temperature Difference (**F)

Figure 8e Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for film E

91
i.a

4-( U

1.0 -

0.8 -

0.6 -

0.4

80 40 60

Temperature Difference (°F)

80

Figure 8f Measured thermal transmittance (U-value) as a function of

Inside-to-outslde air temperature difference for film F

92
1*2

4-1

01o

t

H

B

0)

1*0 -

e.8 -

0*6 -

e«4

e 20 40 60 80

Temperature Difference ("F)

Figure 8g Measured thermal transmlttance (U-value) as a function of

inside-to-outside air temperature difference for clear

glass

93
i.e

s

H

A

D

I

N

Q

F

A

C

T

R

0*8 -

0.6 -

e.4 -

0.2 -

0.0

IRRADI ANCE ( BTU/H*SQFT*F

)

Figure 9a Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for film A

94

i
5

H

D

I

N

G

F

C

T

R

i*e

0*8

0*6 -

0*4 -

0.2

1 0*0 I I 1 I 50

*t^ jjj ** ^nD'

T—I—*—I—I—I—I—'—I—r—i—I—'—I—I I I—'—rn—i—

r

100 150 200 250 300

IRRADIANCE(BTU/HXSQFT«F)

Figure 9b Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

Irradiance for film B

95
i«e

s

H

D

I

N

G

F

C

T

R

e«8

0«6

0.4

0«a

0.0 T-i—*-n—I—I—I

'—I—I—r—I'—I—I—rn'—i—i—i—i

'—i—i—i—

r

50 100 150 200 250 300

IRRADIANCE(BTU/H*SQFTXF

)

Figure 9c Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for film C

96
s

H

A

D

I

N

G

1«0

e«8

e«6

0*4

0«a

e.e

t * ^

*

#*

T—I—I—'—I—I—I—I—'—I—I—I—I—'—I—I—I—I—'—I—I—I—I—'—I—I—I—

T

50 100 150 200 250 300

IRRADIANCE(BTU/H*SQFT«F)

Figure 9d Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for film D

97
1

s

H

D

I

N

G

F

C

T

R

1*0

0.8

0*6 -

0.4

0.2

0.0

* I

• V —I—I—I—I

'—I—I—r-T'—I—I—I—I

'—I—I—I I

'—I—I—I I'—I—I—I—

r

50 100 150 200 250 300

IRRADI ANCE ( BTU/H*SQFT*F

)

Figure 9e Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for film E

98
i.e

s

H

D

I

N

G

F

C

T

R

0^8 -

0*6 -

0*4 -

0*2

0«0

50 100 150 200 250 300

IRRADIANCE(BTU/H*SQFT«F)

Figure 9f Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for film F

99
s

H

^

D

I

N

G

F

C

T

R

i«e

e.8

0.6

0.4

0.3 -

* * I «

0.0 '

I I I I 50

^—I

I—I—I—'—I—I—

r

'—I—I—I—I—'—I—I—I—I—'—I—r—1—

r

100 150 200 250 300

IRRADI ANCE ( BTU/H)I:SQFT*F

)

Figure 9g Measured shading factor as a function of level of incident

irradiance for clear glass

100
i*e

T

R

A

N

S

n

I

T

T

A

N

C

E

e*8 -

e.6

e*4 -

e.a -

e«e

INCIDENT IRRADIANCE (BTU/(H-SF-F)

)

Figure 10a Measured solar transmittance as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film A

101
i«e

T

R

A

N

S

n

I

T

T

A

N

C

E

e*8 -

0.6 -

0.4 -

0.2

0.0

50 100 150 200 250 300

INCIDENT IRRADIANCE (BTU/(H-SF-F)

)

Figure 10b Measured solar transmlttance as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film B

102
T

R

A

N

5

n

I

T

T

A

N

C

E

i.e

e*8

e.6

0.4

0»2 —

e*e

^"V ^^ ^ Isi^ |['

^ Xttl^

T-T—I I ' I I I—I

'

I I I I '—1111 * 1111—*—I I I I e 50 ice 150 200 250 300

INCIDENT IRRADIANCE (BTU/(H-SF-F)

)

Figure 10c Measured solar transmittance as a function of level of

Incident irradiance for film C

103
i.e

T

R

N

S

n

I

T

T

A

N

C

E

e«8

e.6

e*4

e«2 -

t ^ ll^t^ ttM

0.0 ' I I I I

'

I I I I

'

t

i

e 50

I I I I I I

'

I 200

if *

i

T—I—I—

r

250 300

INCIDENT IRRADIANCE (BTU/(H-SF-F)

)

Figure lOd Measured solar transmittance as a function of level of

Incident irradiance for film D

104
T

R

N

S

n

I

T

T

A

N

C

E

i.e

e.8

e*6

e.4

e*e

^•2 #<#V titf rf*w^l*««« * * H t

I I I '

I t I—I—' I I r I—'

li l t'—I—I—I—I—' I I—I I e 50 100 150 800 e50 300

INCIDENT IRRADIANCE (BTU/(H-SF-F)

)

Figure lOe Measured solar transmittance as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film E

105
T

R

A

N

S

n

I

T

T

A

N

C

E

i*e

e«8

e*6 -i\%V^

e*4

e.2

e.e

»« |l t t

f

• V

^—

I

—I—i—' I I I I

' > I—r—i—^—1—I—I I ' I—I I I ' r I—I—

r

e se lee ise 200 ase aee

INCIDENT IRRADIANCE (BTU/(H-SF-F)

)

Figure lOf Measured solar transmittance as a function of level of

incident irradiance for film F

106
i.e

T

R

A

N

S

n

I

T

T

A

H

C

E

e*8

MtQ[1l

t t '^ tt mt

t

e*6

e*4

e.a

e*e I 1 I I e se

'

, I , I

, *—I I I I

' I I

m—*—I I I I 100 150 200 250 300

INCIDENT IRRADIANCE (BTU/(H-SF-F))

Figure lOg Measured solar transmittance as a function of level of

incident irradiance for clear glass

107
Figure 11 Photograph of study building

108
109
BUILDING MONTHLY ENERGY CONSUMPTION

4eee

E

N

E

R

G 3000

Y

U

S

E

8000 -

n

B

T

u

1000 -

e 8 10

MONTH

MEASURED • SOLID LINE« PREDICTED - DOTTED LINE

Figure 13 hfonthly energy consumptions for actual and simulated building

110

12

;
6000

> •-•

ELECTRICAL

...o

5000

E

N

E

R

G

Y

4000

n

W

H 3000

2000

1000

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

DEGREE DAYS (BASE 18.3 C)

Figure 14 Annual heating and electrical consumptions for simulated

building with clear glass as a function of heating and

cooling degree days, respectively

111
NBS-n4A (REV. 2-BC) U.S.^DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET (See instructions)

1. PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO.

NBS TN 1174

2. Performing Organ. Report No 3. Publication Date

riarch 1983

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Energy and Cost Evaluation of Solar Window Film Use in an Office Building

5. AUTHOR(S)

S. Treado, J. Bamett, and T. Kusuda

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other thon NBS. see instructions)

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

7. Contract/Grant No.

8. Type of Report & Period Covered

Final

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street. City, State. ZIP)

Same as item 6.

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

[]^ Document describes a computer program; SF-i85, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

11. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summory of most significant information. If docun^ent includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here)

The impact of solar window film utilization on building HVAC system loads, energy

consumption and costs, is examined for a typical office building. The evaluation

includes characterization and measurement of important film properties, performance

of single-glazing window systems with and without film, simulation of annual building

energy performance using the DOE-2 computer program, and a life-cycle cost analysis.

Six window film options are compared to clear glass performance for seven climatic

regions throughout the United States.

Guidelines are developed for effective solar film utilization in office buildings,

in terms of energy performance and cost-effectiveness. Results indicate that solar

films can be effective in reducing building energy requirements and costs in areas with high cooling loads, with less savings expected in areas with lower cooling loads

and higher heating loads, and no savings in regions with high heating loads.

12. KEY WORDS (Six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only proper names; and separate key words by semicolons)

building energy analysis; cooling loads; heating loads; solar film; solar heat gain;

window management

13. AVAILABILITY

§^ Unlimited

I I For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

rgl Order From Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

20402.

\2Z\ Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA. 22161

14. NO. OF

PRINTED PAGES

127

15. Price $6.00

USCOMM-DC 6043-P80
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