United States High School 

Sophomores: A TwentyTwo Year Comparison, 

1980–2002 

Statistical Analysis Report 

U.S. Department of Education September 2006 

NCES 2006–327 

U.S. Department of Education 

NCES 2006–327 

United States High School 

Sophomores: A TwentyTwo Year Comparison, 

1980–2002 

Statistical Analysis Report 

September 2006 

Margaret W. Cahalan 

Steven J. Ingels 

Laura J. Burns 

Michael Planty 

RTI International 

Bruce Daniel 

Kforce Government Solutions 

Jeffrey A. Owings 

Project Officer 

National Center for 

Education Statistics 
U.S. Department of Education

Margaret Spellings 

Secretary 

Institute of Education Sciences 

Grover J. Whitehurst 

Director 

National Center for Education Statistics 

Mark Schneider 

Commissioner 

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Suggested Citation 

Cahalan, M.W., Ingels, S.J., Burns, L.J., Planty, M., and Daniel, B. (2006). United States High School Sophomores: A TwentyTwo Year Comparison, 1980–2002 (NCES 2006-327). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for 

Education Statistics. 

For ordering information on this report, write to 

U.S. Department of Education 

ED Pubs 

P.O. Box 1398 

Jessup, MD 20794-1398 

or call toll free 1–877–4ED–Pubs or order online at http://www.edpubs.org. 

Content Contact 

Jeffrey A. Owings 

(202) 502–7423 

Jeffrey.Owings@ed.gov 
Executive Summary 

This report presents information on similarities and differences between U.S. high school 

sophomores as studied at three points in time over the past 22 years, with a focus on cohort 

demographics, academic programs and performance, extracurricular activities, life values, and 

educational/occupational aspirations. It provides an update to the National Center for Education 

Statistics (NCES) report published in 1993, America’s High School Sophomores: A Ten Year 

Comparison (Rasinski et al. 1993). This report uses data from the following NCES studies: 

• sophomores in 1980, as studied in High School and Beyond (HS&B); 

• sophomores in 1990, as studied in the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 

(NELS:88); and 

• sophomores in 2002, as studied in the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002). 

The report is descriptive, serving to update published information on the HS&B and 

NELS:88 sophomore surveys with additional information from ELS:2002 for selected 

comparable questionnaire items. Secondary purposes are to note qualifications and limitations to 

the survey-based data comparisons and also to note related additional information from other 

data sources, such as the Current Population Survey (CPS), over the same period. With a few 

additions, the topics selected for the report are based on those selected for inclusion in the 

previous report comparing the 1980 and 1990 sophomores (Rasinski et al. 1993). 

The primary focus of this report is observation of change over the period for national 

averages and for subgroupings that have been of traditional interest to the NCES longitudinal 

studies. Except where noted, differences and changes discussed in the text of this report had to 

meet both statistical significance and substantive importance criteria. For establishing statistical 

significance, t-tests taking into account the effects of sampling error were done and the .05 level 

of significance was used as a criteria. For chapters 2-3 and 5-7, the substantive importance 

criterion was a change of at least 5 percentage points, except where noted. For chapter 4, 

substantive importance was measured in terms of effect sizes. The effect size is a measure of 

change or difference represented in standard deviation units. For comparisons drawn in this 

report, effect sizes were calculated as the change in mean test scores divided by their pooled 

standard deviation. A criterion of one-fifth (0.20) of a standard deviation was set as the minimum 

effect size for substantive importance. 

The next sections provide highlights of the report presented in their order of appearance. 

Chapter 2. Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Using data from the three NCES longitudinal surveys and other government surveys, 

chapter 2 gives an overview of changes in cohort demographic, family, and school profiles: 

• After declining from 3.8 million students in 1980 to 2.8 million in 1990, the size of 

the sophomore cohort increased to 3.4 million in 2002. Only the western region of the 

iii 
 

Executive Summary 

United States experienced an increase in cohort size over the period of 1980 to 2002, 

growing by 20 percent. 

• Among all high school sophomores in the 22-year period, the percentage of minority 

students went from 25 percent in 1980 to 40 percent in 2002.1 Hispanics increased 

from 8 percent to 16 percent of the total from 1980 to 2002. Whites, as a percentage 

of the total, declined from 75 percent to 60 percent, and Blacks were 14 percent in 

both 1980 and 2002. Four percent of the ELS:2002 sophomores identified themselves 

as more than one race, an option that was not available in HS&B or NELS:88. 

• Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of students who identified English as their 

native language declined from 95 percent to 86 percent, with a large decline among 

Hispanic high school sophomores (from 65 to 48 percent). 

• The percentage of sophomores living with a biological or adoptive mother and father 

declined from 70 percent in 1980 to 57 percent in 2002. 

• Education among the parents of the high school sophomores increased over the 

period. Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of fathers without a high school 

diploma decreased from 23 percent to 14 percent, and among mothers the decline was 

from 18 percent to 13 percent. 

• Each of the three NCES sophomore cohort studies (HS&B, NELS:88; ELS:2002) 

have constructed a standardized socioeconomic status (SES) variable based on a 

composite of education, income, occupation and, in HS&B, household items (such as 

number of books, electric dishwasher, number of cars, own room, etc.). An important 

change between 1980 and 2002 was that the percentage of Black sophomores in the 

middle two quarters of the SES distribution increased from 44 percent in 1980 to 52 

percent in 2002, and the percentage in the lowest quarter declined from 46 percent to 

35 percent. The proportion of Asian sophomores in the lowest quarter increased 

between 1990 and 2002, going from 18 percent to 28 percent. Throughout the period, 

about 32 percent of Asian sophomores and 29 percent to 32 percent of White 

sophomores were in the highest quarter. 

• Overall in 1980, 91 percent of sophomores were enrolled in public schools, and in 

2002, 92 percent were so enrolled. Catholic school enrollment as a percentage of the 

total sophomore class was 6 percent in 1980 and 4 percent in 2002, and other private 

school sophomore enrollment was 3 percent in 1980 and 4 percent in 2002. 

• In both 1980 and 2002, about 62–63 percent of sophomores were enrolled in schools 

of 1,000 or more pupils in size. 

• Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of sophomores who were in urban schools 

increased from 22 percent to 30 percent, and the percentage in rural schools decreased 

from 30 percent to 20 percent. Suburban schools enrolled 48 percent of sophomores 

in 1980 and 50 percent in 2002. 

1

 In this report, Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other 

Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. Respondents who identified themselves as being of 

Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of race. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in 

HS&B and NELS:88. 

iv 
Executive Summary 

Chapter 3. School Experiences 

Chapter 3 focuses on the school experiences of high school sophomores. It poses the 

question of how the school experience may have changed in terms of academic program, student 

preparedness, motivation, homework, student views of school including school safety, and 

computer use. Since 1980, when the students in the HS&B cohort were high school sophomores, 

a series of commissions has recommended reforms and improvements in education largely aimed 

at increasing student achievement. The recommendations from the often-quoted A Nation at 

Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (National Commission on Excellence in Education 

1983) called for increased core academic subject graduation requirements, implementation of 

testing standards, increased teacher professionalization, and increased emphasis on student 

preparation for college in high schools. More recently, the National Education Goals Report 

(National Education Goals Panel 1995) and the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) have 

emphasized similar strategies and recommendations for reform: 

• Consistent with the increased focus on college preparation in high schools, between 

1980 and 2002 the percentage of high school sophomores who reported that they 

were in a college preparatory or academic program increased from 33 percent to 51 

percent. In the same time frame, the percentage enrolled in a vocational program 

declined from 21 percent to 11 percent. 

• All three of the sophomore studies have asked students if they have ever taken certain 

types of courses, including remedial courses, bilingual or bicultural education 

courses, and honors or Advanced Placement courses. Between 1980 and 2002, there 

was an increase in the number of sophomores who reported that they took bilingual or 

bicultural education, going from 12 percent in 1980 to 17 percent in 1990 and 28 

percent in 2002. Variations in the question wording warrant caution in comparing 

results across the three studies, however. 

• Although questionnaire changes may have contributed to increased reporting of time 

spent on homework (such as using an open-ended format in 2002 rather than closed 

categories in 1980 and 1990), the percentage of students reporting larger numbers of 

hours spent on homework increased: 

 The percentage who reported spending more than 10 hours per week on 

homework was 7 percent in 1980 and 37 percent in 2002. 

 The percentage who reported spending more than 3 hours per week on homework 

increased from 54 percent in 1980 to 77 percent in 2002. 

• In both 1980 and 2002, female students reported spending more hours on homework 

than males. For example, in 1980, 59 percent of females and 48 percent of males 

reported spending 3 or more hours per week on homework; in 2002, 81 percent of 

females and 74 percent of males so reported. 

As an indicator of student motivation and preparedness for class, high school sophomores 

were asked how often they came to school without books; without paper, pen, or pencil; and 

without their homework. Students were also asked a few questions designed to measure school 

climate and safety: 

v 
Executive Summary 

• Comparing 1980 and 2002, the percentage of students reporting that they “usually” or 

“often” came to school without books was higher in 2002 than in 1980 (17 percent 

versus 9 percent), but the percentage in 1990 (6 percent) was lower than in both 2002 

and 1980. 

• When asked whether they agreed with the statement “I don’t feel safe at this school,” 

12 percent of high school sophomores agreed or strongly agreed with the statement in 

both 1980 and 2002. 

Chapter 4. Tested Achievement 

The ELS:2002 data, used in conjunction with the HS&B and NELS:88 datasets, provide a 

unique opportunity to examine sophomore academic performance over time in both mathematics 

and reading. Test equating provides two kinds of linkages between ELS:2002 and prior studies. 

First, using Item Response Theory (IRT) number-right scores, the mathematics performance of 

1980, 1990, and 2002 high school sophomores can be compared over a 22-year span. Second, 

using probability of proficiency scores, changes in reading and mathematics achievement 

between 1990 and 2002 can be examined. The IRT-estimated number-right scores provide a 

measure (on a scale of 0 to 58) of how sophomore mathematics achievement (overall and by 

various subgroups) changed between 1980, 1990, and 2002. The probability of proficiency 

scores are based on clusters of items that mark different mastery (proficiency) levels on the 

reading and mathematics scales. There are five clusters for mathematics and three clusters for 

reading. The probability of proficiency scores provide further information about differences 

(e.g., at what mastery level changes are taking place for a given subgroup) between 1990 and 

2002. The three mastery levels in reading are: 

1. Simple reading comprehension, including reproduction of detail, and/or the author’s main 

thought, such as identifying the objective of a character’s action. 

2. Simple inferences beyond the author’s main thought and/or understanding and evaluating 

abstract concepts, such as identifying the author’s state of mind, or inferring the meaning 

of a metaphor from context. 

3. Complex inferences or evaluative judgments requiring multiple sources of information. 

The five mastery levels in mathematics are: 

1. Simple arithmetical operations on whole numbers, such as simple arithmetic expressions 

involving multiplication or division of integers; 

2. Simple operations with decimals, fractions, powers, and roots, such as comparing 

expressions, given information about exponents; 

3. Simple problem solving, requiring the understanding of low-level mathematical concepts, 

such as simplifying an algebraic expression or comparing the length of line segments 

illustrated in a diagram; 

4. Understanding of intermediate-level mathematical concepts and/or multistep solutions to 

word problems such as drawing an inference based on an algebraic expression or 

inequality; and 

vi 
Executive Summary 

5. Complex multistep word problems and/or advanced mathematics material such as a twostep problem requiring evaluation of functions. 

The primary questions discussed in chapter 4 are as follows: “Did sophomore tested 

achievement at each new time point increase, decrease, or stay the same?” and “Did a given 

subgroup (males, females, Blacks, Whites, and so on) show score increases or decreases, when 

compared to itself over time?” Principal findings are as follows. 

First, concerning mathematics achievement scores between 1980 and 2002: 

• Overall, ELS:2002 sophomores scored about 0.40 of a standard deviation higher than 

sophomores in 1980 on the mathematics assessment (mean increase of 4.8 points on 

the 58-point scale). 

• In the 22-year period, the largest increases (all in the medium range of effect sizes) 

were seen for three racial/ethnic groups—Black (0.60 standard deviations), American 

Indian (0.56), and Hispanic (0.53) sophomores—and for sophomores in the South 

(0.64), in vocational programs (self-reported) (0.59), and in Catholic schools (0.51). 

Second, concerning increases in sophomore mathematics scores between 1990 and 2002: 

• The greatest increases by racial/ethnic group in the 12-year period (1990–2002) were 

made by American Indians (0.51 standard deviations) and Whites (0.21 standard 

deviations). This finding differs from the period 1980 through 1990, for which 

Rasinski et al. (1993) reported that the largest increases were for Blacks (0.35 

standard deviations) and Hispanics (0.34 standard deviations). 

• Other groups with notable increases in mathematics scores in the period from 1990 to 

2002 were sophomores in the South (0.23 standard deviations), self-reported 

vocational program participants (0.40 standard deviations), and sophomores in the 

Catholic school sector (0.25 standard deviations). 

Third, concerning changes in probabilities of proficiency in mathematics between 1990 

and 2002: 

• Overall, between 1990 and 2002, there were no measurable differences in 

sophomores’ probabilities of proficiency at any of the five mathematics mastery 

levels. 

• Looking at changes within particular subgroups of sophomores, students enrolled in 

vocational programs demonstrated higher probability of proficiency scores at the four 

highest mastery levels in 2002 than in 1990; sophomores in the Catholic school sector 

demonstrated higher probability of proficiency scores at the three highest mastery 

levels in 2002 than in 1990. 

• In terms of other subgroup differences, White and Asian sophomores, sophomores in 

the South, and sophomores in non-Catholic private schools each registered increases 

at one of the five mastery levels. No other subgroup showed increases at any 

proficiency level. 

vii 
Executive Summary 

Fourth and finally, concerning changes in probabilities of proficiency in reading between 

1990 and 2002: 

• Overall, between 1990 and 2002, there were no measurable differences in 

sophomores’ probabilities of proficiency at any of the three reading mastery levels. 

• Looking at changes within particular subgroups of sophomores, the largest decreases 

(an effect size of 0.30 standard deviations or higher) in reading proficiency between 

1990 and 2002 were registered for sophomores in an academic/college preparatory 

program (at mastery levels 2 and 3), sophomores enrolled in non-Catholic private 

schools (at mastery level 3), and sophomores whose parents’ highest educational 

attainment was a graduate or professional degree (at mastery level 3). 

Chapter 5. Afterschool Activities 

Chapter 5 focuses on how high school sophomores used their time outside of the 

classroom in activities other than homework, examining three types of activities: extracurricular 

activities, employment, and unstructured social activities: 

• Among the six extracurricular activities examined (academic clubs, vocational clubs, 

athletics, cheerleading and drill team, music-related activities, and hobby clubs), in 

each survey year, high school sophomores most frequently reported participating in 

school-sponsored interscholastic athletics, with participation ranging from 54 percent 

in 1980 to 51 percent in 2002. 

• Between 1980 and 2002, the proportion of sophomores who reported participation in 

academic clubs, vocational clubs, music-related activities, and hobby clubs dropped 

between 6 and 18 percentage points. 

• Eighty-eight percent of sophomores in 1980 indicated (by giving the age they first 

worked for pay) that they had worked for pay outside of their home at some point, 

whereas 59 and 60 percent, respectively, reported they had ever “been employed” in 

1990 and 2002. 

 In 1980, at the time they took the survey in their sophomore year, 36 percent of 

students reported that they were “working for pay, not counting work around the 

house,” while in 1990 and 2002, some 27 and 26 percent, respectively, reported 

being employed at the time of the survey. 

 Among all sophomores in 1980, about 6 percent reported working 20 hours or 

more at the time of the survey. In 2002, this number was 9 percent. 

• Between 1980 and 1990, the proportion of sophomores who reported that they drove 

around in a car with friends at least once a week increased from 47 percent to 56 

percent. Between 1990 and 2002, the percentages were not substantively different (56 

percent in 1990 and 58 percent in 2002). 

• About two-thirds of the 1980 and 1990 cohort reported visiting with friends or 

meeting at a hangout at least once a week (67 percent in 1980 and 66 percent in 

1990). By 2002, the proportion of sophomores who reported hanging out with peers 

at least once each week had increased over 1980 and 1990 to 79 percent . 

viii 
Executive Summary 

• The proportion of sophomores who reported communicating with friends by phone at 

least once a week was 77 percent in 1980 and 80 percent in 1990. Over the next 12 

years, there was a decline in the percentage reporting communicating by phone (from 

80 percent to 74 percent), perhaps due to the increased use of electronic 

communications such as e-mail and computer “chat” programs. 

Chapter 6. Life Values 

Chapter 6 presents an overview of the relative importance placed by high school 

sophomores on various life values, including work, friendship, leisure, family, and community: 

• Among 12 items included on the surveys, 80 percent or more of high school 

sophomores consistently rated 3 items as being very important to them. These items 

were being successful in work, being able to find steady work, and having strong 

friendships. 

• Although steady and successful work experiences were very important to the majority 

of sophomores in each study, having a lot of money was rated as very important by 

less than half of each cohort. 

• The percentage of sophomores indicating that giving children better opportunities was 

very important increased from 73 percent to 80 percent between 1980 and 2002. 

However, “finding the right person to marry/having a happy family life” went in the 

opposite direction in the same time period, decreasing from 83 percent in 1980 to 76 

percent in 2002 rating this item as very important. Fewer sophomores rated “having 

children” as very important than rated “giving children better opportunities” or 

“marrying the right person/happy family life” as very important in each of the years. 

• Helping others in the community was included only in 1990 and 2002 and was rated 

as very important by about one-third (33 percent) of students in 1990 and 36 percent 

in 2002. Working to correct social inequalities was included in 1980, 1990, and 2002; 

while it was among the least frequently ranked as very important in each of the years, 

14 percent of sophomores indicated it was very important to them in 1980 and 19 

percent so indicated in 1990 and 2002. 

Chapter 7. Plans and Expectations 

The educational and occupational expectations of high school sophomores are explored 

in chapter 7: 

• Data on sophomore educational aspirations show that the percentage expecting a 4-

year college or postgraduate degree as the highest degree went from 41 percent in 

1980 to 80 percent in 2002, an increase of 39 percentage points. 

• In 1980, 40 percent of males and 42 percent of females expected a 4-year college 

degree or higher. In 2002, 74 percent of males and 85 percent of females expected 

this level of education. 

ix 
Executive Summary 

• Among race/ethnicity groups, Asians had the highest expectations for completing a 

bachelor’s degree or more in 2002 (87 percent) and the smallest increase in 

expectations from 1980 (20 percentage points). Hispanics and American Indians had 

the two lowest levels of expectations (73 and 76 percent, respectively), but their 

expectations had increased by 40 and 44 percentage points, respectively, since 1980. 

Eighty-one percent of Whites expected to complete a bachelor’s degree in 2002, an 

increase of 40 percentage points since 1980. 

• Expectations have increased for each of the SES groupings, with some narrowing of 

the SES difference. Expectations for a 4-year degree or higher went from 22 percent 

to 66 percent among students in the lowest quarter of the SES distribution, from 37 

percent to 79 percent among the middle two quarters, and from 70 percent to 93 

percent among the highest quarter. 

• Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of sophomores who said their parents 

thought that going to college was the most important thing for them to do right after 

high school increased from 59 percent to 79 percent for fathers and from 65 percent 

to 85 percent for mothers. 

• The percentage of sophomores expecting to attend college right after high school 

increased from 49 percent overall in 1980 to 60 percent in 1990 and 66 percent in 

2002. 

 Blacks and Whites were not substantially different from each other (using the 5 

percentage point criterion) in any of the 3 years. 

 In 1980, the percentage of sophomores who planned to enroll in college right after 

high school was 72 percent for the highest SES quarter and 31 percent for the 

lowest quarter. In 2002, the percentage planning to enroll in college had increased 

by 15 percent for the highest SES quarter (up to 82 percent) and by 70 percent for 

the lowest SES quarter (up to 53 percent). 

• Some caution is needed in interpreting data on occupational expectations at age 30 

due to questionnaire differences related to use of the “don’t know” option and format 

of the question (open ended or choosing from a list). The 1980 survey displayed the 

occupational choices and gave several examples on the form of the occupations 

included in each listed category. The 1990 survey, the NELS:88 first follow-up, used 

the same list with the same examples but added a “don’t know” option. The 2002 

survey form asked the question in an open-ended format, with the only option 

displayed on the questionnaire being the “don’t know” option. 

x 
Executive Summary 

Keeping in mind the form differences and including the “don’t know” responses in 

the denominator for the tabulations, among females, there was a large decline in the 

percentage choosing “clerical” (from 17 percent to 0.4 percent) and an increase in the 

percentage choosing “Professional 2” (from 14 percent to 29 percent) from 1980 to 

2002. As used here, the category “Professional 2” includes such occupations as 

lawyers, scientists, college professors, dentists, medical doctors, and clergymen. In 

2002, females were more likely than males to indicate that they expected to be 

employed as a “Professional 1” (29 percent compared with 12 percent). Professional 

1 comprises such occupations as accountant, artist, registered nurse, engineer, 

librarian, writer, social worker, actor, actress, athlete, and politician, but not school 

teacher. 

xi 

Foreword 

This report describes patterns of continuity and change between the spring 2002 high 

school sophomores from the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) base-year study, 

the spring 1990 sophomores from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) 

first follow-up study, and the spring 1980 sophomores from the High School and Beyond 

(HS&B) base-year study. All three studies were sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education, 

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) and help fulfill a major purpose of NCES 

national education longitudinal studies, which is to provide comparative data at different points 

in time that are germane to education policy and permit examination of patterns relative to 

education, career development, and societal roles. At a time when considerable national focus 

has turned to high school reform, the report provides timely information on major trends at this 

critical period for youth. The report supplies demographic profiles of 1980, 1990, and 2002 

sophomores and discusses their school experiences, achievement in mathematics and reading, 

extracurricular activities, life values, educational expectations, and post–high school education 

and career plans. 

We hope that the information provided in this report will be useful to a wide range of 

interested readers, including policymakers and educators. We further hope that the results 

reported here will encourage other researchers to use the three datasets, as well as their 

longitudinal follow-ups, both now and in the future, as additional waves of ELS:2002 build on 

this baseline. 

Jeffrey A. Owings 

Associate Commissioner 

Elementary/Secondary & Libraries Studies 

xiii 

Acknowledgments 

This report, drawing on data from three studies spanning 22 years, stands on the 

shoulders of the work of many people, of whom we are only able to mention a few. We 

particularly appreciate the ongoing and patient guidance provided by Jeffrey A. Owings, the 

Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) Project Officer at the U.S. Department of 

Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 

We would also like to acknowledge the helpful comments of internal and external 

reviewers of the report who played important roles in determining its content and structure. We 

appreciate the contributions of Marilyn Seastrom, John Wirt, and Michael Ross of NCES and 

Leslie Scott of the American Institutes for Research (AIR), two anonymous peer reviewers, and 

our Action Editor at the Institute of Education Sciences (IES), Lisa Bridges. 

This report presents an update of America’s High School Sophomores: A Ten Year 

Comparison, published by NCES in 1993. We are particularly indebted to the authors of that 

report, Kenneth A. Rasinski, Steven J. Ingels, Donald Rock, and Judith M. Pollack. The late ShiChang Wu was the NCES Project Officer. 

We are also indebted to the members of the technical review panels for all three studies, 

and in particular here we mention those from ELS:2002. The ELS:2002 panel members reviewed 

and refined plans for the study and provided important suggestions to help guide development of 

the instrumentation. The following individuals serve as members of the technical review panel: 

Marco Clark, Richard Duran, Jeremy Finn, Thomas B. Hoffer, Thomas Kane, Sally Kilgore, 

Richard Lawrence, Samuel R. Lucas, Aaron Pallas, and Andy Rogers. 

We also thank Peggy Quinn of NCES for her invaluable help, support, and assistance. 

A number of staff at RTI International2

 played a special role on the ELS:2002 study. 

Daniel J. Pratt served as the overall project director for the base year of ELS:2002, and 

Steven J. Ingels served as principal investigator. Ellen Stutts was the task leader for data 

collection, Peter H. Siegel was the task leader for sampling and statistics, and Jim Rogers was 

the task leader for data processing. At Educational Testing Service (ETS), Judith M. Pollack, 

Donald A. Rock, and Michael J. Weiss carried out test design and scoring activities. Lastly, we 

would like to acknowledge the help of several additional RTI staff members: Wallace Campbell, 

Sallie Fiore, Craig Hollingsworth, and Jill Snider, who edited the document; Sharon Powell, 

Lawanda King, and Lynne Hawley, who provided assistance in document production; and Diane 

Caudill and Sonja Douglas, who provided graphics support. 

2 RTI International is a trade name of Research Triangle Institute. 

xv 

Contents 

Executive Summary...................................................................................................................iii 

Chapter 2.Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile.......................................................iii 

Chapter 3. School Experiences...............................................................................................................v 

Chapter 4. Tested Achievement ............................................................................................................vi 

Chapter 5. Afterschool Activities........................................................................................................viii 

Chapter 6. Life Values...........................................................................................................................ix 

Chapter 7. Plans and Expectations ........................................................................................................ix 

Foreword...................................................................................................................................xiii 

Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................xv 

List of Tables............................................................................................................................xxi 

List of Figures .......................................................................................................................xxvii 

Chapter 1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................1 

1.1 Background, Questions Addressed, and Limitations of the Report .............................................1 

1.1.1 Selected topics of concern using HS&B and NELS:88 data.................................................. 2 

1.1.2 Descriptive questions ............................................................................................................. 3 

1.1.3 Measures of change and subgroup differences ...................................................................... 4 

1.2 Designs for Sophomore Cohorts of HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002........................................5 

1.2.1 HS&B design ......................................................................................................................... 5 

1.2.2 NELS:88 design ..................................................................................................................... 5 

1.2.3 ELS:2002 design .................................................................................................................... 6 

1.2.4 Other data sources.................................................................................................................. 6 

1.3 Report Organization.....................................................................................................................7 

Chapter 2 Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile.........................................9 

2.1 Cohort Demographics ..................................................................................................................9 

2.1.1 Size and geographic region .................................................................................................... 9 

2.1.2 Cohort age ............................................................................................................................ 10 

2.1.3 Racial/ethnic group and English language ........................................................................... 12 

2.2 Family Characteristics ...............................................................................................................14 

2.2.1 Family living arrangements.................................................................................................. 14 

2.2.2 Parents’ education ................................................................................................................ 14 

2.2.3 Socioeconomic status (SES) and racial/ethnic group........................................................... 16 

2.3 School Characteristics................................................................................................................19 

2.3.1 School sector ........................................................................................................................ 19 

2.3.2 School size ........................................................................................................................... 19 

2.3.3 School metropolitan status ................................................................................................... 25 

2.3.4 School enrollment eligible for free or reduced-price lunch ................................................. 26 

2.4 Summary....................................................................................................................................27 

Chapter 3 School Experiences ................................................................................................29 

3.1 High School Program.................................................................................................................29 

3.2 Selected Courses or Programs....................................................................................................32 

xvii 
Contents 

3.2.1 Remedial courses ................................................................................................................. 32 

3.2.2 Bilingual or bicultural education; English as a Second Language....................................... 32 

3.3 Homework and Student Motivation...........................................................................................35 

3.3.1 Homework............................................................................................................................ 35 

3.3.2 Student motivation ............................................................................................................... 37 

3.4 Views on School Safety, Climate, and Teaching.......................................................................39 

3.4.1 School safety and climate..................................................................................................... 39 

3.4.2 Opinion on teaching quality................................................................................................. 39 

3.5 Computer Use ............................................................................................................................39 

3.6 Summary....................................................................................................................................42 

Chapter 4 Tested Achievement ...............................................................................................45 

4.1 Overview....................................................................................................................................45 

4.1.1 Mathematics achievement using Item Response Theory (IRT) number-right scores .......... 45 

4.1.2 Mathematics and reading achievement using probabilities of proficiency .......................... 46 

4.2 Background................................................................................................................................47 

4.2.1 Mathematics achievement in HS&B and NELS:88 (1980 and 1990).................................. 47 

4.3 Mathematics Achievement: 1980 and 2002...............................................................................48 

4.4 Mathematics Achievement: 1990 and 2002...............................................................................50 

4.5 Proficiency in Mathematics: 1990 and 2002..............................................................................54 

4.6 Proficiency in Reading: 1990 and 2002.....................................................................................61 

4.7 Summary....................................................................................................................................65 

Chapter 5 Afterschool Activities .............................................................................................67 

5.1 Extracurricular Activities...........................................................................................................67 

5.2 Employment...............................................................................................................................73 

5.3 Unstructured Social Activities ...................................................................................................75 

5.4 Summary....................................................................................................................................78 

Chapter 6 Life Values ...............................................................................................................79 

6.1 Relative Importance of the Life Values.....................................................................................79 

6.2 Work and Money .......................................................................................................................81 

6.3 Friendship and Leisure...............................................................................................................83 

6.4 Family Life and Children...........................................................................................................85 

6.5 Community and Social Values...................................................................................................87 

6.6 Summary....................................................................................................................................87 

Chapter 7 Plans and Expectations ..........................................................................................89 

7.1 Educational Expectations...........................................................................................................89 

7.1.1 Sex and educational expectations......................................................................................... 89 

7.1.2 Racial/ethnic group and educational expectations ............................................................... 93 

7.1.3 Socioeconomic status (SES), academic test quarters, and educational expectations ........... 95 

7.2 Perceptions of Parent, Counselor, and Teacher Views on Attending College ...........................97 

7.3 Continuing Education Right After High School......................................................................100 

7.4 Occupational Expectations.......................................................................................................103 

7.5 Summary..................................................................................................................................109 

References...............................................................................................................................111 

Appendix A Technical Notes and Glossary.......................................................................... A-1 

A.1 Overview of the Technical Appendix ......................................................................................A-3 

xviii 
Contents 

A.2 NCES High School Longitudinal Studies Program .................................................................A-3 

A.2.1 High School and Beyond (HS&B).....................................................................................A-5 

A.2.2 National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88).............................................A-5 

A.3 Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) ................................................................A-8 

A.3.1 ELS:2002 study objectives.................................................................................................A-8 

A.4 Measures of Survey Precision and Quality ............................................................................A-10 

A.4.1 Survey standard errors......................................................................................................A-10 

A.4.2 Sampling, weighting, response rates, and quality of estimates........................................A-10 

A.5 Statistical Procedures .............................................................................................................A-11 

A.5.1 Student t statistics.............................................................................................................A-11 

A.5.2 Effect sizes .......................................................................................................................A-12 

A.6 Description of Variables Used ...............................................................................................A-13 

A.7 Glossary of Key Classification Variables and Test Scores....................................................A-23 

Appendix B Standard Error Tables ....................................................................................... B-1 

xix 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

1. Number and percentage of high school sophomores’ cohort size, by geographic region 

of schools: 1980, 1990, and 2002............................................................................................... 10 

2. Mean age and percentage distribution of high school sophomores, by age and sex: 

1980, 1990, and 2002 ................................................................................................................. 11 

3. Percentage of high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group: 1980, 1990, and 2002............. 12 

4. Percentage of high school sophomores whose native language is English, by 

racial/ethnic group: 1980, 1990, and 2002 ................................................................................. 13 

5. Percentage of high school sophomores, by family living arrangement: 1980, 1990, and 

2002 ............................................................................................................................................ 14 

6. Percentage of high school sophomores, by parents’ highest level of education: 1980, 

1990, and 2002 ........................................................................................................................... 15 

7. Percentage of high school sophomores, by socioeconomic status (SES) and 

racial/ethnic group: 1980, 1990, and 2002 ................................................................................. 17 

8. Percentage of high school sophomores, by school type, racial/ethnic group, and 

socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002................................................................... 19 

9a. Percentage distribution of school size for high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic 

group and socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002.................................................. 21 

9b. Percentage distribution of sophomore class size for high school sophomores, by 

racial/ethnic group and socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002............................. 24 

10. Percentage of high school sophomores, by urbanicity, racial/ethnic group, and 

socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002................................................................... 26 

11. Percentage of high school sophomores, by percentage free or reduced-price lunch 

eligibility in school: 1990 and 2002 ........................................................................................... 27 

12. Percentage of high school sophomores, by high school program and selected student 

characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 ........................................................................................ 31 

13. Percentage of high school sophomores who report having been in various kinds of 

courses or programs in high school, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 

2002 ............................................................................................................................................ 33 

14. Percentage of high school sophomores’ time spent on homework per week, by sex and 

location completed: 1980, 1990, and 2002................................................................................. 36 

15. Percentage of high school sophomores saying they usually or often come to school 

unprepared, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 ..................................... 38 

16. Percentage of high school sophomores who agreed or strongly agreed with selected 

statements about the school’s climate and teaching, by selected student characteristics: 

1980, 1990, and 2002 ................................................................................................................. 40 

17. Percentage of high school sophomores’ use of and exposure to calculators and 

computers, by selected student characteristics: 1990 and 2002 ................................................. 43 

xxi 
List of Tables 

18. Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated average number-right scores for mathematics, 

by selected student characteristics: 1980 and 2002 .................................................................... 49 

19. Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated average number-right scores for mathematics, 

by selected student characteristics: 1990 and 2002 .................................................................... 51 

20. High school sophomore probability of proficiency in mathematics, by selected student 

characteristics: 1990 and 2002 ................................................................................................... 57 

21. High school sophomore probability of proficiency in reading, by selected student 

characteristics: 1990 and 2002 ................................................................................................... 62 

22. Percentage of high school sophomores who participate in academic and vocational 

clubs, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002............................................... 70 

23. Percentage of high school sophomores who participate in athletics and cheerleading 

and drill team, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002................................. 71 

24. Percentage of high school sophomores who participate in music-related activities and 

hobby clubs, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002.................................... 72 

25. Percentage of high school sophomores, by employment status and selected student 

characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 ........................................................................................ 74 

26. Percentage of high school sophomores who report that they engage in various activities 

at least once or twice a week, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 ......... 77 

27. Percentage of high school sophomores who report that various life values related to 

work are very important to them, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 

2002 ............................................................................................................................................ 82 

28. Percentage of high school sophomores who report that having strong friendships and 

having leisure time are very important to them, by selected student characteristics: 

1980, 1990, and 2002 ................................................................................................................. 84 

29. Percentage of high school sophomores who report that various life values related to 

family are very important to them, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 

2002 ............................................................................................................................................ 86 

30. Percentage of high school sophomores who report that various life values related to 

community are very important to them, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, 

and 2002 ..................................................................................................................................... 88 

31. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to attain various levels of 

postsecondary education, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002................ 90 

32. Percentage of high school sophomores who report fathers, mothers, school counselors, 

and teachers think college is the most important thing for them to do right after high 

school, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002............................................. 98 

33. Percentage of high school sophomores who report various intentions with regard to 

entering college after high school graduation, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 

1990, and 2002 ......................................................................................................................... 101 

34. Percentage of high school sophomores’ expected occupation at age 30, by sex: 1980, 

1990, and 2002 ......................................................................................................................... 104 

35. Percentage of high school sophomores’ expected occupation at age 30, by sex with 

“don’t know” responses removed: 1980, 1990, and 2002........................................................ 107 

36. Number and percentage of jobs, by major occupational group: 2000 and projected 2010....... 108 

xxii 
 

 

List of Tables 

37. Percentage of job openings and average annual earnings, by educational training 

category: 2000 and 2010 (projected distribution)..................................................................... 108 

Appendix A Tables 

Table Page 

A-1. 

A-2. 

A-3. 

Variable names and explanatory notes, by year: 1980, 1990, and 2002.................................A-15 

 Elements of the socioeconomic composite, HS&B and NELS:88: 1980–1992 .................... A-25 

 Elements of socioeconomic composite, ELS:2002: 2002 .....................................................A-26 

Appendix B Tables 

Table Page 

B-1. Unweighted sample sizes for subgroups formed, by classification variables: 1980, 

1990, and 2002 ......................................................................................................................... B-3 

B-2. 

B-3. 

B-4. 

B-5. 

B-6. 

B-7. 

B-8. 

B-9. 

Standard errors for table 1 estimates (number and percentage of high school 

sophomores’ cohort size, by geographic region of schools): 1980, 1990, and 2002................ B-4 

Standard errors for table 2 estimates (mean age and percentage distribution of high 

school sophomores, by age and sex): 1980, 1990, and 2002.................................................... B-5 

Standard errors for table 3 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, by 

racial/ethnic group): 1980, 1990, and 2002.............................................................................. B-5 

Standard errors for table 4 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores whose 

native language is English, by racial/ethnic group): 1980, 1990, and 2002 ............................. B-6 

Standard errors for table 5 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, by family 

living arrangement): 1980, 1990, and 2002.............................................................................. B-6 

Standard errors for table 6 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, by 

parents’ highest level of education): 1980, 1990, and 2002 ..................................................... B-7 

Standard errors for table 7 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, by 

socioeconomic status [SES] and racial/ethnic group): 1980, 1990, and 2002.......................... B-7 

Standard errors for table 8 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, by school 

type, racial/ethnic group, and socioeconomic status [SES]): 1980, 1990, and 2002................ B-8 

B-10a. Standard errors for table 9a estimates (Percentage distribution of school size for high 

school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group and socioeconomic status [SES]): 1980, 

1990, and 2002 ......................................................................................................................... B-9 

B-10b. Standard errors for table 9b estimates (Percentage distribution of sophomore class size 

for high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group and socioeconomic status [SES]): 

1980, 1990, and 2002 ............................................................................................................. B-12 

B-11. Standard errors for table 10 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, by 

urbanicity, racial/ethnic group, and socioeconomic status [SES]): 1980, 1990, and 2002..... B-14 

B-12. Standard errors for table 11 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, by 

percentage free or reduced-price lunch eligibility in school): 1990 and 2002 ....................... B-14 

xxiii 
List of Tables 

B-13. Standard errors for table 12 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, by high 

school program and selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 ........................ B-15 

B-14. Standard errors for table 13 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

report having been in various kinds of courses or programs in high school, by selected 

student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002....................................................................... B-16 

B-15. Standard errors for table 14 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores’ time 

spent on homework per week, by sex and location completed): 1980, 1990, and 2002......... B-18 

B-16. Standard errors for table 15 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores saying 

they usually or often come to school unprepared, by selected student characteristics): 

1980, 1990, and 2002 ............................................................................................................. B-19 

B-17. Standard errors for table 16 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

agreed or strongly agreed with selected statements about the school’s climate and 

teaching, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 .................................... B-20 

B-18. Standard errors for table 17 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores’ use of 

and exposure to calculators and computers, by selected student characteristics): 1990 

and 2002 ................................................................................................................................. B-22 

B-19. Standard errors for table 18 estimates (Item Response Theory [IRT]-estimated average 

number-right scores for mathematics, by selected student characteristics): 1980 and 

2002 ........................................................................................................................................ B-24 

B-20. Standard errors for table 19 estimates (Item Response Theory [IRT]-estimated average 

number-right scores for mathematics, by selected student characteristics): 1990 and 

2002 ........................................................................................................................................ B-25 

B-21. Standard errors for table 20 estimates (high school sophomore probability of 

proficiency in mathematics, by selected student characteristics): 1990 and 2002 ................. B-26 

B-22. Standard errors for table 21 estimates (high school sophomore probability of 

proficiency in reading, by selected student characteristics): 1990 and 2002.......................... B-30 

B-23. Standard errors for table 22 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

participate in academic and vocational clubs, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 

1990, and 2002 ....................................................................................................................... B-33 

B-24. Standard errors for table 23 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

participate in athletics and cheerleading and drill team, by selected student 

characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 ................................................................................... B-34 

B-25. Standard errors for table 24 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

participate in music-related activities and hobby clubs, by selected student 

characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 ................................................................................... B-35 

B-26. Standard errors for table 25 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, by 

employment status and selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 ................... B-36 

B-27. Standard errors for table 26 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

report that they engage in various activities at least once or twice a week, by selected 

student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002....................................................................... B-37 

B-28. Standard errors for table 27 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

report that various life values related to work are very important to them, by selected 

student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002....................................................................... B-38 

xxiv 
List of Tables 

B-29. Standard errors for table 28 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

report that having strong friendships and having leisure time are very important to 

them, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002.......................................... B-39 

B-30. Standard errors for table 29 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

report that various life values related to family are very important to them, by selected 

student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002....................................................................... B-40 

B-31. Standard errors for table 30 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

report that various life values related to community are very important to them, by 

selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002......................................................... B-41 

B-32. Standard errors for table 31 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

expect to attain various levels of postsecondary education, by selected student 

characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 ................................................................................... B-42 

B-33. Standard errors for table 32 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

report fathers, mothers, school counselors, and teachers think college is the most 

important thing for them to do right after high school, by selected student 

characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 ................................................................................... B-44 

B-34. Standard errors for table 33 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who 

report various intentions with regard to entering college after high school graduation, 

by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002.................................................... B-46 

B-35. Standard errors for table 34 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores’ expected 

occupation at age 30, by sex): 1980, 1990, and 2002............................................................. B-48 

B-36. Standard errors for table 35 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores’ expected 

occupation at age 30, by sex with “don’t know” responses removed): 1980, 1990, and 

2002........................................................................................................................................ B-49 

xxv 

List of Figures 

Figure Page 

1. Percentage of high school sophomores, by age: 1980, 1990, and 2002 ..................................... 11 

2. Percentage of high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group: 1980 and 2002........................ 13 

3. Percentage of high school sophomores who were potentially first-generation 4-year 

college graduates, by racial/ethnic group: 1980 and 2002 ......................................................... 16 

4. Percentage of high school sophomores in the lowest quarter of the socioeconomic 

distribution, by racial/ethnic group: 1980, 1990, and 2002........................................................ 18 

5. Percentage of high school sophomores, by school enrollment: 1980, 1990, and 2002 .............. 20 

6. Percentage of high school sophomores, by self-reported high school program: 1980, 

1990, and 2002 ........................................................................................................................... 30 

7. Percentage of high school sophomores who reported they were in college preparatory 

or academic program, by racial/ethnic group: 1980 and 2002 ................................................... 30 

8. Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated average number-right scores for mathematics: 

1980, 1990, and 2002 ................................................................................................................. 52 

9. Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated average number-right scores for mathematics, 

by selected race/ethnicity: 1980, 1990, and 2002....................................................................... 53 

10. Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated average number-right scores for mathematics, 

by self-reported high school programs: 1980, 1990, and 2002 .................................................. 54 

11. Percentage of high school sophomores who report participating in various 

extracurricular activities: 1980, 1990, and 2002 ........................................................................ 69 

12. Percentage of high school sophomores, by employment status: 1990 and 2002........................ 73 

13. Percentage of high school sophomores, by engagement in various activities at least 

once or twice a week: 1980, 1990, and 2002.............................................................................. 76 

14. Percentage of high school sophomores, by various life values reported as being very 

important to them: 1980, 1990, and 2002................................................................................... 80 

15. Percentage of high school sophomores, by educational expectation level: 1980, 1990, 

and 2002 ..................................................................................................................................... 92 

16. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to obtain a bachelor’s, graduate, or 

professional degree as highest degree, by sex: 1980, 1990, and 2002 ....................................... 93 

17. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to obtain a bachelor’s, graduate, or 

professional degree as highest degree, by race/ethnicity: 1980, 1990, and 2002 ....................... 94 

18. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to obtain a bachelor’s, graduate, or 

professional degree as highest degree, by socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 

2002............................................................................................................................................ 95 

19. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to obtain a bachelor’s, graduate, or 

professional degree as highest degree, by standardized test composite score: 1980, 

1990, and 2002 ........................................................................................................................... 96 

xxvii 
List of Figures 

20. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to enroll in college right after high 

school, by socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002 ............................................... 103 

21. Percentage of high school sophomores, by occupational expectations at age 30 with 

“don’t know” responses removed: 1980 and 2002................................................................... 106 

Appendix A Figures 

Figure Page 

A-1. Longitudinal design for the NCES high school cohorts: 1972-2008....................................... A-4 

xxviii 
 

Chapter 1 

Introduction 

This report presents information on similarities and differences between U.S. high school 

sophomores as studied at three points in time over the past 22 years. Over the past three decades, 

the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) has sponsored a series of studies designed to 

provide both longitudinal and cohort data that can be used to examine the experiences, attitudes, 

and achievement of high school students and their transition to young adulthood, postsecondary 

education, and work. The report provides an update to the NCES report published in 1993, 

America’s High School Sophomores: A Ten Year Comparison (Rasinski et al. 1993). With the 

completion of the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 sophomore cohort study,1 it became 

possible to observe characteristics at three points in time. The report uses data from the following 

NCES studies: 

• sophomores in 1980, as studied in High School and Beyond (HS&B); 

• sophomores in 1990, as studied in the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 

(NELS:88); and 

• sophomores in 2002, as studied in the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002). 

All three of these studies were designed as longitudinal; however, the overall scope and 

design of each one also provides nationally representative cross-sectional profiles of the nation’s 

high school sophomores at the time of the study. As part of a historical series, the studies have 

repeated core items in key areas each decade. These areas include cohort demographics, 

academic program, academic performance, rates of participation in extracurricular activities, and 

changes in goals and aspirations over a 22-year period. Such cross-cohort comparisons are of 

particular use in measuring the nation’s goals of achieving increased educational attainment for 

all U.S. children (U.S. Department of Education 2002). 

1.1 Background, Questions Addressed, and Limitations of the 

Report 

The purpose of this report is descriptive, serving to update published information on the 

HS&B and NELS:88 sophomore surveys with additional information from ELS:2002 for 

selected comparable student characteristics, educational performance, activities, and experiences. 

Secondary purposes are to note qualifications and limitations to the survey-based data 

comparisons and to note related information from other data sources such as the Current 

Population Survey (CPS) over the same period. With a few additions, the topics selected for the 

1

 For the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), initial detailed cross-sectional findings from the base year 

have recently been published in A Profile of the American High School Sophomore in 2002 (Ingels, Burns et al. 

2005). 

1 
 

Chapter 1: Introduction 

report are based on those included in the report comparing the 1980 and 1990 sophomores 

(Rasinski et al. 1993).2 

Although this report covers several key topics and presents subgroup information that has 

been of considerable interest in multivariate analyses using HS&B and NELS:88 data, it stops 

short of a multivariate analysis of the interrelationships among the variables or how the 

interrelationships may have changed over time. For example, analyses comparing reading and 

mathematics assessment performance across cohorts do not control for compositional changes 

across the three cohorts. Ideally, this report will serve as an invitation for more complex analyses 

on these specific topics, as well as provide cautions in making some of the comparisons over 

time. By way of introduction, selected topics of interest from previous analyses of HS&B and 

NELS:88 are identified. 

1.1.1 Selected topics of concern using HS&B and NELS:88 data 

HS&B and NELS:88 have served as major sources of descriptive national information on 

the family, academic, and extracurricular experiences of high school students, as well as the 

relationship of student, teacher, and school characteristics to student academic performance and 

the transition of high school students to college and work. This research has studied a number of 

factors associated with high school and postsecondary outcomes. These factors have included 

family structure, parent involvement, socioeconomic (SES) background, school program, 

coursetaking patterns, grades, peer group influences, precollege program participation, post–high 

school aspirations, achievement test performance, and college-board test taking, as well as 

school and teacher characteristics such as school size and teacher preparation (for example, 

Adelman 1999, 2006; Akerhielm et al. 1998; Berkner and Chavez 1997; Choy 2001; Gándara 

and Bial 2001; Horn and Nuñez 2000; Hossler, Schmit, and Vesper 1998; Ingels et al. 2002; Lee 

and Smith 1997; McDonough 1997). Using these studies, researchers have also identified what 

have come to be known as “risk factors” to educational success. These factors include coming 

from the lowest quarter of the SES distribution,3

 changing schools, living in a single-parent 

household, being held back in school, making low grades, having parents with low educational 

attainment, having one or more siblings who dropped out of school, and attending schools with a 

high proportion of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch (for example, Choy 2001; 

Hossler, Schmit, and Vesper 1998). Controlling for these risk factors, research has also looked at 

factors that are associated with greater odds of high school and college success, such as 

coursetaking patterns, and found associations with taking more rigorous courses in high school 

and college success (for example, Adelman 1999, 2006). Using these data sets, researchers have 

examined the relationship between differential schooling experiences (including those associated 

with tracking or program placement) and the likelihood that students will enroll in the courses 

2

 Estimates in this report may differ from those presented in Rasinski et al. (1993) because of subsequent updates 

that occurred to the data files. In addition, slight changes to estimates may be a product of changes in the rounding 

procedures. The following tables and figures contain one or more estimates that have been revised: tables 3, 7, 12, 

15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, and 35 (and appendix tables B-4, B-8, B-13, B-16, B-17, B-19, B-20, B-21, 

B-28, B-29, B-30, B-31, B-34, B-35, and B-36) and figures 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, and 21. 3

 Each of the three NCES studies (HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002) have constructed a standardized SES variable. 

SES in NELS:88 and ELS:2002 was based on five equally weighted, standardized components consisting of father’s 

or guardian’s education, mother’s or guardian’s education, family income, father’s or guardian’s occupation, and 

mother’s or guardian’s occupation. In HS&B, the five components of SES included household items such as number 

of books, cars, and electrical appliances and did not include mother’s occupation. 

2 
 

Chapter 1: Introduction 

most associated with postsecondary entry and attainment (Adelman 1999; Gándara and Bial 

2001; Mehan et al. 1996). Research focused on school characteristics has examined the 

relationship of variables such as school control and school and class size with high school 

achievement and college participation (for example, Akerhielm 1995; Coleman, Hoffer, and 

Kilgore 1982; Gándara and Bial 2001; Ingels et al. 2002; Lee 2001). Other research, controlling 

for parent involvement, peer association, and student preparation, found that precollege programs 

had a positive association with college entrance for students having one or more of the risk 

factors (Horn and Chen 1998). It is hoped that the data from ELS:2002 will be used as often as 

data from HS&B and NELS:88 were used over the past decades to contribute to our 

understanding of the high school experience and the transition to young adulthood. 

1.1.2 Descriptive questions 

Keeping in mind past analyses of HS&B (1980) and NELS:88 (1990) data and using 

possible comparable information from the three datasets, as well as data from the U.S. Census 

Bureau and U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics over the same period, the following questions about 

high school sophomores are addressed in this report: 

• What have been the changes in the context of U.S. education and society in terms of 

individual demographics, family background, and school characteristics? 

• How has the school experience changed in terms of student self-reports of academic 

programs, time spent on homework, preparedness, and student views of school safety 

and teaching? 

• Have there been changes in tested achievement as measured by mathematics scale 

scores and changes in probabilities of proficiency in reading and mathematics? 

• Have there been changes in the frequency and types of afterschool extracurricular 

activities, work outside the home, and social activities? 

• Have student values and goals changed with regard to work, marriage and children, 

community, and friendship? 

• Have student plans and expectations for the future changed with regard to education, 

plans to attend college, and occupation expected at age 30? 

In addition to the overall assessment of change, the report addresses change for various 

subgroups studied in the previous analyses of HS&B and NELS:88 (Rasinski et al. 1993): 

• male and female high school sophomores; 

• sophomores from different racial/ethnic groups;4 

• sophomores from upper, middle, and lower SES levels; 

• sophomores in public and private high schools; 

4

 In this report, Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, Asian includes Native Hawaiian or Other 

Pacific Islander, and American Indian includes Alaska Native. Respondents who identified themselves as being of 

Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of race. 

3 
 

Chapter 1: Introduction 

• sophomores in urban, suburban, and rural school settings; and 

• sophomores in different regions of the country. 

1.1.3 Measures of change and subgroup differences 

The primary focus of this report is observation of change over the periods 1980, 1990, 

and 2002 for national averages and for subgroupings that have been of traditional interest to 

education research and policy. For this report, a series of statistical t tests is used to establish 

whether estimates differ between time periods. The criteria for notation in the text of change 

across the time periods and subgroup differences were based on t tests using the .05 level of 

significance, taking into account the effects of sampling error. In addition, a second criterion was 

used to ensure a certain level of substantive importance. If a comparison does not meet these two 

criteria, the result may be characterized as “no measurable difference detected.” One 

characteristic that HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002 have in common is relatively large sample 

sizes. Large samples may result in small differences—indeed, differences so small that they 

largely lack substantive or practical importance—that nevertheless are statistically significant. 

For chapters 2–3 and 5–7, the substantive change criterion was a change of at least 5 percentage 

points, except where noted. For chapter 4, substantive importance was measured in terms of 

effect sizes represented in standard deviation units. Effect sizes provide a scale-free measure of 

difference that is largely independent of sample size. For comparisons drawn in this report, effect 

sizes were calculated as the change or difference in mean test scores divided by the pooled 

standard deviation across cohorts or subgroups. To say, for example, that the effect size for the 

cohort difference in mathematics achievement for Black sophomores between 1980 and 1990 

was 0.35 is equivalent to saying that the increase in average scores for Blacks was 0.35 standard 

deviations. 

Although “practical” or “substantive” importance (as opposed to statistical significance) 

must be determined in a given area of inquiry, Cohen (1988, p. 184) suggested certain general 

conventions of substantive importance for a given difference. For this report, any difference that 

is both statistically significant at p < .05 and has an effect size of 0.20 or higher shall be regarded 

as likely to have substantive importance. Findings to be reported of overall or subgroup change 

between two points in time are held to this double criterion. While interpretation of the size of an 

effect size should take into account the research context,5 this report will follow the general 

convention in behavioral research that a standardized mean difference of 0.20 or less is a small 

effect size, 0.50 a medium effect size, and 0.80 or greater a large effect size (Cohen 1988; 

Murphy and Myers 2004; Seastrom 2002). The reader should use caution in instances where 

there appear to be differences between estimates but there is no notation indicating that the 

differences are statistically significant. These instances may be a product of small sample sizes 

or large standard errors that render such estimates unreliable. See appendix A for additional 

methodological discussion and identification of the specific variables used in the analyses for 

each of the three studies; see appendix B for standard errors for the estimates used in the report. 

5

 See, for example, Wainer and Robinson (2003). 

4 
 

Chapter 1: Introduction 

1.2 Designs for Sophomore Cohorts of HS&B, NELS:88, and 

ELS:2002 

By way of background in this section, the major features of each of the designs, including 

differences in design, are noted. In addition, throughout the report, differences in questionnaire 

item wording or procedures that might affect comparisons over time using the data are described. 

Appendix A provides additional methodological information about each of the studies. One 

difference is that ELS:2002 imputed for item nonresponse, and the analyses included in this 

report use imputed data, whereas HS&B and NELS:88 did not impute data at the item level.6 

1.2.1 HS&B design 

This report uses data collected in the HS&B base year from the 10th grade cohort. The 

base-year survey was conducted in the spring term of 1980. The study provided for a national 

probability sample of 1,015 secondary schools as the first units of selection. In the second stage, 

36 seniors and 36 sophomores were selected in each school. Schools with high percentages of 

Hispanic students, Catholic schools with a high percentage of minority students, alternative 

public schools, and private schools with high-achieving students were oversampled. HS&B 

sophomores were followed in 1982, 1984, 1986, and 1992. Postsecondary transcripts were also 

collected, with the most recent collection being 1992. In addition, parent, teacher, and school 

surveys were conducted. The unweighted response rate at the baseline school level was 70 

percent and at the baseline student level was 84 percent.7

 Data weights were adjusted for 

nonresponse at each level. 

1.2.2 NELS:88 design 

NELS:88 differs from HS&B and ELS:2002 in that the first data collection phase began 

in the 8th grade rather than the 10th grade. The data used in this report are, therefore, from the 

first follow-up conducted in the spring of 1990, when most of the 8th-graders were high school 

sophomores. The base-year (8th-grade) cohort was drawn from a stratified national probability 

sample of 1,052 public and private 8th-grade schools from which about 25,000 students 

participated in the base-year study (Ingels et al. 1992). For the sophomore year follow-up, about 

18,221 students participated in the in-school, self-administered survey from the 19,363 selected. 

Because the sample was freshened with 1990 sophomores who were not in the 8th-grade sample 

from 1988, it is a representative sample of the nation’s spring term 1990 sophomores. By 

maintaining a degree of comparability in questionnaire and test measures employed, NELS:88 

first follow-up results will support comparisons with the HS&B and ELS:2002 sophomores. 

Base-year 1988 study participants were followed in 1990, 1992, 1994, and 2000. In addition, 

parent, principal, and teacher surveys were conducted. It should be noted, however, that the 

original school sample reflects schools covering the 8th grade. The 10th-grade schools reflect the 

schools that this cross-section of 8th-graders attended. The unweighted response rate at the 

baseline 8th-grade school level was 70 percent for the initial school selections. Replacement 

6

 Analyses were performed to compare estimates using imputed and unimputed data. The general findings presented 

in this report do not vary based on imputed or unimputed data for ELS:2002. For more information, the reader should 

consult the ELS:2002 Base-Year to First Follow-up Data File Documentation (NCES 2006-344) (Ingels, Pratt et al. 

2005, appendix C). 

7

 Weighted response rates for High School and Beyond (HS&B) are not included in published documentation. 

5 
Chapter 1: Introduction 

schools were used. The weighted 8th-grade student response rate was 93.4 percent. Two years 

later, most students had dispersed to new schools, of which 99 percent cooperated. The 

unweighted sophomore response rate was 94 percent. Data weights were adjusted for 

nonresponse at each level. 

1.2.3 ELS:2002 design 

The ELS:2002 base-year study was carried out in a national probability sample of 752 

public, Catholic, and other private schools in the spring term of the 2001–02 school year (Burns 

et al. 2003; Ingels et al. 2004). Of 17,591 eligible selected sophomores, 15,362 completed a 

base-year questionnaire, as did 13,486 parents, 7,135 teachers, 743 principals, and 718 librarians. 

Seven study components comprised the base-year design: assessments of students (in-school 

reading and mathematics achievement tests); a survey of students (in-school, self-administered); 

surveys of parents (telephone survey), teachers (self-administered), school administrators (selfadministered), and librarians (self-administered); and a facilities checklist (completed by survey 

administrators, based on their observations at the school). The unweighted response rate was 62 

percent at the school level and 87 percent at the sophomore baseline level. Replacement schools 

were used. Data weights were adjusted for nonresponse at each level. 

Additional information about the design of HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002, 

questionnaire wording, data collection results, structure of the data files, specifications used in 

creating composite variables, universe coverage, sample selection procedures, weighting 

methodology, selected standard error estimates, estimates of design effects for categories of 

students, and results of nonresponse analyses is provided in the studies’ user manuals and 

technical reports. For detailed reliability and validity information concerning the HS&B and 

NELS:88 questionnaires and cognitive tests, the various psychometric and technical reports 

should also be consulted (see references and consult the website for each study at 

http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/SurveyGroups.asp?group=1). 

1.2.4 Other data sources 

Current Population Survey (CPS) 

The Current Population Survey (CPS), a monthly survey of approximately 50,000 

households in the United States, has been conducted for more than 50 years. The U.S. Census 

Bureau conducts the survey for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The CPS collects data on the 

social and economic characteristics of the civilian, noninstitutional population, including 

information on income, education, and participation in the labor force. Each month, a basic CPS 

questionnaire is used to collect data on the labor force participation of each member age 15 or 

older in every sample household. In March and October of each year, the CPS includes 

additional questions about education. The Annual Demographic Survey or March CPS 

supplement is the primary source of detailed information on income and work experience in the 

United States. The March CPS is used to generate the annual Population Profile of the United 

States, reports on geographical mobility and educational attainment, and detailed analysis of 

money income and poverty status. Each October, in addition to the basic questions about 

education, interviewers ask supplementary questions about school enrollment for all household 

6 
Chapter 1: Introduction 

members age 3 or older. Further information about the CPS can be found at the Census Bureau 

website (http://www.bls.census.gov/cps). 

1.3 Report Organization 

This report is organized into seven chapters, which are designed to answer the questions 

discussed earlier. Chapter 1 summarizes the purposes of the report and provides information on 

the design of the three studies. Chapter 2 provides information on the changing context of U.S. 

education and society over the 22 years between the studies. In addition to the demographic data 

from each of the studies, selected data for statistics related to youth and education in the United 

States from the CPS and Bureau of Labor Statistics are included. Chapter 3 focuses on the school 

experiences of cohort members, including high school program, homework, perceptions of 

school and the quality of teaching, motivation to learn, and safety in school. Chapter 4 reports on 

the cohort’s tested achievement in mathematics and reading. Chapter 5 examines how 10thgraders used their time in activities other than academic endeavors, including extracurricular 

activities, employment, and leisure activities. Chapter 6 examines the life values of the cohorts. 

Finally, chapter 7 looks at expectations and plans of this group, including expectations for 

educational attainment and their expected occupation at age 30. 

Appendix A provides methodological documentation for the three studies, and 

appendix B provides standard errors. 

7 

 

Chapter 2

Changing Context: Cohort, 

Family, and School Profile 

This chapter, using information from the three National Center for Education Statistics 

(NCES) studies—High School and Beyond (HS&B), Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), and the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88)—supplemented 

by Current Population Survey (CPS) and U.S. Bureau of Labor (BLS) data, presents a summary 

of key demographic and contextual-related changes for sophomores over the 1980–2002 period. 

Changes in each of these areas provide a framework for understanding the changes reported 

among high school sophomores over this period. 

The chapter discusses changing demographics under the following headings: 

2.1 Cohort Demographics; 

2.2 Family Characteristics; and 

2.3 School Characteristics. 

2.1 Cohort Demographics 

2.1.1 Size and geographic region 

Between 1980 and 2002, the U.S. population grew from 227.7 million to 288.2 million, 

increasing by 27 percent (U.S. Census Bureau 2004b). In that same period, the estimated size of 

the sophomore cohort fluctuated. The cohort size declined by 25 percent between 1980 and 1990 

and increased by 22 percent between 1990 and 2002, but in 2002 it remained lower than in 1980 

(table 1). Between 1980 and 2002, the cohort size declined by 9 percent.8 

The regional distribution of sophomores changed between 1980 and 2002. The 

percentage of sophomore students in the West increased from 18 percent of all sophomores in 

1980 to 23 percent in 2002 (table 1). In the same period, the percentage in the Northeast 

decreased from 23 percent to 19 percent and in the Midwest from 28 percent to 24 percent. Only 

the western region experienced growth in the absolute number of sophomores over the period. 

8

 Common Core of Data (CCD) and Private School Survey (PSS) data on the total in high school revealed a similar 

trend: 14,570 (1980), 12,488 (1990), and 15,426 (2002) in thousands (U.S. Department of Education 2005). 

9 
 

 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Table 1. Number and percentage of high school sophomores’ cohort size, by geographic 

region of schools: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

1980 1990 2002 

Percent change 

in number from 

Region Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 1980 to 2002 

U.S. 3,760,100 100.0 2,808,700 100.0 3,439,500 100.0 -8.5 

Northeast1

 853,200 22.7 539,600 19.2 637,600 18.5 -25.3 

Midwest2

 1,035,000 27.5 722,300 25.7 829,900 24.1 -19.8 

South3

 1,209,700 32.2 977,900 34.8 1,179,700 34.3 -2.5 

West4

 662,200 17.6 568,800 20.3 792,300 23.0 19.6 

1 Northeast = Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode 

Island, Vermont. 

2 Midwest = Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South 

Dakota, Wisconsin. 

3 South = Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North 

Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia. 4 West = Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, 

Washington, Wyoming. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

2.1.2 Cohort age 

By some measures, high school sophomores in 2002 appeared to be older than their 

counterparts 22 years earlier (table 2 and figure 1). The percentage of students who were 15 

years old in the spring of their sophomore year was 24 percent lower in 2002 than in 1980. In 

1980, 51 percent were 15 years old or younger at the time of the survey, and by 2002, 38 percent 

were 15 or younger. Nonetheless, the mean age of sophomores was 15.6 years old in 1980 and 

1990 and 15.7 in 2002. 

10 
 

 

 

 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Table 2. Mean age and percentage distribution of high school sophomores, by age and 

sex: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Percent change from 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 to 2002 

Mean Age 15.6 15.6 15.7 0.1 

Standard Deviation 0.68 0.64 0.65 † 

Age Distribution 

18 years or more 0.9 0.4 1.2 33.3 

17 years 5.3 7.0 6.8 28.3 

16 years 43.1 46.6 53.7 24.6 

15 years 50.1 45.5 37.9 -24.4 

14 years or less 0.6 0.6 0.3 -50.0 

Sex 

Male 48.1 49.9 50.5 5.0 

Female 51.9 50.1 49.6 -4.4 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. In HS&B, students recorded their age in years on survey day. The survey 

was conducted in the spring term and survey day for purposes of calculation of age is set at March 1. In NELS:88 and ELS:2002, 

students recorded their date of birth (month, day, and year). For this comparison, their age as of March 1st has been calculated and 

used, to maximize comparability to HS&B. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Figure 1. Percentage of high school sophomores, by age: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Year 

14 years or less

 15 years 

 16 years 

 17 years or more 

8 

54 

38 

7 

47 

46 

1 

6 

43 

50 

1 

# 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1980 

1990 

2002 

Percent 

# Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

11 
Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

2.1.3 Racial/ethnic group and English language 

Among all high school sophomores the percent minority (including those of more than 

one race in 2002) increased from 25 percent in 1980 to 40 percent in 2002. Hispanics increased 

from 8 percent to 16 percent (table 3 and figure 2). Whites, as a percentage of the total, declined 

from 75 percent to 60 percent, and Blacks were 14 percent in both 1980 and 2002. The “more 

than one race” category was available only to students in the ELS:2002 study, and 4 percent of 

the ELS:2002 sophomores so identified themselves. Census estimates for the nation as a whole 

(including all age groupings) for more than one race in 2001 were 0.2 percent (U.S. Census 

Bureau 2004b). 

Table 3. Percentage of high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group: 1980, 1990, and 

2002 

Percent change from 

Racial/ethnic group 1980 1990 2002 1980 to 2002 

American Indian or Alaska Native 1.0 1.2 1.0 # 

Asian or Pacific Islander 1.3 3.9 4.2 223.1 

Black or African American 14.2 12.5 14.4 2.1 

Hispanic or Latino 8.3 10.1 15.9 91.6 

More than one race † † 4.3 † 

White 75.3 72.3 60.3 -19.9 

† Not applicable. 

# Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

12 
Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Figure 2. Percentage of high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group: 1980 and 2002 

 

Racial/ethnic group 

1980 

25 Minority 2002 40

 American Indian or 1

Alaska Native 1

 Asian or Pacific 1 

Islander 4 

Black or African 14 

American 14 

8 Hispanic or Latino 16 

† More than one race 4 

75 White 60 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

Percent 

 

 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. In this figure, minority includes all categories except White, non-Hispanic 

and includes those of more than one race. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in 

HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of 

their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of students who identified English as their native 

language declined from 95 percent to 86 percent (table 4). 

Table 4. Percentage of high school sophomores whose native language is English, by 

racial/ethnic group: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Percent change from 

Racial/ethnic group 1980 1990 2002 1980 to 2002 

All sophomores 94.6 90.2 86.0 -9.1 

American Indian or Alaska Native 85.7 74.3 83.7 -2.3 

Asian or Pacific Islander 42.5 44.4 36.9 -13.2 

Black or African American 99.0 97.9 94.4 -4.6 

Hispanic or Latino 65.1 42.9 47.7 -26.7 

More than one race † † 92.5 † 

White 98.1 98.1 97.0 -1.1 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

13 
Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

2.2 Family Characteristics 

2.2.1 Family living arrangements 

Data from the three sophomore studies document the rise in the percentage of students in 

family structures that are different from the traditional composition of living with a biological or 

adoptive mother and father (table 5). The percentage of sophomores living with a mother and 

father declined from 70 percent in 1980 to 57 percent in 2002. The percentage of sophomores 

living with a mother and guardian went from 7 percent to 14 percent. The percentage living with 

“mother only” was 16 percent in 1980 and 19 percent in 2002. The percentage living with “father 

only” was 3 percent in 1980 and 2002. 

Table 5. Percentage of high school sophomores, by family living arrangement: 1980, 

1990, and 2002 

Percent change from 

Family living arrangement 1980 1990 2002 1980 to 2002 

Mother and father 70.2 67.2 57.3 -18.3 

Mother and guardian 6.9 11.2 13.5 96.5 

Father and guardian 2.1 2.7 3.3 53.5 

Mother only 15.5 13.9 19.2 24.3 

Father only 3.1 2.5 3.2 3.5 

Other relative or nonrelative 2.2 2.5 3.4 55.2 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. In the response categories “mother and guardian” and 

“father and guardian,” the term “guardian” includes step mothers and step fathers. The category “Mother and father” 

refers to biological or adoptive parents. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

2.2.2 Parents’ education 

In the early 1970s, when the 1980 sophomores started school, Census data indicate that 

about one-quarter of White and over half of Black and Hispanic parents of school-age children 

had not completed high school (U.S. Census Bureau 2001). As revealed in table 6, education 

among the parents of the high school sophomores increased between 1980 and 2002. 

Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of fathers without a high school diploma 

decreased from 23 percent to 14 percent. The percentage of mothers without a high school 

diploma was 18 percent in 1980 and 13 percent in 2002. The percentage of mothers with high 

school or General Education Development (GED) as the highest degree also declined, going 

from 47 percent to 28 percent. Among fathers, the percentage was 31 percent in 1980 and 30 

percent in 2002. 

As noted, rates of postsecondary participation and degree attainment among sophomores’ 

parents increased over the period. For example, among mothers, 4-year college completion as the 

highest degree went from 9 percent to 17 percent. The percentage of fathers having a 4-year 

college degree as the highest degree was 12 percent in 1980 and 17 percent in 2002. Among 

14 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

mothers, 1 percent had a Ph.D., M.D., or other doctoral degree in 1980 and 1.7 percent in 2002. 

Among fathers, 4 percent had a Ph.D., M.D., or other advanced degree in both 1980 and 2002. 

Table 6. Percentage of high school sophomores, by parents’ highest level of education: 

1980, 1990, and 2002 

Percent change from 

Parents’ highest level of education 1980 1990 2002 1980 to 2002 

Fathers 

Did not finish high school 22.6 15.2 13.9 -38.5 

Graduated from high school or GED 31.1 25.8 30.1 -3.1 

 Some postsecondary education (PSE) 23.5 33.3 27.4 16.6 

 Graduated from college 12.3 14.2 16.7 36.5 

 Completed master’s or equivalent 6.2 6.5 7.4 19.1 

Completed Ph.D., M.D., or other advanced degree 4.3 5.0 4.3 1.4 

Mothers 

Did not finish high school 17.8 13.0 13.2 -26.0 

Graduated from high school or GED 46.5 30.8 27.9 -40.0 

 Some postsecondary education (PSE) 21.9 39.0 34.6 58.1 

 Graduated from college 9.1 11.9 16.6 82.7 

 Completed master’s or equivalent 3.4 4.5 6.0 76.5 

Completed Ph.D., M.D., or other advanced degree 1.3 0.7 1.7 30.8 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Despite increases in parent education, however, in 2002, most high school sophomores 

remained potentially the first generation in their family to complete a 4-year college degree— 

that is, no parent or guardian had attained a 4-year college degree.9 In 1980, about three-fourths 

(77 percent) of sophomores were potentially first-generation college graduates, and by 2002, 62 

percent were potentially first-generation college graduates (figure 3). By racial/ethnic group, a 

smaller percentage of Asian high school sophomores compared to the national average reported 

being in families in which no parent or guardian had completed a 4-year college degree. For 

example, in 2002, 48 percent of Asian high school sophomores had no parent or guardian who 

had completed a 4-year degree, compared with 62 percent among all sophomores. 

9

 Several federal programs for disadvantaged high school students define eligibility for participation in terms of low 

income and potentially first-generation 4-year college graduate, defined as no parent or guardian with a 4-year 

college degree. 

15 
 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Figure 3. Percentage of high school sophomores who were potentially first-generation 

4-year college graduates, by racial/ethnic group: 1980 and 2002 

Racial/ethnic group 

All 

American Indian or 

Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific 

Islander 

Black or African 

American 

Hispanic or Latino 

White 57 

79 

69 

48 

71 

62 

74 

87 

86 

60 

85 

77 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

1980 

2002 

Percent 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B. 

The multiple race category is not shown. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. Potentially first-generation-college is defined as no parent or guardian 

with a 4-year college degree. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

2.2.3 Socioeconomic status (SES) and racial/ethnic group 

Each of the three NCES studies (HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002) have constructed a 

standardized SES variable. SES in NELS:88 and ELS:2002 was based on five equally weighted, 

standardized components consisting of father’s or guardian’s education, mother’s or guardian’s 

education, family income, father’s or guardian’s occupation, and mother’s or guardian’s 

occupation. In HS&B, the five components of SES included household items (such as number of 

books, electrical appliances, cars, own room, etc.) and did not include mother’s occupation. 

Table 7 and figure 4 include SES by racial/ethnic group with the two middle quarters of the SES 

distribution combined. It should be noted that table 7 and figure 4 display SES using weighted 

quartiles not raw SES scores; thus, a bottom quarter of the SES distribution is always shown, 

regardless of whether the raw SES scores have changed over the period. 

16 
Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Table 7. Percentage of high school sophomores, by socioeconomic status (SES) and 

racial/ethnic group: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Lowest quarter Middle two quarters Highest quarter 

Racial/ethnic group 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 25.0 25.1 24.9 50.0 50.4 50.1 25.0 24.6 25.0 

American Indian or Alaska Native 38.0 41.5 31.4 50.9 52.2 54.9 11.1 6.3 13.7 

Asian or Pacific Islander 23.2 18.3 28.0 45.4 49.8 40.5 31.5 32.0 31.5 

Black or African American 45.7 42.2 35.2 43.5 48.5 51.9 10.9 9.4 12.9 

Hispanic or Latino 48.2 51.6 50.1 40.8 37.7 40.2 11.1 10.7 9.7 

More than one race † † 23.6 † † 56.0 † † 20.4 

White 18.8 18.7 15.7 52.2 52.4 52.4 29.0 28.9 32.0 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates may differ from previously released estimates 

because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were 

modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for 

multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who 

identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. Each of the three 

studies (HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002) has constructed a standardized SES variable. SES is based on five equally 

weighted, standardized components consisting of father’s or guardian’s education, mother’s or guardian’s education, 

family income, father’s or guardian’s occupation, and mother’s or guardian’s occupation. In HS&B, the five 

components of SES include household items and do not include mother’s occupation. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

In 1980, no differences were detected between Blacks and Hispanics in the percentage in 

the lowest quarter of the SES distribution (48 percent for Hispanics and 46 percent for Blacks) 

(table 7 and figure 4). However, the percentage of Blacks in the bottom quarter of the SES 

distribution declined from 46 percent in 1980 to 35 percent in 2002, and in this year, differences 

between the two groups were detected (50 percent among Hispanics compared with 35 percent 

among Blacks). Correspondingly, the percentage of Blacks in the middle quarters of the SES 

distribution increased—from 44 percent in 1980 to 52 percent in 2002. 

The proportion of Asians in the lowest quarter of the SES distribution increased between 

1990 and 2002, going from 18 percent to 28 percent (table 7 and figure 4). In the same period, 

the proportion of Asians in the middle quarters of the SES distribution decreased from 50 percent 

to 41 percent. 

In each of the three periods, about 32 percent of Asians and 29 percent to 32 percent of 

Whites were in the highest quarter of the SES distribution (table 7 and figure 4). In 1980, the 

proportions of Hispanics, Blacks, and American Indians in the highest quarter of the SES 

distribution clustered around 11 percent each. In 2002, 14 percent of American Indian, 13 

percent of Black, and 10 percent of Hispanic high school sophomores were in the highest quarter 

of the SES distribution. 

17 
Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Figure 4. Percentage of high school sophomores in the lowest quarter of the 

socioeconomic distribution, by racial/ethnic group: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or 

Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific 

Islander 

Black or African 

American 

Hispanic or Latino 

White 

16 

50 

35 

28 

31 

19 

52 

42 

18 

42 

19 

48 

46 

23 

38 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

1980 

1990 

2002 

Percent 

 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. The multiple race category is not shown. Respondents who identified 

themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. Each of the three studies 

(HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002) have constructed a standardized socioeconomic status (SES) variable. SES is 

based on five equally weighted, standardized components consisting of father’s or guardian’s education, mother’s or 

guardian’s education, family income, father’s or guardian’s occupation, and mother’s or guardian’s occupation. In 

HS&B, the five components of SES include household items and do not include mother’s occupation. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Census data on poverty rates also show some increases for minority subgroups, although 

the overall percentage of children in poverty does not show a clear trend (U.S. Census Bureau 

2003b). In 1965, when the 1980 sophomores were born, the percentage of children aged 18 or 

under in poverty was 20 percent; in 1975, it was 17 percent; in 1980, it was 18 percent; in 1990, 

it was 21 percent; and in 2002, it was 17 percent. Poverty rates for Black children under age 18 

declined from 42 percent in 1980 to 32 percent in 2002. Poverty rates for Hispanic children went 

from 32 percent to 28 percent in the same period. Poverty rates for Asian children were 18 

percent in 1990 and 12 percent in 2002.10 

10 Eligibility for federal precollege programs typically is based on family income at 150 percent of poverty or 

enrollment in schools in which more than 50 percent of the students are eligible for free lunch programs. In 2001, 

about one-third of all U.S. children under 18 were living at or below 150 percent of poverty. This percentage was just 

under half among Hispanic and Black children—in 2001, 47 percent of Hispanic children and 46 percent of Black 

children were in families under 150 percent of poverty (U.S. Census Bureau 2004a). 

18 
 

 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

2.3 School Characteristics 

This section discusses changes in school type, school size, school urbanicity, and 

percentage eligible for free or reduced-price lunch within schools attended. 

2.3.1 School sector 

Overall in 1980, 91 percent of sophomores were enrolled in public schools, and in 2002, 

92 percent were so enrolled (table 8). Catholic school enrollment as a percentage of the total was 

6 percent in 1980 and 4 percent in 2002. Other private school enrollment was 3 percent in 1980 

and 4 percent in 2002. Black and American Indian sophomores had higher than average public 

school enrollment in 1980 (97 percent). Over the 22-year period, the proportion of Hispanic 

students enrolled in public school was 92 percent in 1980 and 96 percent in 2002. 

Among students in the highest quarter of the SES distribution, public school enrollment 

was 82 percent in 1980 and 83 percent in 2002. Among those in the lowest SES quarter, public 

school enrollment was 97 percent in 1980 and 98 percent in 2002. 

Table 8. Percentage of high school sophomores, by school type, racial/ethnic group, and 

socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Public Catholic Other private 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 90.6 90.3 92.4 6.1 6.1 4.3 3.3 3.6 4.4 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 97.1 98.3 97.2 1.1 1.7 0.7 1.8 # 2.1 

Asian or Pacific Islander 91.1 84.6 90.4 5.9 8.1 4.6 2.9 7.3 5.1 

Black or African American 97.0 93.8 97.3 2.5 5.3 1.8 0.5 0.1 0.9 

Hispanic or Latino 92.3 92.8 96.0 5.8 5.5 2.9 1.9 1.7 1.2 

More than one race † † 91.7 † † 4.0 † † 4.4 

White 89.2 89.5 90.5 6.9 6.2 5.2 4.0 4.2 4.3 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 96.6 97.2 97.6 2.5 2.3 1.1 0.8 0.5 1.6 

Middle two quarters 91.6 91.1 93.9 5.8 6.4 3.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 

Highest quarter 81.8 80.8 82.7 10.6 9.8 9.3 7.5 9.4 8.0 

† Not applicable. 

# Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be 

consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing 

more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of 

Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

2.3.2 School size 

School consolidation for economies of scale and increased curriculum offerings was once 

a strong social movement in the United States (Walberg 1992), especially in the period between 

19 
Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

1940 up to 1970.11 However, the period since the 1980s has witnessed increased reform advocacy 

for smaller schools (see Ayers, Bracey, and Smith 2000; Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation 

2002; Duke and Trautvetter 2001; Fowler 1992; Gregory 2000; Howley and Bickel 1999; 

Klonsky 1995; Meier 1996; Raywid 1999; Schneider 2002; and Sergiovanni 1994). As displayed 

in figure 5, no differences were detected in the average school size attended by high school 

sophomores between 1980 and 2002. In both 1980 and 2002, about 62–63 percent of sophomores 

were enrolled in schools of 1,000 or more (table 9a). 

Table 9a shows the percentage distribution of school size for sophomores in the three 

cohorts, overall and broken down by race/ethnicity and SES. Table 9b shows percentages 

distributions by sophomore class size. The proportion of sophomores overall in very large 

schools (2,500 or more enrollment) was 9 percent in both 1980 and 2002 and 6 percent in 1990. 

The proportion of Black students in very large (2,500 or more) schools declined from 18 percent 

in 1980 to 7 percent in 1990 and 1992. The proportion of Blacks in the very largest sophomore 

class category (700 or more students) declined from 25 percent in 1980 to 6 percent in 1990 (and 

8 percent in 2002). 

Figure 5. Percentage of high school sophomores, by school enrollment: 1980, 1990, and 

2002 

Percent 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

38 37

45 

62 

55 

63 

1980 1990 2002 

Year 

1,000 or more 1 to 999 

 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

11 Gregory (2000) reported the last work advocating larger schools he found in his literature search was published in 

1970. 

20 
 

 

 

 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Table 9a. Percentage distribution of school size for high school sophomores, by 

racial/ethnic group and socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Categories 1980 1990 2002 

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 

All 2002 sophomores 

1 to 399 students 12.4 12.4 9.8 

400 to 599 students 7.7 10.7 9.0 

600 to 799 students 8.5 10.5 8.6 

800 to 999 students 9.1 11.9 10.0 

1,000 to 1,199 students 10.1 14.0 9.4 

1,200 to 1,599 students 17.6 15.1 19.3 

1,600 to 1,999 students 15.3 11.9 12.1 

2,000 to 2,499 students 10.7 7.6 13.1 

2,500 or more students 8.7 5.8 8.5 

Race/ethnicity 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

1 to 399 students 20.3 17.7 19.3 

400 to 599 students 11.5 14.7 19.6 

600 to 799 students 9.0 4.8 4.0 

800 to 999 students 6.4 8.4 17.2 

1,000 to 1,199 students 6.5 22.9 6.2 

1,200 to 1,599 students 23.5 16.2 8.5 

1,600 to 1,999 students 12.7 5.8 11.7 

2,000 to 2,499 students 6.5 3.4 10.0 

2,500 or more students 3.6 6.0 3.4 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

1 to 399 students 4.2 7.9 4.4 

400 to 599 students 3.0 5.1 5.6 

600 to 799 students 2.6 7.4 3.5 

800 to 999 students 3.4 8.2 5.3 

1,000 to 1,199 students 5.6 11.6 5.2 

1,200 to 1,599 students 13.2 17.7 24.7 

1,600 to 1,999 students 19.8 14.9 12.5 

2,000 to 2,499 students 25.4 13.2 20.9 

2,500 or more students 22.9 14.0 17.9 

Black or African American 

1 to 399 students 6.5 8.3 4.8 

400 to 599 students 7.3 5.3 7.6 

600 to 799 students 4.7 8.8 8.9 

800 to 999 students 9.2 12.2 9.6 

1,000 to 1,199 students 7.5 17.8 12.1 

1,200 to 1,599 students 16.2 19.3 21.6 

1,600 to 1,999 students 18.2 13.2 15.9 

2,000 to 2,499 students 12.0 8.0 12.7 

2,500 or more students 18.3 7.0 6.9 

See notes at end of table. 

21 
 

 

 

 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Table 9a. Percentage distribution of school size for high school sophomores, by 

racial/ethnic group and socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002— 

Continued 

Categories 1980 1990 2002 

Race/ethnicity—continued 

Hispanic or Latino 

1 to 399 students 8.7 6.7 5.4 

400 to 599 students 5.5 6.8 4.7 

600 to 799 students 7.7 5.1 3.7 

800 to 999 students 6.9 5.7 6.1 

1,000 to 1,199 students 8.2 7.6 6.1 

1,200 to 1,599 students 14.8 10.9 15.9 

1,600 to 1,999 students 16.1 23.8 14.0 

2,000 to 2,499 students 16.9 13.7 23.4 

2,500 or more students 15.2 19.9 20.7 

White 

1 to 399 students 13.9 14.1 12.0 

400 to 599 students 8.0 12.4 10.3 

600 to 799 students 9.3 11.8 10.1 

800 to 999 students 9.5 13.0 11.3 

1,000 to 1,199 students 10.9 14.3 9.9 

1,200 to 1,599 students 18.1 14.9 19.4 

1,600 to 1,999 students 14.6 9.9 10.9 

2,000 to 2,499 students 9.6 6.4 10.6 

2,500 or more students 6.1 3.2 5.5 

More than one race 

1 to 399 students † † 10.4 

400 to 599 students † † 9.6 

600 to 799 students † † 8.3 

800 to 999 students † † 7.3 

1,000 to 1,199 students † † 9.7 

1,200 to 1,599 students † † 20.4 

1,600 to 1,999 students † † 12.2 

2,000 to 2,499 students † † 11.5 

2,500 or more students † † 10.8 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

1 to 399 students 12.9 12.4 11.1 

400 to 599 students 9.8 12.4 9.6 

600 to 799 students 8.7 10.5 9.2 

800 to 999 students 10.3 11.0 10.2 

1,000 to 1,199 students 8.7 12.6 9.2 

1,200 to 1,599 students 15.6 14.5 17.2 

1,600 to 1,999 students 14.6 11.9 10.3 

2,000 to 2,499 students 9.5 6.6 13.5 

2,500 or more students 10.1 8.1 9.8 

See notes at end of table. 

22 
 

 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Table 9a. Percentage distribution of school size for high school sophomores, by 

racial/ethnic group and socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002— 

Continued 

Categories 1980 1990 2002 

Socioeconomic status—continued 

Middle two quarters 

1 to 399 students 12.3 13.0 10.7 

400 to 599 students 8.3 10.7 9.4 

600 to 799 students 8.6 10.5 8.3 

800 to 999 students 8.9 12.5 10.1 

1,000 to 1,199 students 10.4 14.8 9.1 

1,200 to 1,599 students 18.2 15.8 19.4 

1,600 to 1,999 students 15.2 10.8 12.3 

2,000 to 2,499 students 10.3 6.7 12.6 

2,500 or more students 7.8 5.1 8.0 

Highest quarter 

1 to 399 students 12.6 11.3 6.8 

400 to 599 students 4.8 10.0 7.5 

600 to 799 students 8.4 11.0 8.7 

800 to 999 students 8.8 12.1 9.6 

1,000 to 1,199 students 11.2 14.0 10.3 

1,200 to 1,599 students 18.2 14.3 21.3 

1,600 to 1,999 students 15.6 13.2 13.5 

2,000 to 2,499 students 12.1 9.3 13.7 

2,500 or more students 8.3 4.8 8.5 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be 

consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing 

more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of 

Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

23 
 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Table 9b. Percentage distribution of sophomore class size for high school sophomores, 

by racial/ethnic group and socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Categories 1980 1990 2002 

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 

All 2002 sophomores 

1 to 99 students 11.0 15.9 12.4 

100 to 199 students 13.7 18.6 13.6 

200 to 299 students 15.0 18.9 16.1 

300 to 399 students 16.7 15.4 16.4 

400 to 549 students 16.6 15.5 20.5 

550 to 699 students 14.4 9.0 11.7 

700 or more students 12.6 6.7 9.2 

Race/ethnicity 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

1 to 99 students 16.5 27.8 21.2 

100 to 199 students 11.3 18.0 19.9 

200 to 299 students 26.0 18.0 20.2 

300 to 399 students 9.8 13.3 7.8 

400 to 549 students 20.6 11.9 17.6 

550 to 699 students 8.5 4.1 9.4 

700 or more students 7.2 6.9 3.9 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

1 to 99 students 4.1 10.5 5.4 

100 to 199 students 5.0 10.4 6.7 

200 to 299 students 6.0 15.5 11.8 

300 to 399 students 8.7 15.0 18.3 

400 to 549 students 18.8 17.2 23.7 

550 to 699 students 28.6 14.6 19.3 

700 or more students 28.7 16.9 14.8 

Black or African American 

1 to 99 students 5.1 7.1 5.4 

100 to 199 students 9.7 15.9 14.8 

200 to 299 students 12.4 22.0 16.6 

300 to 399 students 16.4 18.8 21.2 

400 to 549 students 16.2 18.6 23.0 

550 to 699 students 15.2 11.4 11.4 

700 or more students 25.0 6.3 7.7 

Hispanic or Latino 

1 to 99 students 8.7 8.1 5.7 

100 to 199 students 11.3 10.3 5.9 

200 to 299 students 11.0 9.6 9.9 

300 to 399 students 14.7 11.5 11.8 

400 to 549 students 15.6 23.5 19.4 

550 to 699 students 16.4 16.1 22.6 

700 or more students 22.2 21.0 24.8 

White 

1 to 99 students 12.3 18.6 16.1 

100 to 199 students 14.9 20.6 15.7 

200 to 299 students 15.9 19.9 18.0 

300 to 399 students 17.2 15.4 16.6 

400 to 549 students 16.7 13.8 19.8 

550 to 699 students 13.8 7.4 8.5 

700 or more students 9.2 4.3 5.3 

See notes at end of table. 

24 
Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Table 9b. Percentage distribution of sophomore class size for high school sophomores, 

by racial/ethnic group and socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002— 

Continued 

Categories 1980 1990 2002 

Race/ethnicity—Continued 

More than one race 

1 to 99 students † † 14.2 

100 to 199 students † † 14.7 

200 to 299 students † † 15.0 

300 to 399 students † † 14.8 

400 to 549 students † † 22.8 

550 to 699 students † † 9.9 

700 or more students † † 8.6 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

1 to 99 students 11.5 16.3 12.2 

100 to 199 students 15.2 19.2 14.2 

200 to 299 students 15.6 18.3 16.5 

300 to 399 students 15.0 13.8 14.7 

400 to 549 students 15.0 15.0 17.3 

550 to 699 students 13.3 8.6 13.1 

700 or more students 14.4 8.7 12.1 

Middle two quarters 

1 to 99 students 11.0 16.1 12.8 

100 to 199 students 14.2 18.8 14.2 

200 to 299 students 15.3 20.8 16.0 

300 to 399 students 16.4 15.3 16.2 

400 to 549 students 17.3 15.1 21.3 

550 to 699 students 14.2 8.3 11.0 

700 or more students 11.6 5.7 8.5 

Highest quarter 

1 to 99 students 10.9 15.7 12.0 

100 to 199 students 12.0 18.5 12.1 

200 to 299 students 14.3 16.2 16.1 

300 to 399 students 19.2 17.1 18.5 

400 to 549 students 16.5 15.8 21.9 

550 to 699 students 15.3 10.1 11.5 

700 or more students 11.7 6.5 7.9 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be 

consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing 

more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of 

Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

2.3.3 School metropolitan status 

Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of sophomores who were in urban schools 

increased from 22 percent to 30 percent, and the percentage in rural schools decreased from 30 

percent to 20 percent (table 10). Suburban schools enrolled 48 percent of sophomores in 1980 

and 50 percent in 2002. 

25 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of White sophomores in urban areas increased 

from 15 percent to 21 percent, and the percentage of sophomores from high SES households 

increased from 17 percent to 30 percent. Among Blacks, the percentage from rural areas declined 

from 19 percent to 10 percent, and the percentage in suburban areas increased from 32 percent to 

41 percent. The percentage of Blacks in urban areas was 49 percent in both 1980 and 2002. 

Among Hispanic students, the percentage in rural areas declined from 22 percent to 9 percent, 

and the percentage in urban areas increased from 37 percent to 47 percent. 

Table 10. Percentage of high school sophomores, by urbanicity, racial/ethnic group, and 

socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Urban Suburban Rural 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 22.4 28.6 30.2 47.6 40.8 50.3 30.0 30.6 19.6 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 14.2 18.4 22.3 36.0 22.9 47.9 49.9 58.7 29.8 

Asian or Pacific Islander 37.9 46.6 43.7 54.5 42.9 49.5 7.6 10.5 6.8 

Black or African American 49.1 54.2 49.3 31.6 25.0 40.6 19.3 20.8 10.1 

 Hispanic or Latino 37.4 48.7 46.6 41.1 30.3 44.9 21.5 21.0 8.5 

More than one race † † 28.5 † † 53.9 † † 17.6 

 White 15.2 20.7 20.6 51.6 44.4 53.8 33.3 34.9 25.6 

Socioeconomic status 

 Lowest quarter 28.4 29.8 34.8 35.5 28.4 44.9 36.1 41.8 20.4 

 Middle two quarters 20.6 27.7 28.0 47.4 40.9 51.0 32.0 31.4 21.0 

 Highest quarter 16.6 29.9 29.8 61.8 49.8 54.2 21.6 20.3 16.0 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be 

consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing 

more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of 

Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

2.3.4 School enrollment eligible for free or reduced-price lunch 

While reports using data from the 2000 decennial Census document some declines in the 

percentage of U.S. children in poverty from the 1990 Census, they also note that the percentage 

of children living in severely distressed neighborhoods (defined in terms of poverty rates, 

families headed by a female, percentage of high school dropouts, and percentage of males 

detached from the workforce) increased between 1990 and 2000 (O’Hare and Mather 2003).12 

Related data from NELS:88 and ELS:2002 on the percentage of students in schools with various 

levels of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunches (data are not available for HS&B for 

12 In this regard, O’Hare and Mather (2003) note in The Growing Number of Kids in Severely Distressed 

Neighborhoods: Evidence from the 2000 Census that “between 1990 and 2000 there was a decrease in the number 

of children living in high-poverty neighborhoods, but the picture provided by the decrease in poverty levels alone is 

incomplete and potentially misleading. Using a more comprehensive measure of neighborhood quality we found that 

the number in severely distressed neighborhoods increases significantly between 1990 and 2000.” 

26 
 

 

Chapter 2: Changing Context: Cohort, Family, and School Profile 

this item) indicate that the percentage of high school sophomores enrolled in schools with higher 

levels of free-lunch-eligible students was higher in 2002 than in 1990 (table 11).13 

Table 11. Percentage of high school sophomores, by percentage free or reduced-price 

lunch eligibility in school: 1990 and 2002 

Percentage of students eligible for free lunch in school 1990 2002 

0 to 10 48.1 34.5 

11 to 30 30.5 35.0 

31 to 100 21.5 30.6 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates of percentage eligible for free lunch based on 

information provided by school principals. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 

2002.” 

2.4 Summary 

Between 1980 and 2002, a number of changes occurred in the demographic makeup, 

family life, and schools attended by high school sophomores. Mirroring sociodemographic trends 

at the national level, there was increasing racial/ethnic diversity among high school sophomores: 

the percentage of Hispanic and Asian sophomores grew, while the percentage of White 

sophomores declined. Along similar lines, high school sophomores in 2002 were less likely than 

their peers in 1980 to speak English as their native language. The families of high school 

sophomores are also changing. Compared with their counterparts in 1980, high school 

sophomores in 2002 were less likely to live in traditional family structures but more likely to 

have college-educated parents. Lastly, there were small changes in the types of schools attended 

by sophomores. Over the 22-year period, the proportion of sophomores attending Catholic 

schools and schools in rural areas declined. Despite these changes, the size of the schools 

attended by sophomores remained relatively constant between 1980 and 2002. 

13 Some word of caution is needed in interpreting this finding due to free or reduced-price lunch eligibility reporting 

practices that may have changed over time. 

27 

 

Chapter 3 

School Experiences 

This chapter focuses on the school experiences of high school sophomores. It poses the 

question of how the school experience may have changed in terms of academic program, student 

preparedness, motivation, homework, student views of school including school safety, and 

computer use. These topics are discussed in turn under the headings listed below: 

3.1 High School Program; 

3.2 Selected Courses or Programs; 

3.3 Homework and Student Motivation; 

3.4 Views on School Safety, Climate, and Teaching; and 

3.5 Computer Use. 

3.1 High School Program 

The period since 1980 when the High School and Beyond (HS&B) cohort were high 

school sophomores has been one of emphasis by government commissions on increasing both 

the quality and quantity of education. The recommendations from the often-quoted A Nation at 

Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (National Commission on Excellence in Education 

1983) called for increased core academic subject graduation requirements, implementation of 

testing standards, increased teacher professionalization, and increased emphasis on student 

preparation for college in high schools. More recently, the National Goals for Education (1995) 

and the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) have emphasized similar strategies and 

recommendations for reform. By 1992, most states (42 of 50) had raised course requirements for 

graduation, and 47 states had mandated testing standards. A Condition of Education report on 

high school students written in the mid-1990s that used data from a number of sources, including 

HS&B, the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), and National 

Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) transcripts, noted the increase in high school 

credits earned overall (21 to 24), with academic course units earned increasing from 14 to 17 

between 1982 and 1992 (U.S. Department of Education 1994, 1995). However, there was a 

decrease in vocational course credits earned (5 to 4). 

Between 1980 and 2002 the percentage of high school sophomores who reported that 

they were in a college preparatory or academic program increased from 33 percent to 51 percent 

(figure 6 and table 12). In the same time frame, the percentage enrolled in a vocational program 

declined from 21 percent to 11 percent. As demonstrated in figure 7, participation in college 

preparatory programs for Black sophomores increased from 27 percent to 50 percent. Among 

Hispanic sophomores, rates also increased, going from 25 percent to 43 percent. Participation in 

a college preparatory program climbed from 19 percent to 42 percent among those in the lowest 

quarter of the socioeconomic status (SES) distribution and from 13 percent to 35 percent among 

those whose composite (combined mathematics and reading) test scores place them in the lowest 

quarter of the achievement distribution (table 12). In 2002, students in Catholic (79 percent) and 

other private schools (74 percent) had higher rates of reporting they were in a college preparatory 

program than did public school students (49 percent). 

29 
 

Chapter 3: School Experiences 

Figure 6. Percentage of high school sophomores, by self-reported high school program: 

1980, 1990, and 2002 

High school program 

General 

Academic/college 

preparatory 

Vocational 

11 

51 

39 

11 

39 

50 

21 

33 

46 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

1980 

1990 

2002 

Percent 

 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of 

revisions made to the data file and/or changes in rounding procedures. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Figure 7. Percentage of high school sophomores who reported they were in college 

preparatory or academic program, by racial/ethnic group: 1980 and 2002 

 

Racial/ethnic group 

All 

American Indian or 

Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific 

Islander 

Black or African 

American

 Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 53 

50 

43 

50 

59 

42 

51 

35 

25 

27 

49 

20 

33 

† 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

1980 

2002 

Percent 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in 

rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

30 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3: School Experiences 

Table 12. Percentage of high school sophomores, by high school program and selected 

student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

College preparatory or Vocational/technical/ 

General academic business 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 46.0 49.6 38.6 33.1 39.3 50.7 21.0 11.1 10.8 

Sex 

Male 46.4 49.0 39.3 32.4 37.9 47.9 21.2 13.1 12.8 

Female 45.1 50.1 37.8 35.8 40.7 53.5 19.1 9.2 8.7 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska

 Native 51.6 54.9 44.6 19.8 21.1 41.6 28.7 24.0 13.8 

Asian or Pacific Islander 37.1 42.2 29.6 48.8 46.3 58.7 14.1 11.5 11.7 

Black or African American 39.0 41.0 34.0 26.9 36.7 49.6 34.1 22.3 16.4 

Hispanic or Latino 46.1 52.6 44.1 24.6 31.9 43.2 29.2 15.5 12.7 

More than one race † † 40.5 † † 50.1 † † 9.4 

White 47.4 50.8 38.6 35.0 40.6 52.5 17.6 8.6 8.9 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 51.5 53.4 42.8 19.0 25.1 41.6 29.5 21.5 15.7 

Middle quarters 47.8 50.3 40.8 31.0 38.8 48.3 22.2 10.9 10.9 

Highest quarter 36.8 43.8 29.9 53.8 53.1 64.5 9.4 3.1 5.5 

Composite achievement test 

 score 

Lowest quarter 50.1 56.7 48.0 12.8 17.0 35.0 37.0 26.3 17.0 

Second quarter 54.1 57.5 44.5 22.4 29.0 42.4 23.5 13.5 13.1 

Third quarter 48.1 49.9 36.8 37.0 42.5 55.3 14.9 7.6 7.9 

Highest quarter 32.4 35.6 24.9 60.9 62.1 69.9 6.7 2.3 5.1 

School sector 

Public 47.3 50.2 40.1 30.2 37.7 48.5 22.6 12.1 11.4 

Catholic 32.3 35.3 18.4 61.9 62.5 79.0 5.8 2.2 2.7 

Other private 36.9 48.4 22.5 57.6 50.5 74.4 5.5 1.2 3.2 

Region 

Northeast 33.2 40.2 33.8 44.7 47.5 53.2 22.1 12.4 13.0 

Midwest 44.8 55.2 44.0 31.8 35.7 46.9 23.4 9.0 9.1 

South 51.5 46.7 33.1 27.1 39.9 55.3 21.4 13.4 11.5 

West 52.2 54.9 44.8 32.3 36.8 45.6 15.5 8.3 9.6 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates may differ from previously released estimates 

because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were 

modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for 

multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who 

identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

31 
 

Chapter 3: School Experiences 

3.2 Selected Courses or Programs 

Each of the sophomore student surveys has asked students a few questions about specific 

kinds of courses they may have taken in high school. America’s High School Sophomores: A Ten 

Year Comparison (Rasinski et al. 1993) reported on four types of courses or programs (remedial 

English, remedial math, bilingual or bicultural education, and advanced or honors courses and 

Advanced Placement) (table 13). Similar but not identical questions were asked in each of the 

studies, and the reader is cautioned that these changes may have resulted in changes in selfreported survey response. 

3.2.1 Remedial courses 

The percentage of sophomores reporting taking remedial courses declined over the 

period—for remedial English, going from 35 percent in 1980 to 19 percent in 1990 to 9 percent 

in 2002 and, for remedial math, going from 35 percent to 20 percent to 10 percent in the same 

years (table 13). There were some differences in the way questions about remediation were asked 

across the studies that may conceivably have affected responses. The 1980 and 1990 items read 

“Remedial English (sometimes called basic or essential)” and “Remedial Math (sometimes 

called basic or essential).” For 2002, the corresponding item simply read “Remedial English” or 

“Remedial Math,” and the phrase “sometimes called basic or essential” was omitted. It may be 

that the omission of the phrase was related to some of the decline between 1990 and 2002; 

however, a decline was also observed between 1980 and 1990 when the wording was the same. 

3.2.2 Bilingual or bicultural education; English as a Second Language 

Between 1980 and 2002, there was an increase in the number of sophomores who 

reported that they took bilingual or bicultural education,14 going from 12 percent in 1980 to 17 

percent in 1990 to 28 percent in 2002 (table 13). At each point in time, participation in these 

courses was higher among those in the highest SES and achievement (composite test score 

combining reading and mathematics) quarters. For example, in 2002, participation in bilingual or 

bicultural education was 36 percent in the highest and 20 percent in the lowest SES quarter and 

44 percent in the highest and 13 percent in the lowest achievement quarter. In 2002, 27 percent 

of Hispanic sophomores and 28 percent of Asian sophomores participated in bilingual or 

bicultural education. English as a Second Language (ESL) was a separate item in the same series 

of questions in 1990 and 2002 but not in 1980. In 1990, about 12 percent of sophomores reported 

being in ESL programs, and in 2002 about 8 percent so reported. For Catholic school 

sophomores, ESL declined (from 11 percent to 6 percent between 1990 and 2002) while at the 

same time bilingual education participation increased (from 25 percent to 46 percent). Likewise 

for White students, between 1990 and 2002 ESL declined (from 11 percent in 1990 to 6 percent 

in 2002) while bilingual education participation increased (from 17 percent in 1990 to 31 percent 

in 2002). 

14 Bilingual/bicultural education emphasizes the use of two languages in the educational setting and program. 

32 
Table 13. Percentage of high school sophomores who report having been in various kinds of courses o

school, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Remedial English 

1980 1990 2002 

Remedial math 

1980 1990 2002 

Bilingual or bicultural 

education 

1980 1990 2002 

English as a second 

language (ESL) 

1980 1990 2002 

All sophomores 34.5 19.0 8.5 34.7 19.9 9.9 11.8 17.0 28.2 — 12.2 8.1 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

36.7 

31.7 

22.0 

16.1 

10.1 

6.9 

35.8 

32.7 

21.3 

18.6 

11.5 

8.4 

11.9 

12.3 

16.9 

17.0 

26.9 

29.5 

— 

— 

12.7 

11.7 

7.9 

8.3 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska 

Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

44.1 

31.8 

32.7 

36.1 

† 

34.5 

21.9 18.2 

18.6 

24.8 

† 

18.1 

4.6 8.0 

8.8 

10.2 

9.3 

8.0 

45.2 

30.4 

37.3 

39.3 

† 

33.6 

27.0 

17.5 

21.1 

27.8 

† 

18.6 

9.9 

9.6 

11.3 

11.2 

11.8 

9.2 

10.2 

13.5 

7.9 

15.5 

† 

12.2 

14.6 

19.8 

10.5 

21.0 

† 

17.4 

16.6 

27.9 

18.7 

26.9 

28.1 

30.9 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

34.0 

19.4 

11.7 

18.3 

† 

10.5 

7.0 

16.9 

8.3 

16.6 

6.7 

5.5 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

39.5 

36.0 

25.7 

25.9 

18.6 

11.0 

10.1 

8.4 

7.2 

41.0 

35.6 

25.1 

28.6 19.6 

10.4 

12.0 

9.7 

8.4 

8.2 

11.0 

17.6 

12.1 

17.3 20.0 

20.0 

28.3 36.0 

— 

— 

— 

16.8 

11.3 

8.0 

13.1 

7.3 

4.9 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter Second quarter Third quarter Highest quarter 

42.3 

41.8 

34.7 

18.7 

35.9 

21.8 

12.8 

5.7 

14.6 

7.4 

6.7 

5.4 

46.1 44.1 

31.8 

15.3 

40.2 24.4 

12.0 

4.0 

16.0 

9.6 

8.5 

5.7 

6.7 

6.3 

11.7 

22.7 

7.6 

13.1 

19.9 

24.8 

12.8 

20.9 

34.3 

44.1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

20.1 14.3 10.7 

4.8 

16.6 

8.8 5.2 

2.3 

School sector 

Public Catholic 

Other private 

34.6 

31.8 

37.1 

18.5 

17.2 

20.1 

8.3 

12.4 

8.0 

34.6 33.7 

37.6 

19.4 19.5 

20.9 

9.8 

13.5 

8.2 

11.1 22.0 

12.0 

16.1 

25.2 

20.3 

27.0 

45.6 

37.1 

— 

— 

— 

12.1 11.0 

9.1 

8.3 5.0 

6.8 

See notes at end of table. 

33 
Table 13. Percentage of high school sophomores who report having been in various kinds of courses o

school, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

34 

English as a second Bilingual or bicultural 

language (ESL) Remedial English Remedial math education 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 Region 

Northeast 29.5 13.1 9.0 31.4 16.0 10.8 15.3 19.0 33.1 — 9.4 8.7 Midwest 40.0 22.1 9.1 37.8 22.1 9.6 11.7 18.5 28.7 — 12.8 7.8 South 32.5 16.5 7.8 33.4 17.9 9.6 8.7 13.0 25.1 — 11.8 7.5 

West 35.8 22.5 8.6 36.4 22.2 10.1 13.2 19.2 28.1 — 13.3 9.1 

— Not available. † Not applicable. NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for mumore than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispa

There were some important differences in questionnaire wording that may have influenced the responses for the questions on remedial courses and Adva

and caution is needed in interpreting the changes between 1980, 1990, and 2002. For remedial English and math, the 1980 and 1990 items read “Remedbasic or essential)” and “Remedial Math (sometimes called basic or essential).” For 2002, the corresponding item simply read “Remedial English” or “Rem“sometimes called basic or essential” was omitted. The advanced programs items in 1980 read “Advanced or honors program in English/Math.” In 1990, t“Advanced placement program.” In 2002, two separate but more specific items were included: “Advanced Placement (AP)” and “International BaccalaureaIB) were combined for the 2002 tabulation. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 1980”; National Educat

1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 
 

Chapter 3: School Experiences 

3.3 Homework and Student Motivation 

3.3.1 Homework 

The period between 1980 and 2002 has been one in which several reports on achieving 

excellence in education have called for teachers to increase homework and for school 

administrators to establish demanding homework requirements, especially in the upper grades 

(see, for example, Cooper 1989a, 1989b, 1999; Hofferth 1998; Hofferth and Sandberg 2000; 

Keith 1982). The recommendations for additional homework addressed two aspects of school 

reform: (1) providing increased time for learning and increased “time on task,” and (2) providing 

increased home and parent involvement in education (see, for example, Black 1996; Cotton and 

Savard 1981; Green 1995; Hossler, Stage, and Gallagher 1988; Paschal, Weinstein, and Walberg 

1984; U.S. Department of Education 1997). 

With the emphasis on increased “time on task” as fostering increased educational 

achievement, the question can be asked if the three studies provide evidence that high school 

students report spending more time on homework as they earn more credits on average by 

graduation. A secondary question is whether there is evidence of students being provided with 

increased seatwork time during the school day to work on “homework” assignments. 

The homework questions were asked in a somewhat different manner in each of the three 

surveys, and these differences are reflected in the type of statistics that can be used to answer the 

above posed questions. The survey items in the three studies differed in two ways: whether the 

questions distinguished between homework done in and out of school, and whether the response 

categories were specified or students entered an estimated amount directly. In 1980, using the 

predefined response categories listed in table 14, students were asked, “What is the average time 

per week you spend on homework?” There was no differentiation between homework completed 

out of school and time spent in school on homework assignments. In 1990, students were asked 

to report separately on time spent on homework in school and out of school, and the time 

response categories were more numerous than in 1980. In 2002, students were again asked to 

report separately for in-school and out-of-school completed homework; however, differing from 

1980 and 1990, students were asked the question in an open-ended format in which they entered 

the hours themselves. To allow comparisons, table 14 presents the 2002 data in the 1980 time 

categories for all homework and in the 1990 groupings for the separate items on in-school and 

out-of-school homework. Given these differences in the way the data were measured, however, 

caution must be used in interpreting the information. For example, reporting on in-school 

homework, as well as the open-ended format, may have resulted in a reporting of more time 

spent in 2002.15 

15 Survey questionnaire research and design guides suggest that using predetermined categories for knowledge 

questions requiring numerical answers can control extremes but may introduce social desirability bias, because they 

can clue respondents into the expected averages. Using open-ended questions can avoid either giving away the 

answer or misleading the respondent but will usually result in a larger proportion of extreme values. See Burton and 

Blair (1991); Schwarz and Sudman (1996); Sirken et al. (1999); Sudman and Bradburn (1983). 

35 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3: School Experiences 

Table 14. Percentage of high school sophomores’ time spent on homework per week, by 

sex and location completed: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

All Male Female 

Time spent per week 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

All homework (1980 categories) 

Less than 1 hour a week 16.6 — 1.5 20.8 — 2.3 12.9 — 0.7 

Between 1 and 3 hours 29.4 — 21.4 31.1 — 24.1 27.9 — 18.6 

More than 3 but less than 5 

hours 25.2 — 14.0 24.0 — 14.4 26.3 — 13.5 

Between 5 and 10 hours 21.9 — 26.3 18.2 — 26.3 25.2 — 26.3 

More than 10 hours 6.9 — 36.8 6.0 — 32.9 7.7 — 40.8 

Out-of-school homework (1990 

 categories)

 None — 7.2 7.3 — 9.8 10.8 — 4.6 3.9 

1 hour or less a week — 24.8 16.1 — 28.4 18.6 — 21.2 13.5 

 2–3 hours — 28.4 25.5 — 26.5 24.6 — 30.3 26.5 

 4–6 hours — 16.9 20.0 — 16.3 18.9 — 17.5 21.1 

 7–9 hours — 8.8 7.9 — 8.0 7.7 — 9.6 8.2 

 10–12 hours — 6.9 11.8 — 5.7 10.4 — 8.0 13.2 

 13–15 hours — 3.7 4.8 — 2.6 3.7 — 4.7 6.0 

More than 15 hours — 3.4 6.5 — 2.6 5.4 — 4.1 7.6 

In-school homework (1990 

 categories)

 None — 9.7 7.0 — 10.3 7.6 — 9.1 6.4 

1 hour or less a week — 37.0 21.6 — 37.2 22.8 — 36.9 20.4 

 2–3 hours — 24.0 27.7 — 24.1 28.0 — 23.9 27.4 

 4–6 hours — 16.3 21.6 — 15.4 20.8 — 17.1 22.4 

 7–9 hours — 6.0 7.4 — 5.9 7.0 — 6.1 7.8 

 10–12 hours — 2.6 6.5 — 2.7 6.5 — 2.5 6.4 

 13–15 hours — 1.5 2.2 — 1.6 2.0 — 1.4 2.4 

— Not available. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Time on homework per week was asked in a different 

manner in each of the three surveys, and comparisons must be made with caution. HS&B did not differentiate 

between homework completed in school and out of school and used the predefined response categories listed above. 

NELS:88 asked separate questions on in-school and out-of-school homework using the predefined categories listed 

above. ELS:2002 asked separate questions on in-school and out-of-school homework using an open format without 

predefined response choices. In this table, ELS:2002 responses have been grouped into the HS&B and NELS:88 

categories. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

With these qualifications, the percentage of students reporting spending more than 10 

hours per week on all homework was 7 percent in 1980 and 37 percent in 2002, and the 

percentage spending more than 3 hours per week went from 54 percent in 1980 to 77 percent in 

2002 (table 14). In both years, female students reported spending more hours than males. For 

example, in 1980, 59 percent of females and 48 percent of males reported spending 3 or more 

hours on homework; in 2002, 81 percent of females and 74 percent of males so reported. 

36 
Chapter 3: School Experiences 

As noted above, information on “out-of-school” and “in-school” homework hours was 

asked in separate questions in 1990 and 2002, with 1990 using a closed-category response option 

and 2002 asking for students to write in hours. In this format, 7 percent of sophomores reported 

spending no time on afterschool homework in both 1990 and 2002. However, the percentages of 

students reporting that they spent large numbers of hours increased between 1990 and 2002. For 

example, the percentage who reported spending 10 or more hours on out-of-school homework 

increased from 14 percent to 23 percent. The percentage spending 3 hours or less per week on 

out-of-school homework decreased from 60 percent to 49 percent. It is not clear, however, 

whether these apparent increases are due to an increase in actual time spent or to the difference 

between a closed format and an open-ended format for reporting homework. 

3.3.2 Student motivation 

As an indicator of student motivation and preparedness for class, on each of the three 

surveys, high school sophomores were also asked how often they came to school without books; 

without paper, pen, or pencil; and without their homework. Table 15 displays the percentage 

saying they “usually” or “often” came to school without these things. Comparing 1980 and 2002, 

the percentage reporting coming to school without books increased from 9 percent in 1980 to 17 

percent in 2002. No clear pattern is shown, however, as percentages were lower in 1990 than in 

1980 or 2002 for each of these items. 

In both 1980 and 2002, 17 percent of Catholic and 18 percent of other private school 

sophomores reported usually or often coming to school without homework (table 15). Males 

were more likely to report usually or often coming to school without homework than females in 

both 1980 and 2002 (for example, 31 percent of males and 21 percent of females in 2002). 

Among racial/ethnic groups, the percentages reporting usually or often coming to school 

without homework ranged from 23 percent among Whites to 35 percent among Hispanics in 

2002. By SES status, the range was from 20 percent among the highest SES group to 32 percent 

among the lowest SES group in 2002. By composite achievement test score, the percentages 

usually or often coming to school without homework ranged from 18 percent among the highest 

scoring group to 38 percent among the lowest scoring group in 2002. 

37 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3: School Experiences 

Table 15. Percentage of high school sophomores saying they usually or often come to 

school unprepared, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Come to school 

without books 

1980 1990 2002 

Come to school without 

paper, pen, or pencil 

1980 1990 2002 

Come to school 

without homework 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 8.5 6.4 16.8 15.1 10.5 17.5 22.1 18.0 25.9 

Sex

 Male 

 Female 

10.4 

6.0 

7.8 

5.0 

18.5 

15.1 

19.6 

10.2 

15.3 

5.8 

22.0 

13.1 

27.0 

16.8 

22.3 

13.8 

30.5 

21.3 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska

 Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

17.5 

12.9 

13.6 

13.7 

† 

6.7 

10.9 

9.4 

8.1 

11.1 

† 

5.1 

26.5 

18.9 

23.4 

25.7 

18.9 

12.5 

25.9 

14.6 

17.5 

20.1 

† 

14.0 

11.6 

10.9 

9.8 

14.2 

† 

10.1 

24.5 

18.4 

22.5 

25.5 

21.8 

13.8 

30.9 

17.0 

22.9 

27.7 

† 

21.2 

21.5 

17.3 

16.0 

20.5 

† 

18.0 

25.7 

26.3 

28.6 

34.5 

29.5 

22.7 

Socioeconomic status 

 Lowest quarter 

 Middle two quarters 

 Highest quarter 

11.3 

7.7 

5.4 

7.9 

6.6 

4.1 

21.8 

16.1 

13.4 

16.9 

14.2 

13.7 

10.4 

10.0 

10.7 

21.1 

17.1 

14.9 

25.0 

21.5 

18.4 

20.0 

18.4 

15.0 

31.8 

25.8 

20.2 

Composite achievement test 

 score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

17.1 

7.9 

4.9 

3.0 

12.9 

6.5 

4.1 

2.5 

29.5 

15.9 

12.2 

9.7 

21.9 

14.2 

12.1 

10.8 

15.4 

9.9 

8.1 

8.1 

29.6 

16.4 

13.0 

11.1 

28.5 

22.7 

19.7 

16.2 

23.8 

19.1 

16.2 

14.3 

37.8 

26.1 

22.1 

17.7 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

8.9 

4.6 

5.4 

6.6 

3.3 

6.0 

17.4 

10.2 

10.2 

15.2 

14.7 

13.6 

10.3 

10.4 

17.3 

17.9 

14.1 

12.2 

22.6 

17.2 

17.7 

18.5 

12.5 

18.2 

26.6 

16.9 

17.6 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

9.1 

6.8 

9.2 

9.2 

5.3 

4.9 

6.7 

8.6 

17.1 

13.2 

17.0 

20.2 

14.6 

14.4 

15.8 

15.7 

9.9 

8.1 

11.5 

12.6 

16.4 

15.7 

17.9 

19.8 

21.3 

21.4 

21.9 

24.6 

17.1 

17.9 

17.3 

20.7 

24.2 

23.1 

25.5 

30.8 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

38 
Chapter 3: School Experiences 

3.4 Views on School Safety, Climate, and Teaching 

3.4.1 School safety and climate 

When asked whether they agreed with the statement “I don’t feel safe at this school,” 12 

percent of high school sophomores agreed or strongly agreed with the statement in both 1980 

and 2002 (table 16). In 1990, 8 percent agreed with the statement. In 2002, a greater percentage 

of Black sophomores indicated that they agreed with the statement that they did not feel safe, 

compared with the national average. A smaller percentage of sophomores in Catholic and other 

private schools agreed with the statement “I don’t feel safe at this school” than sophomores in 

public schools in 2002 (4 percent and 13 percent, respectively). 

A related question on whether the sophomores agreed or not with the statement 

“disruptions by other students get in the way of learning” was asked in 1990 and 2002, but not in 

1980. This question showed an increase between 1990 and 2002 in the percentage reporting they 

agreed or strongly agreed with the statement concerning disruptions (40 and 46 percent, 

respectively). 

3.4.2 Opinion on teaching quality 

When asked whether they agreed with the statement “the teaching is good at this school,” 

82 percent of sophomores in 1990 and 81 percent in 2002 indicated that they agreed or strongly 

agreed (table 16). In 2002, the percentages agreeing that the teaching was good at the school 

were higher in Catholic and private schools than in public schools (91 percent, 90 percent, and 

80 percent, respectively). Similar differences between public and private schools were evident in 

1990. 

For students having various levels of expectation for educational attainment (high school 

diploma or less, two years of college or vocational school, college graduate, or graduate or 

professional degree), differences in opinion on teaching quality were observed. A greater 

percentage of students having higher expectations for educational attainment agreed that 

teaching was good in both 1990 and 2002. For example, in 2002 and 1990, the percentage 

agreeing that teaching is good was 69 percent and 73 percent, respectively, among those who 

expected “high school or less,” while in both 2002 and 1990, 85 percent of high school 

sophomores who expected a “graduate or professional degree” agreed that the teaching was 

good. 

3.5 Computer Use 

No discussion of the high school experience over the period of 1980 to 2002 would be 

complete without indication of the growth in use of computers and the Internet within the school 

and also generally within the homes and lives of the students. Indeed, the differences in the 

questionnaire items included on the surveys for HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002 are indicative 

of changes in this area. In 1980, when HS&B was initiated, there were no questions on the 

baseline sophomore survey on the use of personal computers in school or at home. One question 

asked students if they planned to take high school courses in a number of vocational course 

areas, and the option “computer programming or computer operations” was included among the 

39 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3: School Experiences 

response choices. In 1980, about 15 percent of HS&B sophomores indicated that they planned to 

take these courses in high school (data published in High School and Beyond Data File User’s 

Manual [Jones et al. 1983]). There was also a question on planned postsecondary education that 

asked, “If you were to go to a trade or vocational school, what field would you be most likely to 

train?” About 7 percent (second only to secretarial or stenographic typing or other office work 

with 10 percent) said they would be likely to study computer programming—similar to the 

percentage saying automobile mechanic. “Computer programmer” was among the occupations 

listed as an example under the general category of “Technical Occupations” in the occupation 

questions on the survey. The HS&B sophomore survey did not include items on use of 

calculators or computers in the schools. 

Table 16. Percentage of high school sophomores who agreed or strongly agreed with 

selected statements about the school’s climate and teaching, by selected 

student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

I don’t feel safe at this 

school 

1980 1990 2002 

Disruptions by other 

students get in the 

way of my learning 

1990 2002 

The teaching is 

good 

1990 2002 

 All sophomores 12.1 8.2 11.9 40.0 45.7 82.0 80.6 

Sex

 Male 

 Female 

13.4 

10.8 

8.9 

7.5 

12.7 

11.1 

38.8 

41.3 

43.6 

47.8 

80.6 

83.3 

79.0 

82.2 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

 Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

 White 

13.3 

13.8 

17.6 

16.2 

† 

10.7 

11.1 

10.2 

13.0 

11.4 

† 

6.8 

17.1 

11.9 

17.4 

16.6 

14.9 

9.1 

55.3 

46.1 

51.4 

44.7 

† 

36.8 

52.2 

54.4 

54.7 

50.3 

48.2 

41.4 

80.3 

85.3 

82.9 

85.1 

† 

81.2 

77.2 

84.3 

75.6 

81.2 

77.9 

81.6 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle two quarters 

Highest quarter 

15.5 

11.6 

8.6 

10.5 

8.0 

5.6 

16.4 

12.0 

7.3 

44.9 

41.3 

31.9 

51.9 

45.4 

40.2 

82.6 

80.6 

84.2 

79.4 

79.6 

83.9 

Parents’ education 

High school or less 

Some college 

College graduation 

Graduate degree 

13.1 

10.9 

8.7 

8.4 

9.4 

8.2 

6.5 

5.0 

15.2 

12.0 

9.7 

9.2 

43.9 

40.8 

33.5 

32.5 

50.4 

45.6 

42.5 

42.3 

82.1 

80.6 

82.9 

84.8 

79.7 

79.4 

82.2 

82.7 

Native language1 

English 

Non-English 

12.0 

14.9 

7.7 

11.4 

11.1 

16.7 

39.3 

46.6 

44.3 

54.4 

81.7 

84.9 

80.1 

83.6 

Student’s educational expectations 

High school or less 

Some college 

College graduation 

Graduate or professional degree 

Don’t know 

See notes at end of table. 

17.5 

11.6 

8.0 

8.9 

† 

13.5 

9.8 

6.1 

6.9 

11.3 

22.8 

16.7 

9.6 

9.1 

16.2 

40.1 

44.1 

37.9 

37.8 

43.1 

50.7 

46.6 

44.7 

45.0 

46.6 

72.5 

79.4 

84.5 

85.3 

80.3 

68.6 

76.2 

81.5 

85.4 

74.5 

40 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3: School Experiences 

Table 16. Percentage of high school sophomores who agreed or strongly agreed with 

selected statements about the school’s climate and teaching, by selected 

student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Disruptions by other 

I don’t feel safe at this students get in the The teaching is 

school way of my learning good 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1990 2002 1990 2002 

Composite achievement test 

 score 

Lowest quarter 19.3 14.0 21.1 49.9 55.3 75.7 73.9 

Second quarter 12.9 8.9 12.7 45.4 49.0 80.3 78.3 

Third quarter 9.8 6.4 8.6 37.3 42.5 83.9 82.5 

Highest quarter 6.2 3.7 5.2 29.4 35.9 86.1 87.7 

School sector 

Public 12.5 8.6 12.6 40.6 46.7 81.0 79.8 

Catholic 8.2 4.4 3.1 36.5 35.3 89.5 90.9 

Other private 8.8 2.5 3.8 28.3 29.8 89.3 90.4 

Region 

Northeast 12.7 6.8 9.9 38.4 46.9 80.9 80.7 

Midwest 10.6 6.3 10.8 35.4 44.0 81.8 81.2 

South 13.6 10.2 12.6 44.7 46.9 81.9 80.2 

West 11.1 7.9 13.7 38.9 44.6 82.6 80.7 

Urbanicity 

Urban 14.1 10.5 14.1 42.8 47.7 85.0 79.6 

Suburban 10.7 6.9 11.6 37.7 45.4 80.4 81.7 

Rural 11.8 7.4 9.4 40.2 43.4 80.9 79.5 

† Not applicable. 

1 The first language students learned to speak when they were children. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

By NELS:88, the 1990 high school sophomore questionnaire contained a number of 

questions about computer-related courses, including whether they had taken any course in 

computer science in 9th or 10th grade (82 percent indicated that they had not taken this course by 

the end of 10th grade—data published in the NELS:88 First Follow-Up Student Component Data 

Files [Ingels et al. 1992b]). Sophomores in 1990 were also asked if they had taken “computer 

literacy” or “computer education,” and 88 percent and 72 percent, respectively, indicated that 

they had not taken these courses. NELS:88 sophomores were asked how often they used 

computers in “writing up experiments or science reports” (88 percent indicated “never or very 

rarely”), used computers for scientific “models and simulations” (91 percent indicated never or 

very rarely), and used computers in “collecting or analyzing science data” (91 percent indicated 

“never or very rarely”) (Ingels et al. 1995). Students were also asked how often they used 

calculators and computers in math class. The latter two questions were repeated on ELS:2002 

41 
Chapter 3: School Experiences 

and give indication of the change from 1990 to 2002 (table 17). In addition, 1990 sophomores 

from NELS:88 were asked how often they used a computer outside of school, and 70 percent 

indicated that they never or rarely used a computer (estimate not shown in table). 

By ELS:2002, the interest in and number of questionnaire items on computer use had 

increased. Students were asked not only if they used calculators and computers in math class, but 

how often they used computers in various ways in mathematics class and about the frequency of 

their use in various other subjects. In addition, new items were included on hours spent per day 

using computers for schoolwork and for other than schoolwork. Sophomores in 2002 were also 

asked how often they used a computer in various places (home, school, library, etc.). The 

presence of computers in schools was almost universal by 2002, with 98 percent indicating that a 

computer was available to them for use at school and 89 percent indicating that they had a 

computer at home (Ingels, Burns et al. 2005). By racial or ethnic group, the presence of a 

computer at home ranged from 78 percent among Hispanic and American Indian sophomores to 

94 percent among Asian and White students. Students reported using the computer an average of 

1.2 hours per day for schoolwork and 2.2 hours per day for nonschoolwork in 2002. For a more 

detailed description of the responses to these items, the reader is referred to the report of 

ELS:2002 cross-sectional findings, A Profile of the American High School Sophomore in 2002 

(Ingels, Burns et al. 2005). 

Table 17 presents selected items that are comparable from NELS:88 and 2002. From 

1990 to 2002, the percentage of sophomores reporting that they never used calculators and 

computers in math class decreased from 28 percent to 6 percent for calculators and from 84 

percent to 61 percent for computers. 

3.6 Summary 

Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of high school sophomores enrolled in a college 

preparatory or academic program rose. In accord with this increased academic focus, 

sophomores in 2002 spent more time on their homework than did sophomores in 1980. In 

contrast, however, sophomores in 2002 were more likely to attend class without books or 

supplies than their peers 22 years earlier. Along with the dramatic expansion in technology over 

the past 3 decades, computer use has become almost universal in the schools attended by 

sophomores (DeBell and Chapman 2003; Parsad and Jones 2005). Although they increasingly 

enroll in academic/college preparatory courses, spend more time on their homework, and have 

access to a computer in their school, their perceptions of school safety and teacher quality 

remained stable across the three cohorts: the majority of sophomores feel safe in their schools 

and report that the teaching is good. 

42 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3: School Experiences 

Table 17. Percentage of high school sophomores’ use of and exposure to calculators 

and computers, by selected student characteristics: 1990 and 2002 

Never used in math class 

Characteristic 

 Calculators 

 1990 2002 

Computers 

 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 27.8 6.0 84.1 60.7 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

27.3 

28.2 

7.4 

4.6 

82.4 

85.7 

58.5 

62.8 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

37.1 

28.6 

35.7 

32.2 

† 

25.6 

11.6 

5.1 

7.3 

11.0 

6.0 

4.4 

75.6 

82.9 

82.6 

82.5 

† 

82.5 

51.1 

61.0 

51.3 

58.2 

60.7 

58.2 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

32.8 

27.9 

23.2 

8.7 

5.8 

3.7 

82.2 

85.4 

85.2 

54.8 

62.1 

63.5 

Parents’ education 

High school or less 

Some college 

College graduation 

Graduate degree 

31.6 

27.3 

24.9 

22.7 

8.5 

5.7 

5.0 

3.8 

84.4 

84.3 

86.4 

84.8 

57.8 

60.3 

62.6 

63.5 

Native language1 

English 

Non-English 

27.1 

32.7 

5.3 

10.6 

84.6 

82.9 

61.6 

54.8 

Student’s educational expectations 

High school or less 

Some college 

College graduation 

Graduate or professional degree 

Don’t know 

31.0 

31.2 

26.8 

24.0 

26.5 

13.3 

8.0 

4.7 

4.0 

9.9 

82.4 

82.5 

85.8 

84.3 

82.5 

54.0 

57.0 

61.2 

61.7 

63.8 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

33.7 

32.0 

29.6 

18.8 

10.9 

5.7 

4.2 

3.3 

77.4 

85.6 

89.0 

85.4 

48.4 

61.1 

64.7 

68.4 

See notes at end of table. 

43 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3: School Experiences 

Table 17. Percentage of high school sophomores’ use of and exposure to calculators and 

computers, by selected student characteristics: 1990 and 2002—Continued 

Never used in math class 

Calculators Computers 

Characteristic 1990 2002 1990 2002 

School sector 

Public 27.6 5.9 84.1 60.3 

Catholic 29.9 6.8 88.1 66.5 

Other private 31.4 6.9 88.8 63.8 

Region 

Northeast 45.4 5.6 86.0 63.9 

Midwest 15.7 3.9 83.2 59.8 

South 31.7 5.7 85.3 59.5 

West 19.9 9.0 83.4 60.6 

Urbanicity 

Urban 31.2 7.2 84.6 59.8 

Suburban 27.3 5.7 85.4 61.6 

Rural 25.7 5.0 83.2 59.7 

† Not applicable. 

1 The first language students learned to speak when they were children. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their 

race. Response categories were somewhat different in NELS:88 and ELS:2002 on the use of calculators and 

computers in mathematics class. Three response categories were used in NELS:88 (never, sometimes, and often). 

ELS:2002 used five categories (never, rarely, less than once a week, once or twice a week, every day or almost 

every day). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 

2002.” 

44 
 

Chapter 4 

Tested Achievement 

4.1 Overview 

The three National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) high school longitudinal 

studies that have included a sophomore cohort (High School and Beyond [HS&B], the National 

Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 [NELS:88], and the Education Longitudinal Study of 

2002 [ELS:2002]) each tested achievement at the sophomore level.16 Although some differences 

exist between the test batteries used in the studies, there are also common items and similar 

specifications for the curricular contents and cognitive processes measured by each. These 

commonalities support psychometric linkages such that many of the specific subtests can be put 

on the same scale. In this chapter, equated scores are used to make comparisons between the 

HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002 sophomore cohorts in mathematics achievement and between 

the NELS:88 and ELS:2002 cohorts in reading achievement. The primary foci of the analyses in 

this chapter are (1) comparing the achievement of the 2002 (ELS:2002) sophomore cohort to that 

of the sophomore cohorts of 1980 (HS&B) and 1990 (NELS:88), and (2) across the time points, 

comparing each subgroup to itself. The central question is whether there has been an increase, 

decrease, or no change in sophomore achievement (specifically, in mathematics and reading) 

over time. 

In this chapter, mathematics achievement for 1980, 1990, and 2002 is reported using Item 

Response Theory (IRT) number-right scores, and reading and mathematics achievement is 

reported using the probabilities of proficiency. These techniques are introduced briefly below. 

4.1.1 Mathematics achievement using Item Response Theory (IRT) number-right 

scores 

As noted earlier, the exact items used for the mathematics tests differed somewhat across 

the three cohort studies. Nevertheless, there was enough overlap of items to perform a common 

item equating, in which both HS&B and ELS:2002 were put on the NELS:88 1990 58-item 

scale.17 (On common item [and other] equating methods, see Kolen and Brennan 2004). The 

IRT-estimated number-right score reflects an estimate of the number of these 58 items that an 

examinee would have answered correctly if he or she had taken all of the items that appeared on 

the multiform 1990 NELS:88 mathematics test. The score is the probability of a correct answer 

on each item, summed over the total mathematics 58-item pool. Because the scores represent 

sums of probabilities, they are not necessarily whole numbers, but typically include a decimal. 

IRT scoring takes into consideration the pattern of correct answers and not just the simple 

number correct. IRT uses patterns of correct, incorrect, and omitted answers to obtain ability 

estimates that are comparable across different test forms within a domain.18 Based on the 

16 For more detailed information on the assessment batteries of the three studies, see in particular Ingels et al. 

(1994), Ingels et al. (2004), Rock et al. (1985), and Rock and Pollack (1995a). 

17 The 1990 National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) 58-item mathematics scale is documented in 

chapter VI of Ingels et al. (1994). 

18 For an account of Item Response Theory (IRT), see Embretson and Reise (2000), Hambleton (1989), or 

Hambleton, Swaminathan, and Rogers (1991). 

45 
Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

NELS:88-scaled IRT-estimated number-right scores, mathematics achievement for the 1980, 

1990, and 2002 sophomore cohorts is compared in sections 4.3 and 4.4 of this report. 

4.1.2 Mathematics and reading achievement using probabilities of proficiency 

Another form of linkage between NELS:88 and ELS:2002 involves the continuous 

“probability of proficiency” scores for reading and mathematics achievement. These scores 

assign a probability to each individual test taker of being proficient at each of three “mastery 

levels” in reading and five mastery levels in mathematics; in other words, each test taker receives 

a total of eight probability of proficiency scores. Clusters of four items each were identified in 

the NELS:88 tests that marked the three hierarchical mastery levels in reading and five in 

mathematics: 

Reading levels included: 

1. simple reading comprehension, including reproduction of detail and/or the author’s 

main thought; such as identifying the objective of a character’s action; 

2. simple inferences beyond the author’s main thought, and/or understanding and 

evaluating abstract concepts, such as identifying the author’s state of mind, or 

inferring the meaning of a metaphor from context; and 

3. complex inferences or evaluative judgments requiring multiple sources of 

information. 

Mathematics levels included; 

1. simple arithmetical operations on whole numbers, such as simple arithmetic 

expressions involving multiplication or division of integers; 

2. simple operations with decimals, fractions, powers, and roots, such as comparing 

expressions, given information about exponents; 

3. simple problem solving requiring the understanding of low-level mathematical 

concepts, such as simplifying an algebraic expression or comparing the length of 

line segments illustrated in a diagram; 

4. understanding of intermediate-level mathematical concepts and/or multi-step 

solutions to word problems such as drawing an inference based on an algebraic 

expression or inequality; and 

5. complex multi-step word problems and/or advanced mathematical material, such as 

a two-step problem requiring evaluation of functions. 

The mastery levels are hierarchical in the sense that mastery of a higher level typically 

implies proficiency at lower levels. The proficiency probabilities for NELS:88 and ELS:2002 

were computed using IRT-estimated item parameters calibrated in NELS:88. Each proficiency 

46 
 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

probability represents the probability that a student would be proficient in the skills represented 

in each mastery level. 

Because relatively more complex metrics are required for cohort comparisons in this 

chapter than in the other chapters, section 4.2 provides additional technical background on these 

metrics and their use in previous analyses of HS&B and NELS:88. The remainder of the chapter 

includes section 4.2, Background; section 4.3, Mathematics Achievement: 1980 and 2002; 

section 4.4, Mathematics Achievement: 1990 and 2002; section 4.5, Proficiency in Mathematics: 

1990 and 2002; and section 4.6, Proficiency in Reading: 1990 and 2002. 

4.2 Background 

4.2.1 Mathematics achievement in HS&B and NELS:88 (1980 and 1990) 

Some context for understanding changes in sophomore achievement may be provided by 

summarizing key findings of earlier intercohort comparisons that used HS&B and NELS:88 

mathematics results. The current report attempts to extend (to the ELS:2002 cohort) some of the 

findings concerning the earlier cohorts. 

Rasinski et al. (1993) found that, overall, sophomores in 1990 scored at a higher level 

than 1980 sophomores. At the subgroup level, Rasinski et al. found no differences in the average 

achievement score increases between males and females between 1980 and 1990. Although 

sophomores in the Catholic sector had higher mathematics scores than public school sophomores 

in both 1980 and 1990, no differences were detected in the across-cohort differences found in the 

two sectors. 

Some differences in the amount of change in mathematics scores were found when 

results were examined by race and Hispanic ethnicity. White, Hispanic, and Black sophomores 

all achieved higher scores in 1990 than in 1980. Mathematics scores among Asian sophomores 

did not increase between 1980 and 1990, yet continued to be higher than the scores of all other 

racial and ethnic groups. However, Hispanic and Black sophomores showed increased scores 

more than White sophomores. Despite higher mathematics gains that helped narrow the 

difference, Black and Hispanic students in 1990 on average still had lower scores than White 

students. 

Sophomores who reported themselves to be in the general curriculum increased scores 

more than did students who reported that they were in a vocational track.19 Finally, sophomores 

in all four regions of the nation showed increased scores in mathematics over the 10-year period. 

19 An important caveat should be noted here. While the “curriculum program type” or “track” variable is taken from a 

questionnaire item that is asked in a comparable way across the three surveys, it is a student self-report and subject 

to some level of reporting error. Vocational track students can more accurately be identified from their transcripts, to 

which historically accepted definitions of vocational concentrators can be applied. However, though transcripts were 

collected for the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) at the end of high school, the transcript data have 

not yet been released. 

47 
Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

4.3 Mathematics Achievement: 1980 and 2002 

Table 18 shows changes in cohort mathematics performance when HS&B (1980) results 

are compared with ELS:2002 results. Results are given overall and by subgroup. This analysis 

parallels the earlier analysis of Rasinski et al. (1993) by using the same six subgroup categories 

(sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status [SES], region, program, and school type or sector) 

employed in the earlier report. 

Overall, there was a mean increase of 4.8 points on the 58-point (NELS:88) scale, with a 

0.40 effect size. The interpretation of the 0.40 effect size is that, on average, sophomores in 2002 

were performing 40 percent of a standard deviation higher than the comparable cohort from 

1980. 

Comparing subgroups in 1980 with the same subgroups in 2002, substantively 

meaningful increases were recorded for 19 of the 20 subgroups (i.e., the differences were 

statistically significant, and the effect sizes were 0.20 or higher). These ranged from 2.6 points 

(Asian sophomores) to 7.3 points (sophomores in the South). Of the 19 subgroups, 6 saw a 

medium effect size increase (0.50 or above), and 13 saw a small effect size increase (0.20–0.49). 

The following groups saw medium increases: Black (0.60), American Indian (0.56), and 

Hispanic (0.53) sophomores; sophomores in the South (0.64); sophomores in vocational 

programs (0.59); and sophomores in the Catholic sector (0.51). 

48 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Table 18. Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated average number-right scores for 

mathematics, by selected student characteristics: 1980 and 2002 

Characteristic 

 All sophomores 

1980 

Standard 

Mean deviation 

32.8 12.3 

2002 

Standard 

Mean deviation 

37.6 11.4 

Difference 

2002–1980 

4.8 

Effect 

size 

0.40 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

33.0 

32.6 

12.8 

11.8 

38.0 

37.1 

11.6 

11.2 

5.0 

4.5 

0.41 

0.39 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

27.2 

38.8 

24.5 

26.0 

† 

35.4 

11.2 

12.5 

9.6 

10.3 

† 

11.9 

33.0 

41.4 

30.3 

31.7 

36.5 

40.7 

9.3 

11.1 

9.8 

11.0 

11.0 

10.4 

5.8 

2.6 

5.8 

5.7 

† 

5.3 

0.56 

0.22 

0.60 

0.53 

† 

0.48 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle two quarters 

Highest quarter 

27.0 

33.1 

39.5 

10.5 

11.7 

11.7 

31.5 

37.3 

44.0 

10.6 

10.8 

9.7 

4.6 

4.2 

4.5 

0.44 

0.38 

0.42 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

34.9 

34.5 

29.7 

33.7 

12.5 

12.2 

11.6 

12.3 

39.3 

38.1 

37.0 

36.5 

11.2 

11.3 

11.2 

11.6 

4.4 

3.6 

7.3 

2.8 

0.37 

0.30 

0.64 

0.24 

High school program 

General

Academic/college preparatory 

Vocational 

31.0 

40.0 

26.7 

11.4 

11.3 

10.7 

35.0 

40.5 

33.0 

11.0 

11.0 

10.9 

4.0 

0.7 

6.4 

0.37 

0.06 

0.59 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

32.2 

38.1 

39.0 

12.3 

10.7 

12.0 

37.1 

43.2 

43.0 

11.4 

9.0 

10.3 

4.9 

5.1 

4.0 

0.41 

0.51 

0.36 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: In this table the test means are expressed in percentage form. Estimates may differ from previously 

released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in rounding procedures. IRT refers to a 

technique to estimate math achievement based on patterns of correct, incorrect, and omitted answers across the test 

forms (see Hambleton 1989). Perfect score = 58. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be 

consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing 

more than one race was not permitted in HS&B. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin 

are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

49 
 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

The 13 subgroups that saw small increases (some approaching medium) were males 

(0.41), females (0.39), Asians (0.22), Whites (0.48), high SES (0.42), middle SES (0.38), low 

SES (0.44), and sophomores in the Northeast (0.37), Midwest (0.30), West (0.24), in a general 

program (0.37), and in the public (0.41) and other private (0.36) school sectors. 

The general picture is one of overall and subgroup increases in mathematics achievement 

between 1980 and 2002. Earlier analyses (Rasinski et al. 1993) documented increases from 1980 

to 1990. To see how much of the 1980–2002 increase occurred in the period from 1990 to 2002, 

the next section compares 1990 NELS:88 IRT-estimated number-right scores in mathematics 

with the ELS:2002 scores. 

4.4 Mathematics Achievement: 1990 and 2002 

Table 19 shows changes in cohort mathematics performance when NELS:88 (1990) 

results are compared with ELS:2002 (2002) results. The difference between sophomores in 2002 

and their counterparts in 1990 is not substantively important (effect size is 0.09). In contrast, 

Rasinski et al. (1993) reported the effect size of the overall increase from 1980 to 1990 to be 

about a quarter of a standard deviation (0.26), a magnitude that meets the criterion for 

substantive importance set in this report. 

Looked at in another way, the mean scale score was 32.8 in 1980, 36.5 in 1990, and 37.6 

in 2002. In other words, the average score for sophomores increased 3.7 scale points in the initial 

10-year period and 1.1 points in the subsequent 12-year period. This result suggests that the 

greater part of the increase occurred between 1980 and 1990 (see figure 8).20 

At the subgroup level, there were substantively meaningful increases in mathematics 

achievement between 1990 and 2002 in 5 of the 20 subgroups. These 5 sophomore subgroups 

(shown with the effect size) are as follows: American Indians (0.51), Whites (0.21), sophomores 

in the South (0.23), sophomores in vocational programs (0.40), and sophomores in the Catholic 

sector (0.25). 

In contrast, the largest increases in the 10-year period between 1980 and 1990 were made 

by Blacks (0.35), Hispanics (0.34), sophomores in the Northeast (0.30), sophomores in the South 

(0.32), and students self-reported as being in a general high school curricular program (0.35) 

(Rasinski et al. 1993). The analysis by Rasinski et al. suggests that between 1980 and 1990, 

Blacks on average increased their scores more than did Whites, thus reducing the difference 

between the groups found in 1990. 

However, table 19 (see also figure 9) indicates that in the period from 1990 to 2002, no 

measurable increases were detected for Blacks or Hispanics. In this same period, there is no 

evidence that Black test scores increased on average to move closer to the average scores for 

Whites. 

20 In addition to the mean IRT-estimated number-right score across the three time points, a further datum of interest 

in tables 21 and 22 is the standard deviation for each mean. The standard deviation is a measure of sample 

dispersion in the original unit of measurement. The standard deviation for mathematics achievement is 12.3 in 1980, 

12.1 in 1990, and 11.4 in 2002. This suggests that the dispersion of mathematics achievement has decreased very 

slightly over time. 

50 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Table 19. Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated average number-right scores for 

mathematics, by selected student characteristics: 1990 and 2002 

Characteristic 

 All sophomores 

1990 

Standard 

Mean deviation 

36.5 12.1 

2002 

Standard 

Mean deviation 

37.6 11.4 

Difference 

2002–1990 

1.1 

Effect 

size 

0.09 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

36.6 

36.3 

12.5 

11.9 

38.0 

37.1 

11.6 

11.2 

1.5 

0.8 

0.12 

0.07 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

27.7 

40.5 

29.2 

31.8 

† 

38.4 

11.0 

12.1 

10.7 

11.2 

† 

11.7 

33.0 

41.4 

30.3 

31.7 

36.5 

40.7 

9.3 

11.1 

9.8 

11.0 

11.0 

10.4 

5.3 

0.9 

1.1 

0.5 

† 

2.4 

0.51 

0.08 

0.12 

0.05 

† 

0.21 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle two quarters 

Highest quarter 

29.9 

36.0 

43.1 

10.6 

11.5 

10.6 

31.5 

37.3 

44.0 

10.6 

10.8 

9.7 

1.7 

1.4 

0.9 

0.16 

0.12 

0.08 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

38.9 

37.7 

34.4 

36.3 

11.7 

11.9 

12.0 

12.3 

39.3 

38.1 

37.0 

36.5 

11.2 

11.3 

11.2 

11.6 

0.4 

0.4 

2.6 

0.2 

0.04 

0.04 

0.23 

0.02 

High school program 

General 

Academic/college preparatory 

Vocational 

35.6 

42.5 

28.8 

11.5 

10.3 

10.9 

35.0 

40.5 

33.0 

11.0 

11.0 

10.9 

-0.6 

-2.0 

4.3 

-0.05 

-0.18 

0.40 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

36.0 

40.8 

42.4 

12.2 

10.2 

10.9 

37.1 

43.2 

43.0 

11.4 

9.0 

10.3 

1.2 

2.4 

0.6 

0.10 

0.25 

0.05 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: In this table the test means are expressed in percentage form. Estimates may differ from previously 

released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in rounding procedures. IRT refers to a 

technique to estimate math achievement based on patterns of correct, incorrect, and omitted answers across the test 

forms (see Hambleton 1989). Perfect score = 58. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be 

consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing 

more than one race was not permitted in NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic 

origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 

2002.” 

51 
Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Figure 8. Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated average number-right scores for 

mathematics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Mean mathematics 

scale score 

38 

33 

36 

0 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

1980 1990 2002 

Year 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. IRT refers to a technique to estimate math achievement based on patterns of 

correct, incorrect, and omitted answers across the test forms (see Hambleton 1989). Perfect Score = 58. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Based on the 1990 NELS:88 58-item IRT number-right score scale, in 1980, there was a 

10.9 point difference between Black and White sophomores (35.4 for White sophomores, 24.5 

for Black). In 1990, Blacks were 9.2 points lower than Whites on average, and in 2002, Blacks 

were 10.4 points lower than Whites on average. 

Results for vocational track sophomores should be noted. In analyzing differences 

between 1980 and 1990, Rasinski et al. (1993) noted that college preparatory, vocational, and 

general program students all showed increased scores, but vocational students showed the least 

increased (they cite effect sizes of 0.21, 0.35, and 0.13, respectively). However, between 1990 

and 2002, vocational program sophomores showed an increase of 4.3 scale points (effect size of 

52 
 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

0.40) (figure 10). In contrast, for both general and academic program sophomores, no differences 

were detected between 1990 and 2002.21 

Figure 9. Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated average number-right scores for 

mathematics, by selected race/ethnicity: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

 

Racial/ethnic group 

Black or African 

American 

Hispanic or Latino 

White 

41 

32 

30 

38 

31 

29 

35 

26 

25 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 

1980 

1990 

2002 

Mean mathematics scale score 

 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. IRT refers to a technique to estimate math achievement based on patterns of 

correct, incorrect, and omitted answers across the test terms (see Hambleton 1989). Perfect Score = 58. The 

racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and 

NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless 

of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

The other subgroup to show a substantial increase in mathematics scores between 1990 

and 2002, high school sophomores in the South, also showed disproportionate increases 

compared with the Midwest and West from 1980 to 1990 (Rasinski et al. 1993, p. 26). 

Although the IRT-estimated number-right scores can tell the quantitative story of cohort 

change, there is a more qualitative dimension that is of interest as well: At what proficiency or 

skill and content mastery levels are changes taking place? To address this question, 1990 and 

21 Readers are again cautioned that the high school program variable is taken from student self-reports and may 

differ from program definitions that are derived from analysis of transcripts. ELS:2002 first follow-up high school 

transcript data will provide a better reading on possible impacts of the vocational curriculum, in that those data will 

reflect two additional years of program exposure and will include coursetaking information. Part of the pattern seen in 

1980–1990 program results is a cohort compositional shift of students away from the vocational area and into 

academic and general programs (Rasinski et al. 1993). Current analyses of National Assessment of Educational 

Progress (NAEP) data for the National Assessment of Vocational Education (NAVE) may also shed further light on 

this issue—that is, on the relative role of curriculum content and requirement changes, changing subgroup 

composition, or other factors in effecting the observed results. 

53 
 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

2002 mathematics results are compared in the following section using probability of proficiency 

scores. In addition, 1990 and 2002 reading results are compared below. Since proficiency scores 

have not been created for HS&B, no data from 1980 are presented here. 

Figure 10. Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated average number-right scores for 

mathematics, by self-reported high school programs: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

High school program 

General 

Academic/college 

preparatory 

Vocational 

33 

40 

35 

29 

43 

36 

27 

40 

31 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 

1980 

1990 

2002 

Mean mathematics scale score 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. IRT refers to a technique to estimate math achievement based on patterns of 

correct, incorrect, and omitted answers across the test forms (see Hambleton 1989). Perfect Score = 58. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

4.5 Proficiency in Mathematics: 1990 and 2002 

As earlier noted, proficiency scores were developed in NELS:88 for both reading and 

mathematics. The ELS:2002 assessment results have been linked to NELS:88 through score 

equating, so that the same mastery levels can be used (see appendix A and references for a more 

detailed explanation). 

A proficiency score indicates specific skills and knowledge students have, or, put another 

way, whether they have mastered a particular body of curricular material.22 The NELS:88 

mastery levels, by identifying a student’s proficiency at five specific clusters of knowledge and 

skills that mark ascending critical points on the NELS:88-ELS:2002 mathematics scale, serve a 

dual function. First, they provide an interpretation, in terms of what the student can or cannot do, 

22 For further explanation of the IRT-estimated NELS:88-scaled math number-right scores, and the reading and 

mathematics proficiency scores, see the glossary of this report (appendix A). For additional detail, and information 

about test development, IRT scaling, and psychometric properties of the scores, see, for HS&B, Rock et al. (1985); 

for NELS:88, Ingels et al. (1994) and Rock and Pollack (1995a); and for ELS:2002, Ingels et al. (2004). 

54 
 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

at a given behaviorally defined mastery level. Second, when data are gathered at more than one 

time point, they provide a basis for measuring and understanding changes in intercohort or 

intracohort achievement. The researcher can readily distinguish the mastery level on the scale at 

which the change takes place and may be able to relate specific school processes (for example, 

specific coursetaking sequences) to increases at a particular skill level. In mathematics, there are 

five mastery levels: 

1. Simple arithmetical operations on whole numbers, such as simple arithmetic 

expressions involving multiplication or division of integers; 

2. Simple operations with decimals, fractions, powers, and roots, such as comparing 

expressions, given information about exponents; 

3. Simple problem solving, requiring the understanding of low-level mathematical 

concepts, such as simplifying an algebraic expression or comparing the length of line 

segments illustrated in a diagram; 

4. Understanding of intermediate-level mathematical concepts and/or multistep 

solutions to word problems such as drawing an inference based on an algebraic 

expression or inequality; and 

5. Complex multistep word problems and/or advanced mathematics material such as a 

two-step problem requiring evaluation of functions. 

Table 20 presents comparative results, by mathematics mastery level, for the 1990 and 

2002 sophomore cohorts. Proficiency probabilities represent the mean likelihood that a student 

would pass a given mastery level. It should be noted that while results are initially treated as 

means, they can also be treated as percentages.23 For example, to say that the male mean for 

Level 3 mathematics mastery is 0.46 is equivalent to saying that 46.0 percent of male 

sophomores have mastered the skills marked by Level 3. For ease of interpretation, table 20 and 

subsequent tables in this chapter report the mean mastery level in percentage form (along with 

the standard deviation associated with the mean score). 

Overall, no differences were detected in any of the five mastery levels between 1990 and 

2002. In each case, the effect sizes for the increases are quite small (below 0.10 for the first four 

levels). Level 5 represents a level of mathematics mastery that will be better reflected by seniors 

in 2004 (after advanced mathematics courses more typically taken at the end of high school have 

been completed) than sophomores in 2002—only 1 percent of the nation’s high school 

sophomores were proficient at Level 5 in 2002. 

There are seven row variables for subgroups in table 20: sex, socioeconomic status, 

racial/ethnic group, high school program, school sector, region, and parents’ education. When 

the 23 categories associated with the seven row variables are multiplied by the five mastery 

levels, there are 115 possible subgroup observations. Of the 115 observations, only 11 are both 

statistically significant and show an effect size of 0.20 or higher, and all represent increases. Of 

these 11 changes, one is at Level 1, four are at Level 2, two are at Level 3, two are at Level 4, 

and two are at Level 5. To the question—where on the skill hierarchy are increases taking 

place?—the answer would appear to depend on the particular subgroup of interest. One 

23 See Fleiss, Levin, and Paik (2003, p. 1). 

55 
Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

subgroup, sophomores reporting participation in a primarily vocational curriculum, show 

increases at Levels 1 through 4. For this group, increases were registered between 1990 and 2002 

for some lower skill levels, but substantial increases are also apparent at high skill levels. For 

example, between 1990 and 2002, vocational program sophomores registered increased scores at 

Level 3, in which fewer than half of sophomores (46 percent) are proficient, and at Level 4, 

where a fifth (20 percent) of sophomores are proficient. 

56 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Table 20. High school sophomore probability of proficiency in mathematics, by selected 

student characteristics: 1990 and 2002 

1990 2002 

Standard Standard Difference Effect 

Characteristic Mean deviation Mean deviation 2002–1990 size 

All sophomores 

Level 1: Simple arithmetic operations on 

whole numbers 90.7 19.5 91.7 19.5 1.0 0.05 

 Level 2: Simple operations with 

decimals, fractions, powers, and 

 roots 63.0 43.3 67.1 41.6 4.1 0.09 

Level 3: Simple problem solving, 

 requiring the understanding of low-

 level mathematical concepts 43.5 45.7 46.4 45.8 2.9 0.06 

 Level 4: Understanding of intermediate- 

 level mathematical concepts and/or 

having the ability to formulate 

 multistep solutions to word problems 19.0 32.1 20.4 32.8 1.4 0.04 

Level 5: Proficiency in solving complex 

 multistep word problems and/or the 

ability to demonstrate knowledge of 

 mathematics material found in 

advanced mathematics courses 0.4 2.3 1.0 6.6 0.6 0.12 

Sex 

Level 1 

Male 90.7 19.4 91.7 19.7 1.0 0.05 

Female 90.8 19.5 91.6 19.2 0.8 0.04 

Level 2 

Male 62.8 43.5 68.4 41.2 5.6 0.13 

Female 63.3 43.1 65.7 41.9 2.4 0.06 

Level 3 

Male 44.3 45.9 48.0 46.0 3.7 0.08 

Female 42.8 45.4 44.7 45.6 1.9 0.04 

Level 4 

Male 20.2 33.2 22.3 34.2 2.1 0.06 

Female 17.8 31.0 18.5 31.2 0.7 0.02 

Level 5 

Male 0.5 2.6 1.3 8.2 0.8 0.13 

Female 0.3 2.0 0.6 4.5 0.3 0.09 

Socioeconomic status 

Level 1 

Lowest quarter 83.1 24.3 84.5 25.1 1.4 0.06 

Middle quarters 91.1 19.0 92.5 18.2 1.4 0.08 

Highest quarter 97.1 10.3 97.1 11.8 # 0.00 

Level 2 

Lowest quarter 41.3 43.4 46.4 43.7 5.1 0.12 

Middle quarters 62.6 42.9 67.8 40.7 5.2 0.12 

Highest quarter 83.3 33.0 86.2 29.9 2.9 0.09 

See notes at end of table. 

57 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Table 20. High school sophomore probability of proficiency in mathematics, by selected 

student characteristics: 1990 and 2002—Continued 

1990 2002 

Standard Standard Difference Effect 

Characteristic Mean deviation Mean deviation 2002–1990 size 

Socioeconomic status—Continued 

Level 3 

Lowest quarter 20.4 35.9 25.1 39.2 4.7 0.13 

Middle quarters 41.4 45.1 44.7 45.2 3.3 0.07 

Highest quarter 67.4 42.5 70.9 41.3 3.5 0.08 

Level 4 

Lowest quarter 5.7 17.7 7.6 20.3 1.9 0.10 

Middle quarters 15.9 29.1 17.7 30.3 1.8 0.06 

Highest quarter 36.2 39.2 38.7 39.3 2.5 0.06 

Level 5 

Lowest quarter 0.1 1.1 0.2 2.6 0.1 0.05 

Middle quarters 0.2 1.5 0.5 4.3 0.3 0.09 

Highest quarter 1.0 3.7 2.6 11.3 1.6 0.19 

Racial/ethnic group1 

Level 1 

Asian or Pacific Islander 93.7 16.3 95.2 14.6 1.5 0.10 

Black or African American 80.8 25.9 83.8 25.2 3.0 0.12 

Hispanic or Latino 85.0 23.5 83.7 26.0 -1.3 -0.05 

White 93.3 16.5 95.5 14.0 2.2 0.14 

Level 2 

Asian or Pacific Islander 73.7 40.1 77.6 36.7 3.9 0.10 

Black or African American 38.4 43.3 42.3 42.5 3.9 0.09 

Hispanic or Latino 44.9 43.8 46.9 43.9 2.0 0.05 

White 69.6 40.9 77.9 36.1 8.3 0.22 

Level 3 

Asian or Pacific Islander 57.8 45.3 60.2 44.9 2.4 0.05 

Black or African American 18.7 43.8 19.4 35.1 0.7 0.02 

Hispanic or Latino 24.4 38.9 25.5 39.6 1.1 0.03 

White 50.1 45.9 57.9 45.0 7.8 0.17 

Level 4 

Asian or Pacific Islander 29.6 38.8 31.7 39.5 2.1 0.05 

Black or African American 5.2 17.4 4.7 15.3 -0.5 -0.03 

Hispanic or Latino 8.0 21.4 8.8 22.4 0.8 0.04 

White 22.5 34.0 27.0 35.7 4.5 0.13 

Level 5 

Asian or Pacific Islander 1.2 4.3 4.0 15.1 2.8 0.25 

Black or African American # 0.4 0.1 2.3 0.1 0.06 

Hispanic or Latino 0.1 0.9 0.3 3.2 0.2 0.09 

White 0.5 2.5 1.2 7.0 0.7 0.13 

See notes at end of table. 

58 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Table 20. High school sophomore probability of proficiency in mathematics, by selected 

student characteristics: 1990 and 2002—Continued 

1990 2002 

Standard Standard Difference Effect 

Characteristic Mean deviation Mean deviation 2002–1990 size 

High school program 

Level 1 

General 91.3 17.9 89.5 21.4 -1.8 -0.09 

Academic/college preparatory 97.0 10.7 94.3 16.6 2.7 0.19 

Vocational 80.2 26.3 87.1 22.8 6.9 0.28 

Level 2 

General 61.0 43.2 59.2 43.1 -1.8 -0.04 

Academic/college preparatory 82.2 33.4 76.4 37.4 -5.8 -0.16 

Vocational 36.6 42.5 51.2 44.0 14.6 0.34 

Level 3 

General 39.5 44.5 36.3 43.8 -3.2 -0.07 

Academic/college preparatory 64.5 43.5 57.5 45.3 -7.0 -0.16 

Vocational 19.3 35.9 29.8 41.8 10.5 0.27 

Level 4 

General 15.1 28.7 13.6 27.4 -1.5 -0.05 

Academic/college preparatory 32.6 37.9 27.7 36.3 -4.9 -0.13 

Vocational 5.1 16.6 10.6 24.4 5.5 0.26 

Level 5 

General 0.3 2.1 0.4 3.9 0.1 0.03 

Academic/college preparatory 0.8 3.1 1.5 8.5 0.7 0.11 

Vocational # 0.4 0.3 3.4 0.3 0.12 

School sector 

Level 1 

Public 90.2 19.8 91.2 19.9 1.0 0.05 

Catholic 96.5 10.9 97.9 8.8 1.4 0.14 

Other private 95.6 15.3 96.3 14.0 0.7 0.05 

Level 2 

Public 61.2 43.7 65.6 42.0 4.4 0.10 

Catholic 78.7 35.9 86.4 28.9 7.7 0.24 

Other private 84.4 30.9 83.1 32.9 -1.3 -0.04 

Level 3 

Public 41.8 45.5 44.6 45.6 2.8 0.06 

Catholic 58.2 44.4 68.4 41.6 10.2 0.24 

Other private 63.6 43.0 67.2 43.1 3.6 0.08 

Level 4 

Public 18.1 31.4 19.4 32.2 1.3 0.04 

Catholic 24.8 34.7 31.8 36.7 7.0 0.20 

Other private 32.8 38.8 35.3 38.8 2.5 0.06 

Level 5 

Public 0.4 2.2 9.9 6.4 0.5 0.10 

Catholic 0.5 2.6 1.3 7.5 0.8 0.14 

Other private 1.0 3.4 2.6 10.9 1.6 0.20 

See notes at end of table. 

59 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Table 20. High school sophomore probability of proficiency in mathematics, by selected 

student characteristics: 1990 and 2002—Continued 

1990 2002 

Standard Standard Difference Effect 

Characteristic Mean deviation Mean deviation 2002–1990 size 

Region 

Level 1 

Northeast 93.4 16.6 93.0 18.1 -0.4 -0.02 

Midwest 92.5 17.4 92.5 18.1 # 0.00 

South 88.5 21.4 91.4 19.8 2.9 0.14 

West 90.1 20.0 90.2 21.3 0.1 0.00 

Level 2 

Northeast 71.0 40.5 72.7 39.8 1.7 0.04 

Midwest 67.2 42.1 68.6 41.1 1.4 0.03 

South 56.3 44.3 65.5 41.8 9.2 0.21 

West 62.0 43.7 63.2 42.6 1.2 0.03 

Level 3 

Northeast 51.3 45.7 53.8 45.9 2.5 0.05 

Midwest 48.5 46.1 48.2 45.8 -0.3 -0.01 

South 35.9 44.0 43.8 45.5 7.9 0.18 

West 43.4 45.7 42.2 45.4 -1.2 -0.03 

Level 4 

Northeast 24.0 35.0 24.8 34.7 0.8 0.02 

Midwest 20.9 32.7 21.9 33.6 1.0 0.03 

South 14.5 28.9 18.2 31.2 3.7 0.12 

West 19.8 32.9 18.8 32.3 -1.0 -0.03 

Level 5 

Northeast 0.6 3.0 1.0 6.6 0.4 0.08 

Midwest 0.4 2.2 0.9 5.8 0.5 0.11 

South 0.3 1.9 0.9 6.5 0.6 0.13 

West 0.4 2.4 1.1 7.5 0.7 0.13 

Parents’ education2 

Level 1 

High school or less 85.5 23.2 87.4 22.9 1.9 0.08 

Some college 91.1 18.8 91.6 19.4 0.5 0.03 

College graduation 96.4 11.7 94.3 16.3 -2.1 -0.15 

Graduate or professional degree 97.1 10.7 95.6 15.4 -1.5 -0.11 

Level 2 

High school or less 47.3 44.2 52.0 43.6 4.7 0.11 

Some college 62.7 43.0 65.9 41.5 3.2 0.08 

College graduation 79.4 35.4 76.1 37.5 -3.3 -0.09 

Graduate or professional degree 84.9 32.0 82.9 33.6 -2.0 -0.06 

Level 3 

High school or less 26.3 39.9 29.5 41.4 3.2 0.08 

Some college 41.5 45.0 42.9 44.9 1.4 0.03 

College graduation 60.9 44.2 56.6 45.4 -4.3 -0.10 

Graduate or professional degree 71.5 41.3 68.8 42.7 -2.7 -0.06 

See notes at end of table. 

60 
 

 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Table 20. High school sophomore probability of proficiency in mathematics, by selected 

student characteristics: 1990 and 2002—Continued 

1990 2002 

Standard Standard Difference Effect 

Characteristic Mean deviation Mean deviation 2002–1990 size 

Parents’ education—Continued 

Level 4 

High school or less 8.2 21.3 9.8 23.1 1.6 0.07 

Some college 16.2 29.3 16.4 29.3 0.2 0.01 

College graduation 28.8 36.8 27.4 36.0 -1.4 -0.04 

Graduate or professional degree 41.9 40.4 38.0 39.7 -3.9 -0.10 

Level 5 

High school or less 0.1 1.1 0.2 2.7 0.1 0.05 

Some college 0.2 1.6 0.4 3.8 0.2 0.07 

College graduation 0.7 2.8 1.2 7.4 0.5 0.09 

Graduate or professional degree 1.4 4.3 3.1 12.2 1.7 0.19 

# Rounds to zero. 

1 Estimates for American Indians are not shown due to small sample sizes. 

2

 Parents’ education: “Some college” is defined as attending college but not completing a 4-year degree. 

NOTE: In this table the test means are expressed in percentage form. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for 

ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race 

choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as 

being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 

2002.” 

4.6 Proficiency in Reading: 1990 and 2002 

ELS:2002 probability of proficiency scores in reading are based on the NELS:88 second 

follow-up (1992). An anchor or common item equating process was used to put the ELS:2002 

results on the NELS:88 scale. There are three NELS:88 mastery levels in reading, each based on 

a cluster of test items. Sophomores proficient at Level 1 demonstrate skill in simple reading 

comprehension, including reproduction of detail or the author’s main thought. At Level 2, 

sophomores can make simple inferences beyond the author’s main thought and understand and 

evaluate relatively abstract concepts. At Level 3, sophomores are able to demonstrate the ability 

to make complex inferences or evaluative judgments that require piecing together multiple 

sources of information from the passage. As with the mathematics probabilities of proficiency, 

reading means can also be viewed as percentages (e.g., the statement that the overall mean at 

Level 1, simple comprehension, is 0.911 is equivalent to saying that 91.1 percent of sophomores 

are proficient at this level). 

Table 21 presents comparative reading results, by mastery level, for the 1990 and 2002 

sophomore cohorts. Overall, no measurable differences were detected between sophomores in 

2002 and 1990. For ease of interpretation, table 21 means are presented in percentage form. 

61 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Table 21. High school sophomore probability of proficiency in reading, by selected 

student characteristics: 1990 and 2002 

1990 2002 

Standard Standard Difference Effect 

Characteristic Mean deviation Mean deviation 2002–1990 size 

All sophomores 

Level 1: Simple comprehension 91.1 22.2 89.4 25.6 -1.7 -0.07 

Level 2: Simple inference 49.9 41.3 45.9 39.6 -3.7 -0.09 

Level 3: Complex inference 12.7 26.1 8.2 21.0 -4.4 -0.19 

Sex 

Level 1 

Male 89.0 24.7 87.5 27.7 -1.4 -0.05 

Female 93.2 19.3 91.3 23.1 -1.9 -0.09 

Level 2 

Male 46.0 41.6 43.5 39.8 -1.8 -0.04 

Female 53.7 40.8 48.4 39.3 -5.5 -0.14 

Level 3 

Male 11.8 25.4 7.9 20.8 -3.7 -0.16 

Female 13.6 26.8 8.5 21.2 -5.1 -0.21 

Socioeconomic status 

Level 1 

Lowest quarter 84.1 27.5 80.5 32.3 -3.4 -0.11 

Middle quarters 91.4 22.1 90.4 24.5 -1.0 -0.04 

Highest quarter 96.9 13.3 96.2 15.8 -0.7 -0.05 

Level 2 

Lowest quarter 29.3 36.2 25.9 33.6 -3.1 -0.09 

Middle quarters 48.6 40.6 44.9 38.5 -3.4 -0.09 

Highest quarter 70.1 37.2 67.9 36.0 -2.1 -0.06 

Level 3 

Lowest quarter 4.3 15.7 2.5 11.0 -1.8 -0.13 

Middle quarters 10.8 23.8 6.3 17.6 -4.5 -0.21 

Highest quarter 23.8 33.2 17.7 29.9 -6.0 -0.19 

Racial/ethnic group1 

Level 1 

Asian or Pacific Islander 92.3 21.0 90.4 23.5 -1.7 -0.08 

Black or African American 82.2 30.0 81.5 31.4 -0.6 -0.02 

Hispanic or Latino 86.9 25.5 79.2 33.8 -7.7 -0.26 

White 93.4 19.3 93.9 19.9 0.5 0.03 

Level 2 

Asian or Pacific Islander 50.3 41.7 46.6 39.7 -3.2 -0.08 

Black or African American 30.8 37.4 25.0 31.9 -5.5 -0.16 

Hispanic or Latino 33.3 37.0 27.4 35.0 -5.3 -0.15 

White 55.8 40.8 56.1 38.7 0.5 0.01 

Level 3 

Asian or Pacific Islander 14.6 28.2 9.4 23.1 -5.2 -0.20 

Black or African American 4.3 14.8 1.8 9.4 -2.6 -0.21 

Hispanic or Latino 5.1 16.8 2.7 11.4 -2.3 -0.16 

White 15.2 28.1 11.3 24.1 -3.8 -0.14 

See notes at end of table. 

62 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Table 21. High school sophomore probability of proficiency in reading, by selected 

student characteristics: 1990 and 2002—Continued 

1990 2002 

Standard Standard Difference Effect 

Characteristic Mean deviation Mean deviation 2002–1990 size 

High school program 

Level 1 

General 92.1 20.6 87.1 27.7 -5.0 -0.20 

Academic/college preparatory 96.4 14.2 92.5 22.1 -3.9 -0.21 

Vocational 81.4 30.5 83.1 30.7 1.7 0.06 

Level 2 

General 47.4 40.0 38.2 37.8 -8.9 -0.23 

Academic/college preparatory 68.7 37.3 55.3 39.4 -13.1 -0.34 

Vocational 24.9 34.2 29.0 35.0 4.3 0.13 

Level 3 

General 9.8 23.0 4.7 15.2 -5.0 -0.26 

Academic/college preparatory 21.9 32.1 12.0 25.3 -9.8 -0.34 

Vocational 2.8 11.8 2.7 11.0 # 0.00 

School sector 

Level 1 

Public 90.6 22.8 88.8 26.2 -1.7 -0.07 

Catholic 96.5 13.4 97.6 11.7 1.1 0.09 

Other private 95.0 17.9 94.8 19.0 -0.2 -0.01 

Level 2 

Public 47.9 41.3 44.2 39.4 -3.4 -0.08 

Catholic 65.7 37.6 68.1 34.6 2.6 0.07 

Other private 71.9 36.2 65.2 37.5 -6.9 -0.19 

Level 3 

Public 11.7 25.2 7.5 20.1 -4.1 -0.18 

Catholic 17.0 28.1 15.6 27.5 -1.4 -0.05 

Other private 28.3 36.3 17.3 30.0 -10.7 -0.32 

Region 

Level 1 

Northeast 94.0 18.1 91.7 23.0 -2.3 -0.11 

Midwest 91.4 22.3 90.6 23.9 -0.9 -0.04 

South 89.3 24.3 89.3 25.8 # 0.00 

West 91.5 21.4 86.5 28.5 -4.9 -0.19 

Level 2 

Northeast 57.0 40.5 52.0 39.5 -4.9 -0.12 

Midwest 51.7 41.0 48.3 39.7 -3.1 -0.08 

South 45.2 41.3 43.8 39.3 -1.2 -0.03 

West 49.1 41.4 41.6 39.4 -7.1 -0.18 

Level 3 

Northeast 16.8 29.9 10.2 23.2 -6.5 -0.24 

Midwest 12.7 26.0 8.9 21.8 -3.7 -0.15 

South 10.5 23.8 7.5 20.2 -2.9 -0.13 

West 12.5 25.8 6.8 19.3 -5.5 -0.24 

See notes at end of table. 

63 
 

 

 

 

Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

Table 21. High school sophomore probability of proficiency in reading, by selected 

student characteristics: 1990 and 2002—Continued 

1990 2002 

Standard Standard Difference Effect 

Characteristic Mean deviation Mean deviation 2002–1990 size 

Parents’ education2 

Level 1 

High school or less 86.6 26.0 83.4 30.6 -3.1 -0.11 

Some college 91.3 22.2 89.8 25.0 -1.5 -0.06 

College graduation 96.2 14.4 92.5 22.3 -3.7 -0.20 

Graduate or professional degree 96.8 13.7 94.4 19.0 -2.3 -0.14 

Level 2 

High school or less 34.6 38.2 30.2 35.4 -4.1 -0.11 

Some college 48.5 40.6 43.3 38.7 -4.9 -0.12 

College graduation 65.2 38.8 56.1 39.0 -9.0 -0.23 

Graduate or professional degree 74.4 35.4 64.6 37.7 -9.4 -0.26 

Level 3 

High school or less 5.9 18.1 3.0 11.8 -2.9 -0.19 

Some college 10.8 24.0 6.0 17.2 -4.7 -0.23 

College graduation 19.0 29.8 11.4 24.3 -7.5 -0.28 

Graduate or professional degree 28.3 35.4 17.5 30.3 -10.6 -0.32 

# Rounds to zero. 

1 Estimates for American Indians are not shown due to small sample sizes. 

2 Parent’s education: “Some college” is defined as attending college but not completing a 4-year degree. 

NOTE: In this table the test means are expressed in percentage form. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for 

ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race 

choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as 

being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 

2002.” 

Viewed at the subgroup level, there are 23 subgroup categories times three mastery 

levels, for a total of 69 measures of subgroup change in reading. Of the 69 subgroup comparisons 

for reading, 20 met the criteria for statistical and substantive meaningfulness set for this report. 

In all cases, these comparisons indicated decreases in probabilities of proficiency in reading 

between 1990 and 2002. Use of mastery levels permits achievement increases and decreases to 

be situated at a specific point within the skills hierarchy of the reading scale. Fully 12 of the 20 

decreases are at Level 3 reading, complex inference (four are at Level 2 and four are at Level 1). 

For the four observations with largest effect sizes (0.30 or higher), three are at Level 3 and one at 

Level 2. 

The largest decreases in reading proficiency between 1990 and 2002 (with effect sizes of 

0.30 or more) were sophomores in an academic/college preparatory program at mastery levels 2 

and 3, sophomores in non-Catholic private schools at mastery level 3, and sophomores at 

mastery level 3 whose parents’ highest educational attainment was a graduate or professional 

degree (table 21). 

64 
Chapter 4: Tested Achievement 

4.7 Summary 

This chapter illustrated that tested achievement in mathematics increased between 1980 

and 2002. Although mathematics achievement increased overall during the 22-year period, most 

of the score increases were made between 1980 and 1990. The addition of proficiency scaling on 

the mathematics test in 1990 and 2002 allowed for a more textured look at changes in mastery of 

certain mathematics skills. During this time, no measurable differences were detected in 

sophomores’ probabilities of proficiency in mathematics; however, mathematics probability of 

proficiency scores increased on average for some subgroups. As with mathematics, no 

measurable differences were detected in the reading probability of proficiency scores of high 

school sophomores between 1990 and 2002, although for some subgroups these probability of 

proficiency scores actually decreased. 

65 

 

Chapter 5 

Afterschool Activities 

This chapter focuses on how high school sophomores used their time outside of the 

classroom in activities other than homework at the three points in time (1980, 1990, and 2002). 

The chapter includes section 5.1, Extracurricular Activities; section 5.2, Employment; and 

section 5.3, Unstructured Social Activities. 

5.1 Extracurricular Activities 

Students in each of the three cohorts—High School and Beyond (HS&B), the National 

Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002) —reported on their sophomore-year participation on a range of extracurricular 

activities, six of which were discussed in the previous high school sophomore report (Rasinski et 

al. 1993) and are also discussed in this chapter: academic clubs, vocational clubs, athletics, 

cheerleading and drill team, music-related activities, and hobby clubs. Prior to discussion of the 

survey results, it is important to note some important differences in the way the questions about 

extracurricular activities were structured and in the response options provided to each cohort. 

First, the scope of the question varied between 1980 and 1990/2002. In 1980, HS&B 

sophomores were asked to provide information about their activities “either in or out of school,” 

whereas their successors in 1990 and 2002 were limited to school-sponsored extracurricular 

activities.24 Some activities, such as academic clubs, are rarely found outside of the school 

setting. For these items, the difference in the scope of the questions may not have introduced 

much variability in the estimates of participation across cohorts. However, other activities such 

as hobby clubs are commonly organized both inside and outside of school. To the extent that 

each of these extracurricular activities were available outside of the school setting, the proportion 

of HS&B sophomores who participated in them may be biased upward relative to the proportions 

of NELS:88 and ELS:2002 sophomores. 

A second questionnaire difference was in the response options provided. In the 1980 

HS&B questionnaire, the two response options for the series of items on extracurricular 

involvement were “have not participated” and “have participated actively.” The 1990 NELS:88 

questionnaire departed from this approach by presenting respondents with four options instead of 

two: “School does not offer,” “Did not participate,” “Participated,” and “Participated as an 

officer or a leader.” ELS:2002 condensed these four responses into “Yes” to indicate 

participation and “No” to indicate nonparticipation. Note that HS&B did not specifically provide 

a response option for students who participated in an activity but did not take an active role. 

Although it is not certain how these less active participants responded in 1980, some may have 

selected “Did not participate” as their answer or skipped the item. To the extent that this is true, 

it would have a dampening effect on the estimates of participation in 1980 relative to the 

subsequent cohorts. 

24 The 1990 question implied that it was limited to school-sponsored activities by virtue of its “School does not offer” 

response option. The Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) question explicitly stated that the items 

referred only to “school-sponsored” activities. 

67 
Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

A third difference relates to the use of examples to clarify what is meant by the activity 

listed. For the ELS:2002 sophomore questionnaire, the examples that had been present in the 

HS&B and NELS:88 questionnaires were dropped. For example, HS&B and NELS:88 both gave 

some examples of types of “academic clubs,” such as National Honor Society, language clubs, 

and so on. Dropping the examples may have made it less clear to respondents what was meant by 

phrases such as “academic clubs.” These differences warrant some caution in interpreting the 

results, as some of the observed change may be related to changes in questionnaire design. 

Figure 11 displays national data on participation rates for each of the six activities in 

1980, 1990, and 2002. In each period, high school sophomores most frequently reported 

participating in athletics, with participation ranging from 54 percent in 1980 to 51 percent in 

2002. The participation rates for the rest of the activities ranged from 7 percent for hobby clubs 

in 1990 to 31 percent for music-related activities in 1980 and academic clubs in 1990. Between 

1980 and 2002, the proportion of sophomores who reported participation in academic clubs, 

vocational clubs, music-related activities, and hobby clubs dropped between 6 and 18 percentage 

points. As noted above, these declines in membership, particularly for music-related activities 

and hobby clubs, may be attributable in part to changes in the scope of the question, with the 

1980 questionnaire requesting inclusion of in-school and out-of-school activities, while the 

marked drop in reported participation in academic clubs between 1990 and 2002 may be related 

in part to the dropping of examples in 2002. 

Tables 22, 23, and 24 present the participation rates in each of these six activities by 

student characteristics. With the exception of sports, females were as likely as boys, and usually 

more likely, to participate in all of these school-sponsored activities. In 1990 and 2002, a greater 

percentage of sophomores from households in the highest socioeconomic status (SES) quarter 

and in the highest academic achievement quarters participated in sports, academic clubs, and 

music activities than those in the lowest quarter. For example, 61 percent of those in the highest 

SES quarter were in athletics compared with 41 percent among those in the lowest SES quarter 

in 2002. In contrast, vocational club membership was higher among those in the lowest SES 

quarter than the highest quarter in both 1980 and 1990; however, vocational club participation 

rates for the lowest SES quarter decreased between 1980 and 2002, and no measurable change 

was detected for the highest SES quarter (rates were 9 percent among lowest and 7 percent 

among highest SES quarter in 2002, whereas they were 18 percent among the lowest and 8 

percent among the highest SES quarter in 1980). Likewise, the difference in vocational club 

participation rates for the highest and lowest academic achievers found in the first two cohorts 

was not detected in the 2002 cohort. 

68 
 

 

Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

Figure 11. Percentage of high school sophomores who report participating in various 

extracurricular activities: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Activity 

Athletics 

Music 

Hobby clubs 

Academic clubs 

Cheerleading and drill 

team 

Vocational clubs 

8 

11 

8 

10 

22 

51 

12 

9 

31 

7 

22 

52 

14 

14 

26 

21 

31 

54 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

1980 

1990 

2002 

Percent 

NOTE: Caution is needed in interpreting percentages displayed in figure 11 due to questionnaire changes as follows: 

(1) In 1980, HS&B sophomores were asked to provide information about their activities “either in or out of school,” 

whereas their successors in 1990 and 2002 were limited to school-sponsored extracurricular activities. The 1990 

question implied that it was limited to school-sponsored activities by virtue of its “School does not offer” response 

option. The ELS:2002 question explicitly stated that the items referred only to “school-sponsored” activities. (2) In the 

HS&B questionnaire, the two response options for the series of items on extracurricular involvement were “have not 

participated” and “have participated actively.” The 1990 NELS:88 questionnaire presented respondents with four 

options: “School does not offer,” “Did not participate,” “Participated,” and “Participated as an officer or a leader.” 

ELS:2002 condensed these four responses into “Yes” to indicate participation and “No” to indicate nonparticipation. 

(3) For the ELS:2002 sophomore questionnaire, the examples clarifying what was meant by the activity that had been 

present in the HS&B and NELS:88 questionnaires were dropped. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

69 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

Table 22. Percentage of high school sophomores who participate in academic and 

vocational clubs, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

 All sophomores 

Academic clubs 

1980 1990 

26.2 30.7 

2002 

8.4 

Vocational clubs 

 1980 1990 

13.9 11.7 

2002 

8.3 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

22.7 

29.1 

27.4 

34.0 

6.8 

9.9 

11.5 

15.7 

11.0 

12.3 

7.6 

9.1 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

29.5 

31.8 

28.9 

27.6 

† 

25.3 

31.9 

36.7 

26.2 

27.2 

† 

31.7 

5.2 

14.3 

7.3 

6.1 

7.7 

8.9 

20.0 

5.3 

17.5 

13.2 

† 

13.5 

16.9 

5.1 

13.7 

7.4 

† 

12.2 

14.3 

5.2 

7.9 

5.3 

8.9 

9.3 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

25.2 

26.3 

26.9 

26.3 

31.5 

34.9 

5.6 

7.2 

13.3 

18.0 

14.8 

7.9 

17.1 

11.4 

6.5 

9.2 

8.6 

7.0 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

27.5 

25.7 

24.4 

27.9 

22.5 

29.9 

30.3 

40.0 

4.3 

5.2 

8.2 

15.5 

20.6 

16.2 

12.6 

7.7 

17.3 

13.2 

11.4 

6.7 

8.8 

9.5 

7.7 

7.4 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

26.0 

27.7 

27.3 

31.0 

28.6 

29.1 

8.1 

11.3 

10.5 

14.9 

3.6 

6.5 

12.6 

2.8 

5.5 

8.8 

2.2 

3.8 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

21.4 

28.5 

27.6 

26.4 

26.9 

33.4 

32.6 

27.5 

7.6 

6.8 

10.8 

7.0 

7.4 

19.2 

16.9 

9.5 

3.5 

11.7 

18.6 

7.2 

4.9 

8.0 

11.4 

7.0 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and 

NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless 

of their race. Caution is needed in interpreting percentages displayed in table 22 due to questionnaire changes as 

follows: (1) In 1980, HS&B sophomores were asked to provide information about their activities “either in or out of 

school,” whereas their successors in 1990 and 2002 were limited to school-sponsored extracurricular activities. The 

1990 question implied that it was limited to school-sponsored activities by virtue of its “School does not offer” 

response option. The ELS:2002 question explicitly stated that the items referred only to “school-sponsored” activities. 

(2) In the HS&B questionnaire, the two response options for the series of items on extracurricular involvement were 

“have not participated” and “have participated actively.” The 1990 NELS:88 questionnaire presented respondents with 

four options: “School does not offer,” “Did not participate,” “Participated,” and “Participated as an officer or a leader.” 

ELS:2002 condensed these four responses into “Yes” to indicate participation and “No” to indicate nonparticipation. 

(3) For the ELS:2002 sophomore questionnaire, the examples clarifying what was meant by the activity that had been 

present in the HS&B and NELS:88 questionnaires were dropped. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

70 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

Table 23. Percentage of high school sophomores who participate in athletics and 

cheerleading and drill team, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, 

and 2002 

Athletics Cheerleading and drill team 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 54.1 52.2 50.5 14.3 9.1 11.4 

Sex 

Male 63.4 63.0 56.9 3.3 2.1 7.3 

Female 45.9 41.4 44.0 24.7 15.8 15.4 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 56.8 44.2 49.7 12.9 11.3 7.7 

Asian or Pacific Islander 46.3 54.9 41.8 7.0 5.2 8.7 

Black or African American 57.1 51.4 48.8 17.1 15.7 14.2 

Hispanic or Latino 48.3 43.9 41.4 13.2 8.3 10.2 

More than one race † † 50.6 † † 14.5 

White 54.4 53.5 53.8 14.1 8.3 11.1 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 43.7 42.0 40.5 13.2 8.2 10.6 

Middle quarters 55.1 52.7 50.2 15.1 9.6 11.5 

Highest quarter 64.4 63.2 60.8 14.4 9.3 11.9 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 47.0 47.4 42.9 15.0 9.5 12.6 

Second quarter 53.3 50.8 46.6 14.8 8.6 10.7 

Third quarter 56.4 51.8 52.0 15.1 9.2 11.9 

Highest quarter 60.5 59.0 59.9 13.4 9.0 10.3 

School sector 

Public 53.1 50.8 48.3 14.2 9.2 10.1 

Catholic 61.8 66.5 72.1 15.9 7.1 18.3 

Other private 68.8 68.0 82.2 13.1 9.9 38.8 

Region 

Northeast 54.5 55.7 53.9 11.8 8.0 14.4 

Midwest 51.5 58.3 54.7 15.5 8.6 10.3 

South 55.2 46.3 48.8 15.7 11.3 11.6 

West 54.9 51.6 45.6 13.0 6.8 9.8 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and 

NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless 

of their race. Caution is needed in interpreting percentages displayed in table 23 due to questionnaire changes as 

follows: (1) In 1980, HS&B sophomores were asked to provide information about their activities “either in or out of 

school,” whereas their successors in 1990 and 2002 were limited to school-sponsored extracurricular activities. The 

1990 question implied that it was limited to school-sponsored activities by virtue of its “School does not offer” 

response option. The ELS:2002 question explicitly stated that the items referred only to “school-sponsored” activities. 

(2) In the HS&B questionnaire, the two response options for the series of items on extracurricular involvement were 

“have not participated” and “have participated actively.” The 1990 NELS:88 questionnaire presented respondents with 

four options: “School does not offer,” “Did not participate,” “Participated,” and “Participated as an officer or a leader.” 

ELS:2002 condensed these four responses into “Yes” to indicate participation and “No” to indicate nonparticipation. 

(3) For the ELS:2002 sophomore questionnaire, the examples clarifying what was meant by the activity that had been 

present in the HS&B and NELS:88 questionnaires were dropped. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

71 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

Table 24. Percentage of high school sophomores who participate in music-related 

activities and hobby clubs, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 

2002 

Music Hobby clubs 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 31.3 21.5 21.5 21.4 7.3 9.5 

Sex 

Male 21.5 15.6 16.3 25.5 7.9 8.1 

Female 41.0 27.3 26.8 17.6 6.7 10.9 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 33.7 17.3 12.3 26.5 8.4 5.3 

Asian or Pacific Islander 28.4 20.6 19.7 25.5 11.8 15.5 

Black or African American 37.9 23.0 21.6 21.7 5.2 7.8 

Hispanic or Latino 28.4 14.8 13.0 22.7 6.7 8.0 

More than one race † † 21.3 † † 12.7 

White 30.5 22.3 23.9 21.0 7.5 9.7 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 27.6 18.3 15.6 19.6 5.8 6.7 

Middle quarters 31.5 22.1 21.6 22.3 7.1 8.8 

Highest quarter 35.2 24.4 27.1 21.4 9.4 13.5 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 29.6 16.0 15.4 22.9 6.5 6.4 

Second quarter 29.7 20.5 18.8 22.7 6.1 7.2 

Third quarter 31.2 22.1 22.7 21.1 7.6 10.8 

Highest quarter 35.8 26.9 28.7 18.6 8.7 13.4 

School sector 

Public 31.3 22.1 21.2 21.3 6.7 8.9 

Catholic 28.4 12.6 18.1 21.2 12.3 17.1 

Other private 35.9 25.7 33.9 24.4 13.1 14.8 

Region 

Northeast 29.4 22.7 20.8 20.5 11.0 11.2 

Midwest 30.9 26.6 27.5 21.7 5.4 8.8 

South 33.8 18.8 21.4 20.3 5.9 9.8 

West 28.9 18.2 15.8 24.5 8.7 8.5 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

Caution is needed in interpreting percentages displayed in table 24 due to questionnaire changes as follows: (1) In 1980, 

HS&B sophomores were asked to provide information about their activities “either in or out of school,” whereas their 

successors in 1990 and 2002 were limited to school-sponsored extracurricular activities. The 1990 question implied that it 

was limited to school-sponsored activities by virtue of its “School does not offer” response option. The ELS:2002 question 

explicitly stated that the items referred only to “school-sponsored” activities. (2) In the HS&B questionnaire, the two response 

options for the series of items on extracurricular involvement were “have not participated” and “have participated actively.” 

The 1990 NELS:88 questionnaire presented respondents with four options: “School does not offer,” “Did not participate,” 

“Participated,” and “Participated as an officer or a leader.” ELS:2002 condensed these four responses into “Yes” to indicate 

participation and “No” to indicate nonparticipation. (3) For the ELS:2002 sophomore questionnaire, the examples clarifying 

what was meant by the activity that had been present in the HS&B and NELS:88 questionnaires were dropped. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base 

Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal 

Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

72 
Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

Athletics membership increased for other private school sophomores between 1990 and 

2002. In each of the time periods (1980, 1990, and 2002), a larger percentage of Catholic and 

other private school sophomores participated in school athletics than their counterparts in public 

schools. 

5.2 Employment 

Another endeavor that occupies out-of-school time of some high school students is 

working for pay or employment.25 Figure 12 gives national summary information for 1990 and 

2002, and table 25 summarizes responses over each of the three time periods by student 

characteristics concerning whether the student had ever worked for pay, had worked during the 

sophomore year, and had worked more than 20 hours per week. 

Figure 12. Percentage of high school sophomores, by employment status: 1990 and 2002 

 

Employment status 

1990 

Working more than 

20 hours per week at 

the time of the survey 

Employed at the time 

of the survey 

Ever employed 

2002 

8 

9 

27 

26 

59 

60 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

Percent 

 

 

NOTE: In 2002, the question on hours worked per week was asked in an open format in which students who were 

working were asked to fill in the number of hours worked per week on average. In 1990, students who were working 

picked from a list of ranges of hours worked on average per week. The base for calculation of percentage working 

more than 20 hours per week included all sophomores in both 1990 and 2002. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 

2002.” 

25 For different surveys, both the terms “working for pay” and “employment” were used, although the two terms, 

however similar, are not identical in meaning. For some respondents, “working for pay” may have extended to more 

ad hoc or casual working situations, whereas “employment” may have been regarded more restrictively and formally 

as a regular or steady job. 

73 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

Table 25. Percentage of high school sophomores, by employment status and selected 

student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Ever worked for pay or 

employed 

1980 1990 2002 

Worked for pay or employed 

at time of 

the survey 

1980 1990 2002 

Worked more than 20 hours 

per week at time of the 

survey 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 88.4 59.2 59.7 35.7 27.1 25.6 5.9 8.0 8.7 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

92.0 

85.2 

65.2 

53.5 

62.9 

56.6 

37.1 

35.1 

28.8 

25.4 

27.7 

23.6 

8.2 

3.8 

9.9 

6.1 

10.9 

6.5 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska 

Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

89.4 

70.7 

79.3 

82.5 

† 

91.1 

54.8 

50.5 

53.3 

50.2 

† 

61.9 

55.7 

37.9 

52.3 

47.4 

57.6 

65.6 

32.1 

20.1 

20.5 

25.6 

† 

40.0 

25.3 

23.7 

18.5 

20.1 

† 

29.7 

22.5 

15.0 

19.7 

19.4 

22.7 

29.2 

8.4 

3.3 

3.8 

6.5 

† 

6.3 

14.6 

5.8 

6.9 

6.5 

† 

8.3 

7.8 

2.3 

9.5 

8.3 

8.3 

9.0 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

85.6 

89.6 

90.1 

56.5 

60.0 

58.6 

55.1 

61.8 

59.8 

28.8 

37.9 

39.8 

24.4 

28.8 

25.1 

23.4 

27.2 

24.5 

5.5 

6.6 

5.4 

8.9 

8.6 

4.3 

10.5 

9.3 

5.7 

Composite achievement test 

score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

85.3 

88.6 

90.2 

90.7 

55.5 

59.2 

58.9 

60.7 

56.1 

59.9 

60.9 

61.3 

28.2 

35.6 

39.0 

41.0 

24.4 

26.5 

26.8 

27.6 

25.3 

26.2 

25.8 

25.1 

5.7 

7.3 

6.5 

4.0 

11.1 

8.4 

6.6 

4.0 

11.5 

10.7 

8.0 

4.9 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

88.5 

87.1 

89.0 

58.4 

64.3 

64.5 

59.6 

60.4 

60.2 

35.4 

40.7 

34.3 

26.7 

31.3 

22.7 

25.8 

25.1 

19.3 

6.1 

3.8 

5.7 

8.1 

4.2 

4.6 

9.0 

4.4 

3.7 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

87.5 

92.1 

85.3 

89.5 

65.5 

64.7 

51.8 

57.2 

67.8 

68.6 

55.4 

49.7 

36.0 

39.6 

31.4 

37.1 

29.8 

33.5 

21.5 

24.2 

30.0 

32.6 

22.2 

19.4 

4.8 

6.1 

6.7 

5.9 

6.6 

9.0 

7.9 

6.8 

8.7 

10.7 

9.0 

5.9 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. There were 

some changes in the structure and wording of the items over the surveys. With regard to whether the sophomore had ever worked 

for pay, the 1980 questionnaire wording was “How old were you when you first worked for pay, not counting work around the 

house?” Implicit in this question is the assumption that most students would have had some paid work experience, even if only an 

odd job. “Never worked for pay” was at the end of the list of age response options (ranging from age 11 or younger to 20 or older). 

In 1990, the question was worded “Are you currently employed or have you ever been employed?” Unlike the question in 1980, this 

question does not presume that these students had work experience. The word “employed” suggests a more formal and regular 

work arrangement that fewer sophomores would have had than casual “work for pay.” In 2002, the question phraseology used 

phrases from both 1980 and 1990. The stem used the question “Have you ever worked for pay, not counting work around the 

house?” similar to 1980. However, as in 1990, the 2002 question did not assume work experience, and the response options written 

on the questionnaire used the word “employed” similar to 1990. The 2002 question on number of hours worked used an open format 

in which students were asked to enter the number of hours worked, while the 1980 and 1990 questionnaire listed hour ranges from 

which the student selected a response. The base for calculation of percentage working more than 20 hours per week included all 

sophomores in each of the 3 years. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

74 
Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

Changes that took place in the structure and wording of the employment items over the 

surveys preclude some direct comparisons between the 1980 data and the 1990 and 2002 data. 

With regard to whether the sophomore had ever worked for pay, the 1980 questionnaire wording 

was “How old were you when you first worked for pay, not counting work around the house?” 

Implicit in this question is the assumption that most students would have had some paid work 

experience, even if only an odd job. “Never worked for pay” was at the end of the list of age 

category response options, and the age categories listed started with age 11 or younger, thus 

seemingly implying the inclusion of casual work arrangements. In contrast, in 1990, the question 

was worded “Are you currently employed or have you ever been employed?” Unlike the 

question in 1980, this question does not presume that these students had work experience. 

Furthermore, the word “employed” suggests a more formal and regular work arrangement that 

fewer sophomores would have had than casual “work for pay.” In 2002, the question 

phraseology was a hybrid between 1980 and 1990. The stem used the question “Have you ever 

worked for pay, not counting work around the house?” similar to 1980. However, as in 1990, the 

2002 question did not assume work experience, and the response options written on the 

questionnaire used the word “employed” similar to 1990. Thus, cues in 1980 may have led 

HS&B respondents to report any paid work outside of the home such as an occasional odd job. In 

contrast, the cues in the questions in 1990 and 2002 may have led their counterparts to exclude 

such work. Not surprising, almost 9 of every 10 sophomores (88 percent) in 1980 indicated (by 

giving the age they first worked for pay) that they had worked for pay outside of their home at 

some point, whereas about 6 of every 10 sophomores reported that they had ever “been 

employed” in 1990 and 2002 (59 and 60 percent, respectively) (table 25). 

In 1980, 36 percent of students reported “working for pay, not counting work around the 

house” during their sophomore year of high school, whereas in 1990 and 2002, 27 and 26 

percent, respectively, reported “being employed” in the school year (table 25). The difference 

between the 1980 proportion and the 1990 and 2002 proportions may also be partially 

attributable to the definition of work that students were using. 

The final columns in table 25 display the proportion of all sophomores (including those 

not working at all in the base for the calculation) that worked more than 20 hours per week at the 

time of survey completion in the spring term of 2004. Six percent worked more than 20 hours per 

week in 1980, 8 percent in 1990, and 9 percent in 2002. 

Within each cohort, a greater percentage of male sophomores than female sophomores 

reported to have ever worked for pay (table 25). A greater percentage of White sophomores than 

Black and Hispanic sophomores had some work experience and were working when surveyed in 

each of the time periods; however, no differences were detected in the percentage working more 

than 20 hours in 1990 and 2002. 

5.3 Unstructured Social Activities 

This section examines three unstructured social activities included in each of the surveys: 

driving around in a car, visiting with friends or meeting at a hangout, and talking on the 

telephone. These activities represent three ways in which high school students may interact with 

their peers. 

75 
Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

Between 1980 and 1990, the percentage of sophomores who reported that they drove 

around in a car at least once a week increased from 47 percent to 56 percent (figure 13 and 

table 26). Between 1990 and 2002, no differences were detected. Most subgroups also 

experienced this increase in driving around between 1980 and 1990.26 For example, while 43 

percent of female sophomores in 1980 drove at least once a week, 54 percent of their 

counterparts did so 10 years later. The percentage of Black sophomores who reported driving or 

riding around at least once a week increased over the 22-year period and was 38 percent in 1980, 

50 percent in 1990, and 59 percent in 2002. 

Figure 13. Percentage of high school sophomores, by engagement in various activities 

at least once or twice a week: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

 

Activity 

Driving or riding 

around 

Visiting with friends or 

meeting at hangout 

Talking with friends 

on telephone 

74 

79 

58 

80 

66 

56 

77 

67 

47 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

1980 

1990 

2002 

Percent 

 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

26 No differences were detected for American Indian or Hispanic sophomores or those from high SES households, the 

West, or other private schools. 

76 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

Table 26. Percentage of high school sophomores who report that they engage in various 

activities at least once or twice a week, by selected student characteristics: 

1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

 All sophomores 

Driving or riding around 

1980 1990 2002 

47.1 56.1 58.3 

Visiting with friends or 

meeting at a hangout 

1980 1990 2002 

67.2 66.3 79.4 

Talking with friends 

on the telephone 

1980 1990 2002 

76.6 80.1 74.1 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

51.0 

43.3 

57.9 

54.3 

59.5 

57.1 

69.4 

65.2 

69.5 

63.1 

80.3 

78.6 

66.5 

86.2 

72.5 

87.7 

64.9 

83.3 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska 

Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

51.6 

31.5 

38.0 

46.6 

† 

49.0 

53.3 

44.0 

50.1 

47.6 

† 

58.9 

75.6 

39.3 

59.1 

46.5 

55.6 

62.4 

62.2 

55.3 

64.8 

60.2 

† 

68.7 

70.4 

57.1 

59.1 

59.3 

† 

68.7 

78.6 

69.2 

73.8 

71.1 

78.7 

83.7 

59.4 

67.7 

73.3 

68.6 

† 

78.4 

65.1 

78.3 

79.6 

72.4 

† 

81.7 

64.4 

65.2 

80.0 

67.9 

75.8 

75.0 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

43.1 

49.5 

47.2 

55.1 

58.3 

52.0 

56.6 

60.5 

55.7 

61.2 

68.7 

70.8 

62.6 

68.0 

66.2 

74.3 

80.5 

82.2 

68.6 

78.2 

83.0 

72.2 

81.9 

83.5 

69.7 

75.9 

74.7 

Composite achievement test 

 score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

48.9 

51.1 

47.9 

39.7 

59.6 

62.0 

57.8 

45.8 

59.2 

63.6 

59.4 

51.2 

65.0 

69.1 

69.7 

64.8 

66.1 

69.0 

68.5 

61.1 

74.3 

81.7 

82.6 

79.1 

72.3 

77.3 

78.9 

78.2 

74.8 

80.9 

83.9 

80.4 

72.1 

75.9 

75.1 

73.2 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

47.7 

40.3 

43.9 

57.1 

51.6 

39.6 

58.6 

55.2 

53.5 

66.9 

71.4 

65.3 

65.9 

75.8 

58.7 

79.3 

84.4 

75.7 

76.1 

81.7 

79.2 

79.9 

86.8 

77.6 

73.8 

79.8 

74.0 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

37.8 

49.9 

50.3 

48.8 

45.3 

60.3 

60.9 

52.5 

46.7 

64.8 

63.9 

52.5 

69.6 

65.7 

67.3 

65.6 

69.2 

67.8 

64.9 

63.7 

80.9 

82.7 

78.2 

76.6 

76.7 

77.1 

76.5 

75.7 

82.9 

80.9 

79.6 

77.6 

74.1 

75.0 

77.0 

68.8 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and 

NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless 

of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

77 
 

 

Chapter 5: Afterschool Activities 

About two-thirds of the 1980 and 1990 cohort reported visiting with friends or meeting at 

a hangout at least once a week (67 percent in 1980 and 66 percent in 1990). By 2002, the 

proportion of sophomores who reported hanging out with peers at least once each week had 

increased over 1980 and 1990 to nearly 80 percent (79 percent), making this the most common 

of these three social activities in 2002. Virtually all subgroups more frequently reported visiting 

with friends at least weekly in 2002 than in 1990.27 All but two of these increases exceeded 10 

percentage points. In terms of race and ethnicity, a greater percentage of White sophomores than 

Blacks and Hispanics reported that they visited with friends at least once a week in both 1990 

and 2002. 

Of the three activities, talking on the telephone with friends was the most popular social 

activity in 1980 and 1990 but not in 2002. The proportion of sophomores who communicated 

with their friends in this way at least once a week was 77 percent in 1980 and 80 percent in 1990. 

Between 1990 and 2002, there was a decline in the percentage reporting that they communicated 

by phone (from 80 percent to 74 percent). A greater percentage of females than males at each of 

the three time periods talked with their friends on the telephone (for example, 83 percent of 

females and 65 percent of males in 2002 reported talking with friends on the phone at least once 

a week). 

5.4 Summary 

In addition to the growth and learning that takes place in the classroom, afterschool 

activities play an important role in adolescent development. Evidence from the three surveys 

indicates that high school sophomores are active in a number of domains: extracurricular 

activities, the workplace, and unstructured social activities. Of all extracurricular activities, 

athletics are the most popular among sophomores, with participation rates remaining steady 

across each of the three cohorts. Conversely, involvement in academic clubs declined between 

1980 and 2002, although part of the apparent decline may also be attributable to changes in the 

questionnaire wording. In addition to school-sponsored activities, the majority of sophomores 

report spending some time in the paid labor force. Although there appears to be a decline in the 

proportion of employed sophomores over the three surveys, changes in question wording 

preclude a firm conclusion. Lastly, the evidence on unstructured social activities suggests that 

sophomores have increasingly active social lives: between 1980 and 2002, there was a rise in the 

proportion of sophomores reporting that they visit and drive around in cars with their friends. 

27 The one exception was American Indian students. 

78 
 

Chapter 6 

Life Values 

High school cohort data from High School and Beyond (HS&B), the National Education 

Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), and the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002) provide an opportunity to characterize and contrast the 1980, 1990, and 2002 

sophomores in terms of their values related to work, friendship, leisure, family, and community. 

All comparisons in this chapter are based on identically worded items across the three surveys.28 

Given these continuities, differences across cohorts can be interpreted as a cohort change with a 

relatively high degree of confidence. In this chapter, an overview of the relative value placed on 

various life values is noted and then the values are discussed by topic headings. The chapter 

includes the following sections: 

6.1 Relative Importance of the Life Values; 

6.2 Work and Money; 

6.3 Friendship and Leisure; 

6.4 Family Life and Children; and 

6.5 Community and Social Values. 

6.1 Relative Importance of the Life Values 

Figure 14 summarizes the national data for the life value items for the three points in time 

(1980, 1990, and 2002). Among 12 items included on the surveys, 80 percent or more of high 

school sophomores consistently rated 3 items as being very important to them. These items were 

being successful in work, being able to find steady work, and having strong friendships. 

The percentage of sophomores indicating that giving children better opportunities was 

very important increased from 73 percent to 80 percent between 1980 and 2002 (figure 14). 

However, the value “finding the right person to marry/having a happy family life” went in the 

opposite direction in the same time period. The proportion rating this value as very important 

decreased from 83 percent in 1980 to 76 percent in 2002. Fewer sophomores rated having 

children as very important than rated giving children better opportunities or marrying the right 

person/having a happy family life in each of the years. However, a higher proportion of 

respondents indicated that having children was very important in 2002 than in 1980 (41 percent 

in 1980 and 47 percent in 2002). 

Although steady and successful work experiences were very important to the majority of 

sophomores in each year, having lots of money was rated as very important to less than half of 

each cohort. When first measured in 1980, 35 percent of sophomores evaluated having a lot of 

money as very important. Ten years later, 44 percent of sophomores placed this much 

importance on having a lot of money. No difference was detected between 1990 and 2002. 

28 The items used in this chapter are identical with the exception of an additional item added in 1990 and 2002. 

Sophomores were asked to rate how important “Helping other people in my community” was to them. 

79 
Chapter 6: Life Values 

Figure 14. Percentage of high school sophomores, by various life values reported as 

being very important to them: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

 

Life value 

Being successful in my line of work 

Being able to find steady work 

Having strong friendships 

Giving children better opportunities 

Finding the right person to marry/having 

happy family life 

Having leisure time 

Having children 

Having lots of money 

Helping other people in community 

Living close to parents and relatives 

Getting away from area of country 

Working to correct social inequalities 

19 

21 

30 

36 

42 

47 

68 

76 

80 

83 

84 

86 

19 

18 

25 

33 

44 

43 

65 

77 

76 

80 

85 

85 

14 

15 

21 

35 

41 

70 

83 

73 

82 

84 

85 

† 

1980 

1990 

2002 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

Percent 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The value “Helping other people in the community” was included only in the 1990 and 2002 studies. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

80 
Chapter 6: Life Values 

Living close to parents and relatives and getting away from one’s area of the country 

were each rated as very important more frequently in 2002 than in 1980. However, overall, these 

items were among those least frequently rated as very important at each of the three time points 

(ranging from 15 percent in 1980 to 21 percent in 2002 for getting away from the area and from 

21 percent in 1980 to 30 percent in 2002 for living close to parents and relatives). 

Helping others in the community was included only in 1990 and 2002 and was rated as 

very important by about one-third of students in 1990 (33 percent) and 36 percent in 2002 

(figure 14). Working to correct social inequalities was included in each of the years; while it was 

among the least frequently ranked as very important in each year, 14 percent indicated it was 

very important to them in 1980 and 19 percent so indicated in 1990 and 2002. 

6.2 Work and Money 

As noted above, success at work and being able to find steady work were rated as very 

important by 80 percent or more of high school sophomores in each of the years. There were also 

some consistent differences across subgroups. A greater percentage of sophomores from 

households in the highest socioeconomic status (SES) quarter than sophomores from households 

in the lowest SES quarter rated success at work as very important (for example, 90 percent 

among the highest SES quarter and 79 percent among the lowest SES quarter in 1990) (table 27). 

Similarly, in each cohort, a larger percentage of 10th-graders who scored in the highest quarter 

on the achievement test than 10th-graders who performed in the lowest quarter rated this value as 

very important (for example, 91 percent in the highest achievement quarter compared with 77 

percent in the lowest quarter in 2002). Even so, each year at least three-quarters of sophomores 

from households in the lowest SES quarter and the lowest test quarter gave success at work the 

highest rating. 

With regard to the value placed on money, there was an increased frequency (from 35 

percent to 44 percent) of rating this value as very important between 1980 and 1990 and no 

differences detected between 1990 and 2002 (table 27). In each cohort, a greater percentage of 

males than females rated having lots of money as very important to them (for example, 44 

percent of males and 26 percent of females in 1980, and 51 percent of males and 33 percent of 

females in 2002). 

In 1980, no differences were detected across the SES quarters in the percentages of 

sophomores that rated having lots of money as very important; however, in both 1990 and 2002, 

a smaller percentage of sophomores from households in the top SES quarter than sophomores 

from households in the lower SES groups indicated that having lots of money was very 

important to them (table 27). In addition, in each of the three cohorts (1980, 1990, and 2002), a 

smaller percentage of sophomores in the highest achievement score quarter than the lowest 

quarter indicated monetary success as being very important to them. For example, in 2002, 

approximately 3 of every 10 sophomores in the highest achievement quarter considered having 

lots of money to be very important compared with approximately half of all sophomores in the 

lowest achievement quarter. 

81 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 6: Life Values 

Table 27. Percentage of high school sophomores who report that various life values 

related to work are very important to them, by selected student characteristics: 

1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Being successful in my 

line of work 

1980 1990 2002 

Being able to find 

steady work 

1980 1990 2002 

Having lots of money 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 85.2 84.7 86.3 84.4 84.8 84.3 34.6 43.5 42.1 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

85.3 

85.4 

83.9 

85.5 

84.1 

88.5 

86.4 

82.6 

83.2 

86.4 

81.9 

86.7 

43.7 

25.6 

52.3 

34.7 

51.0 

33.3 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska 

 Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

81.5 

82.8 

87.1 

81.5 

† 

85.4 

68.1 

86.8 

88.2 

82.2 

† 

84.6 

83.1 

84.4 

88.2 

83.2 

84.1 

87.0 

77.8 

81.1 

85.1 

82.2 

† 

84.6 

81.0 

83.1 

85.6 

83.0 

† 

85.1 

87.3 

80.6 

85.1 

80.7 

81.0 

85.5 

32.5 

35.7 

48.4 

37.4 

† 

31.8 

51.7 

49.3 

56.3 

45.3 

† 

40.5 

47.3 

47.6 

60.4 

45.5 

45.6 

36.4 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

81.4 

85.6 

89.4 

78.6 

85.1 

89.8 

81.9 

86.9 

89.1 

82.7 

85.0 

85.3 

82.3 

85.0 

86.5 

81.9 

84.6 

85.9 

35.0 

33.6 

35.1 

46.1 

44.7 

39.0 

47.3 

42.6 

36.2 

Composite achievement test 

 score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

78.6 

86.1 

89.2 

88.2 

74.4 

84.1 

87.8 

91.5 

76.7 

85.8 

90.6 

91.4 

80.0 

86.5 

87.1 

84.4 

77.2 

86.5 

86.7 

87.1 

76.9 

86.5 

87.6 

85.7 

43.5 

36.2 

30.0 

27.3 

53.2 

47.6 

42.5 

34.2 

55.5 

46.9 

37.6 

29.5 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

85.1 

87.6 

84.7 

84.2 

90.4 

89.9 

86.0 

92.2 

86.5 

84.3 

84.8 

83.7 

84.7 

86.7 

86.8 

84.2 

88.2 

81.6 

35.1 

30.0 

29.3 

44.3 

42.1 

27.5 

42.7 

36.1 

33.6 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

86.5 

84.1 

85.3 

85.2 

87.5 

83.8 

85.8 

81.7 

87.5 

85.9 

87.9 

83.3 

85.6 

84.4 

83.7 

83.9 

85.4 

83.9 

85.7 

84.2 

84.9 

84.2 

85.7 

82.0 

38.1 

30.8 

35.2 

34.8 

45.3 

42.2 

44.6 

41.7 

44.9 

38.5 

43.6 

41.5 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

82 
Chapter 6: Life Values 

6.3 Friendship and Leisure 

Although most sophomores in each cohort placed a great deal of emphasis on work in 

their life, most also considered having strong friendships to be very important. Overall, about 

80 percent of each cohort rated strong friendships as very important to them (table 28). As with 

the other life values discussed thus far, sophomores in differing SES and academic achievement 

quarters also differed in the frequency with which they rated strong friendships as very 

important. Similar to the importance given to work accomplishments and job stability, in general, 

a greater percentage of sophomores from highest SES households and those who scored the 

highest on academic achievement tests rated strong friendships as very important compared with 

their respective counterparts in the lowest quarter (table 28). For example, in 2002, about 76 

percent of sophomores from households in the lowest SES quarter and sophomores who scored 

in the lowest achievement test score quarter rated friendships as very important compared with 

88 percent of their counterparts in the highest quarter. Similar patterns were found among their 

predecessors in the 1980 and 1990 cohorts. 

The percentage of sophomores who indicated that having leisure time was very important 

to them ranged between 70 percent in 1980 to 65 percent in 1990 (table 28). In each cohort, a 

smaller percentage of sophomores from households in the lowest SES quarter than sophomores 

from households in the highest quarter rated having free time to pursue their own interests as 

very important to them. For example, in 2002, 60 percent of sophomores from households in the 

lowest SES quarter rated leisure time as very important, while 74 percent of sophomores from 

households in the highest SES quarter so indicated. Likewise, a smaller percentage of those who 

were in the lowest achievement test quarter gave great weight to leisure time than those who 

scored in the highest quarter. These differences were consistent across cohorts. 

83 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 6: Life Values 

Table 28. Percentage of high school sophomores who report that having strong 

friendships and having leisure time are very important to them, by selected 

student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Having strong friendships 

1980 1990 2002 

Having leisure time to enjoy 

own interests 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 81.5 80.2 82.8 70.0 65.0 68.1 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

79.4 

84.0 

76.9 

83.5 

79.3 

86.2 

70.9 

69.4 

65.1 

64.9 

68.8 

67.4 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

73.6 

81.7 

64.2 

73.4 

† 

85.5 

72.8 

84.9 

66.7 

70.4 

† 

83.9 

83.1 

85.5 

71.7 

75.7 

81.7 

86.9 

61.1 

69.7 

68.1 

62.5 

† 

71.2 

58.0 

63.6 

60.0 

59.2 

† 

66.8 

57.1 

66.8 

67.8 

61.1 

68.1 

70.2 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

74.6 

82.5 

87.6 

73.3 

80.4 

86.6 

76.0 

83.5 

87.7 

64.3 

69.7 

76.6 

59.4 

64.9 

71.0 

59.6 

69.0 

74.4 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

70.8 

80.8 

86.0 

88.9 

68.9 

79.6 

83.5 

86.9 

73.8 

81.9 

86.8 

88.0 

62.9 

67.6 

72.3 

77.1 

57.6 

63.3 

67.5 

70.7 

58.9 

68.1 

71.0 

73.8 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

80.8 

88.5 

85.9 

79.8 

86.1 

85.3 

82.2 

89.9 

88.3 

69.8 

71.5 

72.5 

65.5 

67.9 

58.8 

67.8 

72.4 

70.5 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

81.6 

82.7 

79.5 

82.9 

80.6 

83.1 

78.3 

80.3 

81.9 

84.9 

82.0 

82.4 

73.3 

69.9 

67.5 

70.2 

68.6 

64.2 

63.4 

67.0 

69.8 

67.2 

68.5 

67.2 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

84 
Chapter 6: Life Values 

6.4 Family Life and Children 

There was a decline in the frequency with which sophomores indicated that finding the 

right person to marry and having a happy family life was very important between 1980 and 1990 

(from 83 percent in 1980 to 77 percent in 1990 and 76 percent in 2002), with no differences 

detected between 1990 and 2002 (table 29). Across the three time points, a greater percentage of 

females than males indicated that they considered finding the right person to marry and having a 

happy family life to be very important (for example, in 2002, 79 percent of females and 73 

percent of males so indicated). In 1980, no differences were detected between sophomores in the 

lowest and highest SES quarters in their rating of importance on finding the right person to 

marry/having a happy family life. However, in 2002, 71 percent of sophomores from households 

in the lowest SES quarter and 81 percent in the highest quarter so indicated. A similar pattern 

was found in 1990. 

Not surprisingly perhaps, for all three cohorts, a greater percentage of sophomores from 

households in the lowest SES quarter than sophomores from households in the highest SES 

quarter indicated that giving children better opportunities than they had was very important to 

them (table 29). For example, in 1980, 79 percent of sophomores from households in the lowest 

SES quarter rated giving better opportunities to children as very important compared with 65 

percent of sophomores from households in the highest SES quarter; in 2002, 84 percent of 

sophomores from households in the lowest quarter and 74 percent in the highest quarter indicated 

that giving children better opportunities was very important. 

In contrast to the overall decline in importance of finding the right person to 

marry/having a happy family life, there was an increase between 1980 and 2002 in the 

percentage of sophomores who felt that having children was very important to them (from 41 

percent to 47 percent) (table 29). This type of increase took place for both females and males 

between 1980 and 2002. The percentage indicating that having children was very important to 

them increased from 44 percent in 1980 to 50 percent in 2002 for females and from 38 percent to 

45 percent for males. Across the cohorts, a greater percentage of White than Black sophomores 

and a greater percentage of Catholic than public school sophomores considered having children 

to be very important. 

85 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 6: Life Values 

Table 29. Percentage of high school sophomores who report that various life values 

related to family are very important to them, by selected student 

characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Finding right person to 

marry and having a 

happy family life 

1980 1990 2002 

Having children 

1980 1990 2002 

Being able to give my 

children better 

opportunities than I’ve 

had 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 82.9 76.7 76.4 40.8 43.2 47.4 72.6 75.6 80.3 

Sex 

Male 79.8 72.8 73.4 37.8 39.6 45.1 72.4 72.9 78.9 

Female 86.0 80.5 79.3 43.6 46.7 49.7 72.3 78.3 81.6 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska

 Native 70.2 58.7 71.3 28.8 41.1 36.5 73.3 76.4 87.8 

Asian or Pacific Islander 81.0 75.1 76.9 36.6 38.8 42.1 78.7 80.0 79.6 

Black or African American 78.4 72.4 71.9 31.4 30.8 40.7 84.3 87.1 88.3 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

80.8 

† 

74.0 

† 

71.5 

71.0 

40.4 

† 

43.5 

† 

42.4 

44.8 

80.7 

† 

85.7 

† 

85.6 

77.8 

White 84.2 78.3 79.1 42.8 45.5 50.8 69.5 71.9 77.2 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

81.5 

83.6 

83.5 

73.4 

76.4 

80.4 

71.4 

76.6 

80.9 

38.6 

41.5 

42.5 

39.0 

42.1 

50.5 

43.5 

47.3 

51.2 

79.1 

72.9 

65.2 

81.6 

76.7 

67.3 

83.6 

81.6 

74.4 

Composite achievement test 

 score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

79.6 

83.8 

85.2 

84.0 

69.5 

75.5 

78.3 

81.7 

70.4 

75.2 

79.0 

80.7 

38.5 

41.6 

43.0 

40.4 

38.6 

41.9 

45.1 

47.8 

44.2 

46.4 

48.7 

50.0 

76.7 

76.2 

72.8 

64.2 

75.9 

79.8 

77.2 

67.8 

80.6 

84.4 

82.5 

73.6 

School sector 

Public 82.8 76.3 75.9 40.2 42.0 46.8 73.2 75.8 80.7 

Catholic 85.7 79.0 82.2 49.1 51.6 57.0 68.2 73.0 77.1 

Other private 82.1 82.8 83.2 41.2 61.4 51.2 63.6 69.6 71.5 

Region 

Northeast 82.5 77.2 76.5 41.7 47.9 48.1 71.5 73.5 77.6 

Midwest 83.0 75.4 76.7 40.6 41.4 47.9 67.7 71.7 78.2 

South 83.6 78.3 77.9 40.3 42.5 48.5 78.7 79.3 83.8 

West 82.3 75.2 73.8 40.6 43.1 44.7 70.4 75.3 79.4 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

86 
 

 

Chapter 6: Life Values 

6.5 Community and Social Values 

The two social values measured in the studies were helping others in the community 

(asked in 1990 and 2002) and working to correct social inequalities (asked in 1980, 1990, and 

2002). About one-third of both 1990 and 2002 cohorts indicated that it was very important to 

them to help other people in their community (33 percent in 1990 and 36 percent in 2002); 

however, a greater percentage of female sophomores than their male classmates indicated that 

helping others in their community was very important (for example, in 2002, 30 percent of males 

and 43 percent of females so indicated) (table 30). Among the racial/ethnic groups, a greater 

percentage of Black sophomores in each cohort (45 percent) indicated that helping others in their 

community was very important to them compared with between 29 percent and 38 percent of 

their counterparts of different racial and ethnic backgrounds.29 

When sophomores were asked about working to correct social and economic inequalities, 

whether in their local community or in society at large, 14 percent in the 1980 cohort and 19 

percent in both 1990 and 2002 reported that this was very important to them in their life. In each 

of the three time periods, a smaller percentage of Whites than Blacks or Hispanics indicated that 

working to correct social and economic inequalities was important to them in their life. For 

example, in 2002, 15 percent of Whites indicated that working to correct economic and social 

inequalities was important, whereas 29 percent of Blacks and Hispanics so indicated. Those in 

the highest quarter of the SES distribution were also less likely than those in the lowest quarter 

of the SES distribution to indicate that working to correct social and economic inequalities was 

important to their life (for example, in 2002, 16 percent of those in the highest quarter of the SES 

distribution compared with 25 percent so indicated). 

6.6 Summary 

In summary, in each of the three cohorts, 70 percent or more of high school sophomores 

rated being successful at work, holding a steady job, having close friends, being happily married, 

and providing better opportunities for their children as very important to them in their life. In 

contrast, having a lot of money, having children, living near parents and relatives, getting away 

from their area of the country, helping others in the community, and working to correct social 

and economic inequalities were very important to less than half of each cohort. The importance 

of three life values increased between 1980 and 2002: having lots of money, having children, and 

giving children better opportunities. Although successful jobs and family lives remain very 

important to high school sophomores, there was a decline in the proportion reporting that finding 

the right person to marry and having a happy family life was very important to them. 

29 However, no difference was detected between Black and American Indian sophomores in the 1990 cohort. 

87 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 6: Life Values 

Table 30. Percentage of high school sophomores who report that various life values 

related to community are very important to them, by selected student 

characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

 All sophomores 

Helping other people in 

community 

1980 1990 2002 

— 32.8 36.3 

Working to correct social and 

economic inequalities 

1980 1990 2002 

14.4 19.2 19.3 

Sex 

Male 

Female

— 

— 

26.2 

39.4 

29.9 

42.6 

13.6 

14.7 

17.4 

20.9 

18.7 

20.0 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

35.4 

33.0 

44.5 

35.9 

† 

30.3 

29.4 

38.2 

45.2 

37.3 

36.0 

34.0 

16.1 

21.3 

25.8 

20.4 

† 

11.6 

30.3 

22.4 

29.3 

26.8 

† 

15.9 

26.6 

21.5 

28.8 

28.9 

16.5 

14.8 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

— 

— 

— 

36.1 

31.2 

32.8 

38.7 

35.0 

36.6 

16.6 

13.5 

13.9 

21.8 

18.3 

16.9 

25.2 

18.2 

16.0 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

— 

— 

— 

— 

36.7 

31.3 

30.5 

29.9 

41.9 

36.7 

33.7 

33.3 

18.5 

14.2 

12.1 

12.5 

22.5 

18.9 

17.5 

15.8 

28.7 

20.5 

15.3 

13.5 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

— 

— 

— 

32.0 

33.3 

40.8 

36.1 

36.2 

40.9 

14.6 

12.8 

12.9 

19.0 

17.2 

16.4 

19.6 

15.8 

17.5 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

— 

— 

— 

— 

30.4 

28.2 

36.7 

32.5 

32.3 

33.9 

40.5 

35.8 

14.6 

11.8 

16.6 

14.4 

18.4 

16.6 

20.2 

19.7 

18.3 

16.8 

20.4 

21.3 

— Not available. 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. The value “Helping other people in the community” was included only 

in the 1990 and 2002 studies. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

88 
 

Chapter 7 

Plans and Expectations 

This final chapter explores the educational and occupational expectations of high school 

sophomores, discussing overall change in the three time periods (1980, 1990, and 2002) and 

considering in more detail the data by student characteristics. This chapter also reports high 

school sophomores’ plans for timing their postsecondary education and whether sophomores 

perceive that their parents, teachers, and counselors consider it very important that they attend 

college. The chapter includes the following sections: 

7.1 Educational Expectations; 

7.2 Perceptions of Parent, Counselor, and Teacher Views on Attending College; 

7.3 Continuing Education Right After High School; and 

7.4 Occupational Expectations. 

7.1 Educational Expectations 

Data from High School and Beyond (HS&B), the National Longitudinal Study of 1988 

(NELS:88), and the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) indicate that educational 

expectations of high school sophomores were higher in 2002 than in 1980 (see table 31 and 

figure 15). The percentage expecting a 4-year college degree increased from 23 percent in 1980 

to 40 percent in 2002, and the percentage expecting a graduate or professional degree increased 

from 18 percent to 40 percent. Taken together, the percentage expecting a 4-year college degree 

or postgraduate degree was 41 percent in 1980 and 79 percent in 2002. Conversely, the 

percentage expecting that a high school diploma would be their highest degree declined. In 1980, 

about one-fourth indicated that “as things stood now” they expected a high school diploma or 

less to be their highest level of education. By 2002, the percentage anticipating high school or 

less as their highest degree had declined to 9 percent. Since 1980, the percentage of students 

expecting a 2-year or vocational degree also declined, going from 33 percent in 1980 to 12 

percent in 2002. 

7.1.1 Sex and educational expectations 

Census data on educational participation by sex have documented differences between 

males and females in college participation. For example, Current Population Survey (CPS) data 

for 2000 show that 70 percent of female high school graduates aged 14 to 24 had some college 

participation, compared with 64 percent of male high school graduates (U.S. Census Bureau 

2003a). Earlier CPS data from 1967 show a higher percentage of males than females attending 

college (59 percent for males and 45 percent for females in 1967), but by 1980 the percentages 

began to even out (51 percent for both males and females). After 1990, females consistently 

show higher participation. These data concerning gender differences over time in actual 

postsecondary participation may provide greater context for viewing gender differences in 

sophomores’ reports of their future educational expectations. 

89 
Table 31. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to attain various levels of postsecondary 

selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

90 

Characteristic 

High school diploma 

or less 

1980 1990 2002 

Two years or less of college 

or vocational school 

1980 1990 2002 

College graduate 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 26.5 10.2 9.2 32.9 30.3 11.5 22.7 32.1 39.7 Sex 

Male Female 

28.0 23.4 

11.0 

9.4 

12.5 

5.8 

31.7 

34.2 

32.3 

28.3 

13.2 

9.7 

22.4 

23.8 

32.9 

31.4 

41.5 

37.8 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native Asian or Pacific Islander Black or African American Hispanic or Latino More than one race White 

35.7 

11.7 

26.3 

33.7 

† 

25.9 

18.8 

8.2 

11.1 

14.3 

† 

9.4 

12.1 

4.9 

10.5 

13.5 

9.0 

8.0 

32.9 

21.5 32.7 

33.7 

† 

33.1 

43.0 

21.7 30.2 

38.5 

† 

29.5 

12.0 

8.2 

12.6 

13.9 

9.5 

10.9 

17.2 

32.4 21.8 

17.0 † 

23.4 

21.8 

31.4 

28.2 

25.5 

† 

33.9 

36.1 

37.2 40.8 

40.2 

38.2 

39.6 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter Middle quarters Highest quarter 

45.1 

25.5 

7.4 

21.4 

8.4 1.5 

16.8 

8.9 

2.5 

32.8 

38.0 

23.3 

42.1 

32.7 

11.9 

17.0 

12.4 

4.6 

12.9 

22.1 

34.6 

21.6 

34.1 

39.1 

38.2 

41.5 

37.6 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter Second quarter Third quarter Highest quarter 

47.5 

32.3 

18.5 

7.0 

21.4 

11.8 

5.4 

1.7 

24.1 

9.1 

3.7 

1.0 

33.1 

40.5 

37.8 

21.2 

46.3 

40.7 

26.3 

10.6 

20.1 

15.3 

8.0 

3.4 

11.8 

16.7 26.5 

35.6 

19.8 

30.5 

38.6 

38.6 

35.3 

44.9 

43.1 

35.5 

School sector 

Public Catholic Other private 

28.1 

9.8 

12.3 

10.9 

3.2 

4.1 

9.7 1.2 

3.9 

33.5 27.1 27.1 

32.1 12.2 

13.1 

12.1 

3.9 

4.8 

21.6 

33.2 32.2 

31.4 

42.1 

35.1 

39.8 41.2 

35.8 

See notes at end of table. 
Table 31. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to attain various levels of postsecondary e

selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

High school diploma 

or less 

Two years or less of college 

or vocational school College graduate 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

Region 

Northeast 25.0 9.3 7.8 30.3 24.9 9.6 

24.1 

35.5 41.7 

Midwest 28.6 10.4 9.2 32.4 31.3 12.4 

22.4 

32.3 39.1 

South 28.3 10.6 8.9 33.9 30.2 10.9 21.7 32.1 39.6 

West 21.8 9.9 10.6 34.8 33.8 12.9 23.3 29.1 38.7 

† Not applicable. NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requiremen

race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 1980”

Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002

91 
Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

Figure 15. Percentage of high school sophomores, by educational expectation level: 

1980, 1990, and 2002 

Graduate or professional 

College graduate 

Two years of college or 

vocational school 

High school diploma or 

less 

Percent 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

1980 

27 

10 9 

33 

30 

12 

23 

32 

40 

18 

27 

40 

1990 2002 

Year 

 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

92 
 

Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002 data on sophomore educational expectations also show 

increasing divergence by sex. In 1980, 40 percent of males and 42 percent of females expected a 

4-year college degree or higher. In 2002, 74 percent of males and 84 percent of females expected 

this level of education (figure 16). 

Figure 16. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to obtain a bachelor’s, 

graduate, or professional degree as highest degree, by sex: 1980, 1990, and 

2002 

 

Sex 

Female 

Male 

74 

85 

56 

62 

40 

42 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

1980 

1990 

2002 

Percent 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

The expectations of high school sophomores in each year represent a substantial increase 

upward from their parents’ educational attainment, and as noted above, this is especially so 

among female students. For example, in 1980, 5 percent of mothers of sophomores participating 

in HS&B held postgraduate degrees (master’s, Ph.D., or other advanced degree), whereas 

19 percent of female sophomore participants expected to obtain a postgraduate degree (table 6 

and figure 16). In 2002, 8 percent of mothers of sophomore participants in ELS:2002 held 

postgraduate degrees, whereas 47 percent of the female sophomores expected to earn a 

postgraduate degree. 

7.1.2 Racial/ethnic group and educational expectations 

Figure 17 combines the two categories (4-year college degree and graduate or 

professional degree) and presents the data by racial/ethnic group. In 1980, expectations of a 

4-year degree or higher ranged from 31 percent to 33 percent for American Indian and Hispanic 

sophomores to 67 percent for Asians. By 2002, the range was from 73 percent for Hispanic 

students to 87 percent for Asians. No measurable difference was detected between Black and 

White expectations for a 4-year degree. Rates for Black sophomores went from 41 percent 

expecting a 4-year degree or higher in 1980 to 58 percent in 1990 to 77 percent in 2002. Rates 

93 
 

Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

for White sophomores went from 41 percent in 1980 to 61 percent in 1990 to 81 percent 

expecting a 4-year degree or higher in 2002. 

Figure 17. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to obtain a bachelor’s, 

graduate, or professional degree as highest degree, by race/ethnicity: 1980, 

1990, and 2002 

Racial/ethnic group 

All 

American Indian or 

Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific 

Islander 

Black or African 

American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

81 

82 

73 

77 

87 

76 

79 

61 

47 

58 

70 

38 

59 

41 

33 

41 

67 

31 

41 

† 

† 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

1980 

1990 

2002 

Percent 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and 

NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless 

of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

94 
 

Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

7.1.3 Socioeconomic status (SES), academic test quarters, and educational 

expectations 

Expectations have also increased for each of the SES groupings, with some narrowing of 

the SES difference (figure 18). Between 1980 and 2002, among the lowest quarter, expectations 

for a 4-year degree or higher went from 22 percent to 66 percent; among the middle two quarters, 

from 37 percent to 79 percent; and among the highest quarter, from 69 percent to 93 percent. 

Looking at composite achievement test quarters (figure 19), expectations have risen for 

each of the quarters while remaining significantly different by achievement grouping. For 

example, among those in the lowest achievement quarter, 19 percent in 1980 and 56 percent in 

2002 indicated that they expected to obtain a bachelor’s degree or higher, whereas among those 

in the highest achievement quarter, 72 percent in 1980 and 96 percent in 2002 expected to obtain 

a bachelor’s degree or higher. 

Figure 18. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to obtain a bachelor’s, 

graduate, or professional degree as highest degree, by socioeconomic status 

(SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest SES quarter 

Middle SES quarters 

Highest SES quarter 

93 

79 

66 

85 

57 

36 

69 

37 

22 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

1980 

1990 

2002 

Percent 

NOTE: In this figure, the two middle SES quarters have been combined. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

95 
 

Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

Figure 19. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to obtain a bachelor’s, 

graduate, or professional degree as highest degree, by standardized test 

composite score: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

 

 

 

Composite 

achievement test 

All 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter

 Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

96 

88 

76 

56 

79 

88 

67 

48 

32 

59 

72 

44 

27 

19 

41 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

1980 

1990 

2002 

Percent 

NOTE: Each of the three studies (HS&B, NELS:88, ELS:2002) have constructed a standardized composite test score 

based on achievement test scores for reading and math. The quarter test score divides the weighted (population 

estimates) reading and mathematics composite score into four equal groups. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

96 
Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

7.2 Perceptions of Parent, Counselor, and Teacher Views on 

Attending College 

In all 3 years, high school sophomores were asked questions concerning parents’, 

teachers’, and counselors’ views on their college attendance decisions. The question for 1980 

was worded somewhat differently than in 1990 and 2002. In 1980, the question was worded as 

“What do the following people think you ought to do right after high school?” In 1990 and 2002, 

sophomores were asked “What do the following people think is the most important thing for you 

to do right after high school?” Acknowledging this difference in item wording, the period 

between 1980 and 2002 reflects increases in the perception among sophomores that parents, 

counselors, and teachers thought they should go to college right after high school (table 32). 

Between 1980 and 2002, the percentage of sophomores who perceived that their parents 

thought they should go to college or that going to college right after high school was the most 

important thing for them to do increased from 59 percent to 79 percent for fathers and from 

65 percent to 85 percent for mothers. 

The percentage of respondents who reported that school counselors and teachers thought 

it was most important for them to attend college right after high school also increased from 

almost one-third (32 percent in 1980) to almost two-thirds (65 percent for counselors and 66 

percent for teachers in 1990) to about three-fourths (72 percent for counselors and 73 percent for 

teachers in 2002) over the period. 

97 
98 

Table 32. Percentage of high school sophomores who report fathers, mothers, school counselors, and 

college is the most important thing for them to do right after high school, by selected student 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Father Mother School counselor 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002  All sophomores 59.1 77.0 79.4 64.8 82.9 85.4 32.3 65.2 71.5 

3

Sex 

Male 55.6 74.0 75.2 61.6 80.7 81.3 32.2 64.0 67.5 

3

Female 63.5 80.0 83.4 68.6 85.2 89.4 32.7 66.3 75.1 

3

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 46.8 62.4 64.9 

81.1 

70.3 69.8 31.7 52.4 62.1 

2

Asian or Pacific Islander 78.7 87.9 84.4 63.2 88.8 88.4 32.9 68.6 69.7 

3

Black or African American 56.6 69.4 75.2 67.2 76.6 85.6 37.1 66.1 73.9 

4

Hispanic or Latino 56.3 75.3 74.8 64.5 81.1 82.6 32.2 64.8 69.5 

3

More than one race † † 72.5 † † 85.5 † † 68.3 

White 59.7 78.2 81.8 51.9 84.3 86.0 31.4 65.1 71.9 

3

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 36.7 58.0 67.7 

47.0 

66.5 77.2 24.9 56.1 65.9 

2

Middle quarters 57.4 76.6 78.3 63.9 84.2 84.9 30.1 63.6 70.4 

3

Highest quarter 84.5 94.5 91.3 86.2 96.7 93.6 44.5 77.7 78.4 

4

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 40.4 59.9 63.7 

47.6 

64.7 72.6 26.1 56.4 63.5 

2

Second quarter 49.7 71.7 76.0 55.6 79.3 83.0 26.1 61.1 72.0 

2

Third quarter 63.9 83.1 85.1 

69.2 

89.7 89.9 31.3 66.4 73.9 

3

Highest quarter 79.8 90.6 90.3 85.1 95.9 94.2 43.1 74.3 74.9 

4

School sector 

Public 57.1 75.2 78.5 63.1 81.5 84.7 31.3 63.5 70.6 

3

Catholic 78.1 92.9 91.9 

82.5 

95.4 96.0 40.6 80.8 82.8 

3

Other private 77.1 91.2 87.0 

78.8 

94.4 91.1 45.5 80.5 79.8 

4

See notes at end of table. 
Table 32. Percentage of high school sophomores who report fathers, mothers, school counselors, and t

college is the most important thing for them to do right after high school, by selected student 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Father Mother School counselor 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 Region 

Northeast 62.4 82.6 80.8 

67.0 

88.0 86.6 37.5 72.9 74.9 

3

Midwest 55.9 74.9 78.8 63.3 82.3 84.6 29.9 64.4 70.9 

3

South 56.2 75.9 80.1 62.4 81.3 86.6 30.0 64.1 72.4 

3

West 65.3 76.3 77.7 69.0 82.0 83.5 32.9 61.6 67.8 

3

† Not applicable. NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requiremen

race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 1980”

Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002

99 
 

Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

7.3 Continuing Education Right After High School 

In each of the three surveys, high school sophomores were also asked a question about 

their plans for continuing their education “right after high school.” Wording of the question 

varied somewhat in each of the surveys, but not in a manner that could be expected to change the 

results.30 

Table 33 documents the increase in the percentage of high school sophomores “expecting 

to attend college right after high school”—from 49 percent overall in 1980 to 60 percent in 1990 

and 66 percent in 2002. By racial/ethnic group, the percentage intending to go to college right 

after high school was higher than the national average for Asians and lower for American 

Indians in each of the 3 years. No differences were detected between Blacks and Whites in any 

of the 3 years. 

With regard to SES differences, these data display much the same pattern discussed 

above regarding the question on educational expectations—an overall increase, especially 

between 1980 and 1990, in the percentage expecting to go to college right after high school. For 

example, in 1980 the percentage of sophomores who planned to enroll in college right after high 

school was 72 percent for the highest SES quarter and 31 percent for the lowest quarter 

(figure 20). In 2002, the percentage planning to enroll in college had increased by 15 percent for 

the highest SES quarter (up to 82 percent) and by 70 percent for the lowest SES quarter (up to 53 

percent). In 1980, rates for the highest SES quarter were 2.3 times higher than those in the lowest 

SES quarter, whereas in 2002 rates for the highest SES quarter were 1.6 times higher than those 

of the lowest quarter. 

30 In 1980, the question was “Do you plan to go to college at some time in the future?”; in 1990, the question was “Do 

you plan to go to college after you graduate from high school?” In 2002, the question was asked as a follow-up to the 

question “As things stand now, how far do you expect to go in school?” Those who indicated “below high school” or 

“high school graduate” skipped the question “Do you plan to continue your education right after high school or at 

some time in the future?” The choices written on the survey form were the same in all 3 years, although the 2002 

survey had one extra category. In each of the years, the response categories included “Yes, right after high school,” 

“Yes, after a year,” Yes, after more than a year,” “Don’t know,” and “No, don’t plan to continue my education after 

high school.” In 2002, there was also a “Yes, do not know when” category, which is included in the “No/Don’t know” 

group. 

100 
Table 33. Percentage of high school sophomores who report various intentions with regard to entering 

school graduation, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic  All sophomores 

Right after high school 

1980 1990 2002 

48.5 60.0 65.9 

After a year 

1980 1990 2002 

13.3 15.0 14.2 

After more than a year 

1980 1990 2002 

2.6 2.3 1.9 

Sex 

Male Female 

45.0 51.7 

55.3 64.7 

59.3 72.6 

13.1 13.5 

15.4 14.5 

14.9 13.5 

3.2 2.0 

3.3 1.4 

3.0 0.8 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander Black or African American Hispanic or Latino More than one race White 

33.0 

73.3 

51.4 

43.6 

† 

48.3 

45.8 

78.0 

61.5 

52.5 

† 

60.1 

50.6 

81.1 

69.2 58.9 

58.3 

66.7 

15.2 

9.5 

13.6 

15.1 

† 

13.1 

16.1 

9.1 

13.7 

18.9 

† 

14.9 

20.9 

6.0 

13.4 

14.9 

19.2 

14.3 

7.3 

3.8 

4.4 

3.2 

† 

2.1 

1.2 

1.8 2.5 

4.0 

† 

2.2 

3.1 

1.2 1.2 

2.2 

2.8 

2.0 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter Middle quarters Highest quarter 

31.0 

45.8 

71.9 

39.2 58.9 

80.7 

52.6 

64.2 82.4 

11.8 

14.6 

12.2 

17.7 

15.8 

10.2 

16.4 

15.8 

8.9 

3.2 

2.5 

1.9 

2.7 

2.4 

1.6 

2.5 

1.9 

1.3 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter Second quarter Third quarter Highest quarter 

29.8 36.5 

51.7 

73.4 

38.5 

52.4 66.0 

81.8 

49.0 

59.7 

71.5 82.5 

13.3 

15.2 

14.4 

10.5 

17.9 

18.4 

13.8 

9.4 

14.8 

19.7 14.3 

8.2 

3.5 

2.5 

2.2 

1.8 

2.4 

2.3 

2.6 

1.7 

2.7 

1.8 

1.9 

1.3 

School sector 

Public Catholic Other private 

46.3 

71.1 

65.2 

58.2 

82.9 74.2 

64.5 

87.9 

76.9 

13.6 

9.8 

11.7 

15.4 

7.2 

13.7 

14.7 

6.5 

9.6 

2.7 

1.0 

1.9 

2.4 

1.9 

0.7 

2.0 0.5 

0.5 

See notes at end of table. 

101 
Table 33. Percentage of high school sophomores who report various intentions with regard to entering 

school graduation, by selected student characteristics: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

102 

Right after high school After a year 

After more than a year 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

Region 

Northeast 52.1 66.9 70.4 11.6 11.5 13.1 2.2 2.2 2.1 Midwest 46.2 59.5 66.6 11.7 13.9 14.2 

2.2 

2.1 1.3 

South 47.0 59.5 66.8 13.4 15.2 13.9 2.8 2.0 1.8 West 50.0 56.6 60.2 17.3 18.5 15.5 3.1 3.1 2.6 

† Not applicable. NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in rounding p

racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing foChoosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic or

Hispanic, regardless of their race. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 1980”

Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002
 

Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

Figure 20. Percentage of high school sophomores who expect to enroll in college right 

after high school, by socioeconomic status (SES): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters

 Highest quarter 

82 

64 

53 

81 

59 

39 

72 

46 

31 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1980 

1990 

2002 

Percent 

NOTE: In this figure, the two middle SES quarters have been combined. Estimates may differ from previously 

released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in rounding procedures. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

7.4 Occupational Expectations 

As noted above, 66 percent of high school sophomores in 2002 planned on attending 

college right after high school, and 79 percent expected to obtain a bachelor’s or higher degree. 

This section reports what sophomores thought their occupation would be at age 30. It examines 

the extent to which occupational expectations were consistent with educational expectations and 

to what extent these expectations were consistent with recent projections in the area of job 

openings for the years in which the sophomores will be entering the labor market. 

Table 34 lists the occupational expectations at age 30 as reported by the high school 

sophomore cohorts (1980, 1990, and 2002). Some caution is needed in interpreting these data 

due to questionnaire changes over the three studies. The 1980 survey displayed the occupations 

listed in table 34 and gave several examples of the occupations included in each listed category. 

The 1990 survey, the NELS:88 first follow-up, used the same list with the same examples but 

added a “don’t know” option. The 2002 survey form asked the question in an open-ended format 

with the only option displayed on the questionnaire being the “don’t know” option. 

103 
 

Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

Table 34. Percentage of high school sophomores’ expected occupation at age 30, by 

sex: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

All Male Female 

Occupation 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

Clerical 9.7 2.7 0.3 1.5 1.3 0.1 17.2 4.2 0.4 

Craftsman 9.1 3.5 2.7 18.1 6.5 4.6 1.0 0.5 0.8 

Farmer, farm manager 2.6 0.9 0.1 4.4 1.5 0.2 0.9 0.3 # 

Homemaker 5.0 1.9 0.1 0.2 0.2 # 9.3 3.6 0.2 

Laborer 2.1 0.5 0.4 4.0 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.1 # 

Manager, administrator 4.0 5.1 1.9 4.8 5.5 2.2 3.2 4.8 1.7 

Military 3.5 2.7 0.9 5.8 4.2 1.7 1.4 1.2 0.2 

Operative 2.9 1.2 0.6 5.2 1.9 1.1 0.9 0.5 0.1 

Professional (1) 24.7 23.2 24.7 20.8 21.6 25.5 28.3 24.7 23.9 

Professional (2) 13.0 19.3 20.2 12.3 15.5 11.6 13.6 23.1 28.5 

Proprietor or owner 3.6 5.4 2.1 5.5 6.9 2.6 1.8 4.0 1.6 

Protective service 1.6 2.8 2.2 2.6 4.5 3.3 0.8 1.0 1.2 

Sales 1.9 1.8 0.6 1.7 1.9 0.8 2.1 1.7 0.3 

School teacher 2.6 4.4 1.6 0.8 1.8 0.6 4.2 7.0 2.6 

Service 4.1 1.4 2.6 0.6 0.5 0.4 7.3 2.3 4.6 

Technical 7.4 4.9 3.3 10.4 7.4 4.5 4.6 2.4 2.2 

Plan not to work 2.2 0.2 1.0 1.4 0.2 1.1 2.9 0.2 0.9 

Other — 8.0 0.5 — 8.3 0.5 — 7.8 0.5 

Don’t know † 10.0 34.3 † 9.3 38.4 † 10.7 30.3 

— Not available. 

† Not applicable. 

# Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. Caution is needed in interpreting this table due to questionnaire differences. In 1980 

and 1990, the options were listed with several examples in parentheses (list given below). In 2002, the question was 

asked in an open-ended format, and the only option displayed was the “don’t know” option. In 1980, the “don’t know” 

and other options were not provided. In 1990, “don’t know” was displayed as one of the options above displayed. The 

occupational list given to sophomores in 1980 and 1990 was as follows: Clerical such as bank teller, bookkeeper, 

secretary, typist, mail carrier, ticket agent; Craftsman such as baker, automobile mechanic, machinist, painter, 

plumber, telephone installer, carpenter; Farmer, farm manager; Homemaker or housewife only; Laborer such as 

construction worker, car washer, sanitary worker, farm laborer; Manager, administrator such as sales manager, office 

manager, school administrator, buyer, restaurant manager, government official; Military such as career officer, 

enlisted man or woman in the Armed Forces; Operative such as meat cutter, assembly worker, machine operator, 

welder, taxicab, bus or truck driver; Professional (1) such as accountant, artist, registered nurse, engineer, librarian, 

writer, social worker, actor, actress, athlete, politician, but not including school teacher; Professional (2) such as 

clergyman, dentist, physician, lawyer, scientist, college teacher; Proprietor or owner such as owner of small business, 

contractor, restaurant owner; Protective service such as detective, police officer or guard, sheriff, fire fighter; Sales 

such as salesperson, advertising or insurance agent, real estate broker; School teacher such as elementary or 

secondary; Service such as barber, beautician, practical nurse, private household worker, janitor, waiter; Technical 

such as draftsman, medical or dental technician, computer programmer; Plan not to work; and Other (not listed in 

1980). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

As can be seen from the frequencies in the table, the open-ended manner of asking the 

question in 2002 with a displayed “don’t know” option elicited a response of “don’t know” from 

34 percent of sophomores (who checked a “don’t know” response box rather than writing in an 

occupational response). This compares with 10 percent choosing “don’t know” in 1990. It is 

difficult to know whether the higher percentage of uncertainty manifest in 2002 over 1990 is a 

result of increased uncertainty in the types of occupations that might be possible in a rapidly 

104 
 

Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

changing workforce or the result of changes in the way the question was asked between the 

studies. However, with the survey form differences, there was a decline in the percentage of 

females who chose “clerical” (from 17 percent to 0.4 percent) and an increase in the percentage 

who chose “Professional 2”31 (the pinnacle of the occupational prestige scale) from 1980 to 2002 

(from 14 percent to 29 percent). In 2002, males more frequently chose to answer the question 

with a “don’t know” response than females (38 percent for males compared with 30 percent for 

females). In 2002, females were more likely than males to indicate that they expected to be 

employed as a Professional 2 (29 percent compared with 12 percent). 

Figure 21 and table 35 display the percentage distributions for the three surveys with 

those who responded “don’t know” removed from the tabulations. These data indicate that by 

2002, among those who did not choose “don’t know,” there were relatively few sophomores who 

reported that they expected to be in nonprofessional jobs. Overall, 71 percent of sophomores who 

reported a known job expectation at age 30 listed a professional job (including the two 

professional categories and school teachers), and another 3 percent expected to be in 

management jobs. Five percent indicated that they expected a job in the technical grouping, 

which includes computer programming. These categories (taken together) account for 79 percent 

of the expressed job expectations for age 30 named by sophomores in 2002. 

The examination of the occupational projections for the period in which the 2002 

sophomores can be expected to enter the job market raises some questions as to the degree of 

congruence between sophomores’ occupational aspirations and current labor market projections. 

Tables 36 and 37 give Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) data and projections for job distributions 

by occupational group and educational requirements (2000 and 2010). While most of the 

distributional projected growth is in professional and technical jobs, which is in line with 

sophomore job expectations, the relative increases may not be large enough to meet the high 

professional, management, or technical occupational aspirations of cohorts such as the 2002 

sophomores. By 2010, professional and related occupations are expected to be 20 percent of the 

total, up from 18 percent in 2000, and the management, business, and financial occupations 

(many of which are included in the professional category in the classification used in the three 

NCES surveys) are expected to be 11 percent (the same as 2000). 

Similarly, the figures related to the educational requirements of jobs given in table 37 

project that 21 percent of job openings will require a bachelor’s degree or higher and that 1.2 

percent will require a first professional education in 2010. An additional 9 percent are listed as 

requiring an associate degree or vocational postsecondary award. Understanding labor market 

projections is complex and needs to take into account expectations from economic growth and 

changes in the economy as well as replacement needs. 

31 Professional 1 includes such occupations as accountant, artist, registered nurse, librarian, writer, social worker, 

actor/actress, engineer, athlete, and politician (but not school teacher). Professional 2 includes occupations such as 

clergyman, physician, attorney, scientist, and college professor. 

105 
Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

Figure 21. Percentage of high school sophomores, by occupational expectations at age 

30 with “don’t know” responses removed: 1980 and 2002 

Occupational category 

1 

2 

5 

4 

3 

1 

3 

3 

1 

1 

3 

1 

4 

2 

7 

4 

3 

2 

2 

4 

3 

4 

4 

2 

5 

3 

# 

# 

# 

† 

10 Clerical 

9 Craftsman 

Farmer, farm manager 

Homemaker 

Laborer 

Manager, administrator 

Military 

Operative 

38 Professional1 68 

Proprietor or owner 

Protective service 

Sales 

School teacher 

Service 

Technical 

Plan not to work 

Other 

1980 

2002 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

Percent 

† Not applicable. 

# Rounds to zero. 

1

 

The “professional” category in this figure combines the two professional (Professional 1 and Professional 2) categories; 

note that school teacher is a separate listing in the figure. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes 

in rounding procedures. The occupational list given to sophomores in 1980 and 1990 was as follows: Clerical such as bank 

teller, bookkeeper, secretary, typist, mail carrier, ticket agent; Craftsman such as baker, automobile mechanic, machinist, 

painter, plumber, telephone installer, carpenter; Farmer, farm manager; Homemaker or housewife only; Laborer such as 

construction worker, car washer, sanitary worker, farm laborer; Manager, administrator such as sales manager, office 

manager, school administrator, buyer, restaurant manager, government official; Military such as career officer, enlisted man 

or woman in the Armed Forces; Operative such as meat cutter, assembly worker, machine operator, welder, taxicab, bus or 

truck driver; Professional (1) such as accountant, artist, registered nurse, engineer, librarian, writer, social worker, actor, 

actress, athlete, politician, but not including school teacher; Professional (2) such as clergyman, dentist, physician, lawyer, 

scientist, college teacher; Proprietor or owner such as owner of small business, contractor, restaurant owner; Protective 

service such as detective, police officer or guard, sheriff, fire fighter; Sales such as salesperson, advertising or insurance 

agent, real estate broker; School teacher such as elementary or secondary; Service such as barber, beautician, practical 

nurse, private household worker, janitor, waiter; Technical such as draftsman, medical or dental technician, computer 

programmer; Plan not to work; and Other (not listed in 1980). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base 

Year, 1980”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

106 
Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

Table 35. Percentage of high school sophomores’ expected occupation at age 30, by sex 

with “don’t know” responses removed: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

All Male Female 

Occupation 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

Clerical 9.7 3.0 0.4 1.5 1.4 0.1 17.2 4.7 0.6 

Craftsman 9.1 3.9 4.1 18.1 7.2 7.5 1.0 0.6 1.2 

Farmer, farm manager 2.6 1.0 0.2 4.4 1.7 0.3 0.9 0.3 # 

Homemaker 5.0 2.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 # 9.3 4.0 0.3 

Laborer 2.1 0.6 0.5 4.0 1.1 1.2 0.4 0.2 # 

Manager, administrator 4.0 5.7 2.9 4.8 6.0 3.5 3.2 5.4 2.4 

Military 3.5 3.0 1.4 5.8 4.7 2.7 1.4 1.4 0.3 

Operative 2.9 1.3 0.8 5.2 2.1 1.7 0.9 0.5 0.1 

Professional (1) 24.7 25.8 37.5 20.8 23.9 41.3 28.3 27.7 34.3 

Professional (2) 13.0 21.5 30.8 12.3 17.1 18.9 13.6 25.8 40.9 

Proprietor or owner 3.6 6.0 3.2 5.5 7.6 4.3 1.8 4.5 2.3 

Protective service 1.6 3.1 3.4 2.6 5.0 5.4 0.8 1.2 1.7 

Sales 1.9 2.0 0.9 1.7 2.1 1.4 2.1 1.9 0.5 

School teacher 2.6 5.9 2.5 0.8 2.0 1.0 4.2 7.8 3.8 

Service 4.1 1.5 3.9 0.6 0.5 0.7 7.3 2.6 6.6 

Technical 7.4 5.4 5.0 10.4 8.1 7.3 4.6 2.7 3.1 

Plan not to work 2.2 0.2 1.5 1.4 0.2 1.8 2.9 0.2 1.3 

Other — 8.9 0.8 # 9.2 0.9 # 8.7 0.7 

Don’t know † † † † † † † † † 

— Not available. 

† Not applicable. 

# Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. All “don’t know” responses were excluded from the numerator and denominator in 

tabulating the percentage distribution for this table. Caution is needed in interpreting this table due to questionnaire 

differences. In 1980 and 1990, the options were listed with several examples in parentheses (list given below). In 

2002, the question was asked in an open-ended format, and the only option displayed was the “don’t know” option. In 

1980, the “don’t know” and other options were not provided. In 1990, “don’t know” was displayed as one of the 

options above displayed. The occupational list or given to sophomores in 1980 and 1990 was as follows: Clerical 

such as bank teller, bookkeeper, secretary, typist, mail carrier, ticket agent; Craftsman such as baker, automobile 

mechanic, machinist, painter, plumber, telephone installer, carpenter; Farmer, farm manager; Homemaker or 

housewife only; Laborer such as construction worker, car washer, sanitary worker, farm laborer; Manager, 

administrator such as sales manager, office manager, school administrator, buyer, restaurant manager, government 

official; Military such as career officer, enlisted man or woman in the Armed Forces; Operative such as meat cutter, 

assembly worker, machine operator, welder, taxicab, bus or truck driver; Professional (1) such as accountant, artist, 

registered nurse, engineer, librarian, writer, social worker, actor, actress, athlete, politician, but not including school 

teacher; Professional (2) such as clergyman, dentist, physician, lawyer, scientist, college teacher; Proprietor or owner 

such as owner of small business, contractor, restaurant owner; Protective service such as detective, police officer or 

guard, sheriff, fire fighter; Sales such as salesperson, advertising or insurance agent, real estate broker; School 

teacher such as elementary or secondary; Service such as barber, beautician, practical nurse, private household 

worker, janitor, waiter; Technical such as draftsman, medical or dental technician, computer programmer; Plan not to 

work; and Other (not listed in 1980). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

107 
 

 

 

Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

Table 36. Number and percentage of jobs, by major occupational group: 2000 and 

projected 2010 

Employment 

Number (in thousands) Percent 

Occupation 2000 2010 2000 2010 

Percent change 

2002–10 

Total 145,594 167,754 100.0 100.0 † 

Management, business, and financial 15,519 17,635 10.7 10.5 -1.9 

Professional and related 26,758 33,709 18.4 20.1 9.2 

Service 26,075 31,163 17.9 18.6 3.9 

Sales and related 15,513 17,365 10.7 10.4 -2.8 

Office and administrative support 23,882 26,053 16.4 15.5 -5.5 

Farming, fishing, and forestry 1,429 1,480 1.0 0.9 -10.0 

Construction and extraction 7,451 8,439 5.1 5.0 -2.0 

Installation, maintenance, and repair 5,820 6,482 4.0 3.9 -2.5 

Production 13,060 13,811 9.0 8.2 -8.9 

Transportation and material moving 10,088 11,618 6.9 6.9 # 

† Not applicable. 

# Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2003). Employment and Earnings, Monthly, June 2003, and unpublished data. 

Retrieved November 15, 2005, from http://stats.bls.gov.ces/home.htm. 

Table 37. Percentage of job openings and average annual earnings, by educational 

training category: 2000 and 2010 (projected distribution) 

Percentage distribution of Projected percentage 2000 

employment distribution of openings due to mean 

2010 growth and net replacements: annual 

Educational training 2000 (projected) 2000–20101 earnings 2

 All occupations3 100 100 100 $33,089 

Bachelor’s or higher degree 20.7 21.8 20.9 56,533 

 First professional degree 1.4 1.4 1.2 91,424 

Doctoral degree 1.0 1.1 1.3 52,146 

Master’s degree 1.0 1.0 1.1 43,842 

Bachelor’s or higher degree plus work

 experience 5.0 5.2 4.7 69,967 

Bachelor’s degree 12.2 13.0 12.6 48,440 

Associate degree or postsecondary

 vocational award 8.1 8.7 9.3 36,701 

Associate degree 3.5 4.0 4.5 41,488 

Postsecondary vocational award 4.6 4.7 4.8 31,296 

Work-related training 71.3 69.5 69.8 25,993 

Work experience in a related occupation 7.2 6.9 5.5 40,881 

Long-term on-the-job training 8.5 8.0 6.5 33,125 

Moderate-term on-the-job training 19.0 18.4 15.1 29,069 

Short-term on-the-job training 36.5 36.3 42.7 19,799 

1 Total job openings represent the sum of employment increases and net replacements. Job openings due to net 

replacement estimate the need in existing jobs as workers vacate, change jobs, or leave the labor force. If employment 

change is negative, it indicates that job openings due to growth are zero and total job openings equal net replacements. 2 Earnings are for wages and salary workers. 

3

 The total number of occupations in 2000 was 145,594, and the total jobs projected in 2010 are 167,754, leading to a 

projected growth of 57,932 jobs between 2000 and 2010. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: Hecker, D.E. (2001). Occupational Employment Projections to 2010 (Table 6). Monthly Labor Review, 124(11): 

57–84. 

108 
Chapter 7: Plans and Expectations 

7.5 Summary 

Continuing on to college after high school graduation has become an increasingly 

expected pathway for American youth. This is reflected in the plans and expectations that high 

school sophomores hold for their futures as well as the expectations of those close to them. For 

example, sophomores in 2002 were more likely than their peers in 1980 to expect to complete a 

college degree and were more likely to hold plans to enroll in college immediately after high 

school. Similarly, the parents, teachers, and guidance counselors of high school sophomores 

increasingly felt that college was important for them. With respect to future occupational plans, 

sophomores in 2002 were more likely than those in 1980 to expect a professional job at age 30. 

Lastly, over the 22-year period, females have been increasingly more ambitious about their 

futures than have males: by 2002, females were more likely than males to expect a college 

degree and to hold a professional job at age 30. 

109 

 

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Scott, L.A., Rock, D.A., Pollack, J.M., and Ingels, S.J. (1995). Two Years Later: Cognitive Gains 

and School Transitions of NELS:88 Eighth Graders (NCES 95–436). U.S. Department of 

Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office. 

Seastrom, M. (2002). NCES Statistical Standards (NCES 2003–601). U.S. Department of 

Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office. 

Sergiovanni, T. (1994). Organizations or Communities? Changing the Metaphor Changes the 

Theory. Educational Administration Quarterly, 30(2): 214–226. 

Sirken, M.G., Herrmann, D.J., Schechter, S., Schwarz, N., Tanur, J.M., and Tourangeau, R. 

(1999). Cognition and Survey Research. New York: John Wiley. 

Spencer, B.D., Frankel, M.R., Ingels, S.J., Rasinski, K., and Touragneau, R. (1990). NELS:88 

Base Year Sample Design Report (NCES 90–463). U.S. Department of Education, 

National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing 

Office. 

Sudman, S., and Bradburn, N.M. (1983). Asking Questions: A Practical Guide to Questionnaire 

Design. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 

Tafel, J., and Eberhart, N. (1999). Statewide School-College (K-16) Partnerships to Improve 

Student Performance. Denver, CO: State Higher Education Executive Officers. 

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References 

Tourangeau, R., Sebring, P., Campbell, B., Glusberg, M., Spencer, B.D., and Singleton, M. 

(1987). The National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS-72) Fifth 

Follow-Up (1986) Data File User’s Manual (NCES 87–406c). U.S. Department of 

Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office. 

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2003). Employment and Earnings, Monthly, June 2003, and 

unpublished data. Retrieved November 15, 2005, from http://stats.bls.gov/ces/home.htm. 

U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Current Population Survey, various years as reported in the U.S. 

Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Condition of 

Education (Table 4-1, 2001). Retrieved November 15, 2005, from 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/2001072.pdf. 

U.S. Census Bureau. (2003a). Current Population Surveys, 1967–2000 (Table A-5. The 

Population 14 to 24 Years Old, by High School Graduate Status, College Enrollment, 

Attainment, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: October 1967 to 2000). Retrieved 

November 15, 2005, from http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/school.html. 

U.S. Census Bureau. (2003b). Current Population Survey (Table 3. Poverty Status of People, by 

Age, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1959 to 2003). Retrieved November 15, 2005, from 

http://www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/histpov/hstpov3.html. 

U.S. Census Bureau. (2004a). Current Population Surveys, March supplement. Retrieved 

November 15, 2005, from http://www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/histpov/hstpov3.html. 

U.S. Census Bureau. (2004b). Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2004-2005 (Table 2. 

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2050; and Table 14. Resident Population by Race, Hispanic Origin, and Single Years of 

Age: 2001). Retrieved November 15, 2005, from http://www.census.gov/statab/www/. 

U.S. Department of Education (1997). Family Involvement in Children’s Education; Overcoming 

Time and Resource Constraints. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved November 15, 

2005, from http://www.ed.gov/pubs/FamInvolve/local2.html. 

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Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved November 15, 2005, from 

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U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1994). The Condition 

of Education 1994 (NCES 1994−149). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing 

Office. 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1995). The Condition 

of Education 1995 (NCES 1995−817). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing 

Office. 

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References 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2005). Digest of 

Education Statistics, 2004 (Table 2. Enrollment in Educational Institutions, by Level and 

Control of Institution: Selected Years, Fall 1980 to Fall 2005). Retrieved November 15, 

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U.S. General Accounting Office. (2002, February). School Dropouts: Education Could Play a 

Stronger Role in Identifying and Disseminating Promising Prevention Strategies. Report 

to the Honorable Jim Gibbons, U.S. House of Representatives. GAO–02–240. 

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Wainer, H., and Robinson, D.H. (2003). Shaping Up the Practice of Null Hypothesis 

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Wang, H., Schiller, K.S., and Plank, S. (1997). In J.S. Coleman, B. Schneider, S. Plank, K.S. 

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Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government 

Printing Office. 

119 

Appendix A 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

A-1 

Appendix A 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

A.1 Overview of the Technical Appendix 

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the U.S. Department of 

Education has collected longitudinal data for more than 30 years. Starting in 1972 with the 

National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS-72) and continuing to the 

most recent study, the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), NCES has provided 

longitudinal and trend data to education policymakers and researchers that link secondary school 

educational achievement and experiences with important downstream outcomes, such as entry 

into the labor market and postsecondary educational access and attainment. 

The first section of this appendix gives further information about the design and content 

of the three studies whose data are drawn upon in this report: High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), and ELS:2002. 

This section is followed by discussions of sampling, weighting, response rates, quality of 

estimates, and standard errors. Next, an account is offered of the statistical procedures employed. 

In addition, this appendix provides a listing of the specific variables used in the analyses in this 

report. 

A.2 NCES High School Longitudinal Studies Program 

In response to its mandate to “collect and disseminate statistics and other data related to 

education in the United States” and the need for policy-relevant, nationally representative 

longitudinal samples of elementary and secondary students, NCES instituted the National 

Education Longitudinal Studies program. The aim of this continuing program is to study the 

educational, vocational, and personal development of students at various stages in their 

educational careers and the personal, familial, social, institutional, and cultural factors that may 

affect that development. 

NCES (and ELS:2002) are authorized by section 406(b) of the General Education 

Provisions Act of 1994, enacted as part of the Improving America’s Schools Act of 1994 and 

amended by the Education Sciences Reform Act of 2002. The Education Sciences Reform Act of 

2002 replaced the former Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) with the 

Institute of Education Sciences (IES), of which NCES is now a part. 

The high school longitudinal studies program consists of three completed studies: 

NLS-72, HS&B, and NELS:88. In addition, base-year data for ELS:2002, the fourth longitudinal 

study in the series, are now available. Taken together, these studies describe (or will describe) 

the educational experiences of students from four decades—the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 

2000s—and also provide bases for further understanding of the correlates of educational success 

in the United States. Figure A-1 includes a temporal presentation of these four longitudinal 

education studies and highlights their component and comparison points. The figure does not 

A-3 
Figure A-1. Longitudinal design for the NCES high school cohorts: 1972–2008 

A-4 
 

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

identify all future follow-up points for ELS:2002; final decisions have yet to be made concerning 

them. However, the general expectation is that ELS:2002 sophomores will be followed until 

about age 30. 

A.2.1 High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

The Education Longitudinal Studies program began over 30 years ago with the 

implementation of the National Longitudinal Study of 1972 (NLS-72).1 The second in the series 

of NCES longitudinal studies was launched in 1980. HS&B included one cohort of high school 

seniors comparable to the NLS-72 sample; however, the study also extended the age span and 

analytical range of NCES longitudinal studies by surveying a sample of high school sophomores. 

Base-year data collection took place in the spring term of the 1979–80 academic year with a twostage probability sample. More than 1,000 schools served as the first-stage units, and 58,000 

students within these schools were the second-stage units. Both cohorts of HS&B participants 

were resurveyed in 1982, 1984, and 1986; the sophomore group also was surveyed in 1992.2

 In 

addition, to better understand the school and home contexts for the sample members, data were 

collected from teachers (a teacher comment form in the base year asked for teacher perceptions 

of HS&B sample members), principals, and a subsample of parents. High school transcripts were 

collected for a subsample of sophomore cohort members. As in NLS-72, postsecondary 

transcripts were collected for both HS&B cohorts; however, the sophomore cohort transcripts 

cover a much longer time span (to 1993). 

With the study design expanded to include a sophomore cohort, HS&B provided critical 

data on the relationships between early high school experiences and students’ subsequent 

educational experiences in high school. For the first time, national data were available that 

showed students’ academic growth over time and how family, community, school, and 

classroom factors were associated with student learning. Researchers were able to use data from 

the extensive battery of achievement tests within the longitudinal study to assess growth in 

knowledge and cognitive skills over time. Moreover, data were then available to analyze the 

school experiences of students who later dropped out of high school and, eventually, to 

investigate their later educational and occupational outcomes. 

A.2.2 National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) 

NELS:88 represents an integrated system of data that tracked students from junior high or 

middle school through secondary and postsecondary education, labor market experiences, and 

marriage and family formation. Because ELS:2002 repeats so many of its innovations and design 

features, it will be useful to provide a detailed round-by-round picture of NELS:88. 

1

 For reports on the NLS-72 project, see Riccobono et al. (1981) and Tourangeau et al. (1987). While recent NCES 

reports and user documentation may be found on the NCES website (http://nces.ed.gov), older documentation (e.g., 

from the 1980s) is typically not available there. NLS-72 and older HS&B manuals may be downloaded from the 

International Archive of Education Data (IAED) at the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research 

(ICPSR) at the University of Michigan (http://www.icpsr.umich.edu). Materials may also be obtained in microfiche or 

photocopy format from the ERIC database (http://www.eduref.org/). 2

 For a summation of the HS&B sophomore cohort study, see Zahs et al. (1995). For more information on HS&B in 

the high school years, with a focus on the sophomore cohort, see Jones et al. (1983). For further information on 

HS&B, see the NCES website: http://www.nces.ed.gov/surveys/hsb/. 

A-5 
 

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

Data collection for NELS:88 was initiated with the 8th-grade class of 1988 in the spring 

term of the 1987–88 school year. Along with a student survey, NELS:88 included surveys of 

parents (base-year and second follow-up), teachers (base-year, first, and second follow-ups), and 

school administrators (base-year, first, and second follow-ups). The sample was also surveyed 

after scheduled high school graduation, in 1994 and 2000.3 

A.2.2.1 NELS:88 base year 

The NELS:88 base year (1988) successfully surveyed 24,599 students, out of some 

26,432 selected 8th-graders, across 1,052 public, Catholic, and other private schools. In addition 

to filling out a questionnaire, students also completed assessments in four subjects (the NELS:88 

achievement battery included tests in reading, mathematics, science, and social studies). The 

base year also surveyed one parent, two teachers, and the principal of each selected student. The 

base-year research instruments collected information about home, school, and individual factors 

that could serve as predictors for later outcomes (such as, viewed in terms of positive outcomes, 

graduating from high school, making a smooth transition into the workforce, or completing 

postsecondary education). Information collected in the base year included family income, 

parental education, and occupation; parental aspirations for their 8th-grader; the 8th-grader’s 

educational and occupational aspirations and plans, school experiences, extracurricular activities, 

jobs and chores, television viewing, and reading; teacher perceptions of the 8th-grader’s 

classroom performance and personal characteristics; curricular and instructional information 

about the classes in which teachers taught the 8th-grader; the teacher’s own background and 

professional activities; and the principal’s reports on the educational setting and environment of 

the school. 

A.2.2.2 NELS:88 first follow-up 

A first follow-up took place in 1990. At that time, student cohort members, their teachers, 

and their principals were resurveyed. The first follow-up presented three major new analytic 

opportunities: (1) longitudinal analysis of gains in tested achievement and the correlates of 

achievement gains, (2) identification of high school dropouts and investigation of why some 

students drop out of school and others persist, and (3) cross-cohort comparison (1990 NELS:88 

high school sophomores could be compared to the HS&B sophomores in 1980). 

Achievement Gain. One major goal of NELS:88 was to measure students’ academic 

growth over time and to identify school and nonschool factors that are associated with academic 

achievement. The first follow-up tests were tailored to students’ ability as measured in the base 

year; more difficult test forms were assigned to students with a higher ability estimate. The first 

follow-up, by retesting the 8th-grade NELS:88 cohort, was able to measure cognitive gains 

between 8th and 10th grades in mathematics, science, reading, and social studies. In turn, these 

3 The entire compass of NELS:88, from its baseline through its final follow-up in 2000, is described in Curtin et al. 

(2002). More detailed information about the sophomore surveys of NELS:88 can be found in Ingels et al. (1992b, 

1994). Outcomes for the 8th-grade cohort in 2000 are reported in Ingels et al. (2002). The most extensive 

documentation of the NELS:88 assessment battery is found in Rock and Pollack (1995a). The quality of NELS:88 

data in the in-school rounds is examined in McLaughlin and Cohen (1997). The sample design is documented in 

Spencer et al. (1990). Eligibility and exclusion issues are addressed in Ingels (1996). NCES keeps an updated 

version of the NELS:88 bibliography on its website. The bibliography encompasses both project documentation and 

research articles, monographs, dissertations, and paper presentations employing NELS:88 data (see 

http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/nels88/Bibliography.asp). 

A-6 
 

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

gains could be related to the data collected on home and school correlates of achievement, 

starting in 1988.4 

Correlates and Dynamics of School Disengagement and Dropping Out. Another major 

goal of the first follow-up was to study the educational trajectory of those who drop out of high 

school and to better understand the factors that help some at-risk students persist in their 

education. By beginning with the 8th grade, NELS:88 was able to capture the population of early 

dropouts—those who left school prior to spring term of 10th grade—as well as (in the second 

follow-up) later dropouts (who left after spring of 10th grade), as had been studied in HS&B. 

Cross-Cohort Comparison. A third goal of the 1990 wave was to compare NELS:88 

sophomores with the earlier cohort of high school sophomores studied in HS&B. To ensure 

comparability of the two samples, NELS:88 had to “freshen” the sophomore sample by giving a 

chance of selection to 1990 sophomores who had not been 8th-graders in 1988 (or had not been 

in the United States). Thus, a nationally representative sophomore grade cohort was included in 

NELS:88 in the first follow-up (1990). The freshening of the sample provided comparability to 

earlier cohorts and opportunities for comparing the situation of NELS:88 sophomores with those 

of HS&B a decade before. Freshening also enabled researchers to conduct both graderepresentative cross-sectional and subsequent sophomore cohort longitudinal analyses with the 

data. 

A.2.2.3 NELS:88 second follow-up 

The second follow-up took place in the spring term of the 1991–92 school year, when 

most sample members were in their final semester of high school. There were 21,188 student and 

dropout participants. This follow-up provided a culminating measurement of learning in the 

course of secondary school and also collected information to facilitate investigation of the 

transition into the labor force and postsecondary education after high school. As in the first 

follow-up, the sample was freshened, this time to represent the high school senior class of 1992. 

Cohort comparisons can be made to the high school classes of 1972 and 1980 that were studied 

in NLS-72 and HS&B. The NELS:88 second follow-up also surveyed students who were 

identified as dropouts in 1990 and identified and surveyed additional students who had left 

school since the prior wave. In late 1992 and early 1993, high school transcripts were collected 

for sample members. 

A.2.2.4 NELS:88 third follow-up 

The third follow-up took place in 1994, when most sample members had completed high 

school. The primary goals of the 1994 round were (1) to provide data for cohort comparisons 

with NLS-72 and HS&B, (2) to address issues of employment, (3) to address issues of 

postsecondary access and choice, and (4) to ascertain how many dropouts had returned to school 

and by what route. There were 14,915 participants. 

4

 Further information about NELS:88 proficiency scores can be found in Rock and Pollack (1995a). For examples of 

their use in achievement gain analysis, see Rock and Pollack (1995b) and Scott et al. (1995). 

A-7 
Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

A.2.2.5 NELS:88 fourth follow-up 

The fourth follow-up took place in 2000, when most sample members who attended 

college and technical schools had completed their postsecondary education. The study data 

address issues of employment, family formation, and postsecondary persistence and attainment. 

There were 12,144 participants in the questionnaire phase of the study. In fall 2000 and early 

2001, postsecondary transcripts were collected. 

A.3 Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) 

The tenth-grade base year of ELS:2002 represents the first stage of a major longitudinal 

effort designed to provide data about critical transitions experienced by students as they proceed 

through high school and into postsecondary education or their careers. The 2002 sophomore 

cohort was re-surveyed in the spring of 2004, and again in 2006. It will continue to be followed, 

to collect data about students’ access to, and success in, postsecondary education and the 

workforce, that can be related back to their high school experience. This section details some of 

the key elements of the study design. 

A.3.1 ELS:2002 study objectives 

ELS:2002 is designed to monitor the transition of a national sample of young people as 

they progress from 10th grade through high school and on to postsecondary education and/or the 

world of work. 

ELS:2002 has two distinctive features. First, it is a longitudinal study, in which the same 

units are surveyed repeatedly over time. Individual students will be followed for more than 10 

years; the base-year schools have been surveyed twice, in 2002 and in 2004. Second, in the high 

school years, it is an integrated multilevel study, involving multiple respondent populations. 

Each of these two features—the longitudinal nature of the ELS:2002 design and its multilevel 

focus—will be explained in greater detail below. 

The transition through high school and beyond into postsecondary institutions and the 

labor market is both complex (there are many different pathways that youth may follow) and 

prolonged (it takes place over a period of years). The complexity and time frame for this 

transition make longitudinal approaches especially appropriate. By surveying the same young 

people over time, it is possible to record the changes taking place in their lives, and to examine 

associations between earlier achievements, aspirations, and experiences and later outcomes. In 

the first year of data collection (the 2002 base year), ELS:2002 measured students’ tested 

achievement in reading and mathematics. ELS:2002 also obtained information from students 

about their attitudes and experiences. These same students (including those who dropped out of 

school) were tested and surveyed again, in 2004, and re-interviewed in 2006. Cohort members 

will be followed for a number of years after the 2006 round. 

ELS:2002 gathers information at multiple levels. It obtains information not only from 

students and their school records, but also from students’ parents, teachers, and the 

administrators (principal and library media center director) of their schools. Data from their 

teachers, for example, provide information both about the student and about the teachers’ 

A-8 
 

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

background and activities. This multilevel focus supplies researchers with a detailed picture of 

the home, community, and school environments. This multiple respondent perspective is unified 

by the fact that, for most purposes, the student is the basic unit of analysis.5 

After the high school years, ELS:2002 will continue to follow its sample of students into 

postsecondary education and/or the labor market. Key elements in the ELS:2002 longitudinal 

design are summarized by wave below. 

Base Year (2002) 

• Baseline survey of high school sophomores completed in spring term 2002. 

• Cognitive tests in reading and mathematics completed. 

• Survey of parents, English teachers, and mathematics teachers completed. School 

administrator questionnaires were also collected. 

• Additional components for this study included a school facilities checklist and a 

media center (library) questionnaire. 

• Sample sizes of approximately 750 schools and over 17,000 students. Schools are the 

first-stage unit of selection, with sophomores randomly selected within schools. 

• Oversampling of Asians and private schools. 

• Design linkages with the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) and 

the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP); score reporting linkages to 

the prior longitudinal studies. 

First Follow-up (2004) 

• Most sample members are seniors, but some are dropouts or in other grades. 

• Student questionnaire, dropout questionnaire, assessment in mathematics, and school 

administrator questionnaire were administered. 

• Return to the same schools, but separately follow transfer students. 

• Freshening for a senior cohort. 

• High school transcript component in 2004 (coursetaking records for grades 9–12 at 

minimum). 

Second Follow-up (2006) 

• Post–high school follow-ups conducted by computer-assisted telephone interview 

(CATI), computer-assisted personal interview (CAPI), and web-based selfadministered interview. 

• Surveyed 2 years after scheduled high school graduation. 

5

 Base-year school administrator, library media center, and facilities data can be used to report on the nation’s 

schools with 10th grades in the 2001–02 school year. However, the primary use of the school-level data (and the 

purpose of parent and teacher surveys) is to provide further contextual information on the student. 

A-9 
 

 

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

Further Follow-ups 

• Number of (and dates for) further follow-ups to be determined. 

A.4 Measures of Survey Precision and Quality 

A.4.1 Survey standard errors 

Because the longitudinal studies’ sample designs involved stratification, the 

disproportionate sampling of certain strata, and clustered (i.e., multistage) probability sampling, 

the resulting statistics are more variable than they would have been if they had been based on 

data from a simple random sample of the same size. 

The calculation of exact standard errors for survey estimates can be difficult. Several 

procedures are available for calculating precise estimates of sampling errors for complex 

samples. Procedures such as Taylor Series approximations, Balanced Repeated Replication 

(BRR), and Jackknife Repeated Replication (JRR), which can be found in advanced statistical 

programs such as SUDAAN, AM, or WESVAR, produce similar results. The analyses included 

in this report used SUDAAN and the Taylor Series procedure to calculate standard errors. 

A.4.2 Sampling, weighting, response rates, and quality of estimates 

HS&B. This report uses data collected in the HS&B base year from the sophomore 

cohort. The base-year survey was conducted in the spring term of 1980. The study provided for a 

national probability sample of 1,015 secondary schools as the first units of selection. In the 

second stage, 36 seniors and 36 sophomores were selected in each school. Schools with high 

percentages of Hispanic students, Catholic schools with a high percentage of minority students, 

alternative public schools, and private schools with high achieving students were oversampled. 

HS&B sophomores were followed in 1982, 1984, 1986, and 1992. Postsecondary transcripts 

were also collected with the most recent collection being 1992. In addition, parent, teacher, and 

school surveys were conducted. The unweighted response rate at the baseline school level was 

70 percent and at the baseline student level was 84 percent.6

 Data weights were adjusted for 

nonresponse at each level. 

NELS:88. NELS:88 differs from HS&B and ELS:2002 in that the first data collection 

phase began in the 8th grade rather than the sophomore cohort. The data used in this report are 

therefore from the first follow-up conducted in 1990 when most of the 8th-graders were high 

school sophomores. The base-year (8th-grade) cohort was drawn from a stratified national 

probability sample of 1,052 public and private 8th-grade schools from which about 25,000 

students participated in the base-year study. Because the sample was freshened with 1990 

sophomores who were not in the 8th-grade 1988 sample, it is a representative sample of the 

nation’s spring term 1990 sophomores. For the sophomore year follow-up, about 18,221 students 

participated from 19,363 selected. By maintaining a degree of comparability in questionnaire and 

test measures employed, NELS:88 first follow-up results support comparisons with the HS&B 

and ELS:2002 sophomores. Study base-year 1988 participants were followed in 1990, 1992, 

1994, and 2000. In addition, parent, principal, and teacher surveys were conducted. It should be 

6

 Weighted response rates for HS&B are not included in published documentation. 

A-10 
Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

noted, however, that the original school sample reflects schools covering the 8th grade. The 

10th-grade schools reflect the schools that this cross-section of 8th-graders dispersed to and 

attended two years later. The unweighted response rate at the baseline 8th-grade school level was 

70 percent for the initial school selections. Replacement schools were used. The 8th-grade 

student response rate was 93.4 percent. Two years later, most students had dispersed to new 

schools, of which 99 percent cooperated. The unweighted sophomore response rate was 94 

percent. Data weights were adjusted for nonresponse at each level. 

ELS:2002. The ELS:2002 base-year study was carried out in a national probability 

sample of 752 public, Catholic, and other private schools in the spring term of the 2001–02 

school year. Of 17,591 eligible selected sophomores, 15,362 completed a base-year 

questionnaire, as did 13,486 parents, 7,135 teachers, 743 principals, and 718 librarians. Seven 

study components comprise the base-year design: assessments of students (achievement tests in 

reading and mathematics); a survey of students; surveys of parents, teachers, school 

administrators, and librarians; and a facilities checklist (completed by survey administrators, 

based on their observations at the school). The student assessments measured achievement in 

reading and mathematics. Mathematics achievement was reassessed 2 years later (2004). The 

unweighted response rate at the school level was 62 percent and at the sophomore baseline level 

was 87 percent. Data weights were adjusted for nonresponse at each level. 

Additional information about the design of HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002, 

questionnaire wording, data collection results, structure of the data files, specifications used in 

creating composite variables, universe coverage, sample selection procedures, weighting 

methodology, selected standard error estimates, estimates of design effects for categories of 

students, and results of nonresponse analyses is provided in each study’s user manuals and 

technical reports. For the comparisons in this report, the most relevant documents are the 

following: Jones et al. (1983); Ingels et al. (1992a, 1992b); and Ingels et al.(2004). For detailed 

reliability and validity information concerning the HS&B and NELS:88 questionnaires and 

cognitive tests, the various psychometric and technical reports should also be consulted. For the 

sophomore year comparisons in this report, the following sources are particularly to be 

recommended. On data quality, see Burns et al. (2003); Fetters, Stowe, and Owings (1984); 

Kaufman and Rasinski (1991); and McLaughlin and Cohen (1997). On sampling issues, see 

Frankel et al. (1981); Ingels et al. (2004); and Spencer et al. (1990). On eligibility and exclusion, 

see Ingels (1996). For psychometric documentation, see Ingels et al. (1994) and Rock and 

Pollack (1995a). For an analysis (using the variables in this report) of the impact of imputation 

on estimates for 2002 relative to the unimputed estimates of 1980, 1990, and 2002, see Ingels, 

Pratt et al. (2005), appendix C. 

A.5 Statistical Procedures 

A.5.1 Student t statistics 

Comparisons that have been drawn in the text of this report have been tested for 

statistical significance to ensure that the differences are larger than those that might be expected 

due to sampling variation. The statistical comparisons in this report were based largely on the t 

statistic. Whether the difference between two groups is considered significant or not is 

determined by calculating a t value for the difference between a pair of means or proportions and 

A-11 
(n1 – 1) σ1

2 + (n2 – 1) σ22

n1 + n2 – 2

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

comparing this value to published tables of values, called critical values (cv). The alpha level is 

an a priori statement of the probability that a difference exists in fact rather than by chance. 

The t statistic between estimates from various subgroups presented in the tables can be 

computed by using the following formula: 

x − x 1 2 t = , 2 2 (SE + SE ) 1 2 

where x1 and x2 are the estimates to be compared (e.g., the means of sample members in two 

groups), and SE1 and SE2 are their corresponding standard errors. This formula is valid only for 

independent estimates. When the estimates are not independent (a handful of comparisons in this 

report are based on dependent estimates), a covariance term must be added to the denominator of 

the formula. For tests comparing correlated samples, the t statistic used was as follows: 

E 1 2 − E

t =

se

2 + se2 − 2(r)se se 1 2 1 2 

where E1 and E2 are the estimates to be compared, se1 and se2 are the corresponding standard 

errors, and r is the correlation between the two variables. 

A.5.2 Effect sizes 

Assessment results (changes in sophomore NELS:88-scaled mathematics performance 

between 1980 and 2002 and changes in probabilities of proficiency in mathematics and reading 

between 1990 and 2002) were tested in terms of effect sizes as well as statistical significance. A 

similar approach, using effect sizes with mean differences in tested achievement, was followed 

in earlier cross-cohort reports (Green, Dugoni, and Ingels 1995; Rasinski et al. 1993). 

The effect size, as used in this report, is a measure of difference represented in standard 

deviation units (the effect size is interpreted as the number of standard deviations separating the 

means of the two groups). Effect sizes were calculated as the change in mean test scores divided 

by the pooled standard deviation. The formula for computing the pooled standard deviation was: 

(n1 – 1) σ1

2 + (n2 – 1) σ22 

n1 + n2 –2 

Thus, effect sizes measure changes in test scores at any two comparison points relative to the 

score’s total variability, calculated as the score’s standard deviation pooled across the two time 

points. 

The effect size is a measure of the practical or substantive importance of cohort and 

subgroup differences. Large sample sizes may result in small differences being statistically 

significant, but tests of statistical significance tell little about whether effects are weak or strong. 

Thus the effect size statistic is a useful way of assessing whether a particular difference is a 

meaningful one. It should be kept in mind, however, that meaningfulness of a difference varies 

A-12 
 

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

according to the types of data involved, and the real-world consequences of such differences (see 

Wainer and Robinson 2003 for a discussion of effect size magnitude and importance as relative 

to research context). For this report, achievement result changes over time were specifically 

remarked if, and only if, they were both statistically significant at .05 and had an effect size of 

0.20 or higher. While 0.20 represents a small effect size, 0.50 represents a medium one, and 0.80 

large. (These conventions follow Cohen 1988 and continuing practice in the field [Murphy and 

Myers 2004] and are reflected as guidelines in the NCES Statistical Standards [Seastrom 2002]). 

Although for comparisons of means in this report, an effect size criterion of 0.20 was set for 

practical importance, a minimum difference of 5 percentage points was required for proportions, 

for comparisons to be described as meaningfully different. In both cases, that is, whether the 

effect size criterion for means was enforced or the percentage criterion for proportions, statistical 

significance (at .05) was also required. 

A.6 Description of Variables Used 

In section A.6, all variables used in this report are succinctly described. Further detail is 

given in A.7 for key classification variables, and for test scores. 

The three longitudinal studies that provided data for this report have each had several 

follow-ups and multiple data releases. Wherever possible, the data reported here for HS&B and 

NELS:88 use the data reported in America’s High School Sophomores: A Ten Year Comparison. 

The variable names for the data elements used in this report are provided in this section. 

For more detailed information, see the applicable user’s guides for the three studies: 

Jones, C., Clarke, M., Mooney, G., McWilliams, H., Crawford, I., Stephenson, B., and 

Tourangeau, R. (1983). High School and Beyond 1980 Sophomore Cohort First Followup (1982) Data File User’s Manual. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for 

Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Ingels, S.J., Scott, L.A., Lindmark, J.T., Frankel, M.R., and Myers, S.L. (1992). User’s Manual: 

NELS:88 First Follow-Up Student Component Data Files (NCES 92-030). U.S. 

Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Ingels, S.J., Pratt, D.J., Rogers, J., Siegel, P.H., and Stutts, E.S. (2004). Education Longitudinal 

Study of 2002: Base Year Data File User’s Manual (NCES 2004–405). Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. 

The references for the data files used in this report for each of the three studies are as 

follows: 

The 1980 data were obtained using HS&B 1980 base-year student, parent, language, and 

school survey component files. The student- and parent-level files used the filter “GRADE=1” to 

filter the population of sophomore cohort students. Since HS&B Electronic Codebook (ECB) 

products, on CD-ROM, do not contain the full population of base-year sampled students, an 

archive copy of these base-year files was obtained from the website for the Inter-university 

A-13 
Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) at the University of Michigan under the 

International Archive of Education Data (IAED) program. The user can find the link to “High 

School and Beyond (HS&B) Series” from the IAED Data & Surveys page under the 

Longitudinal Surveys section. From here, the analyst can obtain data and description files by 

choosing “View studies in the series” and the download links to “No. 7896, High School and 

Beyond, 1980: A Longitudinal Survey of Students in the United States, National Center for 

Education Statistics, 1992-02-16.” 

The 1990 data were obtained using the NELS:88 first follow-up survey student and baseyear parent component files. The population of 1990 sophomore cohort students was obtained 

using the filter “F1SEQFLG=0.” This flag variable was chosen over other available NELS:88 

flag and derived variables because the resultant population closely matched the original 1990 

population used in the publication America’s High School Sophomores: A Ten Year Comparison 

(Rasinski et al. 1993). The data were extracted from NELS:88/94 Base Year through Third 

Follow-up ECB/CD-ROM—Restricted Use (NCES 96–130), Release Date: March 12, 1996. This 

data product contains two installable ECBs, N2R and N4R. The N2R ECB contains all NELS 

data collected from the base year, first, and second follow-ups. These data can be used for crosssectional or longitudinal analyses. The extracted analysis file, from this ECB, varied slightly 

from the NELS:88 first follow-up file used in the original analysis. These differences were due to 

file edits and revisions performed after the original analysis. One reason for selecting this 

product, besides having revised data, was that it contained 1992 rescaled mathematics and 

reading test scores and test variables that are compatible with ELS:2002. The reading and 

mathematics proficiency probabilities, used in chapter 4, were computed using the rescaled 1992 

Item Response Theory (IRT)-estimated item parameters. Also in chapter 4 are mathematics IRT 

(estimates of number-right scores) comparisons between 1980, 1990, and 2002. Because 1980 

tests are included in this comparison, the NELS first follow-up 1990 scale is the only compatible 

scale across all years. The scaled mathematics variable “F1TXMIRR” does not exist in the N2R 

ECB, so this variable had to be extracted from the NELS:88 base-year through first follow-up 

CD-ROM and merged with the other NELS data extracted from the N2R ECB. 

The 2002 data were obtained using the ELS:2002 base-year survey student component 

file. The population of 2002 sophomore cohort students was obtained using no filters. The data 

were extracted from Education Longitudinal Study: 2002 Data Files and Electronic Codebook 

(NCES 2004–404), Web Release Date: November 12, 2004. 

Table A-1 presents the variable names and explanatory notes for the variables discussed 

in this report. 

A-14 
Table A-1. Variable names and explanatory notes, by year: 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Variable 1980 1990 2002 

A-15 

Cohort demographics 

Sex Racial/ethnic group Socioeconomic status Parent’s education Father’s education 

Mother’s education 

BB083 F1SEX SEX 

BB089, BB090 F1RACE RACE 

The race variable for 1980 evaluated the response to Hispanic origin first. If the response was positiset to Hispanic, regardless of the response to the race question. 

BBSES F1SESQ SES1Q 

PBB38, PBB50, BB042 F1PARED PARED 

The parents’ education variable for 1980 used parent responses. If the parent response did not exisresponses were used. BB039, PBB01, PBB38 BYP1A1, BYP30, BYP31 FATHED 

The mother’s and father’s education variable for 1980 used the parent responses, whenever possib

the student. If a parent response was given, the respondent must be one of the following to use: mo

or stepfather. If used, the respondent’s response for spouse was used to define the remaining value father’s education. It should also be noted that in HS&B, only a small number of students were chos

information, so the majority of these values were taken from the student responses. 

The mother’s and father’s education variable for 1990 used the parent responses taken from the bas

student was in 8th grade. If a parent response was given, the respondent must be one of the followi

stepmother, or stepfather. If used, the respondent’s response for spouse was used to define the remmother’s or father’s education. If a parent’s response was not used, the student’s base-year 8th-gra

the NELS student was a first follow-up freshened student, his or her response to parents’ education 

series of freshened student questions. It should be noted that in base-year NELS, most of the studeresponse, so the majority of these values were taken from parent’s information. BB042, PBB01, PBB50 BYP1A1, BYP30, BYP31 MOTHED 

The mother’s and father’s education variable for 1980 used the parent responses, whenever possib

the student. If a parent response was given, the respondent must be one of the following to use: mo

or stepfather. If used, the respondent’s response for spouse was used to define the remaining value father’s education. It should also be noted that in HS&B, only a small number of students were chos

information, so the majority of these values were taken from the student responses. 

See notes at end of table. 
Table A-1. Variable names and explanatory notes, by year: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Variable 1980 1990 2002 

A-16 

Cohort demographics— 

Continued 

Mother’s education— 

Continued 

Native language School sector Region Urbanicity High school program Age during survey 

The mother’s and father’s education variable for 1990 used the parent responses taken from the basestudent was in 8th grade. If a parent response was given, the respondent must be one of the following 

stepmother, or stepfather. If used, the respondent’s response for spouse was used to define the remamother’s or father’s education. If a parent’s response was not used, the student’s base-year 8th-grade 

the NELS student was a first follow-up freshened student, his or her response to parents’ education w

of freshened student questions. It should be noted that in base-year NELS, most of the students had 

majority of these values were taken from parent’s information. LANGDATA, LB11 F1S54, F1S55A STLANG The native language variable for 1980 used the base-year language questionnaire flag in determining 

value. Students who did not have a corresponding record in the language file were given a value of Erecord response was found, the record was evaluated to determine if the native language was other t

SCHTYPE G10CTRL1 BYSCTRL 

CENRGN G10REGON BYREGION 

SCHURB G10URBAN BYURBAN BB002 F1S20 SCHPROG 

The high school program figures for 1980 were taken from America’s High School Sophomores: A Te(Rasinski et al. 1993). The figures for 1990 have been revised. The new figures derived for 1990 were NELS:88 N2R ECB STMEG.PRI file variable F1S20. This variable contained additional program track 

and “Specialized” program tracks. These responses were not included in the table analysis, since theoriginal publication percentages. BB084 F1BIRTHY, F1BIRTHM, survey date DOBIRTHP su

(03/1990) 

The age in years figures for 1990 and 2002 use the student’s birth year and month and a fixed point ocollection year. 

See notes at end of table. 
Table A-1. Variable names and explanatory notes, by year: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Variable 1980 1990 2002 

Cohort demographics— 

Continued 

Family living arrangements BB036A, BB036B, BB036C, BB036D, BYFCOMP BYFCOMP 

BB036E, BB036H, BB036I The family living arrangements variable for 1980 used the series of survey variables (BB036A, BB036

BB036E, BB036H, BB036I). These variables defined who lived in the household. The responses to m

precedence over other responses. The value of “other relative or nonrelative” was given if there was n

mother or father in the household. The family living arrangements variable for 1990 used the NELS:88 base-year derived variable BYFCderived from the 8th-grade student responses for 1988. Although the 1990 sophomore population inc

freshened students, these freshened students did not have freshened questions that could be used to 

Also, the NELS first follow-up does contain a derived variable FAMCOMP that was derived from the bdata. This derived variable defines mother and father combinations, and single and two adult family scould not be used since single female and single male does not differentiate between mother/father arelative. The family living arrangements variable for 2002 has the same name in ELS:2002 as the NELS:88 va

School size SB002A F1SCENRL BY01STEN 

Class size SB002B G10ENROL BY02G10E Free or reduced-price lunch 

eligibility F1C30A BY10FLP 

Time spent on homework per 

week BB015 F1S36A1, F1S36A2 BYS34A, BYS

Preparation for school 

Coming to school without 

books YB016B F1S40B BYS38B 

Coming to school without 

paper, pen, or pencil YB016A F1S40A BYS38A 

Coming to school without 

homework YB016C F1S40C BYS38C 

A-17 

See notes at end of table. 
Table A-1. Variable names and explanatory notes, by year: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Variable 1980 1990 2002 

School climate and teaching 

I don’t feel safe at this school BB059F F1S7M BYS20J 

Disruptions by other students 

get in the way of my learning F1S7N BYS20K 

The teaching is good F1S7G BYS20E 

Exposure to calculators and 

computers 

Never using calculators in 

math class F1S32G BYS29F 

Never using computers in 

math class F1S32E BYS29H 

Participation in extracurricular 

activities 

Academic clubs BB032G F1S41BG BYS41G 

Vocational clubs BB032H F1S41BI BYS41I Athletics BB032A F1S41AA through F1S41AG BYS40BA thro

The Athletics variable for 2002 uses the variables BYS40AB, BYS40BB, BYS40C, BYS40DB, BYS40BYS40GB. If any one of these variables indicates participation, the student was flagged as an “athleti

be flagged as a “nonparticipant,” the student needed to respond “nonparticipant” to all the questions. missing and the student did not indicate any “athletic participation,” the flag was set to missing and no

Cheerleading and drill team BB032B F1S41AH through F1S41AI BYS40HB 

Music-related activities BB032D, BB032E F1S41BA BYS41A 

Hobby clubs BB032F F1S41BH BYS41H 

See notes at end of table. 

A-18 
Table A-1. Variable names and explanatory notes, by year: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Variable Employment status 

Ever worked for pay or 

employed 

1980 

BB021 

1990 

F1S84 

2002 

BYS72 

Worked for pay or employed 

at time of survey BB021 F1S84 BYS72 

Worked more than 20 hours 

per week at time of survey BB021, BB022 F1S84, F1S85 BYS72, BYS75 

Unstructured social activities 

Driving or riding around BB047D F1S44I BYS44D 

Visiting with friends or 

meeting at a hangout BB047A F1S44A BYS44A 

Talking with friends on the 

telephone BB047E F1S44J BYS44E 

Life values 

Being successful in line of 

work BB057A F1S46A BYS54A 

Being able to find steady 

work BB057E F1S46E BYS54E 

Having lots of money BB057C F1S46C BYS54C Having strong friendships BB057D BB057D BYS54D Having leisure time to enjoy 

own interests BB057L BB057L BYS54L 

A-19 

See notes at end of table. 
Table A-1. Variable names and explanatory notes, by year: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Variable 1980 1990 2002 

Life values—Continued 

Finding right person to 

marry/having happy family life BB057B F1S46B BYS54B 

Having children BB057K F1S46K BYS54K 

Being able to give my 

children better opportunities than I’ve had BB057G F1S46G BYS54G 

Helping other people in 

community BB057F F1S46F BYS54F 

Working to correct social and 

economic inequalities BB057J F1S46J BYS54J 

Plans and expectations 

Students’ educational 

expectations BB065 F1S49 STEXPECT 

Student reports that father 

thinks college is most important thing to do right after high school BB050B F1S47B BYS66B 

Student reports that mother 

thinks college is most important thing to do right after high school BB050B F1S47A BYS66A 

Student reports that school 

counselor thinks college is most important thing to do right after high school 

See notes at end of table. 

BB050C F1S47E BYS66E 

A-20 
Table A-1. Variable names and explanatory notes, by year: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Variable 1980 1990 2002 

Plans and expectations— 

Continued 

Student reports that teacher 

thinks college is most important thing to do right after high school BB050D F1S47F BYS66F 

Student intentions regarding 

entering college after high school BB115 F1S51 BYS57, BYS58 

Job or occupation expected 

at age 30 BB062 F1S53B BYOCC30 

Academic achievement 

Composite achievement test 

score YBREADSD, YBMTH1SD, YBVOCSD F12XQURT BYTXCQU 

The composite achievement test variable for 1980 was determined by the average of the available baThese averages were weighted to determine the quarter points. The ranges derived from the quarter 

define a test quarter for each student. 

Remedial English BB011A F1S34A BYS33D 

Remedial math BB011B F1S34B BYS33E 

Bilingual or bicultural 

education BB011E F1S34C BYS33F 

Advanced programs and 

Advanced Placement BB011C, BB011D F1S34E BYS33A, BYS3

See notes at end of table. 

A-21 
Table A-1. Variable names and explanatory notes, by year: 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Variable 1980 1990 2002 

A-22 

Academic achievement— 

Continued 

Number-right scores for 

mathematics YBMTH1RT, YBMTH2RT (equated) F1TXMIRR BYNELS0M 

The 1980 values came from the equated variable derived and used in America’s High School SophomComparison (Rasinski et al. 1993). In that publication, this equation process was defined as follows: T

compare mathematics performance of the 1980 HS&B sophomore cohort with that of the 1990 NELS

sets of mathematics scores had to be put on the same scale. The NELS:88 mathematics test was origlinked to the HS&B scores. This was accomplished by including 16 quantitative comparison items from 

mathematics test. Mathematics was the only cognitive test in the NELS:88 battery that shared sufficiecounterpart measure in HS&B to enable a reliable cross-walk between the two scales. The linking waestimating the item response theory (IRT) parameters for the common items using the NELS:88 soph

putting the remaining nonoverlapping HS&B items on that scale. Before the final linking was carried o

common items were estimated separately for the two populations and compared to insure that they win the two populations. A final check on the validity of the equating was carried out by inspecting subpamong the HS&B students after they were put on the same scale as the NELS:88 cohort. If the linking the relative differences that were found among the HS&B subpopulations on their original scales shouare put on the new scaling. All subpopulation differences remained relatively invariant, indicating that 

successful. Further details of HS&B/NELS:88 test equating procedures and the NELS :88 1990 mathe

58) can be found in the NELS:88 first follow-up final technical report (Ingels et al. 1994, NCES 94-632

The values for 1990 came from the variable F1TXMIRR. This variable was obtained from the NELS:8merged with the other NELS:88 analysis data, taken from the NELS: 88 Second Follow-up ECB (N2R

1996 on the base-year through third follow-up ECB/CD-ROM. 

Probability of proficiency in F12XMPP1, F12XMPP2, F12XMPP3, BYTX1MPP, 

mathematics F12XMPP4, F12XMPP5 BYTX3MPP, 

Probability of proficiency in 

reading F12XRPP1, F12XRPP2, F12XRPP3 BYTX1RPP, B

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 1980”

Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002
 

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

A.7 Glossary of Key Classification Variables and Test Scores 

The glossary gives further information about the following key classification variables 

for this report: age, family living arrangements, race/ethnicity, region, school sector, sex, and 

socioeconomic status (SES). It also provides information about assessment scores (composite 

achievement test scores, NELS:88-scaled IRT-estimated number-right scores, and probability of 

proficiency scores) and some further analysis variables, such as educational and occupational 

expectations. For more detailed information about variables used in this report, see the data file 

documentation for (respectively) HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002: Jones et al. (1983) (NCES 

83-214); Ingels et al. (1992) (NCES 92-030); and Ingels et al. (2004) (NCES 2004-405). 

Age. In HS&B in 1980, an item on the questionnaire asked students to mark an age, 

given the following response options: 13 or younger 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, or 21 or older. In 

NELS:88 and ELS:2002, students were asked to provide their date of birth (month-day-year). 

Thus, while all three studies occur in the spring term, age information was not collected in 

identical fashion. In order to calculate mean age in a comparable way, March was used as the 

anchor for age in HS&B, and students age as of March has been used for NELS:88 and 

ELS:2002. 

Educational expectations. All three studies asked (in slightly variant ways) about 

sophomores’ expectations for future educational attainment. For this report, the more extensive 

original categories were collapsed into four: high school or less, two or fewer years of college, 

attainment of a bachelor’s degree, and attainment of a graduate or professional degree. In 

ELS:2002 (but not HS&B or NELS:88) missing educational expectations data were statistically 

imputed. 

Family living arrangements. The six categories used are: Mother and father; Mother 

and guardian; Father and guardian; Mother only; Father only; Other relative or non-relative. The 

term “guardian” includes step-mothers and sep-fathers. The category “Mother and father” refers 

to biological or adoptive parents. 

Household items scale. Differences in household item questions reflect changing social 

circumstances over time. The household items list has been revised for each survey. By 2002, 

HS&B items such as ownership of a typewriter had ceased to function as good proxies for family 

income, while other items, such as access to the Internet or having a digital video disc player, 

did.7

 Although items differ across the index over time, in each case the items are those that are 

needed to provide a measure that has a reasonable correlation with income. 

The HS&B household items were as follows: regularly-delivered newspaper, >50 books, 

encyclopedia, place to study, room of own, calculator, typewriter, electric dishwasher, two cars. 

In NELS:88, information was collected about the following household items: regularly-delivered 

newspaper, dictionary, encyclopedia, magazines, place to study, room of own, calculator, 

typewriter, electric dishwasher, > 50 books, atlas, clothes dryer, washing machine, microwave 

oven, computer, and VCR. Though not used in constructing SES, the following household item 

7 The household items were asked in ELS:2002, but the index was not used in the creation of SES, because missing 

income data were imputed. 

A-23 
 

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

questions appeared in ELS:2002: regularly-delivered newspaper, magazines, room of own, 

internet access, electric dishwasher, fax machine, clothes dryer, computer, DVD player. 

Occupation. The following occupation categories were used to generate the SES 

composite for 1980, 1990, and 2002, and were used for eliciting occupational expectation (at age 

30) from sophomores in 1980 and 1990. In 2002, occupational expectation was asked as an 

open-ended question and coded to these categories, and included an option for a “Don’t Know” 

response. The occupation categories are listed below in hierarchical order reflecting their 

prestige scores on the Duncan Socioeconomic Index)8 from lowest to highest. Note that no 

prestige score is assigned to “homemaker” or “military.” For further information see Ingels et al. 

(1992b). 

LABORER such as construction worker, car washer, sanitary worker, farm laborer; 

OPERATIVE, such as meat cutter, assembly worker, machine operator, welder, taxicab, 

bus or truck driver; 

SERVICE, such as barber, beautician, practical nurse, private household worker, janitor, 

waiter; 

CRAFTSPERSON, such as baker, automobile mechanic, machinist, painter, plumber, 

telephone installer, carpenter; 

FARMER such as farmer, farm manager; 

PROTECTIVE SERVICES, such as detective, police officer or guard, sheriff, fire 

fighter; 

PROPRIETOR/OWNER, such as owner of small business, contractor, restaurant owner; 

SALES, such as salesperson, advertising or insurance agent, real estate broker; 

CLERICAL, such as bank teller, bookkeeper, secretary, typist, mail carrier, ticket agent; 

MANAGER/ADMINISTRATOR such as sales manager, office manager, school 

administrator, buyer, restaurant manager, government official; 

TECHNICAL, such as draftsman, medical or dental technician, computer programmer; 

SCHOOL TEACHER, such as elementary or high school teacher; 

PROFESSIONAL 1, such as accountant, artist, registered nurse, engineer, librarian, 

writer, social worker, actor, actress, athlete, politician, but not including school teacher; and 

8

 See Duncan, O.D., (1961). A Socioeconomic Index for All Occupations. In A.J. Reiss (Ed.) Occupations and Social 

Status. New York: Free Press. 

A-24 
Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

PROFESSIONAL 2, such as clergyman, dentist, physician, lawyer, scientist, college 

professor. 

Race/ethnicity. The race categories used in this report are: American Indian or Alaska 

Native; Asian or Pacific Islander; Black or African American; Hispanic or Latino; More than one 

race; White. The category “more than one race” applies only to ELS:2002. There is no way to 

know how an individual in this category in ELS:2002 would have been placed in a race or 

ethnicity category in the prior studies. In all three studies, race was self-reported, and based on a 

response in the student questionnaire. 

Region. Geographic region in which the 10th-grade school is located: Northeast (CT, 

ME, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, and VT); Midwest (formerly North Central) (IL, IN, IA, KS, MI, 

MN, MO, ND, NE, OH, SD, and WI); South (AL, AR, DC, DE, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, 

OK, SC, TN, TX, VA, and WV); and West (AK, AZ, CA, CO, HI, ID, MT, NV, NM, OR, UT, 

WA, and WY). 

School sector. Public, Catholic, and Other Private are the school sector categories used in 

this report. All three studies oversampled non-public schools to some degree, the better to 

represent this comparatively rare population. 

Sex. Consistently across the three studies, respondents were asked whether their sex was 

female or male. In NELS:88 and ELS:2002, name was used to impute sex in the rare cases this 

information was not supplied by the respondent. 

Socioeconomic status (SES). The socioeconomic status (SES) variable offers a good 

example of the subtle differences that may exist between the same variable in different studies, 

despite efforts to maximize cross-cohort consistency of measures. Continuities and differences in 

SES constituents and construction in the three studies are summarized in tables A-2 and A-3. 

Table A-2. Elements of the socioeconomic composite, HS&B and NELS:88: 1980–1992 

HS&B NELS:88 NELS:88 student 

(student reported) (parent reported) survey substitutions 

Father’s occupation Father’s occupation Father’s occupation 

Mother’s occupation Mother’s occupation 

Father’s education Father’s education Father’s education 

Mother’s education Mother’s education Mother’s education 

Family income Family income Household items 

Household items — — 

— Not available. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Longitudinal Study (1980); and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88). 

A-25 
Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

Table A-3. Elements of socioeconomic composite, ELS:2002: 2002 

Preferred source Student report substitution if 

(parent reported) missing from parent Imputed if still missing 

Father’s occupation Father’s occupation Father’s occupation 

Mother’s occupation Mother’s occupation Mother’s occupation 

Father’s education Father’s education Father’s education 

Mother’s education Mother’s education Mother’s education 

Family income — Family income 

— Not available. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Education Longitudinal Study of 

2002 (ELS:2002). 

In all three studies, the composite is based on five equally weighted, standardized 

components; however, these components differ somewhat. In HS&B the household items are 

directly used; in NELS:88, they are used only as a proxy for missing income data. In HS&B, 

mother’s occupation was available from the data set but was not used in calculating SES. In 

NELS:88 and ELS:2002, both mother’s and father’s occupation are elements of SES. In HS&B, 

student data were used to construct this composite. In NELS:88 and ELS:2002, parent data were 

used to construct the SES composite. In both NELS:88 and ELS:2002, student data are 

substituted where parent data are missing. However, for parent education and occupation, where 

both parent and student reports are missing, ELS:2002 education and occupation values are 

imputed. Family income was not asked of students. While in NELS:88 a student-provided 

household item index (see below for more information about the household item scale), which 

served as an income proxy, was substituted when income data were missing, a different 

procedure was followed in ELS:2002. When parent data on income were missing, income was 

statistically imputed. The impact of imputation on the intercohort comparability of the SES 

composite was investigated by comparing two versions of 2002 SES, one based on the ELS:2002 

specifications, the other on NELS:88 specifications. The basic finding was of no impact or 

extremely small impact on estimates. Details are given in Ingels, Pratt et al. (2005), appendix C. 

Some differences across the studies are based on differences in design. The studies had 

different starting points. HS&B base-year respondents were sophomores or seniors. NELS:88 

base-year respondents were 8th-graders. ELS:2002 base-year respondents were sophomores. A 

parent interview was sought for all NELS:88 and ELS:2002 base-year student respondents. 

HS&B had a parent survey, but it only encompassed a modest subsample of student respondents. 

Because the quality of reporting on parental occupation and education increases with student age 

or grade, it may be of concern whether reports were gathered at grade 8, 10, or 12. However, 

since parent reports are markedly superior to student reports in these matters, it may be of 

concern that only in NELS:88 and ELS:2002 are the data primarily parent reported. Likewise, 

students are poor reporters of family income, but the income question was asked of students in 

HS&B and of parents alone in NELS:88 and ELS:2002. 

A-26 
Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

Test Scores 

Composite test score. This is the standardized test composite score (reading and 

mathematics) quartile ranking for each test taker. The composite score is the average of the math 

and reading standardized scores, restandardized to a national mean of 50.0 and standard 

deviation of 10.0. A very few students had scores for only the math test or reading test, but not 

both. For students who did not have both scores, the composite is based on the single score that 

was available. The standardized T score provides a norm-referenced measurement of 

achievement, that is, an estimate of achievement relative to the population (10th graders) as a 

whole. It provides information on status compared to peers (as distinguished from the item 

response theory [IRT]-estimated number-right score, which represents status with respect to 

achievement on a particular criterion set of test items). The score divides the weighted 

(population estimate) achievement distributions into four equal groups (or quarters). 

IRT-Estimated number right score in mathematics. These scores are available on the 

same scale for HS&B, NELS:88, and ELS:2002. The scale (which has a range of 0-58), is based 

on the 1990 NELS:88, with equating to HS&B and ELS:2002. The 1990 scale is fully 

documented in Ingels et al. 1994 (NCES 94-632, chapter VI); this source also provides details of 

the HS&B-NELS:88 test equating. 

The IRT-estimated number-right scores are derived from the IRT model and are based on 

all of the student’s responses to the mathematics assessment. That is, the pattern of right and 

wrong answers and the characteristics of the assessment items themselves are used to estimate a 

point on an ability continuum, and this ability estimate, theta, then provides the basis for 

criterion-referenced scores. 

Probability of proficiency scores in reading and mathematics. Criterion-referenced 

proficiency probability scores are based on clusters of items that mark different levels on the 

reading and mathematics scales developed in NELS:88. Clusters of four items each were 

identified in the NELS:88 tests that marked three hierarchical levels in reading and five in 

mathematics. While clusters of four items anchor each mastery level, the probability of 

proficiency is a continuous score that does not depend on a student answering the actual items in 

each of the clusters but, rather, on the probability of a correct answer on these items given the 

overall pattern of response on the items completed. 

Probability of Mastery, Reading Levels: 

1. Simple reading comprehension, including reproduction of detail, and/or the author’s 

main thought, such as identifying the objective of a character’s action. 

2. Simple inferences beyond the author’s main thought and/or understanding and 

evaluating abstract concepts, such as identifying the author’s state of mind, or 

inferring the meaning of a metaphor from context. 

3. Complex inferences or evaluative judgments requiring multiple sources of 

information. 

A-27 
 

Appendix A: 

Technical Notes and Glossary 

Probability of Mastery, Mathematics Levels: 

1. Simple arithmetical operations on whole numbers, such as simple arithmetic 

expressions involving multiplication or division of integers; 

2. Simple operations with decimals, fractions, powers, and roots, such as comparing 

expressions, given information about exponents; 

3. Simple problem solving, requiring the understanding of low-level mathematical 

concepts, such as simplifying an algebraic expression or comparing the length of line 

segments illustrated in a diagram; 

4. Understanding of intermediate-level mathematical concepts and/or multistep 

solutions to word problems such as drawing an inference based on an algebraic 

expression or inequality; and 

5. Complex multistep word problems and/or advanced mathematics material such as a 

two-step problem requiring evaluation of functions. 

The mastery levels are hierarchical in the sense that mastery of a higher level typically 

implies mastery at lower levels. The proficiency probabilities were computed using IRTestimated item parameters calibrated in NELS:88. Each proficiency probability represents the 

likelihood that a student would pass a given mastery level defined as above in the NELS:88 

sample. It should be remembered that probability of proficiency scores are IRT-derived estimates 

based on overall performance rather than counts of actual item responses. The NELS:88 and 

ELS:2002 tests were semi-adaptive, with different forms keyed to different ability levels. Owing 

to the multiple test forms used in NELS:88 and ELS:2002, not all sophomores received all items. 

Nevertheless, the IRT model permits proficiency probabilities to be estimated, even for those 

sophomores who were not administered a particular proficiency/mastery cluster. The mean of a 

proficiency probability score aggregated over a subgroup of students is analogous to an estimate 

of the percentage of students in the subgroup who have displayed mastery of the particular skill. 

Since the range of the scores is zero to one, means can be expressed in percentage form.9

 For 

example, the weighted mean for mastery of math level 1 in ELS:2002 is 0.92, which is 

equivalent to saying that 92 percent of the sophomore cohort had achieved mastery at this level 

(simple arithmetical operations on whole numbers). While the continuous probability of 

proficiency scores can be used to measure status, they are perhaps most useful for measuring 

change longitudinally within NELS:88 or ELS:2002, or difference as detected in cross-cohort 

analysis of time series data (as is done in this report). 

9

 On the interpretation of a probability as a proportion, see, for example, Fleiss, Levin, and Paik (2003, p. 1). 

A-28 
Appendix B 

Standard Error Tables 

B-1 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-1. Unweighted sample sizes for subgroups formed, by classification variables: 

1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 30,030 17,753 15,362 

Sex

 Male 13,382 8,863 7,646 

Female 14,511 8,890 7,716 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 297 195 131 

Asian or Pacific Islander 405 1,204 1,465 

Black or African American 4,194 1,742 2,033 

Hispanic or Latino 3,788 2,210 2,234 

More than one race — — 742 

White 21,071 12,311 8,757 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 7,540 3,674 3,635 

Middle two quarters 14,007 8,172 8,757 

Highest quarter 7,090 5,171 4,339 

Parents’ education 

High school or less 12,817 4,780 3,977 

Some college 7,122 6,608 4,339 

College graduation 3,181 2,695 3,484 

Graduate degree 2,938 2,776 2,852 

Native language1 

English 27,487 15,242 12,766 

Non-English 2,522 2,075 2,596 

Student's educational expectations 

High school or less 7,440 1,668 1,127 

Some college 9,216 4,903 1,453 

College graduation 6,567 5,789 5,455 

Graduate or professional degree 5,518 5,180 5,866 

Don't know 213 1,461 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 7,151 3,519 3,495 

Second quarter 6,888 4,065 3,743 

Third quarter 6,647 4,272 4,011 

Highest quarter 6,849 4,882 4,113 

School sector 

Public 26,241 15,059 12,039 

Catholic 2,808 984 1,920 

Other private 981 1,455 1,403 

See notes at end of table. 

B-3 
 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-1. Unweighted sample sizes for subgroups formed, by classification variables: 

1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 

Region 

Northeast 6,248 3,313 2,763 

Midwest 8,575 4,605 3,879 

South 9,679 6,040 5,640 

West 5,528 3,541 3,080 

Urbanicity 

Urban 6,026 5,129 5,115 

Suburban 13,291 6,937 7,399 

Rural 7,801 5,435 2,848 

High school program 

General 13,417 7,171 5,419 

Academic/college preparatory 9,941 6,337 8,439 

Vocational 5,999 1,591 1,504 

— Not available. 1 The first language students learned to speak when they were children. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and 

NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless 

of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Table B-2. Standard errors for table 1 estimates (number and percentage of high school 

sophomores’ cohort size, by geographic region of schools): 1980, 1990, and 

2002 

1980 1990 2002 

Region Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

U.S. 62,345 † 51,214 † 54,411 † 

Northeast1

Midwest2

South3

West4

59,571 

58,511 

68,185 

50,871 

1.52 

1.54 

1.69 

1.33 

27,110 

23,592 

26,933 

25,681 

0.85 

0.77 

0.82 

0.79 

25,266 

24,938 

23,366 

34,080 

0.65 

0.65 

0.66 

0.81 

† Not applicable. 

1 Northeast = Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode 

Island, Vermont. 

2 Midwest = Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South 

Dakota, Wisconsin. 

3 South = Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North 

Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia. 4 West = Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, 

Washington, Wyoming. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-4 
 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-3. Standard errors for table 2 estimates (Mean age and percentage distribution 

of high school sophomores, by age and sex): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 

Mean Age 0.01 0.01 0.01 

Age during survey 

18 years or more 0.08 0.06 0.12 

17 years 0.21 0.34 0.32 

16 years 0.43 0.68 0.52 

15 years 0.50 0.67 0.51 

14 years or less 0.06 0.16 0.07 

Sex 

Male 0.48 0.62 0.53 

Female 0.48 0.62 0.53 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Table B-4. Standard errors for table 3 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, 

by racial/ethnic group): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Racial/ethnic group 1980 1990 2002 

American Indian or Alaska Native 0.15 0.22 0.20 

Asian or Pacific Islander 0.13 0.29 0.26 

Black or African American 0.81 0.81 0.66 

Hispanic or Latino 0.31 0.79 0.87 

More than one race † † 0.23 

White 0.94 1.16 0.98 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-5 
 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-5. Standard errors for table 4 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores 

whose native language is English, by racial/ethnic group): 1980, 1990, and 

2002 

Racial/ethnic group 1980 1990 2002 

All sophomores 0.31 0.68 0.60 

American Indian or Alaska Native 4.43 9.16 4.46 

Asian or Pacific Islander 4.10 2.95 2.10 

Black or African American 0.19 0.60 0.64 

Hispanic or Latino 1.73 2.49 1.93 

More than one race † † 1.04 

White 0.14 0.20 0.28 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and 

NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless 

of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Table B-6. Standard errors for table 5 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, 

by family living arrangement): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Family living arrangements 1980 1990 2002 

Mother and father 0.49 0.72 0.56 

Mother and guardian 0.29 0.45 0.36 

Father and guardian 0.10 0.32 0.17 

Mother only 0.37 0.48 0.44 

Father only 0.12 0.31 0.20 

Other relative or nonrelative 0.12 0.22 0.19 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-6 
 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-7. Standard errors for table 6 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, 

by parents’ highest level of education): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Parents’ highest level of education 1980 1990 2002 

Fathers 

Did not finish high school 0.53 0.62 0.54 

Graduated from high school or GED 0.49 0.61 0.53 

Some postsecondary education (PSE) 0.40 0.63 0.48 

Graduated from college 0.38 0.49 0.43 

Completed master's or equivalent 0.25 0.41 0.30 

Completed Ph.D., M.D., or other advanced degree 0.26 0.38 0.26 

Mothers 

Did not finish high school 1.14 0.54 0.54 

Graduated from high school or GED 1.28 0.64 0.49 

Some postsecondary education (PSE) 1.00 0.68 0.53 

Graduated from college 0.75 0.46 0.46 

Completed master's or equivalent 0.44 0.25 0.27 

Completed Ph.D., M.D., or other advanced degree 0.30 0.08 0.15 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Table B-8. Standard errors for table 7 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, 

by socioeconomic status [SES] and racial/ethnic group): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Lowest quarter Middle two quarters Highest quarter 

Racial/ethnic group 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

All sophomores 0.60 0.71 0.68 0.51 0.73 0.63 0.70 0.86 0.73 

American Indian or Alaska Native 3.56 5.68 5.42 3.45 5.29 4.87 2.18 2.47 3.48 

Asian or Pacific Islander 2.99 1.78 2.16 2.93 2.55 1.69 3.12 2.44 2.15 

Black or African American 1.42 2.37 1.38 1.24 2.16 1.37 0.79 1.15 0.89 

Hispanic or Latino 1.49 2.07 1.86 1.20 1.79 1.54 0.85 1.08 0.86 

More than one race † † 2.01 † † 2.33 † † 1.76 

White 0.53 0.69 0.63 0.59 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.99 0.94 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because 

of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for 

ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. 

Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of 

Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. Each of the three studies (HS&B; NELS:88; ELS:2002) 

have constructed a standardized SES variable. SES is based on five equally weighted standardized components consisting 

of father or guardian’s education; mother or guardian’s education; family income; father or guardian’s occupation; and 

mother or guardian’s occupation. In HS&B, the five components of SES include household items and do not include 

mother’s occupation. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base 

Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal 

Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-7 
 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-9. Standard errors for table 8 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores, 

by school type, racial/ethnic group, and socioeconomic status [SES]): 1980, 

1990, and 2002 

Public Catholic Other private 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.32 0.37 0.28 0.68 0.89 0.16 1.71 0.66 0.23 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 1.25 1.01 2.50 0.54 1.01 0.46 1.09 † 2.45 

Asian or Pacific Islander 1.95 3.26 1.51 1.54 1.83 1.13 1.14 2.98 1.04 

Black or African American 0.57 1.46 0.39 0.53 1.44 0.35 0.02 0.37 0.17 

Hispanic or Latino 1.46 1.54 0.52 1.02 1.17 0.43 1.09 0.77 0.26 

More than one race † † 0.93 † † 0.63 † † 0.66 

White 1.31 0.80 0.47 0.97 0.59 0.27 0.95 0.48 0.38 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 0.53 0.42 0.28 0.48 0.37 0.16 0.21 0.19 0.17 

Middle two quarters 1.12 0.71 0.24 0.84 0.58 0.19 0.78 0.42 0.25 

Highest quarter 2.20 1.65 0.31 1.61 1.11 0.59 1.78 1.17 0.81 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be 

consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more 

than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin 

are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base 

Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal 

Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-8 
 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-10a. Standard errors for table 9a estimates (Percentage distribution of school 

size for high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group and 

socioeconomic status [SES]): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Categories 1980 1990 2002 

All 2002 sophomores 

1 to 399 students 1.20 0.99 1.13 

400 to 599 students 0.97 1.03 1.15 

600 to 799 students 1.03 1.02 1.20 

800 to 999 students 1.05 0.98 1.26 

1,000 to 1,199 students 1.11 1.12 1.20 

1,200 to 1,599 students 1.41 1.07 1.71 

1,600 to 1,999 students 1.40 1.13 1.59 

2,000 to 2,499 students 1.14 0.87 1.57 

2,500 or more students 1.04 0.66 1.23 

Race ethnicity 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

1 to 399 students 5.31 6.88 8.90 

400 to 599 students 4.42 8.70 10.19 

600 to 799 students 3.16 1.77 2.27 

800 to 999 students 2.00 2.58 11.31 

1,000 to 1,199 students 1.88 7.14 3.27 

1,200 to 1,599 students 4.35 4.59 3.47 

1,600 to 1,999 students 3.01 2.55 5.85 

2,000 to 2,499 students 1.87 1.37 5.16 

2,500 or more students 1.43 3.29 2.24 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

1 to 399 students 1.41 3.21 1.28 

400 to 599 students 1.04 1.09 2.52 

600 to 799 students 1.01 1.72 1.32 

800 to 999 students 1.13 1.78 1.18 

1,000 to 1,199 students 1.77 2.18 1.51 

1,200 to 1,599 students 2.85 2.53 3.96 

1,600 to 1,999 students 3.78 2.47 2.13 

2,000 to 2,499 students 5.44 2.71 3.89 

2,500 or more students 5.31 2.89 3.56 

Black or African American 

1 to 399 students 1.72 2.09 1.28 

400 to 599 students 2.11 1.17 2.08 

600 to 799 students 1.29 2.05 2.41 

800 to 999 students 2.06 2.17 2.00 

1,000 to 1,199 students 1.61 2.57 1.93 

1,200 to 1,599 students 2.59 2.16 3.35 

1,600 to 1,999 students 2.75 1.96 3.27 

2,000 to 2,499 students 2.21 1.42 2.30 

2,500 or more students 2.93 1.48 1.32 

See notes at end of table. 

B-9 
 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-10a. Standard errors for table 9a estimates (Percentage distribution of school 

size for high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group and 

socioeconomic status [SES]): 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Categories 1980 1990 2002 

Race ethnicity—continued 

Hispanic or Latino 

1 to 399 students 1.61 1.76 1.44 

400 to 599 students 0.91 1.67 2.16 

600 to 799 students 1.24 1.17 0.81 

800 to 999 students 1.81 1.42 1.37 

1,000 to 1,199 students 1.30 1.39 1.63 

1,200 to 1,599 students 1.75 1.93 2.75 

1,600 to 1,999 students 1.98 5.18 2.87 

2,000 to 2,499 students 2.36 2.27 4.37 

2,500 or more students 2.26 2.70 3.63 

White 

1 to 399 students 1.38 1.17 1.51 

400 to 599 students 1.05 1.26 1.41 

600 to 799 students 1.17 1.25 1.50 

800 to 999 students 1.15 1.17 1.59 

1,000 to 1,199 students 1.24 1.26 1.41 

1,200 to 1,599 students 1.52 1.20 1.85 

1,600 to 1,999 students 1.48 1.05 1.58 

2,000 to 2,499 students 1.14 0.93 1.52 

2,500 or more students 0.87 0.52 1.02 

More than one race 

1 to 399 students † † 1.73 

400 to 599 students † † 1.86 

600 to 799 students † † 2.19 

800 to 999 students † † 1.57 

1,000 to 1,199 students † † 2.11 

1,200 to 1,599 students † † 3.16 

1,600 to 1,999 students † † 2.25 

2,000 to 2,499 students † † 2.26 

2,500 or more students † † 2.47 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

1 to 399 students 1.53 1.45 1.56 

400 to 599 students 1.40 1.44 1.72 

600 to 799 students 1.22 1.35 1.50 

800 to 999 students 1.38 1.34 1.53 

1,000 to 1,199 students 1.12 1.42 1.36 

1,200 to 1,599 students 1.51 1.54 2.08 

1,600 to 1,999 students 1.51 1.74 1.64 

2,000 to 2,499 students 1.21 1.04 2.20 

2,500 or more students 1.41 1.08 1.72 

See notes at end of table. 

B-10 
Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-10a. Standard errors for table 9a estimates (Percentage distribution of school 

size for high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group and 

socioeconomic status [SES]): 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Categories 1980 1990 2002 

Socioeconomic status—continued 

Middle two quarters 

1 to 399 students 1.25 1.13 1.29 

400 to 599 students 1.06 1.09 1.31 

600 to 799 students 1.09 1.16 1.27 

800 to 999 students 1.07 1.12 1.36 

1,000 to 1,199 students 1.18 1.23 1.23 

1,200 to 1,599 students 1.50 1.19 1.87 

1,600 to 1,999 students 1.47 1.03 1.71 

2,000 to 2,499 students 1.20 0.83 1.63 

2,500 or more students 0.98 0.66 1.29 

Highest quarter 

1 to 399 students 1.89 1.11 0.90 

400 to 599 students 0.79 1.28 1.14 

600 to 799 students 1.44 1.37 1.44 

800 to 999 students 1.26 1.50 1.43 

1,000 to 1,199 students 1.53 1.55 1.59 

1,200 to 1,599 students 1.73 1.36 2.10 

1,600 to 1,999 students 1.70 1.64 2.02 

2,000 to 2,499 students 1.59 1.35 1.98 

2,500 or more students 1.22 0.84 1.48 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be 

consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing 

more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of 

Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-11 
 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-10b. Standard errors for table 9b estimates (Percentage distribution of 

sophomore class size for high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group 

and socioeconomic status [SES]): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Categories 1980 1990 2002 

All 2002 sophomores 

1 to 99 students 1.12 1.12 1.01 

100 to 199 students 1.25 1.21 1.23 

200 to 299 students 1.30 1.30 1.38 

300 to 399 students 1.37 1.10 1.36 

400 to 549 students 1.40 1.28 1.54 

550 to 699 students 1.31 0.87 1.34 

700 or more students 1.24 0.71 1.15 

Race/ethnicity 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

1 to 99 students 5.23 8.34 8.36 

100 to 199 students 3.27 8.63 9.50 

200 to 299 students 11.03 4.36 10.01 

300 to 399 students 2.97 3.85 3.15 

400 to 549 students 4.60 3.77 6.74 

550 to 699 students 2.53 1.95 4.15 

700 or more students 2.26 3.39 2.29 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

1 to 99 students 1.39 3.22 1.17 

100 to 199 students 1.33 1.75 2.13 

200 to 299 students 1.78 2.62 2.21 

300 to 399 students 1.87 2.46 3.27 

400 to 549 students 3.44 2.66 3.53 

550 to 699 students 5.78 2.77 3.04 

700 or more students 5.07 2.90 2.42 

Black or African American 

1 to 99 students 1.43 1.90 1.24 

100 to 199 students 2.00 2.35 2.46 

200 to 299 students 2.31 3.10 2.32 

300 to 399 students 2.84 2.29 2.57 

400 to 549 students 2.40 2.51 2.76 

550 to 699 students 2.50 1.97 2.27 

700 or more students 3.20 1.19 1.25 

Hispanic or Latino 

1 to 99 students 1.64 1.82 1.21 

100 to 199 students 1.44 1.91 1.74 

200 to 299 students 1.42 1.79 1.40 

300 to 399 students 2.11 1.95 2.07 

400 to 549 students 1.90 5.01 2.69 

550 to 699 students 1.93 2.44 3.42 

700 or more students 2.66 2.96 3.74 

White 

1 to 99 students 1.30 1.34 1.39 

100 to 199 students 1.40 1.44 1.54 

200 to 299 students 1.44 1.51 1.77 

300 to 399 students 1.48 1.25 1.57 

400 to 549 students 1.51 1.31 1.73 

550 to 699 students 1.36 0.87 1.36 

700 or more students 1.10 0.61 0.91 

See notes at end of table. 

B-12 
Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-10b. Standard errors for table 9b estimates (Percentage distribution of 

sophomore class size for high school sophomores, by racial/ethnic group 

and socioeconomic status [SES]): 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Categories 1980 1990 2002 

Race/ethnicity—Continued 

More than one race 

1 to 99 students † † 1.81 

100 to 199 students † † 2.26 

200 to 299 students † † 2.02 

300 to 399 students † † 2.40 

400 to 549 students † † 3.02 

550 to 699 students † † 1.94 

700 or more students † † 1.75 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

1 to 99 students 1.40 1.67 1.36 

100 to 199 students 1.64 1.60 1.70 

200 to 299 students 1.59 1.75 1.64 

300 to 399 students 1.53 1.56 1.61 

400 to 549 students 1.46 1.77 1.65 

550 to 699 students 1.49 1.22 1.75 

700 or more students 1.59 1.14 2.00 

Middle two quarters 

1 to 99 students 1.18 1.25 1.15 

100 to 199 students 1.34 1.33 1.37 

200 to 299 students 1.38 1.47 1.46 

300 to 399 students 1.39 1.20 1.43 

400 to 549 students 1.53 1.24 1.70 

550 to 699 students 1.35 0.88 1.42 

700 or more students 1.21 0.68 1.15 

Highest quarter 

1 to 99 students 1.79 1.36 1.12 

100 to 199 students 1.54 1.65 1.33 

200 to 299 students 1.59 1.56 1.86 

300 to 399 students 1.88 1.70 1.92 

400 to 549 students 1.67 1.72 1.93 

550 to 699 students 1.67 1.27 1.75 

700 or more students 1.46 1.06 1.23 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be 

consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing 

more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of 

Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-13 
 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-11. Standard errors for table 10 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores, by urbanicity, racial/ethnic group, and socioeconomic status 

[SES]): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Urban Suburban Rural 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 1.48 1.39 0.75 1.77 1.64 0.80 1.63 1.62 0.63 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska 

Native 3.02 5.01 7.20 6.27 5.71 10.36 7.86 9.06 8.87 

Asian or Pacific Islander 5.27 4.21 6.03 5.30 3.96 2.99 1.76 1.55 1.60 

Black or African American 3.40 3.50 2.29 3.00 2.93 2.16 2.52 2.60 1.44 

Hispanic or Latino 2.88 4.11 3.03 2.59 3.41 3.01 1.87 4.74 1.16 

More than one race † † 2.44 † † 2.69 † † 2.26 

White 1.30 1.21 0.95 1.92 1.80 1.13 1.84 1.82 0.94 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 2.00 2.06 1.63 1.94 1.96 1.62 2.08 2.35 1.10 

Middle two quarters 1.47 1.51 0.89 1.86 1.76 1.01 1.78 1.69 0.78 

Highest quarter 1.58 1.79 1.47 2.15 2.10 1.62 1.72 1.61 1.23 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be 

consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing 

more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of 

Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

Table B-12. Standard errors for table 11 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores, by percentage free or reduced-price lunch eligibility in school): 

1990 and 2002 

Percentage of students eligible for free lunch in school 1990 2002 

0 to 10 1.73 1.93 

11 to 30 1.57 2.08 

31 to 100 1.45 1.83 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates of percentage eligible for free lunch based on 

information provided by school principals. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 

2002.” 

B-14 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-13. Standard errors for table 12 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores, by high school program and selected student characteristics): 

1980, 1990, and 2002 

College preparatory Vocational/technical/ 

General or academic business 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.71 0.95 0.63 0.74 0.96 0.68 0.61 0.37 0.46 

Sex 

Male 0.82 1.15 0.79 0.87 1.19 0.88 0.76 0.65 0.67 

Female 0.89 1.12 0.79 0.90 1.10 0.80 0.64 0.54 0.43 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska 

Native 3.78 5.18 5.18 2.89 4.31 4.30 4.17 4.45 3.23 

Asian or Pacific Islander 2.98 2.63 1.88 3.19 2.86 2.26 2.18 1.95 1.57 

Black or African American 1.48 2.53 1.35 1.59 2.64 1.47 1.48 1.83 0.99 

Hispanic or Latino 1.41 1.91 1.37 1.27 1.85 1.25 1.34 1.34 1.19 

More than one race † † 2.23 † † 2.32 † † 1.43 

White 0.79 1.10 0.81 0.82 1.10 0.88 0.59 0.44 0.51 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 1.02 1.63 1.04 0.74 1.41 1.01 0.90 1.31 0.86 

Middle quarters 0.81 1.09 0.77 0.73 1.12 0.83 0.68 0.59 0.55 

Highest quarter 1.07 1.64 1.13 1.19 1.66 1.21 0.47 0.32 0.52 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 1.09 1.70 1.01 0.58 1.62 0.90 0.97 1.33 0.88 

Second quarter 1.02 1.48 1.07 0.81 1.43 1.06 0.91 0.94 0.75 

Third quarter 1.03 1.53 1.07 1.01 1.58 1.15 0.65 0.63 0.58 

Highest quarter 1.01 1.40 1.04 1.10 1.42 1.15 0.45 0.32 0.54 

School sector 

Public 0.70 0.94 0.66 0.64 0.94 0.71 0.64 0.51 0.50 

Catholic 3.30 3.88 1.74 3.49 3.91 1.86 0.84 0.70 0.44 

Other private 5.98 4.73 3.39 7.51 4.74 3.60 2.69 0.61 0.68 

Region 

Northeast 1.41 2.20 1.59 1.69 2.40 1.84 1.56 1.41 1.74 

Midwest 1.56 1.62 1.30 1.65 1.63 1.38 1.32 0.63 0.65 

South 1.05 1.44 0.91 1.02 1.45 1.01 0.91 0.78 0.65 

West 1.47 2.17 1.38 1.58 2.14 1.39 0.93 0.91 0.81 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates may differ from previously released estimates 

because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were 

modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for 

multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who 

identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-15 
Table B-14. Standard errors for table 13 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who report 

various kinds of courses or programs in high school, by selected student characteristics): 2002 

B-16 

Characteristic 

Remedial English 

1980 1990 2002 

Remedial math 

1980 1990 2002 

Bilingual or bicultural 

education 

1980 1990 2002 

English as a second 

language (ESL) 

1980 1990 2002 

All sophomores 0.53 0.60 0.30 0.48 0.56 0.35 0.31 0.51 0.60 — 0.44 0.30 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

0.63 

0.66 

0.83 

0.74 

0.44 

0.37 

0.61 

0.61 

0.77 

0.74 

0.51 

0.44 

0.40 

0.41 

0.65 

0.72 

0.76 

0.80 

— 

— 

0.63 

0.54 

0.38 

0.43 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska 

Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

3.13 

3.19 

1.01 

1.13 

† 

0.62 

3.13 

2.02 

1.77 

1.69 

† 

0.68 

2.43 

0.97 

0.82 

0.74 

1.42 

0.39 

3.67 

3.62 

1.01 

1.13 

† 

0.55 

3.92 

1.98 

1.74 

1.63 

† 

0.62 

4.07 

1.24 

0.91 

0.83 

1.52 

0.43 

1.98 

1.94 

0.54 

0.89 

† 

0.36 

2.80 

1.82 

1.58 

1.72 

† 

0.57 

5.04 

1.81 

1.13 

1.28 

2.22 

0.78 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— — 

8.99 

2.27 

1.16 

1.29 

† 

0.49 

2.12 

1.43 

0.73 

0.94 

1.18 

0.31 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

0.80 

0.67 

0.76 

1.29 

0.74 

0.99 

0.66 

0.43 

0.51 

0.78 

0.60 

0.70 

1.25 

0.72 

0.76 

0.76 

0.46 0.55 

0.41 

0.36 0.68 

0.81 

0.77 

0.91 

0.87 

0.76 

1.04 

— 

— 

— 

1.01 

0.49 

0.91 

0.63 

0.38 

0.41 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

0.83 

0.82 

0.87 

0.76 

1.55 

0.96 

0.76 

0.62 

0.76 

0.49 

0.50 

0.47 

0.84 

0.83 

0.80 

0.64 

1.40 

1.04 

0.73 

0.42 

0.88 

0.60 

0.56 

0.48 

0.36 

0.36 

0.50 

0.78 

0.62 

0.99 

1.06 

0.97 

0.70 

0.89 

1.04 

1.10 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1.28 

0.81 

0.67 

0.47 

0.73 

0.60 

0.44 

0.25 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

0.55 

2.05 

3.51 

0.64 1.93 

3.68 

0.32 0.96 

1.23 

0.50 

1.71 

3.37 

0.58 

2.06 

3.19 

0.37 

0.98 

1.32 

0.31 

1.27 

1.33 

0.52 

2.72 

2.58 

0.64 

1.46 

2.30 

— 

— — 

0.47 

1.32 1.88 

0.32 

0.61 1.29 

See notes at end of table. 
Table B-14. Standard errors for table 13 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who report 

various kinds of courses or programs in high school, by selected student characteristics): 2002—Continued 

Remedial English Remedial math 

Bilingual or bicultural 

education 

English as a second 

language (ESL) 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

Region 

Northeast 1.00 1.04 0.70 1.11 1.04 1.01 0.81 1.21 1.38 — 0.76 0.85 

Midwest 1.02 1.27 0.65 0.88 1.12 0.67 0.53 1.01 1.39 — 0.70 0.58 

South 0.81 0.94 0.50 0.73 0.90 0.57 0.45 0.82 0.84 — 0.84 0.40 

West 1.43 1.52 0.63 1.27 1.42 0.68 0.64 1.23 1.28 — 1.13 0.70 

— Not available. † Not applicable. NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for mumore than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispa

There were some important differences in questionnaire wording that may have influenced the responses for the questions on remedial courses and Adva

and caution is needed in interpreting the changes between 1980, 1990, and 2002. For remedial English and math, the 1980 and 1990 items read “Remedbasic or essential)” and “Remedial Math (sometimes called basic or essential).” For 2002, the corresponding item simply read “Remedial English” or “Rem“sometimes called basic or essential” was omitted. The advanced programs items in 1980 read “Advanced or honors program in English/Math.” In 1990, t“Advanced placement program.” In 2002, two separate but more specific items were included: “Advanced Placement (AP)” and “International BaccalaureaIB) were combined for the 2002 tabulation. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 1980”; National Educat

B-17 

1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 
 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-15. Standard errors for table 14 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores’ time spent on homework per week, by sex and location 

completed): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

All Male Female 

Time spent per week 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

All homework (1980 categories) 

Less than 1 hour a week 0.40 — 0.12 0.56 — 0.21 0.41 — 0.11 

Between 1 and 3 hours 0.41 — 0.49 0.53 — 0.67 0.51 — 0.58 

More than 3 but less than 5 hours 0.34 — 0.37 0.48 — 0.56 0.45 — 0.47 

Between 5 and 10 hours 0.41 — 0.45 0.50 — 0.61 0.54 — 0.61 

More than 10 hours 0.33 — 0.59 0.41 — 0.71 0.39 — 0.79 

Out-of-school homework (1990 

 categories) 

None — 0.40 0.28 — 0.62 0.48 — 0.48 0.28 

1 hour or less a week — 0.55 0.44 — 0.78 0.66 — 0.69 0.55 

2–3 hours — 0.55 0.46 — 0.74 0.63 — 0.78 0.62 

4–6 hours — 0.49 0.38 — 0.69 0.53 — 0.64 0.54 

7–9 hours — 0.34 0.28 — 0.51 0.41 — 0.44 0.43 

10–12 hours — 0.33 0.34 — 0.43 0.43 — 0.46 0.51 

13–15 hours — 0.22 0.21 — 0.26 0.26 — 0.36 0.33 

More than 15 hours — 0.20 0.29 — 0.22 0.36 — 0.31 0.41 

In-school homework (1990 

 categories) 

None — 0.42 0.30 — 0.49 0.44 — 0.59 0.34 

1 hour or less a week — 0.73 0.47 — 0.97 0.62 — 0.92 0.58 

2–3 hours — 0.57 0.49 — 0.78 0.66 — 0.75 0.66 

4–6 hours — 0.48 0.45 — 0.62 0.62 — 0.69 0.57 

7–9 hours — 0.31 0.28 — 0.38 0.35 — 0.44 0.39 

10–12 hours — 0.15 0.25 — 0.22 0.36 — 0.21 0.33 

13–15 hours — 0.14 0.17 — 0.25 0.24 — 0.15 0.21 

— Not available. 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Time on homework per week was asked in a different 

manner in each of the three surveys, and comparisons must be made with caution. HS&B did not differentiate 

between homework completed in school and out of school and used the predefined response categories listed above. 

NELS:88 asked separate questions on in-school and out-of-school homework using the predefined categories listed 

above. ELS:2002 asked separate questions on in-school and out-of-school homework using an open format without 

predefined response choices. In this table, ELS:2002 responses have been grouped into the HS&B and NELS:88 

categories. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-18 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-16. Standard errors for table 15 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores saying they usually or often come to school unprepared, by 

selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Come to school without 

books 

1980 1990 2002 

Come to school without 

paper, pen, or pencil 

1980 1990 2002 

Come to school 

without homework 

1980 1990 2002 

All sophomores 0.23 0.30 0.43 0.28 0.38 0.42 0.31 0.47 0.51 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

0.37 

0.26 

0.43 

0.37 

0.57 

0.57 

0.43 

0.32 

0.66 

0.34 

0.60 

0.51 

0.49 

0.39 

0.76 

0.51 

0.71 

0.64 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or 

Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific 

Islander 

Black or African 

American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

2.61 

2.69 

0.77 

0.84 

† 

0.22 

3.19 

1.44 

0.86 

1.06 

† 

0.33 

5.41 

1.47 

1.16 

1.29 

1.89 

0.49 

2.71 

2.09 

0.81 

0.91 

† 

0.30 

2.60 

1.38 

0.95 

1.20 

† 

0.46 

5.03 

1.39 

1.15 

1.18 

2.06 

0.45 

2.61 

2.43 

0.86 

0.96 

† 

0.34 

4.66 

1.94 

1.55 

1.32 

† 

0.54 

4.79 

1.54 

1.11 

1.34 

2.14 

0.61 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle two quarters 

Highest quarter 

0.45 

0.30 

0.32 

0.70 

0.42 

0.44 

0.88 

0.55 

0.71 

0.54 

0.36 

0.48 

0.63 

0.47 

0.94 

0.78 

0.54 

0.78 

0.62 

0.41 

0.55 

0.97 

0.68 

0.97 

0.97 

0.66 

0.90 

Composite achievement 

test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

0.55 

0.40 

0.32 

0.25 

0.78 

0.61 

0.51 

0.30 

1.01 

0.78 

0.65 

0.57 

0.62 

0.52 

0.48 

0.44 

0.83 

0.64 

0.61 

0.85 

0.93 

0.81 

0.64 

0.62 

0.66 

0.58 

0.57 

0.50 

1.32 

0.93 

0.75 

0.86 

1.09 

1.01 

0.81 

0.75 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

0.25 

0.56 

1.09 

0.31 

0.82 

2.11 

0.46 

0.95 

0.96 

0.30 

1.05 

1.26 

0.35 

1.59 

4.77 

0.45 

1.04 

1.31 

0.32 

1.05 

2.33 

0.49 

1.60 

4.21 

0.54 

1.09 

1.20 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

0.48 

0.38 

0.42 

0.63 

0.66 

0.47 

0.52 

0.80 

0.83 

0.84 

0.63 

1.14 

0.55 

0.51 

0.53 

0.65 

1.09 

0.52 

0.66 

0.87 

0.72 

0.95 

0.58 

1.10 

0.68 

0.51 

0.56 

0.81 

1.06 

0.87 

0.83 

1.13 

1.13 

0.91 

0.72 

1.37 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in 

rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-19 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-17. Standard errors for table 16 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores who agreed or strongly agreed with selected statements about 

the school’s climate and teaching, by selected student characteristics): 

1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

I don't feel safe at this 

school 

1980 1990 2002 

Disruptions by 

other students get 

in the way of my 

learning 

1990 2002 

The teaching is 

good 

1990 2002 

All sophomores 0.30 0.33 0.39 0.69 0.57 0.49 0.50 

Sex

 Male 

Female 

0.41 

0.37 

0.45 

0.46 

0.50 

0.51 

0.99 

0.89 

0.79 

0.80 

0.69 

0.59 

0.67 

0.62 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

1.99 

2.20 

0.95 

0.86 

† 

0.29 

2.50 

1.41 

1.28 

1.02 

† 

0.34 

3.38 

1.17 

1.15 

1.08 

1.77 

0.44 

5.33 

2.80 

2.16 

1.72 

† 

0.76 

5.29 

1.65 

1.44 

1.30 

2.53 

0.68 

3.59 

1.61 

1.27 

1.02 

† 

0.61 

4.85 

1.37 

1.29 

1.02 

2.09 

0.63 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle two quarters 

Highest quarter 

0.57 

0.38 

0.40 

0.78 

0.43 

0.57 

0.80 

0.53 

0.57 

1.27 

0.91 

1.17 

0.98 

0.76 

1.06 

0.84 

0.70 

0.82 

0.84 

0.67 

0.87 

Parents' education 

High school or less 

Some college 

College graduation 

Graduate degree 

0.41 

0.45 

0.57 

0.61 

0.66 

0.49 

0.68 

0.87 

0.72 

0.62 

0.72 

0.74 

1.15 

1.01 

1.38 

1.83 

0.96 

0.84 

1.11 

1.35 

0.79 

0.74 

1.23 

1.06 

0.79 

0.79 

0.96 

1.07 

Native language1 

English 

Non-English 

0.30 

1.12 

0.34 

1.03 

0.41 

1.11 

0.73 

2.01 

0.62 

1.18 

0.52 

1.06 

0.56 

0.95 

Student's educational expectations 

High school or less 

Some college 

College graduation 

Graduate or professional degree 

Don't know 

0.59 

0.46 

0.43 

0.50 

— 

1.15 

0.60 

0.48 

0.60 

2.88 

1.56 

1.17 

0.53 

0.49 

1.16 

1.73 

1.22 

1.14 

1.21 

4.78 

1.72 

1.75 

0.87 

0.87 

1.51 

1.44 

0.95 

0.68 

0.79 

3.76 

1.66 

1.41 

0.74 

0.66 

1.38 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

0.62 

0.52 

0.45 

0.35 

0.80 

0.73 

0.53 

0.42 

0.85 

0.72 

0.64 

0.47 

1.33 

1.30 

1.12 

1.17 

1.04 

0.97 

1.07 

0.95 

0.97 

0.95 

0.78 

0.98 

0.97 

0.85 

0.83 

0.73 

See notes at end of table. 

B-20 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-17. Standard errors for table 16 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores who agreed or strongly agreed with selected statements about 

the school’s climate and teaching, by selected student characteristics): 

1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Disruptions by 

I don't feel safe at this 

other students get 

in the way of my The teaching is 

school learning good 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1990 2002 1990 2002 

School sector 

Public 0.32 0.37 0.41 0.73 0.60 0.51 0.53 

Catholic 0.68 0.88 0.57 2.59 1.37 1.53 0.96 

Other private 1.71 0.59 0.65 4.99 2.35 3.72 1.25 

Region 

Northeast 0.65 0.85 0.97 1.75 1.45 1.42 1.20 

Midwest 0.50 0.49 0.68 1.28 1.16 0.94 1.07 

South 0.54 0.64 0.67 1.17 0.88 0.78 0.76 

West 0.69 0.68 0.81 1.49 1.23 0.98 1.11 

Urbanicity 

Urban 0.86 0.81 0.81 1.44 1.09 0.84 1.11 

Suburban 0.41 0.46 0.53 1.05 0.79 0.81 0.60 

Rural 0.47 0.52 0.65 1.15 1.21 0.81 1.09 

† Not applicable. 

1 The first language students learned to speak when they were children. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-21 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-18. Standard errors for table 17 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores’ use of and exposure to calculators and computers, by selected 

student characteristics): 1990 and 2002 

Never used in math class 

Characteristic 1990 

Calculators 

2002 1990 

Computers 

2002 

 All sophomores 0.74 0.32 0.60 0.77 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

0.91 

1.01 

0.46 

0.34 

0.75 

0.75 

0.92 

0.86 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

5.95 

2.76 

2.06 

2.16 

† 

0.84 

3.46 

0.86 

0.70 

1.06 

1.13 

0.33 

4.99 

1.81 

1.50 

1.60 

† 

0.69 

4.42 

2.27 

1.78 

1.30 

2.29 

0.98 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

1.54 

0.92 

1.17 

0.68 

0.39 

0.44 

1.12 

0.73 

0.89 

1.12 

0.90 

1.24 

Parents' education 

High school or less 

Some college 

College graduation 

Graduate degree 

1.31 

0.96 

1.57 

1.59 

0.61 

0.41 

0.47 

0.47 

0.94 

0.84 

0.97 

1.19 

1.14 

1.02 

1.26 

1.35 

Native language1 

English 

Non-English 

0.76 

2.36 

0.32 

1.02 

0.63 

1.62 

0.82 

1.50 

Student's educational expectations 

High school or less 

Some college 

College graduation 

Graduate or professional degree 

Don't know 

1.91 

1.14 

1.00 

1.14 

4.09 

1.24 

0.89 

0.41 

0.32 

1.06 

1.51 

0.92 

0.87 

0.92 

4.83 

1.95 

1.75 

1.02 

1.01 

1.66 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

1.36 

1.30 

1.27 

0.97 

0.67 

0.50 

0.44 

0.41 

1.20 

1.00 

0.79 

1.07 

1.23 

1.18 

1.26 

1.24 

See notes at end of table. 

B-22 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-18. Standard errors for table 17 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores’ use of and exposure to calculators and computers, by selected 

student characteristics): 1990 and 2002—Continued 

Never used in math class 

Calculators Computers 

Characteristic 1990 2002 1990 2002 

School sector 

Public 0.78 0.33 0.65 0.82 

Catholic 3.39 1.55 1.86 2.19 

Other private 4.08 1.55 2.03 3.08 

Region 

Northeast 1.92 0.62 1.36 1.99 

Midwest 1.04 0.45 1.16 1.58 

South 1.37 0.49 0.97 1.18 

West 1.52 0.95 1.37 1.64 

Urbanicity 

Urban 1.49 0.59 1.07 1.31 

Suburban 1.22 0.45 0.89 1.06 

Rural 1.43 0.68 1.15 1.93 

† Not applicable. 

1 The first language students learned to speak when they were children. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their 

race. Response categories were somewhat different in NELS:88 and ELS:2002 for math class use of calculators and 

computers. Three response categories were used in NELS:88 (never, sometimes, and often). ELS:2002 used five 

categories (never, rarely, less than once a week, once or twice a week, every day or almost every day). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 

2002.” 

B-23 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-19. Standard errors for table 18 estimates (Item Response Theory [IRT]-

estimated average number-right scores for mathematics, by selected 

student characteristics): 1980 and 2002 

Characteristic 1980 2002 

 All sophomores 0.215 0.218 

Sex

 Male 0.255 0.242 

Female 0.229 0.249 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 0.881 1.090 

Asian or Pacific Islander 0.872 0.573 

Black or African American 0.353 0.360 

Hispanic or Latino 0.272 0.377 

More than one race † 0.532 

White 0.190 0.198 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 0.224 0.279 

Middle two quarters 0.191 0.206 

Highest quarter 0.263 0.251 

Region 

Northeast 0.471 0.521 

Midwest 0.306 0.437 

South 0.339 0.310 

West 0.491 0.517 

High school program 

General 0.219 0.258 

Academic/college preparatory 0.245 0.236 

Vocational 0.281 0.442 

School sector 

Public 0.213 0.232 

Catholic 0.497 0.428 

Other private 1.500 0.710 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. IRT refers to a technique to estimate math achievement based on patterns of 

correct, incorrect, and omitted answers across the test forms (see Hambleton 1989). Perfect score = 58. The 

racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their 

race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-24 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-20. Standard errors for table 19 estimates (Item Response Theory [IRT]-

estimated average number-right scores for mathematics, by selected 

student characteristics): 1990 and 2002 

Characteristic 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.212 0.218 

Sex 

Male 0.260 0.242 

Female 0.267 0.249 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 1.409 1.090 

Asian or Pacific Islander 0.681 0.573 

Black or African American 0.515 0.360 

Hispanic or Latino 0.431 0.377 

More than one race † 0.532 

White 0.222 0.198 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 0.270 0.279 

Middle two quarters 0.221 0.206 

Highest quarter 0.304 0.251 

Region 

Northeast 0.535 0.521 

Midwest 0.376 0.437 

South 0.336 0.310 

West 0.492 0.517 

High school program 

General 0.275 0.258 

Academic/college preparatory 0.292 0.236 

Vocational 0.393 0.442 

School sector 

Public 0.220 0.232 

Catholic 0.708 0.428 

Other private 0.994 0.710 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. IRT refers to a technique to estimate math achievement based on patterns of 

correct, incorrect, and omitted answers across the test forms (see Hambleton 1989). Perfect score = 58. The 

racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their 

race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 

2002.” 

B-25 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-21. Standard errors for table 20 estimates (high school sophomore probability 

of proficiency in mathematics, by selected student characteristics): 1990 

and 2002 

Characteristic 1990 2002 

All sophomores 

Level 1: Simple arithmetic operations on whole numbers 0.30 0.30 

Level 2: Simple operations with decimals, fractions, 

powers, and roots 0.78 0.77 

Level 3: Simple problem solving, requiring the 

understanding of low-level mathematical concepts 0.80 0.81 

Level 4: Understanding of intermediate-level 

mathematical concepts and/or having the ability to 

formulate multistep solutions to word problems 0.51 0.54 

Level 5: Proficiency in solving complex multistep word 

problems and/or the ability to demonstrate 

knowledge of mathematics material found in 

advanced mathematics courses # 0.08 

Sex 

Level 1 

Male 0.33 0.35 

Female 0.44 0.35 

Level 2 

Male 0.95 0.84 

Female 0.95 0.89 

Level 3 

Male 0.96 0.92 

Female 0.97 0.92 

Level 4 

Male 0.64 0.63 

Female 0.60 0.63 

Level 5 

Male 0.04 0.13 

Female 0.03 0.07 

Socioeconomic status 

Level 1 

Lowest quarter 0.60 0.56 

Middle quarters 0.36 0.33 

Highest quarter 0.22 0.26 

Level 2 

Lowest quarter 1.16 1.15 

Middle quarters 0.86 0.75 

Highest quarter 1.04 0.73 

Level 3 

Lowest quarter 0.86 0.96 

Middle quarters 0.86 0.81 

Highest quarter 1.16 1.02 

Level 4 

Lowest quarter 0.38 0.45 

Middle quarters 0.52 0.52 

Highest quarter 0.96 0.95 

See notes at end of table. 

B-26 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-21. Standard errors for table 20 estimates (high school sophomore probability 

of proficiency in mathematics, by selected student characteristics): 1990 

and 2002—Continued 

Characteristic 1990 2002 

Socioeconomic status—Continued 

Level 5 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

0.03 

0.02 

0.07 

0.05 

0.06 

0.23 

Racial/ethnic group1 

Level 1 

Asian or Pacific Islander 0.86 0.56 

Black or African American or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

White 

1.06 

1.02 

0.28 

0.81 

0.73 

0.20 

Level 2 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American or African American 

2.32 

2.41 

1.69 

1.52 

Hispanic or Latino 

White 

1.57 

0.76 

1.47 

0.64 

Level 3 

Asian or Pacific Islander 2.41 2.19 

Black or African American or African American 1.51 1.22 

Hispanic or Latino 

White 

Level 4 

1.37 

0.83 

1.31 

0.79 

Asian or Pacific Islander 2.03 2.07 

Black or African American or African American 0.66 0.48 

Hispanic or Latino 

White 

0.77 

0.57 

0.70 

0.64 

Level 5 

Asian or Pacific Islander 0.17 0.69 

Black or African American or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

White 

† 

0.03 

0.03 

0.06 

0.07 

0.10 

High school program 

Level 1 

General 0.35 0.41 

Academic/college preparatory 

Vocational 

0.31 

0.90 

0.30 

0.76 

Level 2 

General 1.05 0.99 

Academic/college preparatory 

Vocational 

0.95 

1.51 

0.75 

1.77 

Level 3 

General 1.05 0.97 

Academic/college preparatory 

Vocational 

1.19 

1.32 

0.91 

1.64 

See notes at end of table. 

B-27 
 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-21. Standard errors for table 20 estimates (high school sophomore probability 

of proficiency in mathematics, by selected student characteristics): 1990 

and 2002—Continued 

Characteristic 

High school program—Continued 

Level 4 

General

Academic/college preparatory 

Vocational 

Level 5 

General

Academic/college preparatory 

Vocational 

1990 

0.60 

0.94 

0.61 

0.04 

0.06 

† 

2002 

0.56 

0.73 

0.87 

0.06 

0.13 

0.11 

School sector 

Level 1 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

Level 2 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

Level 3 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

Level 4 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

Level 5 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

Region 

Level 1 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

Level 2 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

Level 3 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

See notes at end of table. 

0.30 

0.63 

1.63 

0.78 

2.54 

2.66 

0.80 

2.90 

3.77 

0.51 

2.17 

3.97 

0.03 

0.12 

0.21 

0.54 

0.45 

0.52 

0.74 

1.81 

1.38 

1.26 

1.69 

2.00 

1.40 

1.20 

1.77 

0.32 

0.36 

0.84 

0.82 

1.22 

1.93 

0.86 

1.74 

2.76 

0.57 

1.66 

2.43 

0.08 

0.23 

0.49 

0.69 

0.59 

0.44 

0.74 

1.73 

1.56 

1.13 

1.81 

1.99 

1.62 

1.17 

1.82 

B-28 
 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-21. Standard errors for table 20 estimates (high school sophomore probability 

of proficiency in mathematics, by selected student characteristics): 1990 

and 2002—Continued 

Characteristic 1990 2002 

Region—Continued 

Level 4 

Northeast 1.42 1.38 

Midwest 0.87 1.05 

South 0.72 0.74 

West 1.13 1.28 

Level 5 

Northeast 0.09 0.20 

Midwest 0.05 0.12 

South 0.03 0.12 

West 0.05 0.20 

Parents' education2 

Level 1 

High school or less 0.56 0.48 

Some college 0.38 0.37 

College graduation 0.32 0.37 

Graduate or professional degree 0.41 0.46 

Level 2 

High school or less 1.10 1.02 

Some college 0.96 0.88 

College graduation 1.23 0.91 

Graduate or professional degree 1.61 1.09 

Level 3 

High school or less 0.92 0.95 

Some college 0.95 0.93 

College graduation 1.37 1.13 

Graduate or professional degree 1.72 1.32 

Level 4 

High school or less 0.39 0.54 

Some college 0.56 0.56 

College graduation 1.05 0.86 

Graduate or professional degree 1.49 1.19 

Level 5 

High school or less 0.02 0.05 

Some college 0.02 0.06 

College graduation 0.06 0.17 

Graduate or professional degree 0.11 0.31 

† Not applicable. 

# Rounds to zero. 

1 Estimates for American Indians are not shown due to small sample sizes. 

2

 Parents’ education: “Some college” is defined as attending college but not completing a 4-year degree. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes 

in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management 

and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in 

NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their 

race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 

(NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-29 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-22. Standard errors for table 21 estimates (high school sophomore probability of 

proficiency in reading, by selected student characteristics): 1990 and 2002 

Characteristic 1990 2002 

All sophomores 

Level 1: Simple comprehension 0.35 0.39 

Level 2: Simple inference 0.74 0.70 

Level 3: Complex inference 0.45 0.28 

Sex 

Level 1 

Male 0.49 0.48 

Female 0.45 0.44 

Level 2 

Male 0.88 0.78 

Female 0.88 0.85 

Level 3 

Male 0.55 0.32 

Female 0.53 0.37 

Socioeconomic status 

Level 1 

Lowest quarter 0.85 0.77 

Middle quarters 0.48 0.39 

Highest quarter 0.31 0.38 

Level 2 

Lowest quarter 0.87 0.84 

Middle quarters 0.81 0.68 

Highest quarter 1.06 0.88 

Level 3 

Lowest quarter 0.37 0.23 

Middle quarters 0.44 0.25 

Highest quarter 1.00 0.71 

Racial/ethnic group1 

Level 1 

Asian or Pacific Islander 0.84 0.95 

Black or African American 1.75 0.89 

Hispanic or Latino 0.78 1.12 

White 0.30 0.31 

Level 2 

Asian or Pacific Islander 2.28 1.98 

Black or African American 1.97 1.08 

Hispanic or Latino 1.33 1.18 

White 0.77 0.71 

Level 3 

Asian or Pacific Islander 1.54 1.07 

Black or African American 0.53 0.22 

Hispanic or Latino 0.59 0.30 

White 0.56 0.38 

See notes at end of table. 

B-30 
 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-22. Standard errors for table 21 estimates (high school sophomore probability 

of proficiency in reading, by selected student characteristics): 1990 and 

2002—Continued 

Characteristic 1990 2002 

High school program 

Level 1 

General 0.49 0.55 

Academic/college preparatory 0.50 0.41 

Vocational 1.21 0.96 

Level 2 

General 0.93 0.83 

Academic/college preparatory 1.05 0.79 

Vocational 1.21 1.39 

Level 3 

General 0.51 0.28 

Academic/college preparatory 0.82 0.43 

Vocational 0.41 0.39 

School sector 

Level 1 

Public 0.37 0.42 

Catholic 0.66 0.53 

Other private 1.69 1.14 

Level 2 

Public 0.71 0.74 

Catholic 2.39 1.70 

Other private 3.65 2.69 

Level 3 

Public 0.36 0.29 

Catholic 1.96 1.17 

Other private 4.27 1.63 

Region 

Level 1 

Northeast 0.56 0.77 

Midwest 0.68 0.76 

South 0.68 0.56 

West 0.69 1.04 

Level 2 

Northeast 1.81 1.56 

Midwest 1.18 1.44 

South 1.11 0.99 

West 1.70 1.70 

Level 3 

Northeast 1.43 0.72 

Midwest 0.64 0.55 

South 0.51 0.39 

West 0.97 0.66 

See notes at end of table. 

B-31 
 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-22. Standard errors for table 21 estimates (high school sophomore probability 

of proficiency in reading, by selected student characteristics): 1990 and 

2002—Continued 

Characteristic 1990 2002 

Parents’ education2 

Level 1 

High school or less 0.72 0.70 

Some college 0.52 0.46 

College graduation 0.36 0.53 

Graduate or professional degree 0.52 0.56 

Level 2 

High school or less 0.90 0.80 

Some college 0.87 0.83 

College graduation 1.20 0.96 

Graduate or professional degree 1.65 1.17 

Level 3 

High school or less 0.37 0.24 

Some college 0.47 0.28 

College graduation 1.05 0.57 

Graduate or professional degree 1.51 0.84 

1 Estimates for American Indians are not shown due to small sample sizes. 

2 Parent’s education: “Some college” is defined as attending college but not completing a 4-year degree. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their 

race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 

2002.” 

B-32 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-23. Standard errors for table 22 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores who participate in academic and vocational clubs, by selected 

student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Academic clubs Vocational clubs 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.42 0.62 0.33 0.54 0.54 0.43 

Sex 

Male 0.50 0.83 0.38 0.57 0.65 0.53 

Female 0.55 0.87 0.46 0.66 0.69 0.53 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 2.90 4.66 2.15 2.94 3.30 3.61 

Asian or Pacific Islander 2.87 2.24 1.33 1.33 0.81 0.57 

Black or African American 1.04 1.91 0.67 1.17 1.84 0.81 

Hispanic or Latino 1.11 1.57 0.60 0.85 0.87 0.63 

More than one race † † 1.29 † † 1.31 

White 0.47 0.72 0.43 0.60 0.64 0.60 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 0.71 1.05 0.46 0.83 1.15 0.76 

Middle quarters 0.55 0.89 0.38 0.63 0.67 0.50 

Highest quarter 0.75 1.16 0.74 0.50 0.54 0.57 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 0.73 1.21 0.42 0.86 1.19 0.63 

Second quarter 0.69 1.18 0.44 0.79 0.86 0.72 

Third quarter 0.66 1.15 0.55 0.67 0.90 0.65 

Highest quarter 0.79 1.17 0.80 0.53 0.60 0.67 

School sector 

Public 0.44 0.65 0.34 0.58 0.60 0.46 

Catholic 1.63 2.40 1.20 0.50 0.64 0.37 

Other private 2.63 4.60 1.66 1.76 2.32 1.02 

Region 

Northeast 0.78 1.35 0.85 0.58 0.46 0.63 

Midwest 0.79 1.27 0.57 1.14 1.17 1.10 

South 0.73 1.06 0.58 1.07 1.10 0.73 

West 0.93 1.32 0.66 0.87 0.86 0.80 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. Caution is 

needed in interpreting percentages displayed in table 22 due to questionnaire changes as follows: (1) In 1980, HS&B sophomores 

were asked to provide information about their activities “either in or out of school,” whereas their successors in 1990 and 2002 were 

limited to school-sponsored extracurricular activities. (The 1990 question implied that it was limited to school-sponsored activities by 

virtue of its “School does not offer” response option. The ELS:2002 question explicitly stated that the items referred only to “schoolsponsored” activities.) (2) In the HS&B questionnaire, the two response options for the series of items on extracurricular involvement 

were “have not participated” and “have participated actively.” The 1990 NELS:88 questionnaire presented respondents with four 

options: “School does not offer,” “Did not participate,” “Participated,” and “Participated as an officer or a leader.” ELS:2002 

condensed these four responses into “Yes” to indicate participation and “No” to indicate nonparticipation. (3) For the ELS:2002 

sophomore questionnaire, the examples clarifying what was meant by the activity that had been present in the HS&B and NELS:88 

questionnaires were dropped. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-33 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-24. Standard errors for table 23 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores who participate in athletics and cheerleading and drill team, by 

selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Athletics Cheerleading and drill team 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.45 0.69 0.66 0.35 0.43 0.48 

Sex 

Male 0.56 0.89 0.79 0.25 0.45 0.51 

Female 0.59 0.89 0.90 0.59 0.68 0.65 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 3.11 5.05 6.10 1.99 3.06 3.38 

Asian or Pacific Islander 2.72 2.86 2.16 1.64 0.98 1.21 

Black or African American 0.96 2.22 1.39 0.79 2.34 0.99 

Hispanic or Latino 1.29 1.82 1.55 0.76 0.86 1.06 

More than one race † † 2.59 † † 1.77 

White 0.53 0.78 0.83 0.41 0.38 0.59 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 0.73 1.19 1.15 0.58 0.82 0.73 

Middle quarters 0.55 0.92 0.88 0.44 0.65 0.58 

Highest quarter 0.77 1.21 1.09 0.59 0.65 0.87 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 0.76 1.42 1.02 0.56 0.95 0.75 

Second quarter 0.72 1.22 1.07 0.59 0.94 0.70 

Third quarter 0.76 1.22 1.12 0.55 0.82 0.74 

Highest quarter 0.79 1.25 1.06 0.56 0.72 0.82 

School sector 

Public 0.44 0.70 0.70 0.35 0.46 0.48 

Catholic 1.91 2.76 1.74 1.55 1.18 2.48 

Other private 4.15 4.46 1.85 3.09 2.47 3.79 

Region 

Northeast 1.10 1.49 1.47 0.61 0.66 1.41 

Midwest 0.96 1.27 1.39 0.80 0.63 0.82 

South 0.66 1.16 0.93 0.58 0.96 0.55 

West 1.03 1.59 1.62 0.80 0.71 1.31 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

Caution is needed in interpreting percentages displayed in table 23 due to questionnaire changes as follows: (1) In 1980, 

HS&B sophomores were asked to provide information about their activities “either in or out of school,” whereas their 

successors in 1990 and 2002 were limited to school-sponsored extracurricular activities. (The 1990 question implied that it 

was limited to school-sponsored activities by virtue of its “School does not offer” response option. The ELS:2002 question 

explicitly stated that the items referred only to “school-sponsored” activities.) (2) In the HS&B questionnaire, the two 

response options for the series of items on extracurricular involvement were “have not participated” and “have participated 

actively.” The 1990 NELS:88 questionnaire presented respondents with four options: “School does not offer,” “Did not 

participate,” “Participated,” and “Participated as an officer or a leader.” ELS:2002 condensed these four responses into “Yes” 

to indicate participation and “No” to indicate nonparticipation. (3) For the ELS:2002 sophomore questionnaire, the examples 

clarifying what was meant by the activity that had been present in the HS&B and NELS:88 questionnaires were dropped. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-34 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-25. Standard errors for table 24 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores who participate in music-related activities and hobby clubs, by 

selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Music Hobby clubs 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.43 0.59 0.52 0.34 0.37 0.34 

Sex 

Male 0.46 0.63 0.60 0.49 0.52 0.41 

Female 0.63 0.85 0.71 0.42 0.50 0.50 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 3.23 3.66 3.75 2.66 2.83 2.23 

Asian or Pacific Islander 2.79 2.76 1.56 2.67 1.47 1.41 

Black or African American 1.04 1.77 1.33 0.93 0.78 0.68 

Hispanic or Latino 1.04 1.19 0.91 1.01 0.67 0.64 

More than one race † † 1.80 † † 1.50 

White 0.50 0.68 0.65 0.38 0.46 0.47 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 0.68 0.93 0.75 0.62 0.56 0.50 

Middle quarters 0.57 0.77 0.64 0.44 0.55 0.39 

Highest quarter 0.78 1.09 1.02 0.62 0.68 0.79 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 0.73 0.87 0.79 0.64 0.59 0.52 

Second quarter 0.73 1.08 0.79 0.60 0.58 0.49 

Third quarter 0.74 1.05 0.86 0.62 0.65 0.64 

Highest quarter 0.78 1.05 1.02 0.59 0.75 0.75 

School sector 

Public 0.44 0.61 0.53 0.35 0.38 0.35 

Catholic 1.62 1.60 1.82 1.28 1.53 1.35 

Other private 3.80 5.01 3.61 2.27 3.50 2.14 

Region 

Northeast 0.90 1.33 1.29 0.76 1.21 0.78 

Midwest 0.92 1.22 1.07 0.68 0.53 0.77 

South 0.68 0.93 0.85 0.49 0.53 0.50 

West 1.00 1.30 0.95 0.89 0.78 0.77 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. Caution is 

needed in interpreting percentages displayed in table 24 due to questionnaire changes as follows: (1) In 1980, HS&B sophomores 

were asked to provide information about their activities “either in or out of school,” whereas their successors in 1990 and 2002 were 

limited to school-sponsored extracurricular activities. (The 1990 question implied that it was limited to school-sponsored activities by 

virtue of its “School does not offer” response option. The ELS:2002 question explicitly stated that the items referred only to “schoolsponsored” activities.) (2) In the HS&B questionnaire, the two response options for the series of items on extracurricular involvement 

were “have not participated” and “have participated actively.” The 1990 NELS:88 questionnaire presented respondents with four 

options: “School does not offer,” “Did not participate,” “Participated,” and “Participated as an officer or a leader.” ELS:2002 

condensed these four responses into “Yes” to indicate participation and “No” to indicate nonparticipation. (3) For the ELS:2002 

sophomore questionnaire, the examples clarifying what was meant by the activity that had been present in the HS&B and NELS:88 

questionnaires were dropped. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-35 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-26. Standard errors for table 25 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores, by employment status and selected student characteristics): 

1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Ever worked for pay or 

employed 

1980 1990 2002 

Worked for pay or 

employed at time of the 

survey 

1980 1990 2002 

Worked more than 20 hours 

per week at time of the 

survey 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.32 0.67 0.62 0.47 0.60 0.52 0.20 0.34 0.32 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

0.33 

0.47 

0.89 

0.88 

0.82 

0.80 

0.57 

0.62 

0.85 

0.76 

0.71 

0.69 

0.32 

0.19 

0.56 

0.41 

0.49 

0.39 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

2.58 

2.95 

0.92 

0.95 

† 

0.27 

6.98 

2.60 

2.42 

1.66 

† 

0.79 

5.35 

2.04 

1.44 

1.74 

2.35 

0.72 

4.86 

2.35 

0.80 

1.02 

† 

0.48 

5.52 

2.37 

1.68 

1.48 

† 

0.69 

4.47 

1.49 

1.25 

1.23 

2.20 

0.69 

2.18 

1.09 

0.37 

0.61 

† 

0.22 

4.23 

1.86 

0.98 

0.90 

† 

0.40 

3.27 

0.50 

0.97 

0.89 

1.28 

0.40 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

0.57 

0.36 

0.46 

1.47 

0.95 

1.29 

1.26 

0.77 

1.05 

0.68 

0.56 

0.78 

1.13 

0.84 

1.02 

0.98 

0.73 

0.91 

0.33 

0.28 

0.32 

0.78 

0.49 

0.41 

0.68 

0.46 

0.54 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

0.61 

0.47 

0.48 

0.44 

1.43 

1.33 

1.18 

1.22 

1.25 

1.07 

1.04 

1.04 

0.73 

0.76 

0.74 

0.79 

1.17 

1.10 

1.09 

1.03 

1.01 

0.94 

0.91 

0.97 

0.35 

0.39 

0.38 

0.28 

0.87 

0.66 

0.53 

0.44 

0.71 

0.63 

0.58 

0.46 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

0.34 

1.09 

1.44 

0.71 

2.47 

3.50 

0.66 

2.00 

2.20 

0.48 

1.79 

3.21 

0.63 

2.66 

2.99 

0.56 

1.42 

1.60 

0.21 

0.43 

1.26 

0.37 

0.93 

1.51 

0.34 

0.53 

0.73 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

0.73 

0.48 

0.55 

0.72 

1.47 

1.32 

1.13 

1.65 

1.32 

0.92 

0.95 

1.58 

1.08 

0.79 

0.76 

1.12 

1.16 

1.32 

0.99 

1.34 

1.40 

1.14 

0.77 

0.96 

0.33 

0.31 

0.44 

0.46 

0.63 

0.60 

0.59 

0.82 

0.81 

0.62 

0.56 

0.60 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. 

Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. There were 

some changes in the structure and wording of the items over the surveys. With regard to whether the sophomore had ever worked 

for pay, the 1980 questionnaire wording was “How old were you when you first worked for pay, not counting work around the 

house?” Implicit in this question is the assumption that most students would have had some paid work experience, even if only an 

odd job. “Never worked for pay” was at the end of the list of age response options (ranging from age 11 or younger to 20 or older). 

In 1990, the question was worded “Are you currently employed or have you ever been employed?” Unlike the question in 1980, this 

question does not presume that these students had work experience. The word “employed” suggests a more formal and regular 

work arrangement that fewer sophomores would have had than casual “work for pay.” In 2002, the question phraseology used 

phrases from both 1980 and 1990. The stem used the question “Have you ever worked for pay, not counting work around the 

house?” similar to 1980. However, as in 1990, the 2002 question did not assume work experience, and the response options written 

on the questionnaire used the word “employed” similar to 1990. The 2002 question on number of hours worked used an open format 

in which students were asked to enter the number of hours worked, while the 1980 and 1990 questionnaire listed hour ranges from 

which the student selected a response. The base for calculation of percentage working more than 20 hours per week included all 

sophomores in each of the 3 years. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 

1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 

(ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-36 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-27. Standard errors for table 26 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores who report that they engage in various activities at least once 

or twice a week, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Driving or riding around 

1980 1990 2002 

Visiting with friends or 

meeting at a hangout 

1980 1990 2002 

Talking with friends 

on the telephone 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.49 0.66 0.58 0.38 0.65 0.47 0.40 0.55 0.47 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

0.62 

0.58 

0.93 

0.88 

0.76 

0.84 

0.50 

0.54 

0.84 

0.90 

0.65 

0.65 

0.57 

0.43 

0.86 

0.63 

0.68 

0.56 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska 

Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

3.07 

3.02 

1.19 

1.23 

† 

0.53 

5.46 

2.74 

2.49 

1.69 

† 

0.72 

3.75 

1.77 

1.57 

1.35 

2.17 

0.75 

2.76 

3.10 

0.94 

1.05 

† 

0.44 

3.41 

2.31 

2.34 

2.26 

† 

0.71 

4.36 

1.77 

1.22 

1.15 

1.86 

0.54 

5.25 

2.74 

1.04 

1.20 

† 

0.41 

8.48 

1.85 

2.05 

1.54 

† 

0.60 

5.63 

1.67 

1.07 

1.18 

1.93 

0.59 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

0.74 

0.59 

0.93 

1.21 

0.90 

1.36 

1.07 

0.72 

1.15 

0.71 

0.50 

0.64 

1.32 

0.88 

1.15 

0.96 

0.63 

0.82 

0.77 

0.48 

0.56 

1.02 

0.73 

1.12 

0.92 

0.67 

0.84 

Composite achievement test 

 score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

0.82 

0.79 

0.81 

0.82 

1.37 

1.19 

0.81 

1.18 

1.10 

1.05 

1.03 

1.13 

0.70 

0.65 

1.25 

0.72 

1.41 

1.26 

0.67 

1.16 

1.02 

0.81 

0.79 

0.84 

0.74 

0.69 

1.15 

0.61 

1.33 

1.06 

0.65 

1.05 

0.93 

0.85 

0.86 

0.87 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

0.50 

1.81 

3.77 

0.68 

2.73 

4.39 

0.62 

1.64 

2.61 

0.40 

1.73 

1.80 

0.68 

2.03 

3.92 

0.50 

1.20 

2.13 

0.41 

1.48 

2.28 

0.57 

2.50 

3.15 

0.50 

1.36 

2.05 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

1.07 

0.96 

0.71 

0.98 

1.31 

1.23 

1.17 

1.46 

1.45 

0.96 

0.92 

1.41 

0.87 

0.80 

0.63 

0.82 

1.37 

1.25 

1.06 

1.67 

0.98 

0.85 

0.73 

1.19 

0.74 

0.69 

1.15 

0.61 

1.22 

0.90 

1.04 

1.21 

0.98 

0.88 

0.79 

1.04 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and 

NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, regardless 

of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-37 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-28. Standard errors for table 27 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores who report that various life values related to work are very 

important to them, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Being successful in my 

line of work 

1980 1990 2002 

Being able to find 

steady work 

1980 1990 2002 

Having lots of money 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.27 0.45 0.38 0.28 0.39 0.38 0.41 0.61 0.56 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

0.36 

0.37 

0.54 

0.68 

0.52 

0.49 

0.38 

0.40 

0.59 

0.54 

0.58 

0.45 

0.55 

0.50 

0.88 

0.80 

0.79 

0.71 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska 

Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

2.52 

2.27 

0.68 

1.00 

† 

0.29 

7.48 

1.72 

1.15 

1.41 

† 

0.51 

3.89 

1.12 

0.90 

1.05 

1.63 

0.47 

2.95 

2.25 

0.82 

0.94 

† 

0.30 

3.57 

1.70 

1.18 

1.24 

† 

0.45 

3.97 

1.32 

0.88 

1.03 

1.80 

0.48 

3.03 

2.68 

1.09 

1.09 

† 

0.41 

5.75 

2.39 

2.15 

1.67 

† 

0.67 

5.11 

1.91 

1.40 

1.37 

2.43 

0.68 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

0.57 

0.36 

0.43 

1.25 

0.56 

0.61 

0.82 

0.48 

0.65 

0.57 

0.34 

0.51 

0.86 

0.56 

0.66 

0.80 

0.49 

0.77 

0.73 

0.53 

0.71 

1.31 

0.85 

1.08 

0.99 

0.79 

0.92 

Composite achievement test 

score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

0.62 

0.48 

0.43 

0.44 

1.21 

0.78 

0.75 

0.55 

0.82 

0.72 

0.58 

0.60 

0.60 

0.46 

0.46 

0.50 

1.04 

0.68 

0.83 

0.68 

0.85 

0.63 

0.68 

0.75 

0.80 

0.71 

0.70 

0.66 

1.35 

1.26 

1.11 

1.02 

1.08 

1.05 

0.91 

0.98 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

0.28 

0.84 

1.23 

0.49 

1.32 

2.03 

0.41 

0.69 

1.40 

0.29 

1.05 

1.68 

0.41 

1.65 

1.78 

0.40 

0.80 

1.52 

0.43 

1.34 

2.39 

0.64 

2.71 

3.08 

0.60 

1.55 

1.94 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

0.56 

0.54 

0.44 

0.61 

1.00 

0.77 

0.67 

1.41 

0.96 

0.71 

0.53 

0.94 

0.57 

0.49 

0.54 

0.61 

0.91 

0.73 

0.59 

0.96 

0.84 

0.65 

0.56 

1.01 

0.90 

0.70 

0.68 

1.02 

1.29 

1.14 

1.15 

1.39 

1.40 

1.24 

0.83 

1.19 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-38 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-29. Standard errors for table 28 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores who report that having strong friendships and having leisure 

time are very important to them, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 

1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

 All sophomores 

Having strong friendships 

1980 1990 2002 

0.35 0.54 0.40 

Having leisure time to enjoy 

own interests 

1980 1990 2002 

0.36 0.62 0.51 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

0.47 

0.45 

0.73 

0.74 

0.58 

0.51 

0.50 

0.47 

0.91 

0.87 

0.70 

0.70 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

3.05 

2.30 

0.94 

1.11 

† 

0.30 

3.97 

1.43 

1.76 

1.89 

† 

0.55 

4.23 

1.11 

1.19 

1.32 

1.89 

0.40 

3.31 

2.66 

0.92 

1.10 

† 

0.40 

3.91 

2.26 

2.14 

1.66 

† 

0.71 

4.31 

1.68 

1.25 

1.36 

2.22 

0.62 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

0.65 

0.43 

0.45 

1.11 

0.74 

0.91 

0.91 

0.54 

0.61 

0.67 

0.47 

0.63 

1.25 

0.85 

1.29 

0.99 

0.64 

0.87 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

0.78 

0.58 

0.48 

0.48 

1.27 

0.96 

0.95 

0.87 

0.91 

0.80 

0.69 

0.59 

0.70 

0.68 

0.63 

0.61 

1.34 

1.27 

1.07 

1.15 

0.97 

0.88 

0.89 

0.88 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

0.37 

0.89 

1.45 

0.57 

1.72 

4.33 

0.43 

0.83 

1.02 

0.37 

1.05 

2.51 

0.64 

2.41 

4.38 

0.54 

1.25 

2.23 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

0.79 

0.62 

0.65 

0.65 

1.28 

0.75 

0.93 

1.51 

0.87 

0.72 

0.69 

0.98 

0.84 

0.56 

0.62 

0.81 

1.46 

1.21 

1.07 

1.38 

1.01 

0.86 

0.85 

1.34 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-39 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-30. Standard errors for table 29 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores who report that various life values related to family are very 

important to them, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

Characteristic 

Finding right person to 

marry and having a 

happy family life 

1980 1990 2002 

Having children 

1980 1990 2002 

Being able to give 

my children better 

opportunities than 

I've had 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.28 0.54 0.47 0.42 0.63 0.58 0.41 0.56 0.43 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

0.43 

0.34 

0.78 

0.68 

0.68 

0.60 

0.54 

0.57 

0.84 

0.88 

0.82 

0.76 

0.51 

0.54 

0.79 

0.71 

0.63 

0.57 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska 

Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

4.52 

2.25 

0.76 

0.86 

† 

0.30 

5.83 

2.08 

1.90 

1.65 

† 

0.59 

6.02 

1.45 

1.10 

1.28 

1.95 

0.56 

3.81 

2.65 

0.92 

1.19 

† 

0.48 

7.29 

2.39 

1.79 

1.83 

† 

0.76 

6.63 

1.96 

1.43 

1.40 

2.40 

0.72 

3.12 

2.30 

0.72 

0.94 

† 

0.44 

4.69 

1.93 

1.09 

1.03 

† 

0.66 

3.54 

1.65 

0.88 

0.93 

1.85 

0.57 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

0.55 

0.37 

0.52 

1.12 

0.74 

1.14 

0.89 

0.61 

0.87 

0.72 

0.56 

0.77 

1.23 

0.83 

1.26 

1.12 

0.81 

0.96 

0.62 

0.47 

0.77 

0.95 

0.68 

1.23 

0.74 

0.58 

0.88 

Composite achievement test 

 score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

0.61 

0.51 

0.49 

0.52 

1.36 

1.04 

0.93 

0.94 

0.85 

0.91 

0.82 

0.84 

0.78 

0.76 

0.73 

0.71 

1.27 

1.20 

1.15 

1.29 

0.99 

1.05 

1.02 

1.04 

0.69 

0.60 

0.66 

0.74 

1.04 

0.83 

1.01 

1.16 

0.83 

0.74 

0.70 

0.91 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

0.29 

0.91 

2.54 

0.58 

2.31 

3.81 

0.50 

0.94 

1.45 

0.42 

1.38 

4.63 

0.64 

2.64 

4.55 

0.62 

1.30 

1.48 

0.41 

1.61 

3.53 

0.55 

2.78 

4.65 

0.45 

1.18 

1.68 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

0.62 

0.48 

0.47 

0.80 

1.28 

1.12 

0.85 

1.27 

1.04 

0.86 

0.76 

1.13 

1.02 

0.65 

0.71 

1.12 

1.77 

1.07 

1.12 

1.39 

1.38 

1.16 

0.92 

1.29 

0.97 

0.64 

0.60 

0.92 

1.26 

1.10 

0.82 

1.31 

0.99 

1.02 

0.64 

0.87 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-40 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-31. Standard errors for table 30 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores who report that various life values related to community are 

very important to them, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 

2002 

Characteristic 

 All sophomores 

Helping other people in 

community 

1980 1990 2002 

— 0.60 0.46 

Working to correct social and 

economic inequalities 

1980 1990 2002 

0.28 0.49 0.46 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

— 

— 

0.72 

0.92 

0.63 

0.70 

0.38 

0.36 

0.67 

0.70 

0.60 

0.65 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 

Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino 

More than one race 

White 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

7.07 

2.09 

2.23 

1.69 

† 

0.67 

4.40 

1.92 

1.42 

1.29 

2.39 

0.59 

2.41 

2.81 

0.85 

1.10 

† 

0.25 

6.36 

1.91 

1.93 

1.57 

† 

0.52 

3.52 

1.49 

1.37 

1.33 

1.65 

0.51 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

— 

— 

— 

1.40 

0.82 

1.28 

0.93 

0.71 

0.87 

0.58 

0.35 

0.49 

1.12 

0.73 

0.90 

0.97 

0.61 

0.69 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter 

Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1.24 

1.10 

1.31 

1.05 

1.02 

0.99 

0.92 

0.88 

0.65 

0.52 

0.47 

0.44 

1.09 

1.05 

0.99 

0.88 

0.96 

0.85 

0.75 

0.64 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

— 

— 

— 

0.62 

2.71 

4.52 

0.49 

1.36 

1.95 

0.30 

0.82 

1.50 

0.51 

2.21 

2.75 

0.49 

0.95 

1.47 

Region 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1.27 

0.98 

1.13 

1.44 

1.11 

0.90 

0.74 

0.99 

0.67 

0.44 

0.50 

0.64 

1.00 

0.97 

0.83 

1.19 

1.09 

0.88 

0.72 

1.10 

— Not available. 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of 

Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing for multiple race choices. Choosing more than one race was 

not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. The value “Helping other people in the community” was included only 

in the 1990 and 2002 studies. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-41 
Table B-32. Standard errors for table 31 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who expect 

levels of postsecondary education, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 20

B-42 

Characteristic 

High school diploma 

or less 

1980 1990 2002 

Two years or less of college 

or vocational school 

1980 1990 2002 

College graduate 

1980 1990 2002 

 All sophomores 0.50 0.42 0.36 0.39 0.65 0.37 0.38 0.59 0.50 

Sex 

Male 

Female 

0.66 

0.58 

0.52 

0.62 

0.52 

0.38 

0.54 

0.52 

0.88 

0.84 

0.52 

0.47 

0.52 

0.47 

0.84 

0.81 

0.71 

0.70 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native Asian or Pacific Islander 

Black or African American 

Hispanic or Latino More than one race White 

4.12 

2.08 

1.06 

1.18 

† 

0.57 

6.26 

1.86 

1.13 

1.19 

† 

0.48 

3.94 

0.80 

0.95 1.04 

1.29 

0.40 

3.01 

2.66 

0.89 

1.07 

† 

0.45 

4.51 

2.51 

2.02 

1.95 

† 

0.72 

3.80 

1.12 

0.83 

0.99 

1.49 

0.42 

3.63 2.99 

0.83 

0.83 † 

0.44 

3.96 

2.00 

1.87 

1.40 

† 

0.67 

6.94 

2.03 

1.34 

1.37 2.44 

0.64 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter Middle quarters 

Highest quarter 

0.82 

0.52 

0.40 

1.17 0.46 

0.23 

0.82 

0.43 

0.35 

0.67 

0.52 

0.68 

1.21 

0.91 

0.75 

0.75 

0.48 

0.42 

0.50 

0.45 

0.68 

0.95 

0.81 

1.20 

0.99 

0.77 

0.95 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter Second quarter 

Third quarter Highest quarter 

0.87 

0.76 

0.64 

0.39 

1.02 

0.68 

0.51 

0.27 

0.98 

0.60 

0.39 

0.20 

0.71 

0.70 

0.72 

0.68 

1.39 

1.23 

1.10 

0.70 

0.87 

0.85 

0.55 

0.38 

0.53 

0.56 0.67 

0.67 

1.22 

1.00 

1.13 

1.17 

0.99 

1.11 

0.97 

0.96 

School sector 

Public 

Catholic 

Other private 

0.50 1.21 

2.63 

0.46 0.88 

1.41 

0.39 0.28 0.88 

0.38 

1.72 

3.77 

0.67 

1.81 

2.73 

0.40 

0.57 

0.73 

0.37 

1.52 

3.06 

0.62 

2.24 

3.50 

0.53 

1.68 

1.92 

See notes at end of table. 
Table B-32. Standard errors for table 31 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who expect 

levels of postsecondary education, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 20

High school diploma Two years or less of college 

or less or vocational school College graduate 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

Region 

Northeast 1.19 0.90 0.79 0.87 1.43 0.82 0.94 1.35 1.25 

Midwest 1.10 0.73 0.68 0.81 1.16 0.63 

0.88 

1.02 0.96 

South 0.75 0.60 0.52 0.58 1.13 0.55 0.53 1.20 0.81 

West 1.06 1.29 0.95 0.91 1.53 1.03 0.86 1.11 1.08 

† Not applicable. NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requiremen

race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 1980”

Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002

B-43 
Table B-33. Standard errors for table 32 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who report f

school counselors, and teachers think college is the most important thing for them to do rigschool, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

B-44 

Father Mother School counselor 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002  All sophomores 0.62 0.70 0.56 0.58 0.63 0.49 0.57 0.74 0.55 

0

Sex 

Male 0.80 0.97 0.81 0.76 0.86 0.70 0.69 0.99 0.83 

0

Female 0.69 0.91 0.63 0.64 0.87 0.54 0.70 0.96 0.70 

0

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native 3.23 7.11 6.59 

3.33 

7.35 6.78 5.55 8.98 6.25 

4

Asian or Pacific Islander 2.83 1.75 1.65 2.98 1.59 1.60 3.39 2.44 1.91 

3

Black or African American 1.31 1.72 1.35 1.29 2.42 1.21 1.05 2.43 1.37 

1

Hispanic or Latino 1.32 2.37 1.42 1.28 1.47 1.10 1.25 1.93 1.40 

1

More than one race † † 2.37 † † 1.79 † † 2.33 

White 0.70 0.79 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.59 0.65 0.84 0.70 

0

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 0.85 1.58 1.10 

0.90 

1.61 1.02 0.75 1.46 1.11 

0

Middle quarters 0.64 0.88 0.72 0.65 0.80 0.64 0.63 0.99 0.77 

0

Highest quarter 0.59 0.54 0.60 0.53 0.36 0.61 0.97 1.07 0.98 

0

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 0.87 1.54 1.30 

0.93 

1.57 1.18 0.87 1.55 1.23 

0

Second quarter 0.85 1.40 0.98 0.87 1.32 0.87 0.72 1.42 1.05 

0

Third quarter 0.87 0.97 0.78 

0.82 

0.75 0.67 0.81 1.21 0.96 

0

Highest quarter 0.68 0.72 0.68 0.56 0.43 0.53 1.01 1.13 0.94 

0

School sector 

Public 0.62 0.74 0.60 0.57 0.68 0.53 0.56 0.77 0.59 

0

Catholic 1.66 1.12 0.80 

1.54 

0.98 0.51 2.38 2.27 1.60 

1

Other private 4.65 2.05 1.65 

5.23 

1.63 1.77 6.12 2.94 2.34 

4

See notes at end of table. 
Table B-33. Standard errors for table 32 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who report f

school counselors, and teachers think college is the most important thing for them to do rigschool, by selected student characteristics): 1980, 1990, and 2002—Continued 

Father Mother School counselor 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 Region 

Northeast 1.53 1.36 1.25 

1.48 

1.06 1.21 1.33 1.63 1.21 

1

Midwest 1.28 1.17 1.15 1.26 1.01 1.00 1.19 1.32 1.12 

1

South 0.94 1.23 0.76 0.86 1.18 0.66 0.82 1.24 0.92 

0

West 1.33 1.80 1.43 1.19 1.66 1.24 1.33 1.84 1.18 

1

† Not applicable. NOTE: The racial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requiremen

race choices. Choosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of their race. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 1980”

Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002

B-45 
Table B-34. Standard errors for table 33 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who report 

with regard to entering college after high school graduation, by selected student characterand 2002 

B-46 

Characteristic  All sophomores 

Right after high school 

1980 1990 2002 

0.61 0.70 0.58 

After a year 

1980 1990 2002 

0.30 0.44 0.36 

After more than a year 

1980 1990 2002 

0.12 

0.16 0.14 

Sex 

Male Female 

0.76 0.71 

0.96 0.90 

0.75 0.71 

0.39 0.38 

0.58 0.62 

0.50 0.53 

0.18 0.14 

0.28 0.17 

0.26 0.12 

Racial/ethnic group 

American Indian or Alaska Native Asian or Pacific Islander Black or African American Hispanic or Latino More than one race White 

3.34 

3.15 

1.28 

1.32 

† 

0.69 

5.78 

2.39 

1.94 

1.79 

† 

0.83 

5.09 

1.62 

1.39 1.28 

2.62 

0.72 

2.33 

2.00 0.79 

0.87 

† 

0.34 

3.53 1.52 1.30 

1.59 

† 

0.51 

3.40 0.96 0.92 

0.86 

1.88 

0.45 

2.55 

1.35 0.45 

0.41 

0.12 † 

0.86 

0.84 0.53 

0.78 

† 

0.17 

1.86 

0.37 0.25 

0.42 0.67 

0.18 

Socioeconomic status 

Lowest quarter 

Middle quarters Highest quarter 

0.79 

0.63 

0.80 

1.29 0.90 

1.12 

1.05 

0.74 

0.77 

0.48 

0.42 

0.49 

0.96 

0.58 

0.94 

0.77 

0.57 0.55 0.27 

0.16 0.22 

0.37 

0.22 0.25 

0.30 

0.19 0.25 

Composite achievement test score 

Lowest quarter 

Second quarter Third quarter 

Highest quarter 

0.85 0.82 

0.84 

0.77 

1.43 1.30 1.18 

0.90 

1.13 

0.99 

1.01 

0.83 

0.53 

0.57 0.55 

0.49 

1.08 

0.83 

0.76 

0.63 

0.72 

0.82 

0.74 

0.54 

0.31 

0.24 

0.21 

0.20 

0.31 

0.29 

0.36 

0.24 

0.33 

0.24 

0.28 

0.27 

School sector 

Public Catholic Other private 

0.58 

1.91 

4.74 

0.72 

1.91 

6.37 

0.61 1.19 

2.20 

0.31 

0.97 

2.01 

0.43 

1.17 

4.53 

0.38 

0.78 

1.13 0.12 

0.25 

0.61 

0.17 

0.71 

0.38 

0.15 0.11 

0.16 

See notes at end of table. 
Table B-34. Standard errors for table 33 estimates (percentage of high school sophomores who report 

with regard to entering college after high school graduation, by selected student characterand 2002

—Continued 

Right after high school After a year 

After more than a year 

Characteristic 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 Region 

Northeast 1.60 1.67 1.44 

0.60 

0.76 0.80 0.26 0.37 0.38 

Midwest 1.02 1.27 1.14 

0.50 

0.70 0.71 0.19 0.27 0.17 

South 1.00 1.18 0.85 0.50 0.77 0.57 0.21 0.21 0.21 

West 1.31 1.60 1.30 0.73 1.08 0.85 0.29 0.50 0.40 

† Not applicable. NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or changes in rounding pracial/ethnic groups were modified for ELS:2002 to be consistent with Office of Management and Budget (OMB) requirements allowing foChoosing more than one race was not permitted in HS&B and NELS:88. Respondents who identified themselves as being of Hispanic or

Hispanic, regardless of their race. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), “Base Year, 1980”

Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002

B-47 
Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-35. Standard errors for table 34 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores’ expected occupation at age 30, by sex): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

All Male Female 

Occupation 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

Clerical 0.23 0.18 0.05 0.14 0.20 0.04 0.40 0.30 0.10 

Craftsman 0.23 0.19 0.18 0.45 0.35 0.32 0.10 0.13 0.13 

Farmer, farm manager 0.15 0.09 0.03 0.29 0.17 0.06 0.10 0.06 † 

Homemaker 0.18 0.16 0.03 0.04 0.07 † 0.33 0.31 0.06 

Laborer 0.10 0.07 0.06 0.20 0.14 0.12 0.06 0.04 † 

Manager, administrator 0.15 0.27 0.14 0.23 0.40 0.22 0.17 0.33 0.19 

Military 0.15 0.19 0.10 0.26 0.34 0.19 0.13 0.15 0.08 

Operative 0.12 0.23 0.10 0.24 0.45 0.19 0.09 0.14 0.04 

Professional (1) 0.37 0.56 0.46 0.47 0.80 0.70 0.48 0.76 0.61 

Professional (2) 0.33 0.54 0.43 0.43 0.77 0.49 0.40 0.69 0.61 

Proprietor or owner 0.14 0.38 0.15 0.24 0.51 0.23 0.14 0.45 0.19 

Protective service 0.09 0.20 0.17 0.17 0.36 0.32 0.08 0.16 0.15 

Sales 0.10 0.14 0.08 0.14 0.21 0.14 0.14 0.19 0.08 

School teacher 0.11 0.27 0.13 0.09 0.19 0.12 0.20 0.49 0.24 

Service 0.15 0.10 0.17 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.27 0.19 0.33 

Technical 0.19 0.25 0.19 0.33 0.44 0.32 0.21 0.22 0.22 

Plan not to work 0.11 0.03 0.11 0.14 0.05 0.14 0.18 0.05 0.16 

Other † 0.33 0.07 † 0.49 0.11 † 0.41 0.10 

Don't know † 0.38 0.52 † 0.44 0.73 † 0.61 0.68 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. Caution is needed in interpreting this table due to questionnaire differences. In 1980 

and 1990, the options above were listed each with several examples in parentheses (list given below). In 2002 the 

question was asked in an open-ended format, and the only option displayed was the “don’t know” option. In 1980 the 

“don’t know” and other options were not provided. In 1990 “don’t know” was displayed as one of the options above 

displayed. The occupational list displayed to sophomores in 1980 and 1990 was as follows: Clerical such as bank 

teller, bookkeeper, secretary, typist, mail carrier, ticket agent; Craftsman such as baker, automobile mechanic, 

machinist, painter, plumber, telephone installer, carpenter; Farmer, farm manager; Homemaker or housewife only; 

Laborer such as construction worker, car washer, sanitary worker, farm laborer; Manager, administrator such as 

sales manager, office manager, school administrator, buyer, restaurant manager, government official; Military such as 

career officer, enlisted man or woman in the Armed Forces; Operative such as meat cutter, assembly worker, 

machine operator, welder, taxicab, bus or truck driver; Professional (1) such as accountant, artist, registered nurse, 

engineer, librarian, writer, social worker, actor, actress, athlete, politician, but not including school teacher; 

Professional (2) such as clergyman, dentist, physician, lawyer, scientist, college teacher; Proprietor or owner such as 

owner of small business, contractor, restaurant owner; Protective service such as detective, police officer or guard, 

sheriff, fire fighter; Sales such as salesperson, advertising or insurance agent, real estate broker; School teacher 

such as elementary or secondary; Service such as barber, beautician, practical nurse, private household worker, 

janitor, waiter; Technical such as draftsman, medical or dental technician, computer programmer; Plan not to work; 

and Other (not listed in 1980). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

B-48 
 

Appendix B: 

Standard Error Tables 

Table B-36. Standard errors for table 35 estimates (percentage of high school 

sophomores’ expected occupation at age 30, by sex with “don’t know” 

responses removed): 1980, 1990, and 2002 

All Male Female 

Occupation 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 1980 1990 2002 

Clerical 0.23 0.20 0.08 0.14 0.22 0.07 0.40 0.33 0.14 

Craftsman 0.23 0.21 0.27 0.45 0.39 0.52 0.10 0.14 0.19 

Farmer, farm manager 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.29 0.19 0.10 0.10 0.07 † 

Homemaker 0.18 0.18 0.05 0.04 0.08 † 0.33 0.34 0.09 

Laborer 0.10 0.08 0.09 0.20 0.15 0.20 0.06 0.04 † 

Manager, administrator 0.15 0.30 0.22 0.23 0.44 0.36 0.17 0.36 0.27 

Military 0.15 0.21 0.15 0.26 0.37 0.31 0.13 0.17 0.11 

Operative 0.12 0.26 0.15 0.24 0.49 0.31 0.09 0.15 0.06 

Professional (1) 0.37 0.61 0.63 0.47 0.87 1.03 0.48 0.82 0.81 

Professional (2) 0.33 0.60 0.61 0.43 0.85 0.76 0.40 0.78 0.80 

Proprietor or owner 0.14 0.41 0.23 0.24 0.56 0.38 0.14 0.50 0.26 

Protective service 0.09 0.22 0.26 0.17 0.39 0.51 0.08 0.18 0.21 

Sales 0.10 0.16 0.12 0.14 0.24 0.23 0.14 0.22 0.11 

School teacher 0.11 0.30 0.20 0.09 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.55 0.34 

Service 0.15 0.11 0.26 0.08 0.09 0.15 0.27 0.21 0.46 

Technical 0.19 0.27 0.29 0.33 0.49 0.51 0.21 0.25 0.32 

Plan not to work 0.11 0.04 0.16 0.14 0.05 0.23 0.18 0.05 0.22 

Other † 0.36 0.11 † 0.54 0.19 † 0.46 0.14 

Don't know † † † † † † † † † 

† Not applicable. 

NOTE: Estimates may differ from previously released estimates because of revisions made to the data file and/or 

changes in rounding procedures. All “don’t know” responses were excluded from the numerator and denominator in 

tabulating the percentage distribution for this table. Caution is needed in interpreting this table due to questionnaire 

differences. In 1980 and 1990, the options above were listed each with several examples in parentheses (list given 

below). In 2002 the question was asked in an open-ended format, and the only option displayed was the “don’t know” 

option. In 1980 the “don’t know” and other options were not provided. In 1990 “don’t know” was displayed as one of 

the options above displayed. The occupational list displayed to sophomores in 1980 and 1990 was as follows: 

Clerical such as bank teller, bookkeeper, secretary, typist, mail carrier, ticket agent; Craftsman such as baker, 

automobile mechanic, machinist, painter, plumber, telephone installer, carpenter; Farmer, farm manager; 

Homemaker or housewife only; Laborer such as construction worker, car washer, sanitary worker, farm laborer; 

Manager, administrator such as sales manager, office manager, school administrator, buyer, restaurant manager, 

government official; Military such as career officer, enlisted man or woman in the Armed Forces; Operative such as 

meat cutter, assembly worker, machine operator, welder, taxicab, bus or truck driver; Professional (1) such as 

accountant, artist, registered nurse, engineer, librarian, writer, social worker, actor, actress, athlete, politician, but not 

including school teacher; Professional (2) such as clergyman, dentist, physician, lawyer, scientist, college teacher; 

Proprietor or owner such as owner of small business, contractor, restaurant owner; Protective service such as 

detective, police officer or guard, sheriff, fire fighter; Sales such as salesperson, advertising or insurance agent, real 

estate broker; School teacher such as elementary or secondary; Service such as barber, beautician, practical nurse, 

private household worker, janitor, waiter; Technical such as draftsman, medical or dental technician, computer 

programmer; Plan not to work; and Other (not listed in 1980). 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B), 

“Base Year, 1980”; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), “First Follow-up, 1990”; and Education 

Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), “Base Year, 2002.” 

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