By Caroline Wolf Harlow, Ph.D.

BJS Statistician

About 41% of inmates in the Nation’s

State and Federal prisons and local

jails in 1997 and 31% of probationers

had not completed high school or its

equivalent. In comparison, 18% of the

general population age 18 or older had

not finished the 12th grade.

Between 1991 and 1997, the percent

of inmates in State prison without a

high school diploma or GED remained

the same — 40% in 1997 and 41% in

1991. Of inmates in State prisons,

293,000 in 1991 and 420,600 in 1997

had entered prison without a high

school diploma, a 44% increase.

Over 9 in 10 State prisons provided

educational programs for their inmates.

Half of State prison inmates reported

they had participated in an educational

program since their most recent admission to prison. About a quarter of State

inmates had taken basic education or

high school level courses, and almost 

a third, vocational training. 

Data for this report were taken from the

Survey of Inmates in State and Federal

Correctional Facilities, 1997 and 1991,

the Survey of Inmates in Local Jails,

1996 and 1989, and the Survey of

Adults on Probation, 1995, sponsored

by the Bureau of Justice Statistics

(BJS), the Current Population Survey,

1997, sponsored by the Bureau of

! 19% of State prison inmates, 10%

of Federal inmates, and 16% of those

in local jails and on probation had

been physically or sexually abused

before their most recent admission to

a correctional population.

! A third of women in State prison, a

sixth in Federal prison, and a quarter

in jail said they had been raped.

Another 3-6% reported that someone

had tried to rape them but had not

succeeded.

! 9 in 10 knew their abuser.

! 9 in 10 abused men and women in

State prison had used illegal drugs.

76% of the men and 80% of the

women used them regularly.

! Two thirds had been injured in a

fight or assault.

• 68% of State prison inmates did not

receive a high school diploma.

• About 26% of State prison inmates

said they had completed the GED

while serving time in a correctional

facility.

• The groups of State prison inmates

who had not completed high school 

or the GED included —

40% of males and 

42% of females

27% of whites, 44% of blacks,

and 53% of Hispanics

52% of inmates 24 or younger

and 35% of inmates 45 or older

61% of noncitizens and 

38% of U.S. citizens

59% with a speech disability, 

66% with a learning disability, and

37% without a reported disability

47% of drug offenders

12% of those with military service

and 44% with no military service. 

• Although the percentage of State

prison inmates who reported taking

education courses while confined fell

from 57% in 1991 to 52% in 1997, the

number who had participated in an

educational program since admission

increased from 402,500 inmates in

1991 to 550,000 in 1997. 

• The following groups of State prison

inmates had participated in an educational program since their most recent

admission to prison:

54% without a high school

diploma, 60% with a GED, 

42% with a high school diploma, and

43% with postsecondary education

52% of males and 50% 

of females

49% of whites, 54% of blacks,

and 53% of Hispanics

58% who were 24 or younger 

and 47% of those 45 or older

54% of noncitizens and 52% 

of U.S. citizens. 

Highlights

... Not available.

Postsecondary 12.7 11.4 23.9 13.5 23.6 48.4

High school diploma 22.6 20.5 27.0 25.9 34.8 33.2

GED 23.4 28.5 22.7 14.1 11.0 ...

Some high school or less 41.3% 39.7% 26.5% 46.5% 30.6% 18.4%

Educational attainment cerated State eral inmates tioners population

incar- Fed- Local jail Proba- General

 Total Prison inmates

Educational attainment for correctional populations and the general

population

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Special Report

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Revised 4/15/03 th

Education and Correctional

Populations

 January 2003, NCJ 195670
Labor Statistics, and the National Adult

Literacy Survey, 1992, sponsored by

the National Center for Educational

Statistics. 

In personal interviews with nationally

representative samples of inmates in

State and Federal prisons and local

jails and of persons on probation,

respondents were asked about past

educational achievements and recent

educational experiences, as well as

about their offenses, criminal history,

and other characteristics. 

The National Adult Literacy Survey,

another personal interview survey,

assessed the literacy levels of persons

in the general population and included

a short questionnaire about personal

characteristics, including educational

attainment. 

The Current Population Survey (CPS)

primarily collects monthly data on labor

force participation from a nationally

representative sample of the civilian

noninstitutional population. In March of

each year the CPS also collects

additional information, including educational attainment. 

In addition, some information on

educational programs conducted 

in correctional settings from the BJS

Census of Local Jails, 1999, and the

BJS Census of State and Federal Adult

Correctional Facilities, 2000 and 1995,

has been used. (See Methodology

for further information on these data.)

Correctional populations less

educated than the general

population

Correctional populations — including

State and Federal prison inmates, local

jail inmates, and probationers — differ

substantially in educational attainment

from persons 18 and older in the

general civilian noninstitutional population. 

Correctional populations report lower

educational attainment than do those 

in the general population. An estimated

40% of State prison inmates, 27% of

Federal inmates, 47% of inmates in

local jails, and 31% of those serving

probation sentences had not completed high school or its equivalent

while about 18% of the general population failed to attain high school graduation (table 1).

Persons in correctional populations

were more likely than those in the

general population to have passed a 

test which indicates the same level of

knowledge as those with a high school

diploma. The Center for Adult Learning

and Educational Credentials of the

American Council on Education develops the General Educational Development (GED) test for persons who are

not enrolled in a school. The test

assesses academic skills and knowledge expected of high school graduates. Employers and educational institutions usually accept the GED as the

equivalent of a high school diploma. 

For a quarter of State prison inmates, 

a fifth of Federal inmates, a seventh 

of jail inmates, and a tenth of probationers, as for about 4% of the general

population,* passing the GED testing

process was the highest level 

of education they attained. 

Participation in college-level courses 

or post-secondary vocational classes

was less common for those in correctional populations than for persons in

the general population. An estimated

11% of State prison inmates, 24% of

Federal inmates, 14% of jail inmates,

and 24% of probationers attended

some college or other postsecondary

institution compared to 48% in the

general population.

Revised 4/15/03 th

2 Education and Correctional Populations 

Sources: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997 and 1991; BJS, Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 1996 and

1989; BJS, Survey of Adults on Probation, 1995; Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, March supplement, 1997.

Note: Probationers have been excluded from the general population. General population includes the noninstitutional population 18 or older.

Detail may not add to 100% due to rounding.

*General Educational Development certificate.

...Not available in the Current Population Survey.

Number 1,055,495 706,173 88,705 53,677 503,599 393,111 2,029,866 192,352,084

College graduate or more 2.4 2.3 8.1 9.3 3.2 2.8 4.8 22.0

Postsecondary/some college 9.0 10.1 15.8 18.8 10.3 10.3 18.8 26.4

High school diploma 20.5 21.8 27.0 25.9 25.9 24.0 34.8 33.2

GED* 28.5 24.6 22.7 22.6 14.1 9.2 11.0 ...

Some high school 25.5 26.9 14.5 12.3 33.4 38.2 22.2 11.2

8th grade or less 14.2% 14.3% 12.0% 11.0% 13.1% 15.6% 8.4% 7.2%

Educational attainment 1997 1991 1997 1991 1996 1989 tioners population

State Federal Local jail inmates Proba- General

Prison inmates

Table 1. Educational attainment for State and Federal prison inmates, 1997 and 1991, local jail inmates, 1996 and 1989,

probationers, 1995, and the general population, 1997

*National Center for Education Statistics,

National Adult Literacy Survey, 1992, "Adult

Literacy in America," table 1.1, page 18.
Numbers of prison inmates without

a high school education increased

from 1991 to 1997

The percentage of State inmates without a high school diploma remained

about the same between the 1991 and

1997 prisoner surveys. About 40% in

1997 and 41% in 1991 did not have a

high school diploma or GED. In Federal prisons, 23% in 1991 and 27% in

1997, a small but significant increase,

had not finished.

An estimated 420,600 State prison

inmates in 1997 and 293,000 in 1991

did not have a high school education 

or a GED — over a third more in 1997

compared to 1991. In Federal prisons,

almost twice as many, 23,500 in 1997

and 12,600 in 1991, fit that category.

Three-quarters of State prison

inmates did not earn a high school

diploma

Inmate survey respondents who did not

complete high school were asked if

they had received a GED. Respondents who had completed the 12th

grade or who had attended collegelevel courses or post-secondary

vocational classes were asked if they

had a high school diploma or a GED.

All inmates who completed less than

12 years of schooling and those who

received a GED were classified as not

completing high school. About 75% of

State prison inmates, almost 59% of

Federal inmates, and 69% of jail

inmates did not complete high school

(table 2). 

About 35% of State inmates, 33% of

Federal inmates, 22% of jail inmates,

and 11% of probationers had successfully passed the GED. Of those with a

GED, at least 7 in 10 State and Federal

inmates obtained their GED while

incarcerated.

Jail inmates and the general 

population reported why they

dropped out of school

Approximately 1 in 6 jail inmates

dropped out of school because they

were convicted of a crime, sent to a

correctional facility, or otherwise

involved in illegal activities. 

Over a third of jail inmates and a sixth

of the general population said the main

reason they quit school was because 

of academic problems, behavior

problems, or lost interest. About a fifth 

of jail inmates and two-fifths of the

general population gave economic

reasons for leaving school, primarily

going to work, joining the military, 

or needing money. 

Revised 4/15/03 th

 Education and Correctional Populations 3

Sources: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997; BJS,

Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 1996; BJS, Survey of Adults on Probation, 1995.

Note: For the Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities and the Survey of

Inmates in Local Jails, all respondents, regardless of educational attainment, were asked if they

received a GED. For the Survey of Adults on Probation, only those respondents who had not

completed 12th grade were asked if they had a GED.

Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

...Not available.

a

Included in those who did not complete high school were inmates who completed less than 12

years of schooling and those who received a GED.

b

General Educational Development certificate.

Did not earn GED 39.7 26.5 46.6 30.6

Outside prison/jail 9.1 9.4 ... ...

Other incarceration 17.4 14.0 ... ...

Since admission 8.3 9.4 ... ...

Earned GED 34.8 32.8 22.3 11.0 b

Did not complete high school 74.5 59.4 68.9 41.6 a

Completed high school 25.5% 40.6% 31.1% 58.4%

High school completion State Federal inmates tioners

Prison Inmates Local jail ProbaTable 2. High school completion, for State and Federal prison inmates, 1997,

local jail inmates, 1996, and probationers, 1995

Sources: BJS, Survey of Inmates in Local

Jail, 1996; National Center for Educational

Statistics, National Adult Literacy Survey,

1992.

Note: General population includes persons 

18 or older.

...Not available.

No reason 6.3 0.9

Other 1.1 17.7

Pregnancy 3.7 6.4

Financial problems 8.8 15.3

the military 13.0 23.9

Went to work or

in illegal activities 4.8 ...

Involved

tional facility 11.1 ...

sent to correcConvicted of crime,

problems 16.4 18.6

Family or personal

or lost interest 34.9% 17.2%

demic problems

Behavior or acaGeneral

population

Local jail

inmates

Most important

reason for dropping out of school

Educational attainment defined

as the last completed year 

of school 

The definitions and numbers in this

report are as consistent as possible

with those of the National Center 

for Educational Statistics and the

Bureau of Labor Statistics. Persons

who did not complete a full year of

college were classified as persons

with a high school diploma, and

seniors who did not complete their

last year were coded as having

some college but no college degree.

Any person with 12 or fewer grades

of school and a GED were included

in the group with a GED. 

Some numbers in this report may

differ from those in previously

published BJS reports for which

other definitions were used.
9 in 10 State prisons offer 

educational programs

About 9 in 10 State prisons, all Federal

prisons, and almost 9 in 10 private

prisons provide educational programs

for their inmates (table 3). These facilities generally hold persons sentenced

to at least a year in prison, giving

inmates a long period to concentrate

on achieving educational goals. By

contrast, local jails house persons from

arraignment through conviction and 

for short sentences. Approximately 6 

in 10 local jails provide educational

programs for their inmates, even

though jail inmates generally stay for

short time periods. 

The percent of State and private

prisons offering educational programs

to their inmates increased from 1995 to

2000. In 1995, 88% of State prisons

and 72% of private prisons provided 

educational programs; in 2000, 91% 

of State prisons and 88% of private prisons offered educational opportunities.

During this period all Federal prisons

offered courses. 

Secondary education programs, which

focus on preparing for the GED, were

the most prevalent type of courses in

2000. Over 8 in 10 State prisons,

almost all Federal prisons, about 7 in

10 private prisons, and over half of jails

offered high school level classes. Next

most common were classes in basic

arithmetic and reading, with 8 in 10

State prisons, almost all Federal

prisons, 6 in 10 private prisons, and 1

in 4 local jails offering basic education

programs.

In State prisons between 1995 and

2000, the percentages of prisons offering classes increased for basic education (76% to 80%), high school courses

(80% to 84%), and special education

programs (33% to 40%), while the

percentage with college classes went

down (31% to 27%).

Vocational training, special programs

designed to train participants for a job,

were reported by 56% of State prisons,

94% of Federal prisons, 44% of private

prisons, and 7% of local jails. 

Over half of inmates reported taking

an educational program since their

most recent prison admission

Many inmates have taken advantage 

of educational opportunities while they

were incarcerated. About 52% of State

prison inmates, 57% of Federal

inmates, 14% of jail inmates, and 23%

of probationers said they had taken

education classes since admission to a

correctional facility or their most recent

sentence to probation (table 4).

Revised 4/15/03 th

4 Education and Correctional Populations 

Sources: BJS, Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities, 2000 and 1995; BJS, Census of Jails, 1999.

Note: Detail may not add to total because facilities may have more than one educational program.

*Changed definitions prevent meaningful comparisons of the numbers of Federal facilities, 1995 and 2000.

Number of facilities 1,307 1,278 * * 242 110 2,819

Without an education program 8.8 12.0 0.0 0.0 12.4 28.2 39.7

Study release programs 7.7 9.3 6.5 5.4 28.9 32.7 9.3

Vocational training 55.7 54.5 93.5 73.2 44.2 25.5 6.5

Special education 39.6 33.4 59.7 34.8 21.9 27.3 10.8

College courses 26.7 31.4 80.5 68.8 27.3 18.2 3.4

Secondary education 83.6 80.3 98.7 100.0 70.7 51.8 54.8

Basic adult education 80.4 76.0 97.4 92.0 61.6 40.0 24.7

With an education program 91.2% 88.0% 100.0% 100.0% 87.6% 71.8% 60.3%

Educational programs 2000 1995 2000 1995 2000 1995 1999

State prisons Federal prisons Private prisons Local jails

Table 3. Educational programs offered in State, Federal, and private prisons, 2000 and 1995, and local jails, 1999.

Sources: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997 and 1991; BJS, Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 1996; BJS,

Survey of Adults on Probation, 1995.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding or inmates’ participation in more than one educational program.

...Not available.

Number of inmates 1,046,136 709,042 87,624 53,753 501,159 2,055,942

Other 2.6 2.6 5.6 8.4 2.1 3.4

Vocational 32.2 31.2 31.0 29.4 4.8 7.0

English as a second language 1.2 ... 5.7 ... ... ...

College courses 9.9 13.9 12.9 18.9 1.0 6.1

GED/high school 23.4 27.3 23.0 27.3 8.6 7.8

Basic 3.1 5.3 1.9 10.4 0.8 0.4

Total 51.9% 56.6% 56.4% 67.0% 14.1% 22.9%

Educational programs 1997 1991 1997 1991 inmates Probationers

State Federal Local jail 

Prison inmates

Table 4. Participation in educational programs since most recent incarceration or sentence, for State and Federal prison

inmates, 1997 and 1991, for local jail inmates, 1996, and for probationers, 1995
State and Federal inmates had higher

participation rates in 1991 than in 1997.

In 1991, 57% of State prison inmates

and 67% of Federal inmates said they

had taken educational courses since

entering prison. 

Though the rate of participation

decreased, the number of State prison

inmates educated in prison increased

37% — from 402,500 in 1991 to

550,000 in 1997 — and the number 

of Federal inmates increased 39% —

from 36,200 to 50,300. At the same

time, the total number of inmates in

State prisons increased 49% and in

Federal prisons 65%. Participation 

in prison education programs did not

expand as rapidly as the population,

and as a result the percentage of

inmates in educational programs fell.

Vocational programs and high school

or GED preparation classes were most

popular. About a third of State and

Federal prison inmates had participated in vocational training to learn

particular job skills. About a quarter of

prison inmates took high school level

classes. Among jail inmates, 5% had

vocational training and 9%, high school

classes.

State prisoners without a high

school diploma more likely to have

taken classes since admission

Prison educational resources were

concentrated on those with the greatest need — those without a high school

diploma. Approximately 54% of State

inmates who had not completed the

12th grade and 61% with a GED

reported that they had participated 

in educational programs since being

admitted to prison (table 5). In contrast,

about 4 in 10 with a high school

diploma or postsecondary courses

participated in an educational program.

More than a third of those who did not

have a high school diploma or GED

took high school classes, and a quarter

participated in a vocational training

opportunity. About 28% of those with 

a GED were enrolled in a high school

program and 44% were in vocational

education.

Women in State prison better

educated than men

Women in State prisons were more

likely than men to have received a high

school diploma or attended an institution of higher learning. About 36% of

women and 32% of men had graduated from high school or attended a

postsecondary institution (table 6).

Women in State prison were more

likely to have completed high school

than men and less likely to have

passed the GED. Approximately 30%

of women and 25% of men received

high school diplomas; 28% of women

and 35% of men had a GED. About 4

in 10 men and women failed to graduate from high school or pass the GED

test. 

About half of female and male inmates

had participated in an educational

program since admission. About 21%

of women and 24% of men took high

school or GED classes; 30% of women

and 32% of men were enrolled in a

vocational program.

Revised 4/15/03 th

 Education and Correctional Populations 5

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding or inmates’ participation in more than one

educational program. 

Number of prison inmates 413,759 298,912 214,439 119,027

Other 1.5 3.1 3.3 4.2

Vocational 24.3 43.7 31.8 31.6

English as a second language 2.0 0.6 0.9 0.6

College courses 0.7 16.5 13.5 18.9

GED/high school 36.1 28.0 4.6 2.0

Basic 6.4 1.4 0.8 0.4

Total 53.5% 60.4% 42.0% 42.8%

Educational programs diploma GED diploma college

Postsecondary/High

school

Less than 

high school

State prison inmates with –

Table 5. Participation in educational programs since most recent admission, 

by educational attainment, for State prison inmates, 1997

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State

and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to

rounding or inmates’ participation in more

than one educational program. 

inmates 989,419 66,076

Number of prison 

Other 2.5 3.8

Vocational 32.4 29.5

second language 1.2 0.5

English as a 

College 10.0 9.1

GED/high school 23.6 21.3

Basic 3.1 3.3

Total 52.0% 50.1%

Educational programs

Ouside prison/jail 8.9 11.9

In prison/jail 26.3 15.9

Earned GED 35.2 27.9

Completed high school 25.2% 30.3%

High school completion

College graduate 2.3 3.1

some college 8.8 11.2

Postsecondary/ 

High school diploma 20.4 21.6

GED 28.9 22.3

Some high school 25.3 28.2

8th grade or less 14.3% 13.6%

Educational attainment

Male Female

Percent of State

prison inmates

Table 6. Education, by gender

for State prison inmates, 1997
Revised 4/15/03 th

6 Education and Correctional Populations 

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional

Facilities, 1997.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding or inmates’ participation in more than one educational program.

Number of prison inmates 351,742 490,384 179,301

Other 3.0 2.5 1.8

Vocational 32.0 33.7 29.1

English as a second language 0.1 0.1 6.4

College 12.4 9.0 7.1

GED/high school 18.7 26.1 25.4

Basic 2.1 3.3 4.8

Total 48.8% 53.8% 52.6

Educational programs after admission

Outside prison/jail 12.9 7.2 6.3

In prison/jail 30.0 23.2 23.4

Earned GED 42.9 30.4 29.7

Completed high school 29.9% 25.5% 17.2

High school completion

College graduate or more 3.5 1.6 1.9

Postsecondary/some college 11.4 8.4 5.5

High school diploma 22.8 21.0 14.9

GED 35.2 24.8 24.7

Some high school 16.3 32.4 25.1

8th grade or less 10.9% 11.7% 27.9%

Educational attainment

White Black Hispanic

Percent of State prison inmates

Table 7. Education, by race/Hispanic origin, for State

prison inmates, 1997

Minority State prison inmates less likely than whites 

to have a high school diploma or GED 

Minority State inmates were generally less educated than

their white peers. About 44% of black State prison inmates

and 53% of Hispanic inmates had not graduated from high

school or received a GED compared to 27% of whites in

State prisons (table 7). 

Minorities were less likely than whites to have attended

college or some other institution of higher learning. About 1

in 10 blacks and 1 in 13 Hispanics had studied beyond high

school compared to 1 in 7 whites. Minorities were also less

likely than whites to have earned a high school diploma or 

a GED: 26% of blacks and 17% of Hispanics, compared to

30% of whites, had a high school diploma; 30% of blacks

and Hispanics passed the GED compared to 43% of whites.

Prison staff had concentrated educational services to those

most in need of further learning. Higher percentages of

blacks and Hispanics, compared to whites, had taken

educational classes in prison — about 54% of blacks, 53%

of Hispanics, and 49% of whites. About a quarter of minorities were enrolled in high school or GED classes while 34%

of blacks and 29% of Hispanics took vocational training.

White, black, and Hispanic male inmates ages 20

through 39 markedly less educated than their 

counterparts in the general population 

Males between the ages of 20 and 39 dominate the State

prison population; they constituted about two-thirds of all

State prison inmates in 1997. Approximately 21% of the

State prison population were white males between the

ages of 20 and 39, 33% were black males in that age 

range, and 12% were Hispanics. In the general population

these groups constituted a significantly smaller percentage of the total population — 22%. White males ages 20

through 39 were 17% of the general population, and

blacks and Hispanics of any race about 3% each. 

Within the 20 through 39 age group, male inmates consistently had lower academic achievement than their counterparts in the general population. Young white and black

male inmates were about twice as likely as their counterparts in the general population to have not

completed high school or its equivalent —

(14% versus 28% for whites and 16% versus

44% for blacks). Young Hispanic males’ educational achievement did not differ by such

magnitude; 52% in prison and 41% in the

general population did not have a high school

diploma or its equivalent.

Four times as many young males in the

general population as in the prison population

had attended some college classes or postsecondary courses — 54% of whites in the

general population and 11% in prison, 44% 

of blacks in the general population and 8% in

prison, and 32% of Hispanics in the general

population and 7% in prison. Note: Probationers excluded from general population. Detail may not add to 100% due

to rounding.

Sources: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997;

Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, March supplement, 1997.

 ate or more 23.4 1.9 11.5 1.1 8.9 1.4

College gradu-

 some college 30.7 9.3 32.4 7.1 22.8 5.3

Postsecondary/

 diploma 32.1 61.0 40.5 47.9 27.0 41.6

High school 

 school 9.6 17.8 13.3 34.0 20.4 27.7

Some high

 less 4.3% 9.9% 2.3% 9.9% 20.9% 24.1%

8th grade or 

attainment population inmates population inmates population inmates

Educational General prison General prison General prison

State State State 

White Black Hispanic

Percent of males ages 20 through 39 by race/Hispanic origin

Educational attainment of males, ages 20 through 39, by race/Hispanic

origin, for State prison inmates and the general population
Revised 4/15/03 th

 Education and Correctional Populations 7

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding or inmates’ participation in more

than one educational program. 

133,44

2

Number of prison inmates 208,955 402,693 310,405

Other 2.3 2.5 2.9 2.8

Vocational 30.5 34.0 32.5 28.7

language 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.6

English as a second

College 6.4 10.1 11.4 11.6

GED/high school 35.5 23.3 19.0 15.4

Basic 2.5 3.0 3.2 4.3

Total 57.8% 52.4% 49.6% 46.5%

Educational programs

since admission

Outside prison/jail 6.9 9.0 10.5 9.6

In prison/jail 27.4 26.3 25.0 22.3

Earned GED 34.4 35.3 35.5 32.0

Completed high school 14.1% 25.4% 30.0% 33.4%

High school completion

College graduate or more 0.1 1.5 3.0 6.9

some college 3.6 8.3 11.3 14.2

Postsecondary/

High school diploma 13.6 21.5 23.5 21.3

GED 31.2 29.4 27.8 23.1

Some high school 35.3 27.2 21.7 13.9

8th grade or less 16.3% 12.1% 12.7% 20.7%

Educational attainment

younger 25-34 35-44 older

24 or 45 or

Age

Percent of State prison inmates

Table 8. Education, by age, for State prison inmates, 1997

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal

Correctional Facilities, 1997.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding or

inmates’ participation in more than one educational

program. 

Number of prison inmates 132,178 922,715

Other 2.8 2.6

Vocational 35.6 31.7

English as a second language 0.4 1.3

College 16.9 8.9

GED/high school 9.9 25.4

Basic 1.3 3.4

Total 47.7% 52.5%

Educational programs since

admission

Outside prison/jail 19.6 7.6

In prison/jail 18.7 26.7

Earned GED 38.3 34.3

Completed high school 49.9% 22.0%

High school completion

College graduate or more 6.2 1.8

Postsecondary/some college 22.2 7.1

High school diploma 32.5 18.8

GED 27.2 28.7

Some high school 7.4 28.1

8th grade or less 4.4% 15.6%

Educational attainment

Yes No

Military service

Percent of State

prison inmates

Table 9. Education, by military service, for

State prison inmates, 1997

Young inmates less well educated than older inmates 

Young State inmates were more likely than older inmates to have failed

to complete high school or its equivalent. Over half of inmates 24 or

younger had not completed the 12th grade or the GED (52%), while

just over a third of those 35 or older did not have a high school diploma

or GED (34% for those 35-44 and 35% for those 45 or older) (table 8).

Relatively few young inmates had pursued a post secondary education, particularly compared to older inmates. An estimated 4% of those

24 or younger, 10% of those 25 to 34, 14% of those 35 to 44, and 21%

of those 45 or older had attended college or another postsecondary

institution. 

About a third in each age group had earned a GED. Over 7 in 10 

of those earning their GED had done so in a correctional facility.

Young inmates were more likely than older ones to have participated in

an educational program since their admission to prison (58% for those

24 or younger, 52% of those 25 to 34, 50% of those 34 to 44, and 47%

of those 45 and older). While about 3 in 10 in all age groups had been

enrolled in a vocational program, higher percentages of young inmates

compared to older groups were enrolled in GED or high school courses

(36% of those 24 or younger and 15% of those 45 or older).

Inmates with military service better

educated than those who had not served

About 88% of State inmates who had served 

in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard,

Marines, or other military service and 56% who

had not been in the military had completed high

school or its equivalent and may have enrolled

in postsecondary courses (table 9). Some 

of this difference can be explained because

persons who have served in the Armed Forces

meet high entrance requirements at enlistment

and may subsequently be trained while serving

in the Armed Forces.

Half of inmates with military service obtained 

a high school diploma and over a third passed

the GED; less than a quarter who did not serve

in the armed forces obtained a high school

diploma and about a third a GED.

Since fewer inmates (12%) with military experience had not completed high school or a GED

compared to those without military service 
(44%), fewer had enrolled in high

school/GED classes since their admission to prison. A tenth of those with

military service and a quarter without

had taken high school or GED classes

since admission. About 17% with a

military career and 9% without had

postsecondary courses.

61% of noncitizens had not

completed high school or a GED

Noncitizens, who may or may not

speak English fluently, are less likely

than citizens to have completed high

school or its equivalent. An estimated

61% of noncitizens and 38% of inmates with U.S. citizenship had not

graduated from high school or obtained

a GED (table 10). Aliens were less

likely than citizens to have received a

high school diploma (19% versus 26%)

or a GED (20% versus 36%).

Just over half of both aliens (54%) and

citizens (52%) had been in an educational program since admission. About

15% of aliens were taking a course 

in English as a second language. A

quarter of both citizens and aliens were

studying at the high school level.

Inmates raised without two parents

less likely to have a high school

diploma or a GED

State prison inmates who grew up in

homes without two parents, with an

incarcerated parent, or on welfare or 

in subsidized housing were less likely

than other inmates to have obtained a

high school diploma/GED or attended 

a postsecondary institution.

A larger percentage of State prison

inmates who were raised by a single

parent or other adult, including relatives, friends, or other adults, compared to those who lived in a two

parent household, failed to obtain a

high school diploma or pass the GED;

43% of inmates raised by one parent,

47% by others, and 34% by both

parents did not complete a high

school diploma/GED (table 11). 

Revised 4/15/03 th

8 Education and Correctional Populations 

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding or inmates’ participation in more 

than one educational program.

Number of prison inmates 1,001,304 52,613

Other 2.7 1.4

Vocational 32.5 27.0

English as a second language 0.4 15.1

College 10.2 4.4

GED/high school 23.4 24.5

Basic 3.0 6.1

Total 51.8% 54.3%

Educational programs since admission

Outside prison/jail 9.3 5.3

In prison/jail 26.2 15.0

Earned GED 35.6 20.2

Completed high school 25.9% 18.8%

High school completion

College graduate or more 2.3 3.7

Some college 9.2 5.8

High school diploma 20.8 14.2

GED 29.2 15.6

Some high school 25.7 20.5

8th grade or less 12.8% 40.3%

Educational attainment

USA Other countries

citizenship in —

prison inmates having

Percent of State 

Table 10. Education, by citizenship, for State prison inmates, 1997

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997.

Note: Detail may not add to 100% due to rounding.

Peers did not engage in any illegal activity 255,476 42.1 18.3 24.1 15.5

Peers engaged in illegal activity while growing up 792,560 38.7% 31.9% 19.3% 10.0%

Parent did not abuse alcohol or drugs 711,567 40.0 26.1 21.4 12.5

Parent abused alcohol or drugs 332,971 38.7% 33.8% 18.5% 9.0%

Parent did not receive welfare and inmate did not live in public housing 619,605 34.5 27.4 23.5 14.7

Parent received welfare or inmate lived in public housing 427,097 46.9% 30.4% 16.1% 6.6%

Parent never incarcerated 849,170 38.8 27.3 21.5 12.5

Parent ever incarcerated 190,560 43.2% 34.4% 16.1% 6.3%

Other 139,525 47.4 27.4 16.3 9.0

Single parent 446,873 42.7 30.6 18.0 8.8

Both parents 463,900 34.4% 26.9% 24.2% 14.5%

Lived with growing up

Background characteristics Number high school GED diploma some college

Less than High school Postsecondary/

Educational attainment

Table 11. Educational attainment of State prison inmates, by characteristics of their family and background, 1997
Inmates who reported that a parent

had been incarcerated were less likely

to have completed 11th grade at most,

compared to inmates who did not have

a parent serve time in a correctional

institution (43% versus 39%). Among

inmates with an incarcerated parent,

twice as many received a GED as their

final educational achievement as

received a high school diploma (34%

versus 16%).

An estimated 47% of inmates who

reported that they had either received

welfare or lived in publicly-supported

housing and 35% who received no

government aid did not finish high

school. Those who received public

assistance were likely to obtain a GED

as their highest level of attainment;

30% received a GED compared to 

16% who completed high school.

66% of State prison inmates with

learning disabilities did not

complete high school or a GED

Among inmates who reported a disability — such as a limiting condition, difficulty seeing or hearing, a learning,

speech or physical disability, or a

mental or emotional condition — about

44% did not finish high school or its

equivalent (table 12). Thirty-seven

percent of those without a disability 

did not complete high school. 

Two-thirds with a learning disability and

6 in 10 with a speech disability did not

complete 12th grade or a GED. 

47% of drug offenders did not have

a high school diploma or a GED

Almost half of State prison inmates

serving their sentence for selling or

using illegal drugs had not graduated

from high school or passed the GED

(table 13). About 4 in 10 inmates

serving a sentence for a violent or

property offense had not finished high

school. Violent offenses include

homicide, sexual assault, robbery, and

assault, and property crimes include

burglary, larceny/theft, motor vehicle

theft, and fraud. An estimated 42% 

of those in prison for a public-order

offense — primarily weapons, obstruction of justice, and violations of supervised release — did not complete high

school or its equivalent.

Revised 4/15/03 th

 Education and Correctional Populations 9

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997.

Note: Detail may not add to 100% due to rounding.

*Total disability includes a limiting condition, difficulty seeing, difficulty hearing, learning disability, 

speech disability, physical disability, and mental or emotional condition.

Number of prison inmates 636,443 417,776 103,789 39,166 125,257 169,904

College graduate or more 2.3 2.3 0.2 1.0 2.9 2.7

Some college 9.1 8.9 3.0 6.1 10.6 9.4

High school diploma 21.3 19.3 14.1 15.2 20.6 19.0

GED 30.4 25.6 16.5 19.0 25.6 27.5

Some high school 24.9 26.4 35.8 33.9 23.9 24.1

8th grade or less 11.9% 17.5% 30.3% 24.8% 16.4% 17.3%

Educational attainment None Total* Learning Speech Physical condition

Mental

Disabilities

Table 12. Educational attainment, by presence of selected disabilities, for State prison inmates, 1997

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997.

Note: Detail may not add to 100% due to rounding. 

Number of prison inmates 492,398 229,262 215,644 102,707

College graduate or more 2.2 2.5 2.3 2.5

Postsecondary/some college 8.6 9.6 8.9 9.4

High school diploma 20.1 19.8 21.1 21.2

GED 32.0 30.1 21.1 25.1

Some high school 22.3 25.9 31.6 27.0

8th grade or less 14.9% 12.0% 15.0% 14.7%

Educational attainment Violent Property Drug order

PublicOffense

Table 13. Educational attainment, by offense, for State prison inmates, 1997
Inmate unemployment before 

admission varied with education

Approximately 38% of inmates who

completed 11 years or less of school

were not working before entry to prison

(table 14). Unemployment was lower

for those with a GED (32%), a high

school diploma (25%), or education

beyond high school (21%). About 20%

without a high school diploma, 19%

with a GED, 14% with a high school

diploma, and 13% with training beyond

high school were not looking for work. 

Official labor statistics exclude persons

not looking for work. Using that definition, the unemployment rate for State

prison inmates at admission was 22%

for those with less than a high school

diploma, 15% for those with a high

school diploma/GED, and 9% with

education beyond high school. Of all

inmates, 17% were unemployed at

admission. From 1990 to 1997 when 9

in 10 inmates entered prison, national

unemployment ranged from 7.5% in

1992 to 4.9% in 1997. In 1997 unemployment in the general population was

8.1% for those 25 or older without a

high school diploma/GED, 4.3% for

high school graduates, and 2.6% for

those educated beyond high school.

(See: <http://www.bls.gov/cps/

#empstat> tables 1 and 7.) 

Better educated inmates were more

likely to receive wage income. While

57% of those with less than a high

school education received wages, 76%

with a postsecondary education had

wage income. Those without a high

school diploma/GED were more likely

than those with training after high

school to have income from family 

or friends (20% versus 12%), or from

welfare (11% versus 8%). A seventh of

those with some postsecondary training and almost a third without a high

school diploma had lived with persons

who received government assistance.

Less educated inmates more likely

than more educated to be recidivists

State prison inmates without a high

school diploma and those with a GED

were more likely to have a prior sentence than those with a diploma or

some college or other postsecondary

courses. About 77% who did not

complete high school or a GED, 81%

with a GED, 71% who finished high

school, and 66% with some college

were recidivists (table 15). 

Less educated inmates were more

likely than those with more education 

to have been sentenced as a juvenile.

Approximately 40% without a high

school diploma, 45% with a GED, 26%

with a high school diploma, and 21%

Revised 4/15/03 th

10 Education and Correctional Populations 

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997.

b

Includes pension, alimony, educational assistance, and other income sources.

a

Excludes inmates not free at least 1 month before arrest.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding or inmates had more than one income source.

Lived with persons who received welfare 31.5% 24.5% 19.3% 14.2%

Household totaled 6 or more 16.0 10.8 8.7 7.2

Household totaled 3 to 5 persons 49.8 50.8 47.6 43.5

Lived with one other person 17.7 21.5 23.0 24.2

Lived alone 16.5% 16.9% 20.7% 25.1%

Number of persons in household

Homeless in year before admission 11.6% 10.6% 10.0% 8.2%

$5,000 or more 6.3 9.2 8.5 13.8

$2,000 to $4,999 8.9 13.2 14.6 24.8

$1,000 to $1,999 21.6 25.9 29.5 28.7

Less than $1,000 63.3% 51.7% 47.4% 32.7%

Personal income in month before arrest

Other 1.4 2.1 2.6 6.9 b

Investments 0.5 1.4 1.6 7.7

Compensation payments 1.5 2.1 2.5 3.6

or Social Security 7.4 3.8 5.3 5.4

Supplemental Security Income 

Welfare 11.0 7.8 7.7 7.5

Transfer payments 18.4 12.7 14.1 14.8

Family/friends 19.8 20.8 15.9 12.1

Illegal sources 23.3 32.3 24.4 25.9

Wages 57.1% 64.4% 70.7% 75.9%

Income sources in month before arrest

Not looking for work 20.2 18.6 13.9 13.2

Looking for work 17.3 13.1 11.0 7.8

Part time 14.8 11.9 11.3 9.0

Full time 47.7% 56.4% 63.8% 69.9%

Employment in month before arresta

diploma GED diploma some college

high school school secondary/

Less than High PostPercent of State prison inmates

by educational attainment, for State prison inmates, 1997

Table 14. Economic and life style characteristics prior to admission,

Source: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997.

Note: Detail may not add to total due to rounding.

Number of prison inmates 417,338 299,959 215,281 119,002

To probation only 11.3 10.0 14.5 13.7

To incarceration 26.0 26.0 30.5 31.7

Prior sentences as an adult only 37.3 36.0 45.0 45.4

To probation only 21.3 23.4 14.7 11.1

To incarceration 18.8 21.8 11.6 9.7

Prior sentences as a juvenile 40.1 45.2 26.3 20.7

For other offense 10.0 5.0 10.1 13.0

For violent offense 12.7 13.8 18.6 20.8

First time offender 22.6% 18.8% 28.7% 33.8%

Current and prior sentences diploma GED diploma some college

high school High school secondary/

Less than PostPercent of State prison inmates

for State prison inmates, 1997

Table 15. Current and prior sentences, by educational attainment,
with some college had prior sentences

as a juvenile either to a facility or probation. About 1 in 5 without a high

school diploma or with a GED and 1 in

10 with a diploma or some college had

been incarcerated as a juvenile. 

Methodology

The following data sets were used in this

report.

Bureau of Justice Statistics Surveys

For a description of methods for these

surveys see the following BJS publications:

National Adult Literacy Survey

The National Adult Literacy Survey, sponsored by the National Center for Education

Statistics, was conducted in 1992 to

assess literacy skills in the general population and background characteristics related

to those skills. A four-stage stratified area

sample was used to select respondents 16

years of age and older from the noninstitutional population in the United States.

Black and Hispanic respondents were

sampled at a higher rate than the remainder of the population in order to increase

their representation in the sample. 

Data collection instruments included the

screener, designed to enumerate household members and select survey respondents, a background questionnaire, and a

literacy exercise booklet. The background

questionnaire collected data on language

and educational background, political,

social, and labor force participation, literacy

activities and demographic information.

Respondents also took a test designed to

measure their prose, document, and

quantitative literacy skills. Approximately

25,000 persons, paid $20 to participate,

were interviewed for the study. The

response rates were as follows: 89.1%

answered the screener, 81% of those

answered the background questions, 

and 95.8% of those took the literacy test.

Current Population Survey March

supplement

The Current Population Survey (CPS),

sponsored by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, collects labor force data about the

civilian noninstitutional population every

month. In March of each year, in addition

to the regular questions, educational attainment is also asked. A multistage stratified

clustered sample design is used to select

approximately 50,000 housing units each

month for interview. Generally about 6.5%

of the housing units are not interviewed in

a given month due to refusals or failure to

make contact with persons in the dwelling

unit. Data are collected on all persons 15

and older in each household. Information 

is obtained each month for about 94,000

persons 15 years of age or older.

The accuracy of sample surveys

Sampling error is the variation that may

occur by chance because a sample rather

than a complete enumeration of the population was conducted. The sampling error,

as measured by an estimated standard

error, varies by the size of the estimate 

and the size of the base population.

Estimates of the standard error of some

numbers used in this report are found in

the appendix tables. 

Some standard errors have been calculated to provide estimates of the sampling

variability around percents in this report.

For example, the 95-percent confidence

interval around the percentage of State

inmates whose high school graduation was

their ultimate educational attainment is

approximately 20.5% plus or minus 1.96

times the standard error of .4 (or 19.7% 

to 21.3%) (appendix table 1). 

Standard errors may also be used to test

the significance of the difference between

two sample statistics or estimates from two

surveys. This is done by pooling the standard errors of the two sample estimates. 

Revised 4/15/03 th

 Education and Correctional Populations 11

Sources: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997 and 1991;

BJS, Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 1996 and 1989; BJS, Survey of Adults on Probation, 1995;

Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, 1997.

...Not available.

more 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.2

College graduate or

Some college 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.2

High school diploma 0.4 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.2 0.2

GED 0.5 0.6 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.8 ...

Some high school 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0 0.1

8th grade or less 0.4% 0.5% 0.7% 0.5% 0.5% 0.6% 0.7% 0.1%

 attainment 1997 1991 1997 1991 1996 1989 tioners population

Educational State Federal Local jail inmates Proba- General 

Prison inmates

Appendix table 1. Standard error for estimates of educational attainment

Sources: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997 and 1991;

BJS, Survey of Inmates in Local Jails, 1996; BJS, Survey of Adults on Probation, 1995.

...Not available.

Other 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.6

Vocational 0.5 0.6 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.4

English as a second language 0.1 ... 0.5 ... ... ...

College 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.1 0.6

GED/high school 0.5 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.7

Basic 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.2

Total 0.5% 0.7% 1.0% 0.7% 0.6% 1.0%

Educational programs 1997 1991 1997 1991 inmates tioners

State Federal Local jail ProbaAppendix table 2. Standard error for estimates of educational participation

Census of Jails, 1999, NCJ

186633 9/01.

Census of Jails,

1999

Census of State and

Federal Adult Correctional

Facilities, 1995, NCJ

164266 8/9.

Census of State

and Federal Adult

Correctional Facilities, 1995 and

2000

Characteristics of Adults

on Probation, 1995, NCJ

164267 12/9.

1995 Survey of

Adults on Probation

Profile of Jail Inmates,

1989, NCJ 129097 4/91;

Profile of Jail Inmates,

1996, NCJ 164620 11/98.

Survey of Inmates in Local

Jails, 1996 and

1989

Survey of State Prison Inmates, 1991, NCJ 136949

3/93; Substance Abuse

and Treatment, State and

Federal Prisoners, 1997

NCJ 172871 1/99. 

Survey of Inmates in State and

Federal Correctional Facilities,

1997 and 1991
 

 

*NCJ 195670* U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Washington, DC 20531

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use $300

PRESORTED STANDARD

POSTAGE & FEES PAID

DOJ/BJS

Permit No. G-91

This report in portable document

format and in ASCII, its tables, and

related statistical data are available

at the BJS World Wide Web Internet

site: <http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/>

The Bureau of Justice Statistics 

is the statistical agency of the 

U.S. Department of Justice. 

Lawrence A. Greenfeld is director.

Caroline Wolf Harlow of BJS wrote

this report. Doris James Wilson

provided verification. Carolyn C.

Williams produced and edited the

report. Jayne Robinson administered

final production. 

January 2003, NCJ 195670

Sources: BJS, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 1997.

0.60.40.40.2Other

1.51.11.00.7Vocational

0.20.20.20.2English as a second language

College 1.30.80.80.1

0.50.50.90.8GED/High school

Basic 0.20.20.20.4

Total %1.6%1.2%1.0%0.9

or morediplomaGEDdiplomaParticipation in educational programs

high school collegeschool

SomeHigh Less than a

programs by educational attainment for State prison inmates

Appendix table 3. Standard error for estimates of participation in educational

The standard error of the difference

between State and Federal inmates who

earned a high school diploma as their top

educational achievement would be 0.8%

(or the square root of the sum of the

squared standard errors for each group).

The 95-percent confidence interval around

the difference would be 1.96 times 0.8%

(or 1.5%). Since the difference of 6.5%

(27.0% minus 20.5%) is greater than 1.5%,

the difference would be considered statistically significant.

For additional documentation, questionnaires, and the data for BJS surveys, see

<http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/bjs.

html#siscf> for the prison inmate surveys,

<http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/

bjs.html#silj> for the jail inmate surveys,

<http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/bjs.

html#sap> for the survey of probationers,

<http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/bjs.

html#csfacf> for the prison censuses, and

<http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/bjs. 

html#njc> for the jail census. See

<http://nces.ed.gov/naal/analysis/

resources.asp> for data and documentation for the National Adult Literacy Survey,

and <http://www.census.gov/population/

www/socdemo/educ-attn.html> for tables

from the Current Population Survey on

educational attainment.