WORLD VIEW:

THE 1995 STRATEGIC ASSESSMENT

FROM THE STRATEGIC STUDIES INSTITUTE

Edited by

Earl H. Tilford, Jr.

February 10, 1995
ii

* * * * * *

The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and

do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the

Department of the Army, Department of Defense, or the U.S.

Government. This report is approved for public release;

distribution is unlimited.

* * * * * *

Comments pertaining to this report are invited and should be

forwarded to: Director, Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army

War College, Carlisle Barracks, PA 17013-5050. Comments also

may be conveyed directly to the Director of Research by calling

commercial (717) 245-4086 or DSN 242-4086.
iii

FOREWORD

Every year the analysts at the Strategic Studies Institute

(SSI) prepare current assessments for their particular areas of

interest. These assessments become the bedrock of the annual SSI

Study Program.

This year's assessments are crucial given the complexities

of the post-Cold War world. Russia remains an enigma wrapped in

a riddle with Russian national interests very much paramount in

the Kremlin's thinking. As 1995 begins, Russian troops are

heavily engaged in putting down a rebellion in the secessionist

republic of Chechnya. The implications for the future of Russian

democracy may be significant.

 The world of 1995 is very much one of continuity and

change. Accordingly, old hatreds are very much a part of the

equation. In the Middle East, Syria, Israel, and the Palestine

Liberation Organization work toward a just and lasting peace. 

However, new hot spots, like Algeria, will emerge unexpectedly. 

In the Far East, North Korea and the United States are

attempting to decrease tensions while Washington and Hanoi are

moving much more rapidly toward better relations. China

continues to modernize its military forces while Japan and the

United States are seeking areas for economic cooperation.

In Africa, the ravages of war and nature were part of the

story in 1994. However, bright spots did occur, to include the

peaceful transition to black majority rule in South Africa. In

1995 there will be reasons for optimism, like continued economic

growth in Botswana and Namibia. On the other hand, corrupt

governments, infectious diseases, and high population growth

continue as areas for concern.

South America, like Africa, is a continent beset with

challenges and opportunities in the coming year. Rapidly

expanding population and continuing poverty will frustrate

proponents of democratic change in countries like Venezuela. 

While illegal migration from Central America has abated, in the

Caribbean the potential for increased migration may grow in 1995.

The Strategic Studies Institute offers this "world view"
iv

assessment in the hope that it will be of value to those charged

with understanding the current and future strategic environment.

WILLIAM W. ALLEN

Colonel, U.S. Army

Acting Director

Strategic Studies Institute
1

WORLD VIEW:

THE 1995 STRATEGIC ASSESSMENT

FROM THE STRATEGIC STUDIES INSTITUTE

Earl H. Tilford, Jr.

Introduction.

Each January the regional analysts at the Strategic Studies

Institute (SSI), U.S. Army War College assess global trends that

are likely to determine the state of the world through the next

decade. From these assessments study proposals are devised which

focus on those issues and trends impacting on the requirements

for maintaining America's Army as a strategic force during the

coming years.

In 1995, the analysts at SSI estimate that 14 major

determinants will significantly influence the Army's posture,

U.S. interests, and national military strategy:

• The debate between the services pertaining to roles and

missions will continue. Fiscal constraints will necessarily

exacerbate the competition over roles and missions as each

service tries to define its parameters in the wake of

political change, an uncertain and constantly evolving

international situation, and the ongoing Revolution in

Military Affairs (RMA).

• The Army will articulate and refine its vision as a

strategic force for the 21st century as it re-engineers

itself into Force XXI. 

• Fiscal constraints will also continue to drive national

priorities. Added to the budgetary restraints will be the

uncertainties accompanying the changes in the political

leadership in Congress where Republicans have replaced

Democrats as chairs of all committees in both the House and

Senate.

• U.S. forces will continue to be used in Military

Operations Other Than War (MOOTW). However, ongoing

emphasis on peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations in

consonance with United Nations and other coalition partners

will cause the debate on the efficacy of this kind of use of

U.S. force to intensify. 

• The Caribbean will remain troublesome as the political
2

and economic crisis in Cuba deepens. In Haiti, rising

expectations will not be matched with socioeconomic progress

and frustrations could well foster violence as the time for

withdrawal of U.N. peacekeeping forces nears.

• Russia will continue its arduous road to democracy while

facing challenges presented by ethnic and religious inspired

violence, political unrest, economic hardship, and a growing

criminal element. Russian use of force in peacekeeping

operations in the Caucasus and elsewhere along the

southwestern frontiers of the former Soviet Union may well

increase. Those factions within the Russian political and

military hierarchy which continue to emphasize Russia's need

to play the role of a major power are likely to grow in

influence.

• The Russian invasion of the breakaway republic of

Chechnya in December 1994 has raised doubts about the future

of Russian democracy. The invasion has undermined not only

Russia's prestige abroad, but also threatens to crumble the

foundations of the post-Communist Russian state itself.

• The effects of the RMA will become more obvious as the

diffusion of political, economic, technical, and military

power in a multipolar world makes it possible for states

which were once militarily inconsequential and/or for

terrorist groups to challenge peace in ways unanticipated at

the end of the last decade.

• The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD)

will continue to present a daunting challenge, both by the

acquisition of technological capability to engineer and

produce advanced conventional, nuclear, and

chemical/biological weapons, and by their availability from

stockpiles in the former Soviet Union.

• Ethnicity and religion have supplanted ideology as social

forces most likely to promote violence. These forces are

challenging established institutions such as national

governments and old alliances like the North Atlantic Treaty

Organization (NATO).

• The continuing crisis in the Balkans, particularly in

Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia, will threaten to undermine

European stability and unity. Western Europe will look to

the United States to provide more military force, and

debates over the extent of the use of force--and what kind

of force should be used--will grow. If the peace that

former President Jimmy Carter bartered does not take hold,
3

and if Serbian forces go on the march again, the United

States could find itself under pressure to increase its

military role in the Balkans, almost certainly through

expanded air strikes and then, possibly, with ground forces.

• Despite progress toward peace between Israel, the

Palestine Liberation Organization, and Jordan, the Middle

East remains volatile. In 1995, the focus will be on the

roles of both the United States and Syria as the peace

process moves agonizingly forward.

• In Asia the need for regional security and accommodation

remains even as North Korea and the United States seem to

have reached an agreement over nuclear issues. Challenges

to peace may arise in the Paracel Islands and in the ongoing

and uneven relationship between the People's Republic of

China and Taiwan. 

• A significant chance for recidivism in Somalia exists. 

The last American troops were withdrawn in March 1994, and

the United Nations Security Council set March 1995 as the

deadline for elections, the establishment of a legitimate

government, and the withdrawal of U.N. troops. The first

two objectives will probably not be met and the troop

withdrawal will likely bring renewed fighting.

The world of 1995 will be just as unpredictable and

potentially dangerous as the world of 1994. Last January, the

major deployments of U.S. military forces to Rwanda, Haiti, and

back to Kuwait were unforeseen. It is nearly certain that

unanticipated events will present new challenges in the months

ahead.

Bosnia, the Korean Peninsula, the Caribbean, and the

continuing conflicts along the southwestern fringes of the former

Soviet Union present diverse political and military challenges as

the United States endeavors to define its role in the new world

order. As fiscal realities drive a declining defense budget the

senior leadership of the Army will have to make difficult choices

between readiness and modernization during the current

controversy over roles and missions even as the Army restructures

itself into Force XXI.
4

TRANSREGIONAL SECURITY CONCERNS

Steven Metz

Regional Challenges, Global Issues.

A transformation of historic proportions is underway. For

several decades the global political system has faced a series of

increasingly intense challenges: the rise of totalitarianism,

independence and modernization in the Third World, the

dissemination of global power from Western Europe, the resurgence

of Islam, an explosion of global communication, the coalescence

of international values, and the emergence of post-industrial

economies are among the most prominent. The force of this change

is apparent. The result is not clear.

Historically, transitions in the global system are not

sudden. They are more metamorphoses or accretions than

revolutions, often comprehensible only after the fact rather than

while in progress. Elements of the old system, to include its

economic, political and social structures, practices, and values,

usually linger. Inevitably the dynamics of the emerging order

are influenced, if not determined, by the old. Strategic choices

made during the period of transition, particularly by the major

powers, are thus extraordinarily important. This is the

situation today; the decisions, policies, and programs of the

next few years will shape events for decades to come. Given

this, the U.S. military, among others, is scrambling to

understand the changing global security environment.

The most daunting task is to ask the right questions. 

History's greatest gift is the understanding that suggests which

of the many changes taking place are most salient. In the search

for the appropriate force structure, strategy, and doctrine for

Force XXI, two macro-level trends are particularly important: the

structure of the global system, and the changing form and

function of military power.

Trends and Issues.

• The structure of the future global system is probably

the single most important determinant of U.S. national security

strategy. It shapes how and why military force will be used. It

determines who (or what) are the allies and the enemies. Roles

and missions, force structure, training, equipment, and doctrine

all depend on the structure of the future global system. While
5

it is impossible to discern precisely how the future global

system will be structured, it is possible to develop an array of

feasible alternatives, each with its own set of military

implications.

– An Unstructured State System Leading to Communal Security,

one possibility, is a linear descendant of the current

system. States would remain the most important actors with

a gradual increase in the role of non-state actors such as

international organizations, multinational corporations, and

non-state interest groups and political movements. The

United States would remain the preeminent state, but with

its security role diminished as non-state organizations

become more effective at promoting shared concerns.

– A Polyglot System resembles Renaissance Europe where

large heterogeneous political units like the Holy Roman

Empire and the Ottoman Empire coexisted with more

homogeneous middle-sized ones like England, independent

duchies, and free cities. The United States would

attempt to retain hegemony in its traditional areas of

concern such as the Americas, Western Europe, and the

Pacific Rim, and would disengage from others. The U.S.

military would support friends and allies like Germany

and Mexico that border fragmented, unstable regions and

would dispatch small expeditionary forces for

humanitarian relief and noncombatant evacuations. The

Army would perform functions like special operations,

air defense and intelligence, but sustained warfighting

and power projection would be less significant.

– Semi-Autonomous Regional Economic Blocs is another

feasible alternative. Each would contain a dominant

economic and military power. The United States would

lead the Americas bloc. Germany would dominate the

West European bloc. Russia would assert leadership in

the East European and Central Asian bloc. China would

lead the Asian mainland and Japan would be preeminent

in the Pacific Rim bloc. In such a system, American

strategy would stress cooperation and stability within

the Western Hemisphere and economic links with the West

European and Pacific Rim blocs. Continuing reliance on

imported petroleum will be a vital determinant in U.S.

security policy. Lessening this dependence would

greatly decrease U.S. security concerns outside the

Americas.
6

– The Civilization-Based System is rooted in the

highest cultural grouping as defined by shared history,

customs, institutions, and "subjective" selfidentification.1

 This system would be shaped by

interaction among seven or eight major civilizations:

Western, Confucian, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, SlavicOrthodox, Latin American and possibly African. 

Conflict will occur where civilizations meet and clash.

____________________

1

 This concept was developed in Samuel P. Huntington, "The

Clash of Civilizations?," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 3, Summer

1993, pp. 22-49.

– Three-Tiered System. Analysts Alvin and Heidi

Toffler expect the future global system to be statecentric and trisected. First Wave states will be

agricultural. Second Wave states will be

industrialized and Third Wave states will be

information based. U.S. strategy in such a system

would be to foster integration and cooperation with

other Third Wave states, to promote stability among

Second Wave states, and to ameliorate suffering in

First Wave regions. A three-tiered system would

require the United States to retain a robust and

versatile military force able to perform missions from

strategic deterrence and conventional warfighting to

peace operations.

– Bifurcated System. A final alternative is a global

system divided into two parts, one stable, prosperous,

and small, the other unstable and economically

stagnant. The United States would probably disengage

from the ungovernable parts of the world and while low

intensity conflicts in the ungovernable regions might

occasionally spill into border areas of the governable

region, the primary tasks for the U.S military would be

relief operations and guarding the frontiers of the

governable regions with its allies. There might be
7

occasional punitive operations to punish transgressors

or terrorists and interventions to prevent

proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.

Which of these alternatives is most likely? Which should

the United States prefer? How can national security and military

strategy encourage the development of a preferred system? The

answers should provide broad guidance for developing U.S.

military strategy.

• The changing nature of military power is the second

macro-level trend. While some dimensions of warfighting--fear,

uncertainty, the importance of leadership--are perennial, its

strategic nature varies. How, why, and when people fight reflect

the broader international system as well as the specific

strategic cultures of warfighting states or organizations. This

means that the nature of military power is changing as the wider

global system changes. For most armed forces around the world

and for the U.S. military in particular, two major trends

are affecting force structure, doctrine, training, and leader

development. First is the increasing significance of

unconventional missions, especially peace operations,

counterproliferation, and counterterrorism. Second is the search

for efficiency which focuses on multilateral military operations

and the RMA.

Given these major trends, the key determinants for the

future security environment include:

• The continued development of shared global values versus

return of ideological, political, racial, economic or

religious schisms.

• The continued primacy of the state in the global system

versus its replacement by other types of political

organizations.

• The pace and extent of economic, political, and cultural

integration among developed states and regions.

• The continued relevance of nonconventional military

missions, especially counterproliferation and

counterterrorism to include both traditional terrorism and

ecoterrorism.

• The ability of the United States to build a nonpetroleumdependent military.

• The impact of the RMA, especially its second order
8

effects.
9

RUSSIA AND EURASIA

Stephen J. Blank

Regional Assessments.

Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Russia

has found her voice and it is strident. In December 1994, in the

largest offensive military undertaking in 15 years, Russian

forces poured into the breakaway region of Chechnya. This

culminated a year in which Moscow focused on obtaining dominating

positions of economic and military leverage across the

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Russia also took a

hard line in negotiations with Kiev for a treaty to denuclearize

Ukraine, to gain extensive economic concessions, and to obtain a

favorable settlement of Black Sea Navy issues. Russia's invasion

of Chechnya signifies, as well, its determination to use force to

preserve the integrity of the Russian Federation. This action is

clearly associated with the general hardening of Russian policy

since 1992 and will probably continue into the foreseeable

future. Other examples of this hardening may be expected with

regard to Ukraine and to the issue of NATO expansion. However,

the invasion of Chechnya exposed all the deficiencies of Russia's

armed forces to the light of public scrutiny and reinforced the

fact that Russia's means for pursuing its strategic objectives

are not commensurate with the scale of these objectives. This

"insolvency" can only lead to further crises within Russian

politics, the armed forces, and in Moscow's overall security

policies.

In Europe, Russia will continue to use its political and

economic leverage to alter Baltic legislation on citizenship for

Russians left in Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. In some cases,

although military installations were closed, Russian troops were

"retired" to those states and remain there, some without gainful

employment. Nevertheless, the military situation in the Baltic

has changed and, along with Fenno-Swedish entry into the European

Union, possibilities for a new regional status quo have emerged.

 This could represent an interesting experiment in regional or

subregional security in the new Europe.

Russian opposition to the entry into NATO by former members

of the Warsaw Pact will remain adamant in 1995. Despite the

Partnership for Peace, Russian critiques of NATO and Moscow's

objections to its expansion will continue unabated as the
10

Russians attempt to revise the CFE's troop limits. Because the

latter is a cornerstone of European security, any change might

open possibilities for revising the European status quo with

unanticipated consequences. In Russia's Asian policy,

difficulties with Japan can be expected, as well as some

grumbling about U.S. policy in Korea. Russia's key relationship

in Asia, however, and the one affecting all of Asia, is its ties

with China.

The Russian military, although formidable, seems to be a

shadow of its former self. It is beset by low morale and

bitterness, and lacks in effective leadership or control. It is

so divided and demoralized that it is not likely to have either

the initiative or sufficient cohesiveness to seize power. On the

other hand, it probably could not prevent anyone else from

seizing power. Military leadership, like much of the rest of

Russia, is pervaded by corruption and lawlessness. And, like

everything else, it is financially bankrupt. Although soldiers

are unpaid and the military cannot meet its minimal operating

costs, Russia maintains three to four million troops under arms

and continues to contract for military programs it can ill

afford. These pathologies indicate that the Russian government

and its Ministry of Defense have yet to comprehend their abiding

strategic dilemma. Russia may see itself as a world power but

playing that role is beyond its capacity. Until and unless

Russian strategic interests coincide with reality, both democracy

at home and security abroad is dubious.

Eastern Europe. The fighting in Bosnia will continue until

the Croatian Serbs finally overwhelm the Bosnian Moslems. The

wars in the former Yugoslavia will continue and they will not

only defy solution but also divide the West. Beyond the human

catastrophe, the consequences for Europe are profound and

dangerous.

The fighting in the Balkans has had a significant effect on

Europe. First, the Balkan civil war has divided Europe into East

and West. Many East Europeans believe that the war in the

Balkans does not truly trouble "the conscience of Western

Europe." Second, regional developments show numerous signs of

becoming once again a veiled contest between the great powers

pursuing discordant interests in the region through client

states. This process can only undermine progress towards an
11

overall European security system by fomenting trends towards

thinking in spheres of influence and bloc terms. Third,

in 1994 Russia reinserted itself into the Balkans and its

influence there will continue to grow throughout the coming year,

making it significantly more challenging for the United States,

France, Germany and Britain to impose a peace.

A second major issue in 1995 will be the continuing NATO

expansion to include former Warsaw Pact nations. The Partnership

for Peace, a "holding operation" as described by its creators,

may reach the limits of utility within the next few months. 

While there will be no consensus in NATO as to what to do with

these states, the overall desire not to antagonize Russia will

prevail. Poland will continue to view this attitude with dismay,

and frustration in Warsaw can only grow.

Meanwhile, Germany will increasingly assert its preferences

for Eastern Europe as its seeks to define the parameters of its

post-Cold War relationship with the United States. Bonn wants

more U.S. economic and political investment in Eastern Europe. 

If Washington is unable to articulate a strategy for Europe, look

for Bonn to take the lead. As was often the case in the latter

part of the 19th century, Germany will turn to Russia.

Trends and Issues.

• Whether or not it is resolved, pressure will grow for a

decision to enlarge NATO with the Visegrad Four. This will

move Russian-European relations to center stage. A similar

development will take place with regard to the CFE Treaty up

for renewal in 1995. Russian compliance is the key issue

and one that cannot be predicted.

• The Bosnian Serbs will win the war in Bosnia and Croatia

in 1995 or soon thereafter. Bosnian statehood will be

erased or undermined. The consequences of this for European

security are both unfathomable and ominous.

• One of the consequences of the Bosnian debacle will be

the renationalization of the security agendas throughout

Eastern Europe.

• In Central Europe, Poland, Hungary, and the Czech

Republic will continue their efforts to join NATO and be

integrated into the European Union. Russia will intensify

its opposition to any such eventuality.

• Russia will continue to be the big question mark in the

territory east of the Danube and west of the Sea of Japan. 
12

Economic reform will remain stalled. Meanwhile, Russia will

become more assertive in its border regions as it continues

to pursue a foreign policy it can neither afford nor,

ultimately, enforce. Russian strategic objectives will

remain incongruent with its economic and military

capabilities.

• The invasion of Chechnya has exposed this incongruence of

resources and goals and the overall debilities of the

Russian armed forces. It also presages a continuing crisis

throughout the CIS because it shows that Russia's internal

political crisis has not yet been overcome. Instability in

Russia will fuel instability throughout the CIS.

• Moscow's relationship with Beijing may clarify before the

end of 1995. This could be the most important single

political and international phenomena in Asia; one with

significant economic, military, and geopolitical

consequences.
13

WESTERN EUROPE

William T. Johnsen

Thomas-Durell Young

Regional Assessment.

European security continues its uncertain and precarious

evolution. In the larger sense, Europe and North America will

continue to grapple with the challenge of incorporating Russia,

the former European Soviet Republics, and the former Warsaw Pact

nations into a viable security system. So far NATO, the

principal security organization in Europe, has proven deft at

avoiding the direct issue of new membership by creating the

Partnership for Peace program as announced at the January 1994

summit. In 1995 the membership expansion issue will continue to

be debated and a decision on membership may be required sooner

than many realize.

The European Security and Defense Identity (ESDI) question

continues to engage NATO. Within the Alliance, the Combined and

Joint Task Force (C/JTF) concept has yet to be fully implemented,

largely due to the as yet unanswered questions surrounding ESDI

and its relationship with NATO and the United States.

In southeastern Europe, the civil war in the former

Yugoslavia will drag on in 1995, and its eventual resolution will

most likely be unsatisfying to most NATO members. Unfortunately,

NATO's future has partly been tied to a settlement. Furthermore,

southeastern European security has been called into question by

disputes between Turkey and Greece over maritime boundaries and

Turkish opposition to Greek efforts to become more involved in

the integrated command structure and by continued Greek

obstruction to Turkish cooperation with the European Union.

Since the end of the Cold War, ethnicity and nationalism

have been making a powerful comeback in Europe. That trend will

continue through 1995 and for the foreseeable future. Moreover,

extremism will continue to flourish on the fringes of Europe. 

Nations and regional security organizations have yet to respond

effectively to these new challenges to stability and they are not

likely to do so in 1995.

Throughout Europe governments remain weak. In Western

Europe, long-standing governments (Thatcher/Major in the United
14

Kingdom, the Mitterand government in France, and the Kohl

government in Germany) are approaching an end to their long

reigns. France will hold presidential elections this spring, but

there are no reliable indicators as to which conservative

candidate will win. German Federal Chancellor Helmut Kohl won

the fall federal elections but has only a slim majority in the

Bundestag. The Italian coalition government led by Silvio

Berlusconi has disintegrated, further delaying the implementation

of necessary political and economic reforms Italian voters

expected in the spring 1994 elections. The new Italian

government, led by Lamberto Dini, has yet to consolidate its

power base in Parliament, and will move slowly to implement the

necessary reforms Italian voters expect. The Nordic nations are

struggling with financing liberal social welfare programs and

with their deepening structural economic crises. The emerging

democracies in Central and Eastern Europe are beset with

significant challenges. All Europe is looking to the United

States for leadership that may or may not be forthcoming. In

1995, these conditions are not likely to change, and as a result,

national and trans-European political security structures will

remain in flux.

Trends and Issues.

• The Partnership for Peace (PfP) needs to be more than a

device for avoiding the difficult issues attending European

integration. PfP needs to be implemented fully. In 1995

NATO has to consider seriously the question of membership

for Partnership countries.

• A key element in NATO's military reorganization is the

Combined and Joint Task Force (C/JTF) announced at the

January 1994 Summit. It will continue its slow development

in 1995, largely due to French opposition.

• Franco-U.S. relations will remain mired by ambivalence. 

Nevertheless, intensive problems will continue to exist over

NATO. If the French are seeking full rapprochement with

NATO, that is not yet evident. Nor is it likely that the

spring 1995 elections will result in a French government

more openly amenable to cooperation with NATO.

• Reflecting the rapid pace of change in Europe, German

defense reorganization has been in a state of flux for the

past 5 years. Given the recent elections and the small

majority held by the Kohl-led government in the Bundestag, 

a clear consensus will emerge very slowly in Bonn to include

the future role, organization, and strength of the
15

Bundeswehr. German defense planning will proceed with fits

and starts.

• The political crisis will deepen in Italy and, even as

Rome pursues an active international role, the country will

weaken internally.

• As indicated at the informal meeting of NATO Defense

Ministers in Seville, events in southern Europe and the

Mediterranean loom larger as European and NATO security

concerns. Instability in the Maghreb, particularly Algeria;

the rise in Islamic radicalism; the potential for

proliferation of conventional armaments as well as WMD; and

increasing Muslim immigration will vie for attention in

European capitals.
16

LATIN AMERICA

Donald E. Schulz

Regional Assessment.

During 1995, threats to peace, stability, progressive

growth, and democracy in Latin America will come from political

extremes and deeply rooted economic, social, and political

problems. U.S. national interests in the region will continue to

be the promotion of democracy and sustainable economic

development. Human rights, the development of higher living

standards throughout the region, combating the illegal drug

trade, and the curtailment of illegal migration to the United

States will probably endure as issues at least through the turn

of the century. While most countries in Latin America may be

expected to continue the process of democratization, some are

under pressure from authoritarian alternatives. This has been

especially so in countries where democratically elected

governments have yet to fulfill popular expectations.

A rapidly expanding urban population and the attendant

socioeconomic problems of decapitalization, unemployment, violent

crime, and drug abuse create conditions which promote emigration,

subversion, terrorism, insurgency, and the kind of political

instability which fosters coups d'etat. U.S. assistance in

reinforcing democratic institutions and building strong economies

will remain the best defense against the authoritarian

alternatives.

In the Andean Ridge countries of Bolivia, Peru, Colombia,

and Ecuador, thousands of Latin American farmers have entered the

lucrative coca growing business and its related and even more

lucrative cocaine processing activities. Venezuela has recently

become another preferred embarkation point for illegal drug

shipments to the United States and Europe. Venezuela and Brazil

may become significant producers as well as transshipment points

for drugs. In addition, poppy cultivation is increasing in

Mexico and Guatemala. Unless a suitable alternative is found,

these farmers may well provide the raw materials that support

insurgents and/or drug trafficking cartels. The probability is

very high that even with U.S. training, equipment, and advisors,

Latin American governments will not be able to make more than

very limited progress against the supply side of the drug trade.

 Equally disturbing has been the recent increase in the use of
17

illegal drugs in Latin American countries proper.

Several million people a year enter the United States

illegally from South America, most through Mexico. Continued

economic underdevelopment and the wide gulf between rich and 

poor have resulted in significant increases in the number of

Latin Americans attempting to enter illegally. Although most are

economic refugees, a large number claim to be fleeing political

persecution. If democracy fails, the number of refugees making

that claim will increase significantly.

While migration from Central America is no longer a major

problem, Caribbean migration has increased and may even grow

worse in 1995. The current crisis in Cuba could foster another

Mariel boatlift. In Haiti, although the restoration of President

Bertrand Aristide and the large international political, economic

and military commitment hold promise for a better future, the

situation is fragile. Any change for the worse could bring

another onslaught of sea-borne refugees.

The answer to most of these concerns is the nurturing of

democracy, sustainable development, greater economic opportunity,

and a viable counterdrug strategy. Some of these issues can be

addressed through the Enterprise for the Americas Initiative and

an expanded North American Free Trade Agreement, and the Andean

Drug Strategy. How to formulate viable strategies and translate

them into effective policies and executable programs will remain

the real challenge for the United States in 1995.

Trends and Issues.

• As Latin American (LATAM) nations continue the process of

democratization, there is a danger that authoritarian

movements will grow where elected governments do not meet

popular expectations. Democratization may have reached its

apex. The issue is whether or not it survives--and where it

survives. This will depend on economic growth, the

generation of employment opportunities, containment of urban

population growth, and enhanced civilian control over the

armed forces.

• Through the year 2000, threats to democratic governments

will increase. These threats are a result of rapid

urbanization, the displacement of rural populations, 

socioeconomic inequalities, poverty, weak economies, and an

authoritarian culture. These elements are exploitable by
18

drug cartels, radical politicians from the left and right,

unreconstructed Marxists, and the military.

• In Peru and Colombia insurgencies will continue to be the

issue. In Peru the Shining Path guerrilla movement will

continue to fade. In Colombia the insurgency will

intensify.

• Narcotics will also be an issue. Production and

trafficking in illicit drugs will expand in the Andean

region, Mexico, Central America, Brazil, and Paraguay, but

the United States will not intensify its counterdrug

efforts.

• Illegal immigration will continue to pose a major problem

for the United States.

• Environmental degradation and the exploitation of

nonrenewable resources will continue.

• The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) will 

continue to provide major opportunities for U.S. businesses 

in Mexico. This is the initial step in the creation of a 

free-trade zone for the entire hemisphere.

• Simultaneously, NAFTA will create major socioeconomic

adjustment problems for Mexico. The importation of U.S.

corn may force many peasants off the land by the year 2010,

intensifying the problems attendant to urban overpopulation

and contributing to the illegal migration to the United

States. Additionally, many small and medium businesses will

not survive foreign competition. The danger of political

instability will continue as Mexico tries to make the

transition to democracy while undertaking a revolutionary

socioeconomic restructuring.

• In the Caribbean, the economic and political crisis will

continue in Cuba, but Castro will still be in power at the

end of the year. 

• In Haiti, the crisis will abate, but not disappear. 

Socioeconomic progress will not keep pace with rising 

expectations. Frustrations and disillusionment may surface 

in the form of violence when the peacekeeping force pulls 

out in 1996. The issue is whether Haitian democracy can

survive in the medium and long run.
19

• Venezuela may become a prime candidate for authoritarian 

restoration as socioeconomic and political conditions in 

that country deteriorate.

• In 1995, the United States will continue to support

democratization efforts throughout the hemisphere. 

Washington will be less inclined to intervene in the

internal affairs of LATAM nations.
20

THE MIDDLE EAST

Stephen C. Pelletiere

Regional Assessment.

In the Middle East 1995 is potentially a year of extreme

difficulty. Until now the modus operandi for keeping the peace

has been financial inducement. Saudi Arabia and Kuwait not only

subsidized friendly but weak regimes, they also financed groups

inimical to them. Now these countries have their own financial

problems and cash is not so abundant. Likewise, the Egyptian

government has neither the resources nor the ability to deal with

the serious economic and political problems facing it. 

The interests of Syria, Israel and Lebanon are intertwined

and will remain so in 1995. In Syria, Hafez al Assad has been

patient in his willingness to talk peace with Israel, but wants

the return of the Golan Heights. If some accommodation with

Israel over the Heights cannot be reached as a part of the peace

process, Syria could take the restraints off Hezbollah in

southern Lebanon, and military confrontation between Syria and

Israel could return. In Israel, ultraconservatives opposed to

any accommodation with the Arabs will continue to speak out. In

the meantime, Lebanon will attempt to erase all traces of the 17-

year civil war that almost destroyed the country. Guided by

President Rafik al Hariri, the country has undertaken a multibillion dollar reconstruction program.

Finally, Algeria is perhaps in more trouble than any other

Mid East regime. There a significant opposition force, the

Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), has gone underground to foment

rebellion. The ruling junta in Algeria will find it difficult

ferreting this force out. 

Yemen and Oman will come to the fore as trouble spots in the

Gulf this year. During the Cold War, Oman looked to the West for

aid while a significant portion of Yemen became a Russian client.

 To some degree, both states have been abandoned in the New World

Order. Washington has been urging Oman to embrace democracy and

the International Monetary Fund wants Oman to put its financial

house in order. Meanwhile, Oman's traditional links to Iran have

been loosened and it feels vulnerable to Saudi Arabia, a nation

it considers a potential threat.
21

Yemen, too, finds itself increasingly at odds with the

Saudis. Sana'a blames Riyadh for promoting the recent coup which

failed. Since Yemen is militarily a match for Saudi Arabia and

since it is one of the few friends Iraq still has in the Gulf,

this does not bode well for Saudi Arabia.

Given its vital interest in the region's petroleum reserves

and the rapid spread of radical Islamic fundamentalism, the

United States has to remain engaged in the Middle East. There

is, however, a limit to what Washington can do and 1995 will be a

year of difficult choices.

Trends and Issues.

• Peace talks between Syria and Israel will proceed, but

slow progress will not suffice. If negotiations are

protracted, the radicals on both sides will have more time

and opportunities to thwart them through conducting the kind

of violence which always seems to prompt retaliation.

• Syria will constrain Hizbollah activity in southern

Lebanon as long as President Hafez al Assad believes peace

with Israel is possible. If the talks stall, southern

Lebanon could become a bloody battleground again.

• Likewise, while some radical Palestinians may try to

avoid civil war by not provoking Yasir Arafat, look for

other elements in Hamas and Hizbollah to challenge Arafat's

leadership. If, however, the radical Jewish factions foment

another atrocity like the Hebron massacre, spiraling acts of

retaliation are likely.

• The stalemate between Iraq and the Western allies will

continue as Washington enforces the economic embargo against

Baghdad. Saddam Hussein's position will not be undermined

by the embargo and the Ba'thist Party will use the hardships

it imposes to further galvanize the people's resentment

against the Western coalition and solidify their support for

Saddam and the regime.

• The Turkish Parliament will renew U.S. base agreements,

but the animus against the United States will also increase.

• The situation in Egypt will grow even more desperate. 

Antigovernment violence will escalate throughout the year.
22

AFRICA

Steven Metz

Regional Assessment.

For Africa, 1994 was a year of stunning contrasts. On the

one hand, democracy was reborn on a continent where it had nearly

died. This was crowned with elections in South Africa. The many

skeptics who discounted the chances of nonracial democracy in

South Africa have, at least temporarily, been proven wrong. But

at the same time, the other end of the continent was witnessing

one of the most intensely violent collapses of social order ever

to befall a small state as Rwanda disintegrated into civil war

and horrendous tribal violence.

South Africa and Rwanda, while they define the parameters of

Africa's future, are not alternatives but intermix the potential

for both disaster and progress so typical of Africa. In South

Africa, the present democratic comity may be only an interregnum

with ethnic violence and even communist terrorism again exploding

after the Mandela administration leaves power. Similarly,

Rwanda's recent horrors may have led to the best government that

nation has had since gaining independence. As always, events in

Africa blend contradictions with a bewildering ease. But the

question remains in 1995: What is Africa's future--Rwanda or

South Africa?

The answer may become apparent during this year. There has

been some good news. In 1989 there were 10 democratic regimes in

Africa; within in 3 years there are 33. There has been some

economic success, with Namibia and Botswana being the best

examples. Most of all, there is an unquenchable drive on the

part of many Africans to transcend the conflicts and distress of

the past.

With problems balanced against the region's difficulties,

however, the future is challenging. Every African nation faces

some combination of problems. These may include weak,

ineffective, or corrupt governments and the ever-present

potential for military intervention in politics. Population

pressures are a problem for most nations. Africa's annual

population growth at 3.2 percent is the world's highest. Famine

is the scourge of some nations and two-thirds of the world's HIVafflicted adults are Africans. Poverty is a pervasive problem as
23

an eroding economic infrastructure and massive debt combine to

give Africa the world's lowest rate of economic growth. Violence

is common in many countries as tribes, clans, and ethnic groups

address ancient animosities. As 1995 begins, the good news seems

barely a quarter-step ahead of the bad.

Trends and Issues.

• The new African democracies may or may not be able to

sustain economic growth. Replacing a dictator or military

junta with a democratically elected government is one thing;

sustaining democracy in the face of African economic and

political realities is something else.

• African governments do not have the resources or the

capabilities to respond to conflict, tribal violence, and

nature-induced disasters. Only Nigeria and South Africa

have the potential to undertake such efforts, and both face

internal problems. The Organization of African Unity also

has the potential, but it needs reform to be effective.

• In 1995 more African states may "fail." Zaire is a prime

candidate for chaos. If that happens, the conflict and

violence-induced human disaster there could dwarf that of

Somalia, Liberia, Angola, Mozambique, and Rwanda.

• There will not be a dramatic change in the ability of

African governments to craft viable policies for population

control, sustainable economic growth, infrastructure

development, fiscal stability, or environmental protection.

 Most African states will remain vulnerable to the ravages

of disease, poverty, and nature.

• The extent of external involvement as a source of

solutions or remedy for Africa's problems will shrink in

1995. Africa depends on the largess of the United States

and, more importantly, West European nations. In the United

States some internal problems are arguably far more pressing

and important to the citizenry. Equally, the European

states may decide that their money and efforts would be

better spent in the former Soviet Union and in Eastern

Europe than in Africa. "Donor fatigue" is setting in

throughout the First World.
24

ASIA-PACIFIC

Thomas L. Wilborn

Regional Assessments.

East Asia and the Western Pacific. In the foreseeable

future, East Asia and the Western Pacific will continue to offer

tremendous opportunities for U.S. investment and trade. This

region also contains what is potentially the nation's number one

security problem: North Korea, with its continuing threat to

South Korea and with its suspected nuclear weapons program.

The North Korean nuclear question remains a serious threat

to the Non-Proliferation Treaty regime and the security of

Northeast Asia. The Framework Agreement, signed by Washington

and Pyongyang in 1994, if fully implemented should eventually

eliminate North Korea's nuclear weapons capability and, perhaps,

provide the incentives and stimulus for North Korea to open its

borders to increased economic and social interchange with South

Korea and its neighbors. Meanwhile, the United States will

remain fully engaged in all aspects of the lengthy process of

implementing this very complex agreement. In any case, the

Democratic People's Republic of Korea's conventional forces will

remain deployed close to the Demilitarized Zone and poised to

attack with little warning. Until Pyongyang changes this

military posture significantly, South Korean and U.S. forces in

the Combined Forces Command will remain critical to the security

of the Republic of Korea.

To many observers, in and out of the region, the present

benign conditions in East Asia may be short-lived. They see

challenges to stability in the future aspirations of China and

Japan, and the possible disengagement of the United States.

China, which has border disputes with most of its neighbors and

asserts sovereignty over all of the South China Sea, has

increased the tempo of its military modernization program and

adopted an offensively oriented military doctrine. There is also

the potential for instability because of pressures for

decentralization in the economy and confusion over who will

control the nation in the post-Deng era. This internal

uncertainty is in part responsible for Beijing's failure to

enforce intellectual property rights for both American and

Chinese writers and artists.
25

Because of the unique ties between the United States and

Taiwan established by the Taiwan Relations Act, Washington is

committed to the security of the island while it also recognizes

Beijing as the only government of China. On Taiwan, sentiment

for abandoning the claim that this island nation is the Republic

of China and recasting the nation as the Republic of Taiwan is

growing. This movement, although still a minority view on the

island, is vigorously opposed across the straits in Beijing,

where military force to prevent the creation of such a republic

has not been ruled out.

Japan also continues to modernize its military, although

more slowly than in the 1980s and early 1990s. A Japan more

actively engaged in foreign policy is still of greater concern

throughout the region than is a militarily reinvigorated Japan.

If the United States is perceived throughout the region as

being economically and militarily engaged, the prospects for

stability will be enhanced. Most nations in the region view the

U.S. presence as an essential element of regional security. 

The perception is that future potential instability is

rooted in the absence of effective regional and subregional

multilateral security structures, except for limited arrangements

in Southeast Asia. ASEAN, which has long provided a venue for

security consultation, was expanded in 1994 with the founding of

the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). Although ARF encompasses the

entire region, new operational organizations which can go beyond

providing a forum for discussions have yet to appear.

Although the Communist Party remains entrenched in Vietnam,

the country is retreating from a centrally controlled economy as

it actively seeks foreign investments and wider diplomatic

contacts. On February 8, low-level liaison offices were opened

in Washington and Hanoi as the two countries continue to move

toward full diplomatic relations. Animosities between Vietnam

and China, Cambodia, and Thailand continue and while they persist

the possibility for regional instability exists. On the other

hand, Vietnam, actively and peacefully participating in regional

and international economic and diplomatic intercourse, can be a

contributor to Southeast Asian prosperity as well as an active

market for U.S. goods and capital.
26

South Asia. While Indian and Pakistani governments have

instituted reforms which have expanded their economies, South

Asia still lags behind East Asia economically. Natural disasters

plague the region. High rates of population growth strain

underdeveloped resources.

South Asia remains a relatively low priority region for the

United States, although the Clinton administration has focused

considerable attention on the issue of nuclear proliferation. 

India and Pakistan have both rejected U.S. proposals, but the

dialogue continues.

Trends and Issues.

• For the remainder of the decade and beyond, opportunities

for trade and investment in Asia will expand. The United

States will remain very much a Pacific as well as Atlantic

nation.

• HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is spreading throughout

Asia, especially in Thailand and India. The beginnings of a

catastrophe with profound human as well as strategic

implications are already apparent.

• Most East and South Asian nations are joining Japan and

China in modernizing their armed forces.

• As economic and military self-confidence builds among the

Asian states, they increasingly will resist direct U.S.

initiatives on human rights and democracy. Pointing to

American social problems, many Asian leaders, notably from

Malaysia as well as China, contend that their cultural and

political values are superior to those of the West.

• If the U.S.-DPRK Framework Agreement is successfully

implemented, the fundamental assumptions originally

underlying the U.S.-ROK Mutual Security Treaty will no

longer be valid.

• Even as Taiwanese businessmen increase their investments

in China, Taipei has provoked a confrontation with Beijing

by aggressively pursuing more extensive international

contacts and by trying to enhance the international stature

of the Taiwan government. Tensions between China and Taiwan

will increase in 1995, but so will trade and economic

contacts.

• Relations between the United States and Vietnam will move

forward over the next year. Although the Communists remain

entrenched in power in Hanoi, the Vietnamese will continue

to seek broader economic and diplomatic contact both within
27

the region and with the West.
28

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

STEPHEN J. BLANK, Associate Research Professor of Russian/East

European Affairs at the Strategic Studies Institute, earned his

M.A. and Ph.D. in Russian history at the University of Chicago. 

He has published numerous articles on the Soviet military and

Russian foreign policy and is the author of a recent study of the

Soviet Commissariat of Nationalities and editor of a book on the

future of the Soviet military. His most recent study is Russia's

Invasion of Chechnya: A Preliminary Assessment.

WILLIAM T. JOHNSEN, Associate Research Professor of National

Security Affairs at the Strategic Studies Institute, earned his

M.A. and Ph.D. in military history at Duke University. He is a

graduate of the United States Military Academy and served in the

25th and 7th Infantry Divisions. In 1994, Dr. Johnsen was named

to the Elihu Root Chair of Military Studies at the Army War

College.

STEVEN METZ is an Associate Research Professor of National

Security Affairs at the Strategic Studies Institute. He earned

his B.A. and M.A. in international studies at the University of

South Carolina and his Ph.D. in political science at the Johns

Hopkins University. His SSI studies, Intervention in Sub-Saharan

Africa: Learning from Rwanda and Counterinsurgency: Strategy and

the Phoenix of American Capability are indicative of his broad

range of expertise and interests.

STEPHEN C. PELLETIERE, Research Professor of National Security

Affairs, earned his Ph.D. in political science at the University

of California, Berkeley. His latest SSI study is Hamas and

Hizbollah: The Radical Challenge to Israel in the Occupied

Territories. He is the author of two books on the Middle East:

The Kurds--An Unstable Element in the Gulf, and The Iran-Iraq

War--Chaos in a Vacuum. He is completing a book on the war in

Kuwait.

DONALD E. SCHULZ, Associate Research Professor of National

Security Policy, earned his Ph.D. in political science at Ohio

State University. Dr. Schulz is the author of numerous articles

on Latin America and his SSI study, Reconciling the

Irreconcilable: The Troubled Outlook for U.S. Policy Toward Haiti

was noted in major newspapers in the United States and abroad. 
29

The United States, Honduras, and the Crisis in Central America

(coauthored with Deborah Sundloff Schulz) was published by

Westview Press in 1994.

EARL H. TILFORD, JR., Senior Research Professor and Director of

Research at the Strategic Studies Institute, earned his B.A. and

M.A. in history at the University of Alabama and his Ph.D. in

American and European military history at George Washington

University. He is the author of numerous articles and three

books on military and air power history. His 1993 book,

Crosswinds: The Air Force's Setup in Vietnam was published by

Texas A&M University Press. This year Praeger Press will publish

Eagle in the Desert: Looking Back on the United States

Involvement in the Persian Gulf War, a book he coedited with Air

Force historian Dr. William P. Head.

THOMAS L. WILBORN is a Research Professor of National Security

Affairs and Asian specialist at the Strategic Studies Institute.

 He earned his Ph.D. in political science at the University of

Kentucky and has taught international relations and political

science at James Madison University and Central Missouri

University. Dr. Wilborn joined the Institute in 1975 and has

written or coauthored numerous SSI studies, his most recent being

Security Cooperation With China: Analysis and a Proposal.

THOMAS-DURELL YOUNG, Research Professor of National Security

Affairs, came to the Strategic Studies Institute in 1988 and was

appointed to the Army War College's Henry L. Stimson Chair in

1992. He earned his Ph.D. from the Graduate Institute of

International Studies, University of Geneva, Switzerland and is a

graduate of the U.S. Army War College. Dr. Young is Executive

Committee Chairman of the Central Region Chiefs of Army Staff

Talks' Working Group on Command Authorities Required by a

Multinational Force Commander.
U.S. ARMY WAR COLLEGE

Major General Richard A. Chilcoat

Commandant

*****

STRATEGIC STUDIES INSTITUTE

Acting Director

Colonel William W. Allen

Director of Research

Dr. Earl H. Tilford, Jr.

Institute Editor

Mrs. Marianne P. Cowling

Secretary

Ms. Rita A. Rummel

*****

Composition

Cover Artist

Mr. James E. Kistler