44

these severely burned areas become dominated

by annual grasses (Svejcar 1999, Tausch 1999a).

They are then susceptible to frequent reburning,

which further inhibits the establishment of many

native perennial species on the site.

Reduction of juniper overstory has been effectively achieved through wood cutting (Bates et al.

1998, 2000) or other mechanical methods (Evans

1988) that may significantly reduce restoration

costs. These methods have been shown to restore understory productivity and diversity (Bates

et al. 2000). Mechanical reduction of juniper also

may be necessary to provide increased herbaceous production to increase fine fuel loading on

the site.

Past seeding efforts after removal of juniper by

fire or mechanical methods have focused on introduced species (Richards et al. 1998). Recently,

more emphasis has been placed on native species, but little data exist on the establishment

of native species in this ecosystem, particularly

perennial forbs. The need for postfire seeding

needs to be evaluated carefully. Many indigenous

species are well adapted to fire, and seeding may

be unnecessary to restore plant coverage and

counterproductive in terms of reducing erosion

potential (Ratzlaff and Anderson 1995).

A change in fire regime was considered the

most common cause of alteration within this

PVT (table 6). The overall feasibility of restoration of slightly altered sites is high by using prescribed fire when the encroachment of juniper is

in its early stages of development. Most of the

typical sagebrush steppe species usually remain

in the community, and these reestablish rapidly

after fire. Periodic reburning of these sites will be

required after restoration in order to limit juniper

recruitment. Overall feasibility declines as the

woodland develops because the overstory influence on the understory species results in longer

time for response and higher cost of treatment.

Mechanical or other treatments that reduce the

older juniper may be required. There also was

some discussion of the feasibility of chemical

treatments for the control of juniper; however, the

broad-scale use of chemicals on public lands for

this purpose is generally unacceptable and not a

realistic alternative. Those sites where advanced

woodland development has resulted in soil loss

may not be feasible to restore. In some areas,

invasive annual grasses also have encroached

into the vegetation, and these may dominate the

site after fire. This often initiates a frequent wildfire cycle that limits recruitment of native species

onto the site. When this situation occurs, the feasibility of restoration is reduced by (1) the added

expense of fire control and seeding of native species, (2) increased time of response, and (3) increased uncertainty of treatments.

The second most common cause of alteration of

this PVT was thought to be past livestock grazing

(table 6). Restoration of slightly to moderately

altered sites is highly feasible through changes

in the livestock grazing regime. Restoration of

severely altered sites is less feasible because of

the need for seeding natives into the community.

Seeding increases cost, time of response, and

uncertainty of success. Information on establishment of the common native grasses and shrubs

is available, but little is known about the establishment of many perennial forbs.

Wheatgrass Grassland PVT

The composition of large portions of the wheatgrass grassland PVT was severely altered

by livestock grazing in the early 20th century

(Daubenmire 1975b, Tisdale 1986). Bluebunch

wheatgrass was susceptible to heavy grazing

use (Tisdale 1961), particularly in the late spring

and early summer (McLean and Wikeem 1985,

Mueggler 1975, Pitt 1986). The dominant grasses

have largely been replaced by invasive annual

species and rubber rabbitbrush on much of the

area of this PVT (Daubenmire 1975b). Initially,

cheatgrass became dominant but was displaced

by other invasive species such as St. Johnswort

(Tisdale 1976) and medusahead (Dahl and Tisdale

1975) later in the century. Successful biological

control of St. Johnswort did not result in an increase of perennial species but rather a return

to annual grass dominance (Tisdale 1976). More

recently, invasive species such as yellow starthistle also have partially been reduced by

biological control agents (Fornasari et al. 1991,
45

Maddox et al. 1991, Shishkoff and Bruckart

1996) but continue to invade additional areas.

Prescribed burning has been successfully used to

reduce yellow starthistle density and seed banks

(DiTomaso et al. 1999). However, the reduction

of yellow starthistle results only in an increase of

annual grasses or other invasive species unless a

native component is present prior to control. In

addition, reduction or complete removal of livestock grazing has not been effective in restoring

perennial herbaceous species on severely altered

sites in this PVT (Daubenmire 1975b). Sand

dropseed is perhaps one of the few native species

capable of establishing, when a seed source is

available, in the presence of cheatgrass competition (Daubenmire 1975b). Clearly, more active

measures including competition control and seeding will be required for restoration.

The wheatgrass grassland PVT was subject to

periodic fires during the pre-Euro-American

period. Aboriginal people used fire extensively to

manipulate vegetation and for other purposes in

the basin (Barrett and Arno 1982, Gruell 1985,

Shinn 1980). Tisdale (1986) and Horton (1972)

both concluded that the occurrence of fire was

not particularly ecologically important in these

grasslands, in spite of being important to the surrounding forest and shrub-dominated vegetation

structure. In the absence of the invasive species

present today, most plant species, which are relatively fire tolerant (Johnson 1987, Tisdale 1986),

recover rapidly after fire. Daubenmire (1975b)

found that fire initially decreased bluebunch

wheatgrass and resulted in greater Sandberg

bluegrass density. The site had recovered to

unburned composition by year 12. Although

cheatgrass and other annual grasses were

present, they did not dominate the site postburn

(Daubenmire 1975b). Since the dominance by

annual grasses, fires probably occur more frequently and the perennial herbaceous species

recover more slowly, particularly with respect

to postburn recruitment.

Past seeding efforts in this PVT have focused on

soil stabilization, invasive species control, and

forage production and have primarily used introduced perennial grasses such as intermediate,

pubescent, and crested wheatgrass. “Secar”

wheatgrass, a cultivar of Snake River wheatgrass2 that is native to this PVT, is commercially

available and is now used extensively in seeding

programs (Ganskopp et al. 1997, Jones and

Neilson 1993). Insufficient moisture and severe

competition are the most limiting factors in the

establishment of native grasses (Daubenmire

1968, Miller et al. 1986). Many active restoration

methods are severely limited by the steep slopes

and rocky soils associated with the PVT. Little

information is available on the restoration of the

wheatgrass grassland PVT.

As this PVT becomes more altered, invasive

species become more prevalent, at which time it

becomes far more difficult to maintain or restore

perennial native forbs and grasses. Of the PVTs

discussed, the wheatgrass grassland is perhaps

the least understood as to restoration of altered

sites. This is evidenced by the scarcity of supporting references and other information about techniques and feasibility of restoring altered sites.

Potential for Increasing Greater

Sage Grouse Populations

The greater sage grouse is a species of large

landscapes. It uses the leaves of sagebrush for

food during winter, the combined cover of shrubs

and residual grasses and forbs during the spring

nesting season, and a diverse assemblage of forbs

and insects during the summer brood-rearing

season (Schroeder et al. 1999). Because these

habitat attributes differ in quantity, quality, and

condition depending on PVT, greater sage grouse

may move large distances or elevation gradients

to reach acceptable nesting, brood rearing, or

foraging habitat. Hence, although sage grouse

were historically distributed throughout most of

the basin, evidence indicates that their densities

differed by season and PVT. This natural variation has been exaggerated by long-term habitat

2 Snake River wheatgrass (Elymus wawaiensis Carlson

and Barkworth) has been taxonomically separated from

bluebunch wheatgrass (Carlson and Barkworth 1997) but

is not currently included in the USDA NRCS (2001) plant

database.
46

loss and degradation (Beck and Mitchell 2000,

Connelly et al. 2000). Changes in habitat quantity,

quality, and configuration have been dramatic and

have resulted in widespread declines in the distribution and abundance of greater sage grouse

(Braun 1998, Connelly and Braun 1997).

The PVTs with the strongest potential to support

greater sage grouse during all or a portion of their

life cycle include (1) Wyoming big sagebrush–

warm, (2) Wyoming big sagebrush–cool, (3) basin

big sagebrush, (4) threetip sagebrush , (5) low

sagebrush–mesic, (6) mountain big sagebrush–

mesic east, (7) mountain big sagebrush–mesic

east with conifers, (8) mountain big sagebrush–

mesic west, and (9) mountain big sagebrush–

mesic west with juniper. These PVTs compose

about 75 percent of the potential rangeland vegetation in the basin (21.69 million ha). Other PVTs

in the basin may be used by greater sage grouse,

depending on their quality, configuration, and

proximity to the primary habitats. For example,

the wheatgrass grassland PVT is normally not

considered to be greater sage grouse habitat.

However, if wheatgrass grassland is adjacent to

the mountain big sagebrush–mesic west PVT, it

will probably be used.

Of the nine PVTs listed as primary greater sage

grouse habitat, only four were selected for specific evaluation by the workshop participants. Salt

desert shrub and wheatgrass grassland were

evaluated but were not considered primary sage

grouse habitat (table 6). Wyoming big sagebrush–

cool, threetip sagebrush, and low sagebrush–

mesic do not provide substantial greater sage

grouse habitat in the basin, but are important

elsewhere. The four PVTs discussed in detail

contribute approximately 59 percent of the potential rangeland habitat in the basin (12.83 million

ha). They also illustrate the dramatic variation

in seasonal suitability for greater sage grouse,

habitat condition, and potential for protection and

restoration.

Greater sage grouse use the lower elevation

sagebrush-dominated habitats (represented by

Wyoming big sagebrush–warm and basin big

sagebrush) more during winter. This pattern of

use occurs because greater sage grouse depend

on sagebrush leaves and buds as a winter food

source (Remington and Braun 1985, Welch et al.

1991) and because some of the higher elevation

habitats are covered by snow during winter

(Hupp and Braun 1989). Because the Wyoming

big sagebrush–warm and basin big sagebrush

PVTs have been affected by dramatic levels of

habitat conversion and degradation (table 5),

there is substantially less habitat area when compared with historical levels. The enormous overall

area of these habitats (10.32 million ha) and the

high level of habitat alteration indicate that restoration likely will be difficult.

Historical evidence indicates that greater sage

grouse used all big sagebrush-dominated habitats

heavily during both the nesting and brood-rearing

seasons. Greater sage grouse appear to prefer

sagebrush habitats with a substantial herbaceous

component (Apa 1998, Fischer 1994, Sveum et al.

1998). This characteristic can be found to varying

degrees in Wyoming big sagebrush–warm, basin

big sagebrush, mountain big sagebrush–mesic

west, and mountain big sagebrush–mesic with

juniper. These big sagebrush-dominated PVTs

differ in their likelihood of conversion to unsuitable habitat conditions and resilience to long-term

degradation (table 2). Although populations of

greater sage grouse appear to have declined in

every PVT throughout the species range, declines

appear to be smallest in the mountain big sagebrush–mesic west PVT, which has been altered

less than the other potential habitats. Wisdom

et al. (in press b) predicted that the highest probability of local extirpation of greater sage grouse

was associated with highly altered landscapes.

The mountain big sagebrush–mesic west PVTs

(1.21 million ha combined) offer a high probability

of restoration success, primarily owing to the

low level of conversion and the continued presence of native grasses and forbs (table 8). Because these habitats are important to greater

sage grouse, their protection or restoration offer

distinct opportunities to enhance and protect current populations. The protection and restoration

of mountain big sagebrush–mesic west PVTs,

however, may not be enough to ensure the longterm viability of greater sage grouse populations.
47

This lack of certainty is because of the patchiness

and island-like nature of these relatively highelevation habitats. These patches are connected

by relatively large regions of the lower elevation

Wyoming big sagebrush–warm PVT. Suitability

of greater sage grouse habitat in this low-elevation PVT has declined owing to reduction in both

sagebrush and herbaceous cover. This decline in

habitat quality is the clearest explanation for the

historical declines in greater sage grouse populations in North America (Braun 1998). However,

the high degree of alteration in the Wyoming big

sagebrush-warm PVT (table 2) suggests that it

will be more difficult to restore (table 5). Nevertheless, its restoration may be the best way to

realistically ensure the viability of greater sage

grouse in the region (Hemstrom et al., in press;

Wisdom et al., in press).

Although the workshop participants only evaluated six PVTs (table 9), the same considerations

can be applied to all PVTs in the basin. The habitats that currently support the largest populations

of greater sage grouse tend to be relatively intact,

high-elevation sites. Although these habitats have

the highest potential for protection or restoration,

their island-like nature is a long-term problem for

viability of greater sage grouse populations. Research on population viability suggests that sage

grouse populations existing in “islands” of habitat

may not be viable (Schroeder 2000). Consequently, the relatively expansive, low-elevation PVTs

may be particularly important for providing a habitat connection between the smaller, high-elevation PVTs.

Management recommendations in these PVTs

are varied, because of the extreme range in problems. For example, areas that have been converted for the production of crops usually are on

private land and are considered too expensive to

restore. Nevertheless, the croplands within the

basin are characterized by relatively low elevation

and deep soil and, hence, they have potential to

support certain types of habitats that may not be

supportable in the high elevations and shallow

soils. The high potential of these converted areas

has been illustrated by the Conservation Reserve

Program (CRP), which has resulted in the ”setting-aside” of vast tracts of cropland in perennial

grasses, forbs, and shrubs resulting in benefits to

the greater sage grouse in some areas (Schroeder

Table 9— Historical and current use by greater sage grouse of several potential vegetation types

within the interior Columbia basin

Potential

to improve

population

Potential vegetation Brood- Brood- outcomes with

 type Nesting rearing Winter Nesting rearing Winter management

Salt desert shrub Low Low Low Low Low Low Low

Wyoming big sagebrush– High High High Mod. Mod. Mod. High

 warm

Basin big sagebrush High High High Low Low Mod. Moderate

Mountain big sagebrush– High High Mod. High High Mod. Moderate

 mesic west

Mountain big sagebrush– High High Mod. Low Low Low High

 mesic with juniper

Wheatland grassland Low Low Absent Low Low Absent Low

a The descriptions in bold type represent declines in relative usage between historical and current periods.

Historical seasonal use Current seasonal usea
48

et al. 2000). In addition, the low-elevation sites

offer opportunities to connect the relatively intact,

but isolated, high-elevation sites.

Altered areas of habitat within the PVTs differ in

resiliency and in opportunities for restoration. The

relatively high-elevation sites have tended to

maintain an intact composition of native species,

particularly grasses and forbs. Nevertheless,

many sites have been affected by overgrazing

and fire management strategies that have increased the relative density of shrubs or invading

conifers. Strategies that reduce conifers, create

a mosaic of different shrub successional stages,

and increase herbaceous cover are recommended. In some areas, these habitats need to be

protected rather than restored. Although the intact areas of habitat at lower elevations have

been affected by the same problems (Beck and

Mitchell 2000), lower precipitation and expansion

of invasive species have dramatically complicated

the restoration process. Invasive species have

altered the fire frequency and reduced the opportunities for reestablishment of native forbs and

grasses. In many cases, treatment of invasive

species may result in the simultaneous reduction

of native species. Although these areas present

a difficult restoration challenge, their immense

area indicates that their restoration may offer the

greatest potential for the improvement of greater

sage grouse populations.

Potential for Increasing

Columbian Sharp-Tailed

Grouse Populations

The Columbian sharp-tailed grouse needs a close

configuration of both high-quality and diverse

PVTs. It requires the buds of deciduous shrubs

and trees during winter, the combined cover of

shrubs and residual grasses and forbs during the

spring nesting season, and a diverse assemblage

of forbs and insects during the summer broodrearing season (Giesen and Connelly 1993).

Although sharp-tailed grouse were historically

distributed throughout much of the basin, evidence indicates that their densities varied dramatically by season and PVT. Because of changes in

habitat quantity, quality, and configuration, there

have been widespread declines in the distribution

and abundance of Columbian sharp-tailed grouse

(Connelly et al. 1998).

The PVTs with the strongest potential to support

Columbian sharp-tailed grouse during all or a

portion of their life cycle include (1) Wyoming big

sagebrush–cool, (2) threetip sagebrush, (3) mountain big sagebrush–mesic east, (4) mountain big

sagebrush–mesic east with conifers, (5) mountain

big sagebrush–mesic west, (6) mountain big sagebrush–mesic west with juniper, (7) wheatgrass

grassland, (8) mountain shrub, (9) fescue grassland, and (10) fescue grassland with conifers.

These PVTs make up approximately 50 percent

of the potential rangeland vegetation in the basin

(14.42 million ha).

Of the 10 PVTs listed as primary sharp-tailed

grouse habitat, 3 were specifically evaluated by

the workshop participants. These included mountain big sagebrush–mesic west (two types) and

wheatgrass grassland (table 10). Although these

three PVTs compose only 11 percent of the potential rangeland habitat in the basin (3.16 million

ha), they illustrate the dramatic declines in overall

habitat quality. Because these three PVTs are

used by Columbian sharp-tailed grouse primarily

during the nesting and brood-rearing seasons,

the quantity and quality of herbaceous cover are

extremely important. In the mountain big sagebrush–mesic PVTs, increases in shrub and juniper

cover often have come at the expense of decreases in grass and forb cover. In the wheatgrass grassland PVT, many areas have been

converted to croplands.

All of the declines in herbaceous cover have been

exacerbated by the declining quantity and quality

of critical areas of winter habitat. Columbian

sharp-tailed grouse are dependent on the buds,

catkins, and fruits of deciduous trees and shrubs,

particularly when the ground is covered by snow

(Giesen and Connelly 1993). These required

PVTs include (1) mountain big sagebrush–mesic

east with conifers, (2) mountain big sagebrush–

mesic west with juniper, (3) mountain shrub, and

(4) fescue grassland with conifers. Although all

four of these PVTs have potential to support
49

many species of trees and shrubs, the necessary

winter habitat is often in relatively small and isolated areas.

Because of the required configuration of diverse

and high-quality habitat types, the overall distribution of sharp-tailed grouse has been dramatically

influenced by relatively small changes in land use.

Almost all populations of Columbian sharp-tailed

grouse in unconverted portions of the basin have

been extirpated. The remaining populations are

largely restricted to regions dominated by cropland of which substantial portions have been

enrolled in the federal CRP. The CRP habitats

that support sharp-tailed grouse tend to be dominated by substantial stands of perennial grasses

and forbs, usually near potential winter habitat

(Connelly et al. 1998).

The expansion of sharp-tailed grouse in areas

dominated by CRP and their declines in areas of

native rangeland help illustrate the dramatic declines in herbaceous vegetation associated with

native habitat. Consequently, restoration efforts

should be focused in areas where there is a high

probability of increasing herbaceous cover, such

as in the Wyoming big sagebrush–cool, threetip

sagebrush, mountain big sagebrush–mesic (four

types), wheatgrass grassland, mountain shrub,

and fescue grassland (two types) (table 8). As

with greater sage grouse, management efforts

should consider all available options, including

changes in livestock management, control of invasive species, and alteration of fire frequency. In

addition, efforts should be strongest where these

potential habitats are relatively close (within 20

km) to existing populations of sharp-tailed grouse.

This region of focus should include eastern and

south-central Idaho (Connelly et al. 1998).

Conclusion

Altered ecosystems were considered to be those

where human-induced or natural disturbances

are of sufficient magnitude to change ecosystem

processes. Long-term loss of or displacement of

native community types and reduction of productive potential makes it difficult or impossible to

restore these ecosystems to historical conditions.

The most common factors that have affected the

PVTs found in the basin include livestock grazing,

invasive species, and changes in fire regime. In

most instances, fire is less common now than

Table 10—Historical and current use by Columbian sharp-tailed grouse of several potential

vegetation types within the interior Columbia basin

Potential

to improve

population

Potential vegetation Brood- Brood- outcomes with

 type Nesting rearing Winter Nesting rearing Winter management

Salt desert shrub Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent Absent

Wyoming big sagebrush– Mod. Mod. Low Low Low Low Low

 warm

Basin big sagebrush Mod. Mod. Low Low Low Low Low

Mountain big sagebrush– High High Mod. Low Low Low Moderate

 mesic west

Mountain big sagebrush– High High Mod. Low Low Low Moderate

 mesic with juniper

Wheatland grassland High High Low Low Low Low Moderate

a The descriptions in bold type represent declines in relative usage between historical and current periods.

Historical seasonal use Current seasonal usea
50

during the historical period. However, in some

PVTs, such as the Wyoming big sagebrush–

warm, and the basin big sagebrush, fire may be

more common than under historical conditions.

Agricultural development has been an important

factor on private lands, and in some cases, these

influences have spread to adjacent BLM- and

FS-managed lands.

Options exist to restore some altered rangeland

ecosystems by restoring native plant communities,

stabilizing ecosystem processes, reducing the

spread of invasive species, or conserving existing

biota. In some altered conditions, these options

have a relatively high probability of success over

the short term with low to moderate cost at the

site scale. However, in other altered conditions,

restoration options are expensive, have a low

probability of success, and require a long time.

Many altered ecosystems may be restorable, but

success of these efforts is variable and untested

for many restoration methods. Failure to restore

the PVTs most altered will affect the future stability of these areas. This is particularly the case

for those altered by invasive species, such as

cheatgrass and yellow starthistle, or where fire

occurrence is more frequent than the historical

conditions, as in the Wyoming big sagebrush–

warm PVT.

The PVTs differed considerably in the extent to

which vegetation composition had changed. The

feasibility of restoration of the six most severely

altered PVTs in the basin was discussed by the

workshop participants from four perspectives

(table 9). The overall feasibility of restoration of

the mountain big sagebrush–mesic west was

high. Restoration could primarily be accomplished

through changes in the management of fire and

livestock grazing. Potential recruitment of native

species was high where seed sources were

present and alteration by invasive species was

low. These management changes could be enacted relatively inexpensively, and the vegetation

would respond rapidly to the changes. Restoration

of salt desert shrub and wheatgrass grassland

PVTs were thought to be the least feasible.

Restoration of these PVTs often would require

control of invasive species and seeding of native

species. In addition, soil and topographic conditions limit many types of restoration practices.

Recruitment rates of native species are low

owing to severe environmental conditions such

as low rainfall. Consequently, restoration would

take a long time. Altered portions of the salt

desert shrub often are dominated by annual

grasses that greatly increase wildfire occurrence.

Wildfires need to be suppressed for many years

to enable recruitment of the native shrubs in this

PVT. Composition of the wheatgrass grassland

PVT has been significantly altered by invasive

annual grasses. Currently, invasions by yellow

starthistle, common crupina, and other species

continue, often displacing the invasive annual

grasses. Given the limitations of soil and topography, methods to successfully reestablish

perennial species are not tested, and restoration

may not be feasible at this time.

Restoration of those sites within the mountain big

sagebrush–mesic west with juniper that were in

the early stages of woodland development was

highly feasible. The response would be similar to

that of the mountain big sagebrush–mesic west.

However, restoration of those sites that had advanced through succession to later woodland

stages was less feasible. Juniper may have to be

removed by using methods other than fire, such

as cutting or other mechanical means. In many

cases, the shrub and herbaceous species have

been severely reduced on these sites. Shrubs and

native perennial grasses have been successfully

established on these sites through seeding, but

little is known about the establishment of many

of the native forbs associated with this PVT.

The Wyoming big sagebrush–warm PVT is the

most abundant rangeland PVT in the basin (table

2), and restoration feasibility is reduced by the

immense area involved. Much of the area has

been altered by past livestock grazing practices

and invasive species. Altered sites in the Wyoming big sagebrush–warm and the basin big

sagebrush PVTs have a moderate restoration

feasibility because of the presence of invasive

species and subsequent reduction of recruitment

of species native to these PVTs. Many areas are

also subject to frequent wildfire that prevents
51

sagebrush recruitment. Severely altered sites

require seeding of native species. Availability of

seed sources is limited, and the establishment

requirements for seedlings for many of these

species is not well understood.

Greater sage grouse and Columbian sharp-tailed

grouse are extremely important species within the

basin because of their widespread historical distribution, declining status, and potential use of most

of the rangeland PVTs. Sage grouse densities

vary by season and PVT because of seasonal

movements and their dependence on sagebrush

leaves during winter, shrub and herbaceous cover

during spring, and forbs during summer. This natural variation has been exaggerated by differences in quantity, quality, and configuration of the

PVTs. Of the six PVTs evaluated by workshop

participants, only Wyoming big sagebrush–warm,

basin big sagebrush, mountain big sagebrush–

mesic west, and mountain big sagebrush–mesic

west with juniper were considered to be primary

habitats for greater sage grouse. The mountain

big sagebrush PVTs were believed to be relatively intact, thus offering the best opportunities for

restoration. These PVTs, however, tend to be

relatively high-elevation sites that are somewhat

isolated by vast areas of alternate habitats less

suitable for sage grouse. The Wyoming and basin

big sagebrush PVTs were believed to offer the

greatest restoration challenge because of their

dramatically altered characteristics. Nevertheless,

their restoration may be the best way to realistically ensure the viability of greater sage grouse in

the region because of their immense size and

because they provide connections between the

smaller and more isolated PVTs. It is clear from

this workshop that habitat management and restoration for greater sage grouse will require planning and action over a vast landscape.

Similar to greater sage grouse use, use by Columbian sharp-tailed grouse also varies by season

and PVT. Sharp-tailed grouse tend to depend on

herbaceous cover during spring, forbs during

summer, and deciduous shrubs and trees during

winter. Of the six PVTs evaluated by workshop

participants, only mountain big sagebrush–mesic

west, mountain big sagebrush–mesic west with

juniper, and wheatgrass grassland are likely to be

primary habitats for sharp-tailed grouse. Although

other PVTs also can be used by sharp-tailed

grouse, their usage often is dependent on their

proximity to a primary PVT. The mountain big

sagebrush PVTs appear to be relatively intact,

thus offering excellent opportunities for restoration. In contrast, the wheatgrass grassland has

largely been eliminated by conversion to cropland.

Among all 17 PVTs in the basin, the relatively

high-elevation rangeland PVTs appear to be the

most important for sharp-tailed grouse. These

include Wyoming big sagebrush–cool, threetip

sagebrush, mountain big sagebrush (four types),

wheatgrass grassland, mountain shrub, and fescue grassland (two types). Because many of

these habitats are small, isolated, and long distances from existing populations of sharp-tailed

grouse, it is likely that restoration should be focused in specific areas where there are opportunities to expand or connect existing populations.

As with greater sage grouse, management and

restoration of Columbian sharp-tailed grouse will

require planning and action over a vast landscape.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge the August 2000

rangeland workshop participants (See app. 1) for

their contribution to this manuscript. The workshop was attended by individuals affiliated with

federal, state, and private organizations from

throughout the basin representing various disciplines related to plant and animal ecology. They

had expertise in both research and land management on the various ecosystems found within the

basin. This manuscript is the result of summarizing the collective assessment from those individuals attending the workshop.

We thank Thomas Quigley for his vision of a

workshop to address the issue of altered rangelands within the Columbia basin and for his support in preparing this manuscript. We specifically

thank Russell Graham, Sherm Karl, Kendall

Johnson, Robin Tausch, Mike Wisdom, James

Peek, and Peggy Kingery for their helpful comments on the manuscript.
52

English Equivalents

When you know: Multiply by: To find:

Centimeters (cm) 0.39 Inches

Meters (m) 3.28 Feet

Kilometers (km) 0.62 Miles

Square kilometers (km2) 0.39 Square miles

Hectares (ha) 2.47 Acres

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Appendix 1—Rangeland workshop participants

Affiliation Name Location

Federal agencies

USDA Forest Service

PNW Research Station–ICBEMP Miles Hemstrom Portland, OR

PNW Research Station–ICBEMP Tom Quigley La Grande, OR

PNW Research Station–ICBEMP Mike Wisdom La Grande, OR

Region 4–ICBEMP Hal Gibbs Boise, ID

Region 6 Lisa Croft Portland, OR

Region 6 Jeff Walter Portland, OR

Rocky Mountain Research Station Steve Monsen Provo, UT

Rocky Mountain Research Station Robin Tausch Reno, NV

Washington Office Larry Bryant Washington DC

Washington Office Wendel Hann Leadville, CO

Washington Office Richard Holthausen Flagstaff, AZ

USDI Bureau of Land Management

Burns District Office Jeff Rose Hines, OR

OR/WA State Office–ICBEMP Jodi Clifford Long Beach, CA

OR/WA State Office–ICBEMP Becky Gravenmier Portland, OR

OR/WA State Office–ICBEMP Goeff Middaugh Portland, OR

OR/WA State Office Judy Nelson Portland, OR

OR/WA State Office Hugh Barrett Portland, OR

OR/WA State Office–ICBEMP Mary Rowland La Grande, OR

Prineville District Office John Swanson Prineville, OR

Washington Office Mike “Sherm” Karl Washington, DC

USDI Geological Survey

Biological Resources Division Steve Knick Boise, ID

Biological Resources Division Dave Pyke Corvallis, OR

Biological Resources Division Erik Beever Corvallis, OR

State agency

Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife Mike Schroeder Bridgeport, WA

Universities

Oregon State University

Agricultural Science Department Marty Vavra Burns, OR

Department of Fisheries and Wildlife John Crawford Corvallis, OR

University of Idaho

Department of Rangeland Ecology and Management Steve Bunting Moscow, ID

Kendall Johnson Moscow, ID

Jim Kingery Moscow, ID

Washington State University

Department of Natural Resource Sciences Linda Hardesty Pullman, WA

Organizations

Point Reyes Bird Observatory Aaron Holmes Stinson Beach, CA

Other

Facilitator Susan Hayman Boise, ID
69

Appendix 2—Scientific and common names of vascular plants

referred to in the text

Common name(s) Scientific name and authority

Forbs

Arrowleaf balsamroot Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt.

Biscuitroot; desertparsley Lomatium Raf. spp.

Bolander’s yampah Perideridia bolanderi (Gray) A. Nels. & J.F. Macbr.

Common crupina Crupina vulgaris Cass.

Forage kochia Kochia prostrata (L.) Schrad.

Geranium Geranium L. spp.

Goatweed; St. John’s wort Hypericum perforatum L.

Halogeton; saltlover Halogeton glomeratus (Bieb.) C.A. Mey.

Hawksbeard Crepis L. spp.

Heartleaf arnica Arnica cordifolia Hook.

Knapweed Centaurea L. spp.

Leafy spurge Euphorbia esula L.

Lupine Lupinus L. spp.

Penstemon Penstemon Schmidel spp.

Rush skeletonweed; hogbite Chondrilla juncea L.

Senecio, ragwort Senecio L. spp.

Spotted knapweed Centaurea biebersteinii DC. spp.

Sticky purple geranium Geranium viscosissimum Fisch. & C.A. Mey. Ex C.A. Mey.

Tansymustard Descurainia Webb & Berth. spp.

Tumblemustard Sisymbrium altissimum L.

White knapweed; Centaurea diffusa Lam.

 diffuse knapweed

Wild buckwheat Eriogonum Michx. spp.

Yellow starthistle Centaurea solstitialis L.

Graminoids

Basin wildrye Leymus cinereus (Scribn. & Merr.) A. Löve

Bluebunch wheatgrass Pseudoroegneria spicata (Pursh) A. Löve

Bluegrama Bouteloua gracilis (Willd. ex Kunth) Lag. ex Griffiths

Bottlebrush squirreltail Elymus elymoides (Raf.) Swezey

Cheatgrass Bromus tectorum L.

Crested wheatgrass Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.

Hood’s sedge Carex hoodii Boott

Idaho fescue Festuca idahoensis Elmer
70

Common name(s) Scientific name and authority

Indian ricegrass Achnatherum hymenoides (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) Barkworth

Intermediate wheatgrass Thinopyrum intermedium (Host) Barkworth & D.R. Dewey

Japanese brome Bromus japonicus Thunb. ex Murr.

Medusahead Taeniatherum caput-medusae (L.) Nevski

Needle-and-thread Hesperostipa comata (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth

Onespike oatgrass Danthonia unispicata (Thurb.) Munro ex Macoun

Pinegrass Calamagrostis rubescens Buckl.

Prairie junegrass Koeleria macrantha (Ledeb.) J.A. Schultes

Pubescent wheatgrass Agropyron spicatum (Pursch) Scribn & J.G. Sm. var. pubescens Elmer

Rough fescue Festuca campestris Rydb.

Sand dropseed Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray

Sandberg bluegrass Poa secunda J. Presl.

Sixweeks fescue Vulpia octoflora (Walt.) Rydb.

Snake River wheatgrass Elymus wawaiensis J. Carlson & Barkworth1

Thurber’s needlegrass Achnatherum thurberianum (Piper) Barkworth

Western needlegrass Achnatherum occidentale (Thurb. ex S. Wats.) Barkworth

Western wheatgrass. Pascopyrum smithii (Rydb.) A. Löve

Wheatgrasses Agropyron Gaertn. spp.

Shrubs and trees

Antelope bitterbrush Purshia tridentata (Pursh) DC.

Basin big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata Nutt. ssp. tridentata

Bitter cherry Prunus emarginata (Dougl. ex Hook.) D. Dietr.

Black greasewood Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook.) Torr.

Black sagebrush Artemisia nova A. Nels.

Budsage Artemisia spinescens D.C. Eat.

Curlleaf mountain-mahogany Cercocarpus ledifolius Nutt.

Common chokecherry Prunus virginiana L.

Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco

Foothills sagebrush Artemisia tridentata Nutt. ssp. xericensis Winward ex R.

 Rosentreter & R. Kelsey

Fourwing saltbush Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.

Gardner’s saltbush Atriplex gardneri (Moq.) D. Dietr.

Little sagebrush Artemisia arbuscula Nutt. ssp. longiloba (Osterhout) L. Shultz

Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.

Low sagebrush Artemisia arbuscula Nutt.

Mallow ninebark Physocarpus malvaceus (Greene) Kuntze

Mountain big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata Nutt. ssp. vaseyana (Rydb.) Beetle

Mountain snowberry Symphoricarpos oreophilus Gray

Quaking aspen Populus tremuloides Michx.
71

Common name(s) Scientific name and authority

Rabbitbrush, goldenbush Ericameria Nutt.

Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum Sarg.

Rubber rabbitbrush Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) Nesom & Baird

Saskatoon serviceberry Amelanchier alnifolia (Nutt.) Nutt. ex M. Roemer

Shadscale Atriplex confertifolia (Torr. & Frém.) S. Wats.

Shinyleaf ceanothus; Ceanothus velutinus Dougl. ex Hook.

 snowbrush ceanothus

Sickle saltbush Atriplex falcata (M.E. Jones) Standl.

Singleleaf pinyon Pinus monophylla Torr. & Frém.

Snowberry Symphoricarpos Duham. spp.

Spiny hopsage Atriplex spinosa (Hook.) Moq.

Stiff sagebrush; Artemisia rigida (Nutt.) Gray

 scabland sagebrush

Subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.

Threetip sagebrush Artemisia tripartita Rydb.

Utah juniper Juniperus osteosperma (Torr.) Little

Utah serviceberry Amelanchier utahensis Koehne

Utah snowberry Symphoricarpos oreophilus Gray var. utahensis (Rydb.) A. Nels.

Western juniper Juniperus occidentalis Hook.

Western snowberry Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook.

Winterfat Krascheninnikovia lanata (Pursh) A.D.J. Meeuse & Smit

Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata Nutt. ssp. wyomingensis Beetle & Young

Yellow rabbitbrush Ericameria viscidiflora (Hook.) L.C. Anders.

1 Currently not included in The PLANTS Database.

Source: USDA NRCS 2001.
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