United States Department of Agriculture 

Diet Quality of American Young Children 

by WIC Participation Status: 

Data from the National Health and 

Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2008 

Nutrition Assistance Program Report May 2015 

Food and Nutrition Service 

Office of Policy Support
Non-Discrimination Policy 

USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
 United States Department of Agriculture 

Diet Quality of American Young Children 

 By WIC Participation Status: 

Data from the National Health and 

Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2008 

Authors: 

Elizabeth Condon, Mathematica Policy Research 

Susan Drilea, Walter R. McDonald & Associates, Inc. 

Carolyn Lichtenstein, Walter R. McDonald & Associates, Inc. 

James Mabli, Mathematica Policy Research 

Emily Madden, Walter R. McDonald & Associates, Inc. 

Katherine Niland, Mathematica Policy Research 

Submitted by: Submitted to: 

Walter R. McDonald & Associates, Inc. Office of Policy Support 

12300 Twinbrook Parkway, Suite 310 Food and Nutrition Service 

Rockville, MD 20852-1698 3101 Park Center Drive 

 Alexandria, VA 22302-1500 

Project Director: Project Officer: 

Carolyn Lichtenstein Jenny Laster Genser 

This study was conducted under contract number AG-2198-D-12-0069 with the Food and Nutrition Service. 

This report is available on the Food and Nutrition Service website: http://www.fns.usda.gov. 

Suggested Citation: 

Condon, Elizabeth, Susan Drilea, Carolyn Lichtenstein, James Mabli, Emily Madden, and Katherine 

Niland. (2015). Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status: Data from the 

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2008. Prepared by Walter R. McDonald & 

Associates, Inc. and Mathematica Policy Research for the Food and Nutrition Service. 

 

Food and Nutrition Service, Office of Policy Support May 2015 
Acknowledgments 

The authors wish to thank our project officer and contracting officer at the Food and Nutrition 

Service, Jenny Genser, who worked with us throughout this project. Jenny Genser provided 

oversight of the technical aspects of the project and coordinated the review process at USDA. 

This report benefited from thoughtful review and critique by Jenny Genser, Edward Harper, Jay 

Hirschman, Joe Robare, Lisa Southworth, and Patrice Williams from FNS and Patricia Britten, 

Mark Lino, and Collette Rihane from the Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. 

The authors also acknowledge the invaluable contributions of Malcolm Hale, who contributed to 

the extensive technical programming required by this study, and Mary Kay Fox for her 

thoughtful review of the report. We also acknowledge Lia Carvalho and Janice Kirby who 

assisted in producing data table shells, and Janet Aguirre who assisted in producing data tables. 

This study was sponsored by the Office of Policy Support, Food and Nutrition Service, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture as part of its ongoing research agenda. Points of view or opinions stated in this report are those 

of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Food and Nutrition Service.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................. I

The WIC Program ............................................................................................................................ i 

Focus of the Research .................................................................................................................... iii 

Usual Nutrient Intakes ................................................................................................................... iii 

Food Consumption Patterns ........................................................................................................... xi 

Healthy Eating Index-2005 .......................................................................................................... xiv 

Summary of Findings and Implications for WIC Nutrition Education ........................................ xvi 

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 1

The WIC Program ........................................................................................................................... 2 

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ....................................................................... 4 

Other Data Sources ......................................................................................................................... 5 

NHANES Samples for Tabulation .................................................................................................. 6 

General Analytic Approach ............................................................................................................ 8 

CHAPTER 2. USUAL NUTRIENT INTAKES ............................................................... 11

Usual Intakes of Vitamins and Minerals with Defined Estimated Average Requirements .......... 12 

Usual Intakes of Nutrients Assessed Using Adequate Intake Levels ........................................... 14 

Usual Intakes of Macronutrients ................................................................................................... 17 

Use of Dietary Supplements and Nutrient Intakes from Dietary Supplements ............................ 19 

CHAPTER 3. USUAL INTAKES OF CALORIES AND BODY MASS INDEX ............. 23

Usual Intakes of Calories .............................................................................................................. 24 

Body Mass Index .......................................................................................................................... 25 

CHAPTER 4. CONSUMPTION OF EMPTY CALORIES ............................................. 27
Empty Calories Consumed by WIC Children and Nonparticipant Children ................................ 27 

CHAPTER 5. FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERNS..................................................... 29

Consumption of WIC Foods ......................................................................................................... 32

Consumption of Supermarket Aisle Food Groups ........................................................................ 33

CHAPTER 6. THE HEALTHY EATING INDEX-2005 ................................................... 47

Healthy Eating Index-2005 ........................................................................................................... 48

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................... 53

Diet Adequacy and Excess ............................................................................................................ 53

Diet Quality ................................................................................................................................... 53

Food Consumption Patterns .......................................................................................................... 54

Overweight and Obesity ............................................................................................................... 54

Implications for WIC Nutrition Education ................................................................................... 55

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 57

APPENDIX A. DATA AND METHODS ....................................................................... A-1

APPENDIX B. DETAILED TABLES FOR USUAL DAILY INTAKES FROM FOODS 

AND BEVERAGES.............................................................................B-1 

APPENDIX C. DETAILED TABLES FOR ENERGY INTAKES AND BODY MASS 

INDEX, EMPTY CALORIES, FOOD CHOICES, AND HEALTHY EATING 

INDEX...............................................................................................C-1 

APPENDIX D. THE HEALTHY EATING INDEX-2010..........................................D-1 

REFERENCES FOR APPENDICES................................................................R-1 
LIST OF EXHIBITS 

Exhibit 1. Percentage of Children with Adequate Usual Intakes ....................................................v 

Exhibit 2. Usual Intakes of Potassium and Fiber, as a Percentage of Adequate Intake 

(AI) Levels .................................................................................................................... vi 

Exhibit 3. Percentage of Children with Usual Sodium Intakes above the Tolerable 

Upper Intake Level (UL) .............................................................................................. vii 

Exhibit 4. Percentage of Children Meeting the Dietary Guidelines Recommendation 

for Saturated Fat .......................................................................................................... viii 

Exhibit 5. Distribution of Weight Status....................................................................................... ix 

Exhibit 6. Average Percentage of Total Calories Contributed by Consumption of 

Empty Calories .............................................................................................................. xi 

Exhibit 7. Percentage of Children Consuming WIC Foods ......................................................... xii 

Exhibit 8. Percentage of WIC Children and Nonparticipant Children Consuming Any 

Discrete Foods from Major Supermarket Aisle Food Groups .................................... xiii 

Exhibit 9. Healthy Eating Index-2005 Total Scores .....................................................................xv 

Exhibit 1-1. Distribution of WIC Participants by Eligibility Category ...........................................3 

Exhibit 1-2. WIC Analytic Sample: Sample Sizes and Weighted Population Counts ...................7 

Exhibit 1-3. Race and Ethnicity of WIC Participants and Nonparticipants ....................................7 

Exhibit 2-1. Percent of Children 1–4 Years Old with Adequate Usual Intakes ...........................13 

Exhibit 2-2. Prevalence of Adequate Usual Intakes of Vitamins and Minerals ...........................14 

Exhibit 2-3. Usual Intakes of Potassium and Fiber, as a Percent of Adequate Intake (AI) ..........15 

Exhibit 2-4. Percent of Children with Usual Sodium Intakes above the Tolerable 

Upper Intake Level (UL) ...............................................................................................16 

Exhibit 2-5. Usual Intakes of Macronutrients Compared to Standards ........................................17 

Exhibit 2-6. Percent of Children Meeting the Dietary Guidelines Recommendation 

for Saturated Fat ............................................................................................................18 

Exhibit 2-7. Prevalence of Dietary Supplement Use on Intake Day .............................................19 
Exhibit 2-8. Proportion of Daily Nutrient Intakes from Dietary Supplements, among 

All Supplement Users ...................................................................................................21 

Exhibit 3-1. Estimated Daily Calorie Needs by Age and Physical Activity Level .......................23 

Exhibit 3-2. Usual Intakes of Calories ...........................................................................................25 

Exhibit 3-3. Weight Categories for Children, Based on BMI-for-Age Percentiles .......................26 

Exhibit 3-4. Distributions of Weight Status ...................................................................................26 

Exhibit 4-1. Estimated Calorie Needs and Maximum Limits on Empty Calories .........................27 

Exhibit 4-2. Average Percent of Total Calories Contributed by Consumption of 

Empty Calories ..............................................................................................................28

Exhibit 5-1. Supermarket Aisle Food Groups and Subgroups Used to Classify Types 

and Amounts of Foods Consumed by WIC Children and Nonparticipant 

Children .........................................................................................................................30 

Exhibit 5-2. Foods Provided to Children in the WIC Food Package (WIC Food 

Package IV) ...................................................................................................................31 

Exhibit 5-3. Percent of Children Consuming WIC Foods ............................................................33 

Exhibit 5-4. Percent of Children Consuming Any Discrete Foods from 10 Major 

Supermarket Aisle Food Groups ...................................................................................34 

Exhibit 5-5. Percent of WIC Children and Nonparticipant Children Consuming Any 

Discrete Foods from Major Supermarket Aisle Food Groups ......................................34 

Exhibit 5-6. Percent of Children Consuming Discrete Whole Grain Items, Among 

Those Consuming Any Discrete Grain Items ...............................................................35 

Exhibit 5-7. Differences between WIC Participants and Nonparticipants in Discrete 

Grain Choices and Average Amounts Consumed .........................................................36 

Exhibit 5-8. Percentage of Children Consuming Discrete Raw and Cooked 

Vegetables, Among Those Consuming Any Discrete Vegetables ................................37 

Exhibit 5-9. Percentage of Children Consuming the Five Most Common Vegetables, 

Among Those Consuming Any Discrete Vegetables....................................................38 

Exhibit 5-10. Percentage of Children Consuming Whole Fruit, 100% Fruit Juice, and 

Fresh Fruit, Among Those Consuming Fruit or 100% Fruit Juice as 

Discrete Items................................................................................................................39 

Exhibit 5-11. Differences between WIC Participants and Nonparticipants in Discrete 

Fruit and 100% Fruit Juice Choices and Average Amounts Consumed .......................40 
Exhibit 5-12. Percentage of Children Consuming Whole Milk and Non-Whole Milk, 

Among Those Consuming Any Milk and Milk Products as Discrete Items .................41 

Exhibit 5-13. Differences between WIC Participants and Nonparticipants in Types 

and Average Amounts of Mixed Dishes Consumed .....................................................43 

Exhibit 5-14. Percent of Children Consuming Regular Soda, Sugar-free Soda, and 

Sweetened Beverages, Among Those Consuming Any Beverages (Other 

than Milk and 100% Fruit Juice) as Discrete Items ......................................................44 

Exhibit 5-15. Differences between WIC Participants and Nonparticipants in Beverage 

Choices and Average Amounts Consumed ...................................................................44 

Exhibit 6-1. Healthy Eating Index-2005 Components and Standards for Scoring ........................49 

Exhibit 6-2. Health Eating Index-2005 Total Scores .....................................................................49 

Exhibit 6-3. Healthy Eating Index-2005 Component Scores for Components with a 

Maximum Score of 5 Points ..........................................................................................50 

Exhibit 6-4. Healthy Eating Index-2005 Component Scores for Components with a 

Maximum Score of 10 Points ........................................................................................51 

Exhibit 6-5. Healthy Eating Index-2005 Component Score for Empty Calories ..........................51 

 
LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES AND FIGURES 

Figure A-1. Dietary Reference Intakes and Dietary Guidelines Recommendations, by Age...A-4 

Figure A-2. Supermarket Aisle Food Groups and Subgroups........................................A-9 

Figure A-3. Census 2010 population for DRI Age Groups.........................................A-13 

Table B-1. Vitamin A (mcg RAE): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages..........B-1 

Table B-2. Vitamin B6 (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.................B-3 

Table B-3. Vitamin B12 (mcg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages..............B-5 

Table B-4. Vitamin C (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages..................B-7 

Table B-5. Vitamin D (mcg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.................B-9 

Table B-6. Vitamin E (mg AT): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages............B-11 

Table B-7. Folate (mcg DFE): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.............B-13 

Table B-8. Niacin (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.....................B-15 

Table B-9. Riboflavin (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.................B-17 

Table B-10. Thiamin (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.................B-19 

Table B-11. Calcium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages..................B-21 

Table B-12. Iron (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.......................B-23 

Table B-13. Magnesium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.............B-25 

Table B-14. Phosphorus (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages..............B-27 

Table B-15. Zinc (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages......................B-29 

Table B-16. Copper (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages...................B-31 

Table B-17. Selenium (mcg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages...............B-33 

Table B-18. Potassium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages...............B-35 

Table B-19. Dietary Fiber (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.............B-37 

Table B-20. Dietary Fiber (g/1,000 kcal): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and 

Beverages........................................................................................B-39 
Table B-21. Sodium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages...................B-41 

Table B-22. Choline (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages..................B-43 

Table B-23. Total Fat (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages...................B-45 

Table B-24. Total Fat (% of calories): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages....B-47 

Table B-25. Protein (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.....................B-49 

Table B-26. Protein (g/kg body weight): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and 

 Beverages............................................................ ...........................B-51 

Table B-27. Protein (% of calories): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages......B-53 

Table B-28. Carbohydrate (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.............B-55 

Table B-29. Carbohydrates (% of calories): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and 

 Beverages..........................................................................................B-57 

Table B-30. Saturated Fat (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages..............B-59 

Table B-31. Saturated Fat (% of calorie intake): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and 

 Beverages...........................................................................................B-61 

Table B-32. Linoleic Acid (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages.............B-63 

Table B-33. Linoleic Acid (% of calorie intake): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and 

 Beverages..........................................................................................B-65 

Table B-34. Linolenic Acid (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages............B-67 

Table B-35. Linolenic Acid (% of calorie intake): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and 

 Beverages...........................................................................................B-69 

Table B-36. Cholesterol (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages...............B-71 

Table C-1. Percent of Young Children Taking Dietary Supplements...............................C-1 

Table C-2. Mean Daily Intakes of Nutrients from Foods and Dietary Supplements...............C-2 

Table C-3. Percent Contribution of Dietary Supplements to Total Nutrient Intakes..............C-4 

Table C-4. Percent Contribution of Dietary Supplements to Recommended Intakes..............C-6 

Table C-5. Mean Daily Calorie Intakes..................................................................C-8 

Table C-6. Body Mass Index............................................................................C-10 
Table C-7. Consumption of Empty Calories..........................................................C-11 

Table C-8. Percent of Young Children Consuming WIC Foods....................................C-12 

Table C-9. Food Choices.................................................................................C-13 

Table C-10. Average Amounts Consumed in Food Pattern Units among All Young Children, 

 by Food Group and Subgroup..................................................................C-18 

Table C-11. Average Amounts Consumed in Food Pattern Units among Young Children 

 Consuming, by Food Group and Subgroup................................................ ..C-23 

Table C-12. Average Amounts Consumed in Grams among All Young Children, by Food 

 Group and Subgroup.............................................................................C-28 

Table C-13. Average Amounts Consumed in Grams among Young Children Consuming, 

 by Food Group and Subgroup...................................................................C-33 

Table C-14. Healthy Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005) Scores: Children, 2–4 Years Old.......C-38 

Figure D-1. Healthy Eating Index-2010 Components and Standards for Scoring................ D-2 

Table D-1. Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) Scores: Children, 2–4 Years Old...........D-4 

Figure E–1. NHANES Respondents with Complete Dietary Recalls, 2005–2008: Sample 

 Sizes and Weighted Population Counts.........................................................E-2 

Figure E-2. Demographic Characteristics of WIC Participants and Nonparticipants..............E-3 

Figure E-3. Weight-for-Length Categories for Infants................................................E-4 

Table E-1. Weight Status: Infants.........................................................................E-7 

Table E-2. Mean Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods: Infants...........................E-8 

Table E-3. Vitamin A (mcg RAE): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods................................................................................................E-11 

Table E-4. Vitamin B6 (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods..............................................................................................E-12 

Table E-5. Vitamin B12 (mcg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-13 

Table E-6. Vitamin C (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-14 

Table E-7. Vitamin D (mcg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-15 
Table E-8. Vitamin E (mg AT): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-16 

Table E-9. Folate (mcg DFE): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-17 

Table E-10. Niacin (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods........E-18 

Table E-11. Riboflavin (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods..............................................................................................E-19 

Table E-12. Thiamin (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods.....E-20 

Table E-13. Calcium (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods.....E-21 

Table E-14. Iron (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods..........E-22 

Table E-15. Magnesium (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods..............................................................................................E-23 

Table E-16. Phosphorus (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods.............................................................................................E-24 

Table E-17. Zinc (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods.........E-25 

Table E-18. Copper (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods.....E-26 

Table E-19. Selenium (mcg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-27 

Table E-20. Potassium (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods.............................................................................................................................E-28 

Table E-21. Dietary Fiber (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-29 

Table E-22. Sodium (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods.....E-30 

Table E-23. Choline (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods.....E-31 

Table E-24. Total Fat (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods......E-32 

Table E-25. Protein (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods........E-33 

Table E-26. Carbohydrate (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-34 

Table E-27. Saturated Fat (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods................................................................................................E-35 
Table E-28. Linoleic Acid (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-36 

Table E-29. Linolenic Acid (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-37 

Table E-30. Cholesterol (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods...............................................................................................E-38 

Table E-31. Calories (kcal): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary 

 Foods................................................................................................E-39 

Table E-32. Healthy Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005) Scores: Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and 

 Postpartum Women...............................................................................E-40 

Table E-33. Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) Scores: Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and 

 Postpartum Women...............................................................................E-42 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status i

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Over time, nutrition assistance programs have expanded their focus from ensuring that program 

participants have enough to eat to improving the quality of the foods participants can access with 

program benefits. This shift reflects a growing consensus about the important role diet plays in 

the development of chronic diseases, including obesity, and recognition that benefits provided by 

nutrition assistance programs should reflect Federal nutrition policy, which is based on the 

Dietary Guidelines for Americans. The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, 

Infants, and Children (WIC) provides nutrient-dense foods, nutrition education, and referral to 

health care services for low-income pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women, infants, and 

children up to 5 years old who are at nutritional risk. WIC aims to combat malnutrition and 

under-nutrition during critical periods of early childhood growth and development. 

The Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 

recognizes that strategies for improving the nutrition of WIC participants should be scientifically 

-based and use valid and reliable information about their current dietary practices. This study 

was commissioned to provide such information. The study analyzed National Health and 

Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data from 2005–2008, updating a previous study that 

analyzed 1999–2004 NHANES data.1

 Because the numbers of infants and pregnant, postpartum, 

and breastfeeding women in NHANES were small, the analysis focused on children who were 

age-eligible for WIC (1–4 years old, including children up to 5 years old). The report provides 

information on the quality of young children’s diets from multiple perspectives, including usual 

nutrient intakes and food consumption patterns. 

This report contains tabulations of dietary measures for children 1–4 years old and describes 

differences in diet quality between WIC participants and two groups of nonparticipants—those 

children who were income-eligible for WIC but did not participate in the program, and higherincome children who were not eligible for the program. WIC participants were defined as 

children who were reported to be currently receiving WIC benefits. Income-eligible 

nonparticipants were defined as children from families with annual income at or below 185 

percent of the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) poverty guideline. Higherincome nonparticipants were defined as children from families with annual income greater than 

185 percent of the poverty guideline.

The WIC Program 

WIC is the third largest of the 15 domestic nutrition assistance programs administered by FNS. 

In Federal fiscal year (FY) 2013, the program provided benefits to nearly 8.7 million participants 

                                                            

1

 More recent data were available (NHANES 2009–2010) when this study was conducted, but were not used 

because substantial changes were made to the WIC food packages in 2009. However, data from NHANES 2007–

2010 were used to analyze dietary supplement use and nutrient intakes from dietary supplements because these data 

were not available in NHANES 2005–2006.
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status ii

per month, on average, at an annual cost of $6.5 billion.2 WIC food benefits comprise the largest 

component of program costs at $4.5 billion, or 70 percent of total program costs (USDA, 2014). 

WIC provides Federal grants to States for supplemental foods, health care referrals, and nutrition 

education. Food benefits are provided to participants through food instruments, including 

electronic benefits, which are redeemable at authorized food retailers. Benefits are based on 

specific food items and, therefore, the cash value of monthly benefits varies by State and region. 

The national average cash value of monthly benefit in FY 2013 was $43.26 per month (USDA, 

2014). In FY 2013, about 54 percent of WIC cases were children 1–4 years old, 23 percent were 

infants, and 24 percent were women.3 Over half of all infants in the United States participate in 

the WIC program.4 WIC operates in 50 States, the District of Columbia, 34 Indian Tribal 

Organizations, and 5 territories. 

WIC food packages are designed to supplement participants’ diets with specific nutrients and 

food groups and to contribute to an overall dietary pattern that is consistent with the Dietary 

Guidelines for Americans and infant feeding practice guidelines. Food packages are tailored to 

the specific needs of different participant groups (for example, infants, children, pregnant 

women, and breastfeeding women). Federal regulations specify the types and quantities of foods 

provided in the food packages. State WIC agencies designate specific brands and sizes of 

approved food products according to the Federal regulations and cost containment goals of each 

State agency. The WIC food packages for children that were in place when NHANES 2005–

2008 data were collected included foods in five categories: juice, cereal, milk and/or cheese, 

eggs, and legumes (dried beans or peanut butter). Major changes in the content of WIC food 

packages were implemented nationwide in 2009. Changes focused on providing additional 

nutrients and foods that are typically under-consumed by the WIC population, and less of the 

nutrients that are typically over-consumed. New food packages are based on recommendations of 

the Institute of Medicine, and align with the recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines for 

Americans and infant feeding practice guidelines of the American Academy of Pediatrics. The 

new food packages also provide participants with a wider variety of foods, including fruits and 

vegetables and whole grains.

Federal regulations require local WIC agencies to offer participants (or their mothers or other 

care providers) at least two nutrition education sessions during each six month certification 

period5

 (Johnson et al., 2013). Participants may be counseled in one-on-one settings or attend 

group classes. Nutrition education has two main goals: (1) to emphasize the relationship between 

nutrition, physical activity, and health , with special emphasis on the nutritional needs of 

pregnant, postpartum, and breastfeeding women, infants, and children under five years old; and 

(2) to assist individuals at nutritional risk in achieving positive changes in dietary and physical 

                                                            

2

 Data obtained at http://www.fns.usda.gov/pd/wisummary.htm 3 Data obtained at http://www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/pd/37WIC_Monthly.pdf   4 Data obtained at http://www.fns.usda.gov/wic/about-wic-wic-glance   5

 The State agency may permit its local agencies to certify an infant under six months old up to the last day of the 

month in which the infant turns 1 year old, provided the quality and accessibility of health care services are not 

diminished. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status iii

activity habits, resulting in improved nutritional status and in the prevention of nutrition-related 

problems through optimal use of WIC supplemental foods and other nutritious foods. 

Focus of the Research

Strategies for improving the diets of WIC children—whether developed by policymakers, 

program administrators, nutrition educators, or researchers—should be scientifically-based. This 

report provides a comprehensive picture of the diets of WIC children immediately prior to the 

2009 changes in the food packages. Findings can be used to target efforts to improve the quality 

of participants’ diets and as a benchmark for monitoring participants’ diets over time. 

The following measures were used to examine the quality of diets consumed by children 1–4 

years old and to identify differences in the diets of WIC children and nonparticipant children: 

 Usual nutrient intakes—to assess the proportions of children with adequate or excessive 

intakes 

 Body mass index (BMI)—to assess the prevalence of overweight and obesity 

 Proportions of children consuming foods from “supermarket aisle” food groups (Cole & 

Fox, 2008) food groups, and the average amounts of those food groups consumed—to 

assess food consumption patterns 

 Healthy Eating Index-2005—to assess overall diet quality6

 

This research was not designed to assess the impact of WIC or in any way attribute differences 

observed between WIC children and nonparticipant children to an effect of the program. 

Estimation of program impacts requires a randomized experiment or quasi-experimental design 

to control for selection bias (Wilde, 2007; and Fox et al., 2004). In this report, we present only 

results of descriptive data analyses and comparisons between WIC children and nonparticipant 

children. We discuss only statistically significant differences between these groups in the 

comparisons throughout the report. 

Usual Nutrient Intakes 

We estimated usual intakes of vitamins, minerals, macronutrients, and other dietary 

components.7

 We then compared usual intake distributions to the Dietary Reference Intakes 

(DRIs) and selected 2010 Dietary Guidelines recommendations to assess the prevalence of 

adequate and excessive nutrient intakes. 

Usual Intakes of Vitamins and Minerals with Defined Estimated Average Requirements 

The prevalence of adequate usual intakes of vitamins and minerals is assessed by comparing the 

intakes of a population group to Estimated Average Requirements (EARs). The proportion of a 

group with usual intakes greater than or equal to the EAR is an estimate of the prevalence of 

                                                            

6

 We also used the Healthy Eating Index-2010 to assess overall diet quality. Findings are provided in Appendix D. 7

 We also assessed the prevalence of dietary supplement use and the contribution of supplements to nutrient intakes. 

Findings are discussed in Chapter 2. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status iv

adequate intakes for the population group.8 We focused on the prevalence of adequate usual 

intakes for the following vitamins and minerals that have defined EARs: vitamin A, vitamin C, 

vitamin D, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, vitamin E, folate, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, calcium, iron, 

magnesium, phosphorus, and zinc. 

Key findings include the following: 

 Nearly all children 1–4 years old (98% to 100%) had adequate usual intakes of 

folate, iron, magnesium, niacin, phosphorus, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin A, 

vitamin B6, vitamin B12, vitamin C, and zinc (Exhibit 1). Eighty-five percent of 

children had adequate usual intakes of calcium. The prevalence of adequate usual 

intakes was markedly lower for vitamin E (17%) and vitamin D (16%)9,10

 For most vitamins and minerals, the prevalence of adequate usual intakes was 

similar for WIC children and both groups of nonparticipant children. The only 

difference was for vitamin E—WIC children were more likely than higherincome nonparticipant children to have adequate usual intakes of vitamin E (22% 

versus 10%). 

Usual Intakes of Nutrients Assessed Using Adequate Intake Levels 

EARs are not defined for potassium, fiber, or sodium, so it is not possible to assess the adequacy 

of usual intakes. Instead, assessment focuses on comparison of mean usual intakes to Adequate 

Intake (AI) levels, which are recommended intake levels that are assumed to be adequate for 

healthy individuals in a life stage and gender group, based on observed or experimentally 

determined estimates. Populations with mean usual intakes that meet or exceed AI levels can be 

assumed to have high levels of nutrient adequacy. However, when mean usual intakes fall below 

the AI, no firm conclusions can be drawn about the prevalence of adequate usual intakes. 

                                                            

8 For women of childbearing age, it is not appropriate to use this method to assess the prevalence of adequate usual 

intakes of iron. The exception for iron, however, is not applicable to this analysis which focuses on young children.

9

 It is important to note that the low prevalence of adequate usual intakes of vitamin E among children is unlikely to 

have meaningful public health significance. The 2010 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee examined nutrients 

with usual intakes below recommendations—referred to as “shortfall nutrients”—to identify those of public health 

concern (Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2010). Examination of biochemical indices did not indicate a 

related public health problem for vitamin E. In addition, it has been suggested that the EARs for vitamin E may need 

to be reassessed (Devaney et al., 2007). For these reasons, findings related to the prevalence of adequate usual 

intakes for vitamin E should be interpreted with caution. 

10 Although the 2010 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee did consider vitamin D to be of public health concern, 

it also stated that 80 percent of Americans have adequate vitamin D blood levels (USDA & DHHS, 2010). Vitamin 

D is unique in that sunlight on the skin enables the body to make vitamin D. Thus, findings should be interpreted 

with caution. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status v

Exhibit 1. Percentage of Children with Adequate Usual Intakes

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the 

contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer 

Institute (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants 

and nonparticipants. 

For sodium, the major concern is the potential for excessive intakes, so usual intakes were also 

compared to the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL)—the maximum intake level considered to 

be safe for long-term consumption. Specific findings for these nutrients are summarized below. 

 Overall, children 1–4 years old had a mean usual intake of potassium that was 

equivalent to 63 percent of the AI. WIC children had a higher mean usual intake 

of potassium than either income-eligible or higher-income nonparticipant 

children (Exhibit 2). Given the limitations of the AI standard, these differences 

do not necessarily imply that WIC children were more likely than nonparticipant 

children to have adequate usual intakes of potassium. 

16%

17%

85%

98%

99%

99%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Vitamin D

Vitamin E

Calcium

Vitamin A

Magnesium

Vitamin C

Niacin

Zinc

Folate

Thiamin

Iron

Phosphorus

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B12

Riboflavin

Percent of Children

Children 1–4 years old
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status vi

 Children’s mean usual fiber intake was equivalent to 48 percent of the AI, for 

WIC children and both nonparticipant groups (Exhibit 2). 

Exhibit 2. Usual Intakes of Potassium and Fiber, as a Percentage of Adequate Intake (AI) Levels

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the 

contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer 

Institute (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants 

and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at least .05 level). Differences are 

tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. 

 On a gram-per-1,000 calorie basis, children’s mean usual intake of fiber was 

about 7 grams, which is approximately half of the 14-gram standard used in 

setting the AI. When fiber intakes were examined on a gram-per-calorie basis, 

WIC children had a lower mean usual intake of fiber than higher-income 

nonparticipant children, although the magnitude of the difference was small (6.7 

g per 1,000 calories versus 7.2 g per 1,000 calories). Again, given the limitations 

of the AI standard, this difference does not necessarily imply that WIC children 

were less likely than nonparticipant children to have adequate usual intakes of 

fiber. 

 Overall, 74 percent of all children had usual sodium intakes that were excessive 

relative to the UL. There were no differences between WIC children and 

nonparticipant children in the proportion of children with usual intakes that 

exceeded the UL (Exhibit 3). 

67%

48%

60%*

48%

61%*

48%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Potassium Fiber

Mean Percentage of Al

Children 1–4 years old

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status vii

Exhibit 3. Percentage of Children with Usual Sodium Intakes above the Tolerable Upper Intake 

Level (UL)

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the 

contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer 

Institute (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants 

and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at least .05 level). Differences are 

tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. 

Usual Intakes of Macronutrients 

The DRIs define Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) for intakes of 

macronutrients (for example, total fat, protein, and carbohydrate). AMDRs are expressed as a 

percentage of total calorie intakes and reflect a range of usual intakes associated with reduced 

risk of chronic disease, while providing adequate intakes of other essential nutrients (IOM, 

2005). Intakes that are above or below the AMDR may increase risk of chronic disease. In 

assessing usual intakes relative to the AMDRs, we focused on the percentage of children with 

usual intakes of total fat, protein, and carbohydrate (as a percentage of calories) that were above, 

below, or within the respective AMDR. We also examined the percentage of children with usual 

intakes of saturated fat that were consistent with the 2010 Dietary Guidelines recommendation 

(less than 10 percent of total calories from saturated fat). Children under 2 years old were 

excluded from the analysis of saturated fat intakes because the Dietary Guidelines do not apply 

to them. 

Key findings include the following: 

 Overall, 70 percent of children 1–4 years old had usual intakes of total fat that 

were consistent with the AMDR. Children with usual fat intakes that were not 

consistent with the AMDR were more likely to have intakes that were below the 

recommended range than to exceed it. WIC children were less likely than higherincome nonparticipant children to have usual intakes of fat that were consistent 

with the AMDR (64% versus 74%); however, the proportions of WIC children 

75% 77% 74%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Percentage of Children

Children 1–4 years old

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status viii

and nonparticipant children with intakes above and below the AMDR were 

comparable. 

 Almost all WIC children and nonparticipant children had usual intakes of protein 

and carbohydrate that were consistent with the AMDR (99% for protein and 94% 

for carbohydrate). Usual intakes of protein and carbohydrate were comparable 

for WIC children and nonparticipant children. 

 Less than 1 in 5 children (17%) met the Dietary Guidelines recommendation for 

saturated fat. There were no differences between WIC children and 

nonparticipant children in the proportion that met the Dietary Guidelines

recommendation for saturated fat (Exhibit 4).11

Exhibit 4. Percentage of Children Meeting the Dietary Guidelines Recommendation for Saturated 

Fat 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the 

contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer 

Institute (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. For higher-income nonparticipants, the proportion of 

children with usual intakes of saturated fat that met the Dietary Guidelines recommendation could not be 

estimated using the NCI method. Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC 

participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at least .05 level). 

Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the 

time of the interview. 

Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity 

Achieving and maintaining an appropriate body weight is vital to sustaining good health (USDA, 

2010). The key to maintaining a healthy weight is achieving calorie balance over time—this 

                                                            

11 For higher-income nonparticipants, the proportion of children with usual intakes of saturated fat that met the 

Dietary Guidelines recommendation could not be estimated using the NCI method.

19%

11%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Percentage of Children

Children 2–4 years old 

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status ix

refers to the relationship between calories consumed and expended. The total number of calories 

a child needs each day varies by age, gender, height, weight, and level of physical activity. 

Excess calorie consumption over time can result in overweight and obesity. As recommended by 

the Institute of Medicine (2005a), we assessed the appropriateness of usual calorie intakes for 

children 2 years old and older using BMI. 

BMI is a widely accepted index for classifying the weight status of individuals. Because children 

grow at different rates at different times, children’s weight status is determined by using BMIfor-age percentiles that take into account a child’s age and gender. The Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention (CDC) define four different weight categories for children based on 

BMI-for-age percentiles—underweight, healthy weight, overweight, and obese. A BMI in the 

healthy range indicates that usual calorie intakes are consistent with requirements, and a BMI 

above the healthy range indicates that usual calorie intakes exceed requirements. 

The percentages of WIC children and nonparticipant children in each weight category are shown 

in Exhibit 5. Key findings include the following: 

 More than three-quarters (77%) of children 2–4 years old had a healthy weight. 

Approximately 1 in 10 (12%) were overweight and another 9 percent were obese. 

 There were no differences between WIC children and either group of 

nonparticipant children in the proportion of children in each weight category. 

 Compared to children 2 and 3 years old, children 4 years old had a higher rate of 

obesity (11% versus 7% and 8% for children 2 and 3 years old, respectively). 

Children 2 years old had the highest prevalence of overweight, relative to 

children 3 and 4 years old (15% versus 11% and 10% for 3 and 4 years old). 

Exhibit 5. Distribution of Weight Status 

Children 2–4 years old 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 body measures data. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data and height and weight data, 2–4 years old. 

Notes: For children, weight categories are defined as: underweight if BMI-for-age is < the 5th percentile on the CDC 

BMI-for-age growth chart; healthy weight if BMI-for-age is >= 5th and < the 85th percentiles; overweight if 

BMI-for-age is >= than the 85th and < the 95th percentiles; and obese if BMI-for-age is >= the 95th 

percentile. Percentages for all children 2–4 years old are age-adjusted to account for different age 

distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in percentages are noted by * 

(at least .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving 

WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

3%

3%

3%

80%

74%

74%

10%

14%

12%

8%

9%

11%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Higher‐Income Nonparticipants

Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants

WIC Participants

Underweight Healthy Weight Overweight Obese
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status x

Consumption of Empty Calories 

The consumption of empty calories is an important aspect of diet quality. Foods and beverages 

that contain empty calories contribute calories while providing few nutrients. For children, 

consumption of empty calories come from two main sources: solid fats and added sugars. The 

2010 Dietary Guidelines recommend reducing consumption of solid fats and added sugars to 

allow for intake of recommended amounts of nutrient-dense foods (that is, foods that are fat-free 

or low-fat with no added sugars) without exceeding overall calorie needs. The Dietary 

Guidelines specify maximum daily limits for empty calories for individuals 2 years old and 

older, based on estimated calorie needs for three different physical activity levels. Maximum 

daily limits for empty calories (based on a calorie levels for sedentary level of physical activity) 

range from 10 to 14 percent of total calories among children 2–4 years old.12 To assess the 

consumption of empty calories, we estimated the percentage contribution of empty calories to 

total calorie intakes. 

Results show that children’s consumption of empty calories greatly exceeds the maximum limits 

specified in the 2010 Dietary Guidelines. 

Key findings are shown in Exhibit 6 and summarized below: 

 Among children 2 and 3 years old, the contribution of empty calories to total 

calorie intakes was more than double the maximum recommended limit (32% 

versus 14%). Among children 4 years old, empty calories contributed more than 

three times the maximum recommended limit (34% versus 10%). 

 WIC children obtained a smaller share of their total calorie intake from 

consumption of empty calories than income-eligible nonparticipant children 

(32% versus 35%). This difference was driven largely by children 3 years old—

WIC children in this age group obtained approximately 5 percent less of their 

total calorie intake from consumption of empty calories, relative to incomeeligible nonparticipants (31% versus 36%). 

 There were no differences between WIC children and higher-income 

nonparticipant children in the proportion of total calories contributed by 

consumption of empty calories. 

                                                            

12 Since we were unable to match activity level with calorie needs, we used the sedentary level of physical activity to 

provide context for the findings. However, this may overstate the extent to which excess empty calories are 

consumed. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status xi

Exhibit 6. Average Percentage of Total Calories Contributed by Consumption of Empty Calories

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 2–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Total percentages are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC 

participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at least .05 level). 

Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the 

time of the interview. 

Food Consumption Patterns 

We examined the proportions of WIC children and nonparticipant children consuming the types 

of foods provided in the WIC food package (hereafter referred to as WIC foods), as well as the 

proportions consuming foods from a broader array of specific food groups and subgroups.13 For 

the latter analysis, we refer to the “supermarket aisle” food groups and subgroups. The 

proportions of children consuming a specific food subgroup for the analysis using the 

supermarket aisle groups may differ from the proportion of children consuming a WIC food. The 

estimates using the supermarket aisle subgroups are conditional and include only children who 

consumed one or more foods from the major (supermarket aisle) food group; whereas, the 

estimates for the proportions of children consuming WIC foods includes all children. 

WIC Foods 

The WIC food package for children that was in place when NHANES 2005–2008 data were 

collected included milk and/or cheese, eggs, 100% fruit juice, cereal, and legumes (dried beans 

                                                            

13 We also examined the average amounts of foods consumed in specific food groups and subgroups.  

32% 32% 31% 34% 35%* 33% 36%* 34% 32% 32% 31% 34%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

All children 2–4 years 2 years old 3 years old 4 years old

Percentage of Total Calories

Children 2–4 years old

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status xii

or peanut butter). We compared the proportions of WIC children and nonparticipant children 

who consumed the various WIC foods on the day covered in the dietary recall. 

WIC children were more likely than one or both groups of nonparticipant children to consume 

five of the seven types of foods provided in the WIC food package on the day covered in the 

dietary recall (Exhibit 7). Specific differences included the following: 

 WIC children were more likely than either income-eligible or higher-income 

nonparticipant children to consume WIC juice (31% versus 19% and 20%, 

respectively) and beans (16% versus 8% and 7%, respectively). 

 WIC children were also more likely than income-eligible nonparticipant children 

to consume milk (87% versus 78%) and WIC cereals (28% versus 16%). 

 Compared to higher-income nonparticipant children, WIC children were more 

likely to consume eggs (26% versus 15%). 

Exhibit 7. Percentage of Children Consuming WIC Foods 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Percentages are age-adjusted to account for 

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are 

noted by * (at least .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children 

receiving WIC at the time of the interview 

Supermarket Aisle Food Groups and Subgroups 

To examine children’s food consumption patterns more broadly, we defined food groups and 

subgroups using a “supermarket aisle” approach (Cole & Fox, 2008). This approach categorizes 

foods into one of ten major food groups and then into subgroups within the major groups. For 

example, whole milk, 2% milk, cheese, and yogurt are subgroups in the milk and milk products 

group. Findings reported for all of the supermarket aisle food groups and subgroups reflect foods 

consumed as discrete items. 

87%

33%

26%

31%

10%

16%

28%

78%*

33%

25%

19%*

12%

8%*

16%*

83%

39%

15%*

20%*

14%

7%*

21%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Milk Cheese Eggs Juice Peanut Butter Beans Cereal

Percentage of Children

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status xiii

We examined the proportions of WIC children and nonparticipant children consuming foods 

from each of the ten major food groups (Exhibit 8). WIC children were less likely than higherincome nonparticipant children to consume discrete grain items and discrete vegetable items, but 

were more likely to consume mixed dishes. WIC children were also less likely than incomeeligible nonparticipant children to consume fats and oils that were added to foods (for example, 

butter or margarine). 

Exhibit 8. Percentage of WIC Children and Nonparticipant Children Consuming Any Discrete 

Foods from Major Supermarket Aisle Food Groups 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Starting in NHANES 2005-2006, the consumption of 

drinking water was collected during the dietary recall. This analysis includes drinking water in the “beverages 

excluding milk and juice” major food group. Combination items, including sandwiches, Mexican entrees, 

green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, were counted as 

one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was counted as one item 

and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. Percentages are age-adjusted to account for 

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are 

noted by * (at least .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children 

receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

There were a number of differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in the 

specific food subgroups consumed. Some differences reflect less healthy food choices among 

WIC children. For example, WIC children were: 

 less likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume discrete whole 

grain items 

 less likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume raw vegetables 

(or any discrete vegetables, as mentioned above) 

 less likely than either group of nonparticipant children to consume discrete 

portions of fruit (fresh, frozen, canned, or dried) 

87%

59%

83%

91%

71%

90% 92%

81%

44%

19%

88%

63%

76%

86%

64%

85%

92%

81%

38%

26%*

93%*

68%*

83%

92%

66%

82%*

92%

82%

42%

26%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Grains Vegetables Fruit and

100% Juice

Milk and

Milk

Products

Meat and

Meat

Alternates

Mixed

Dishes

Beverages

(excl milk

and juice)

Sweets and

Desserts

Salty

Snacks

Added Fats

and Oils

Percentage of Children

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status xiv

 more likely than either group of nonparticipant children to consume whole milk 

and less likely than higher-income nonparticipants to consume lower-fat milk 

(including 2%, 1%, and skim milk) 

 more likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume regular soda 

and noncarbonated sweetened beverages (e.g., juice drinks) 

On the other hand, WIC children were: 

 more likely than either group of nonparticipant children to consume cow’s milk 

 less likely than income-eligible nonparticipant children to consume fats and oils 

that were added to foods 

Healthy Eating Index-2005 

We examined the overall quality of the diets consumed by young children using the Healthy 

Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005). The HEI is a measure of diet quality that assesses conformance 

to key recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines (DHHS & USDA, 2010). The HEI-2005 is a 

scoring metric that is made up of 12 components, each reflecting a key aspect of diet quality. The 

standards used to assign HEI-2005 component scores are expressed on a density basis (that is, 

amounts per 1,000 calories or a percentage of calories) rather than absolute amounts of foods 

consumed. The use of such standards in assessing diet quality reflects the recommendation that 

individuals should strive to meet food group and nutrient guidelines while maintaining calorie 

balance, rather than meeting these guidelines simply by consuming large quantities of food. 

Nine of the twelve components included in the HEI-2005 are adequacy components, which 

assess intakes of dietary components individuals are recommended to consume to ensure 

adequate nutrient intakes. These include the following: (1) Total Fruit, including Juice; (2) 

Whole Fruit; (3) Total Vegetables; (4) Dark Green and Orange Vegetables and Legumes; (5) 

Total Grains; (6) Whole Grains; (7) Milk; (8) Meat and Beans; and (9) Oils. The remaining three 

components, referred to as moderation components, assess dietary components that individuals 

are recommended to limit. These include Saturated Fat, Sodium, and Empty Calories. Higher 

scores for the adequacy components reflect greater consumption and higher diet quality (up to a 

maximum score of 5 or 10 points per component). Higher scores for the moderation components 

reflect lower consumption and higher diet quality (up to a maximum score of 10 or 20 points per 

component). Scores for each of the 12 components are summed to create the total HEI-2005 

score, with a maximum score of 100. Estimates are limited to children 2 to 4 years old because 

the Dietary Guidelines do not apply to children under 2 years old. 

Results show that the diets consumed by children in all participation/eligibility groups fell 

considerably short of the Dietary Guidelines recommendations. 

 For all children 2–4 years old, the total HEI-2005 score was 63 out of a possible 

100. Total HEI-2005 scores were comparable for WIC children and 

nonparticipant children (Exhibit 9). 

 Children in all three WIC participation and eligibility groups achieved or came 

close to achieving the maximum score (of 5.0) for Total Fruit, Whole Fruit, and 

Total Grains, and the maximum score (of 10.0) for Milk. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status xv

Exhibit 9. Healthy Eating Index-2005 Total Scores

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Health Eating Index-2005, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 1, December 2006. Sample includes 

NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 2–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Scores are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC 

participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in mean scores are noted by * (at least .05 level). 

Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the 

time of the interview. 

 For all children, scores for Whole Grains and Dark Green and Orange Vegetables 

and Legumes were very low. In addition, the score for Total Vegetables was 

about 50 percent of the maximum possible score. These low scores indicate that 

children are not consuming recommended amounts of foods that contain 

vegetables—specifically dark green vegetables, orange vegetables, and 

legumes—and whole grains. 

 For all children, scores for Saturated Fat, Sodium, and Empty Calories were 

roughly half of the maximum possible scores. The low scores for these 

components indicate that children are consuming more saturated fat, sodium, and 

empty calories than is recommended. 

There were a few differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in HEI-2005 

component scores: 

 WIC children received a higher score for Sodium than either group of 

nonparticipant children, and also received a higher score for Empty Calories than 

income-eligible nonparticipant children. Compared with higher-income 

nonparticipant children, WIC children had lower scores for Dark Green and 

Orange Vegetables and Legumes and for Whole Grains, but had a higher score 

for Meat and Beans. 

63.2 63.7 61.8 62.8

0

20

40

60

80

100

All Children WIC Participants Income‐Eligible

Nonparticipants

Higher‐Income

Nonparticipants

Children 2-4 years old
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status xvi

Summary of Findings and Implications for WIC Nutrition Education 

This report describes the quality of the diets consumed by WIC children and nonparticipant 

children. Overall, the findings indicate that the diets of children that participate in WIC were 

generally comparable to the diets of children who did not participate in the program. 

Diet Adequacy and Excess 

 Almost all children (98% to 100%) had adequate usual intakes of vitamins and minerals 

with defined EARs, except for calcium, vitamin E, and vitamin D. 

 In general, WIC children and nonparticipant children had usual intakes of vitamins and 

minerals that were similar. 

 For all children, usual intakes of potassium and fiber were below the AI. Given the 

limitations of the AI standard, no firm conclusions can be drawn about the adequacy of 

children’s intakes of potassium or fiber. 

 There were no differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in usual 

intakes of sodium or saturated fat; however, intakes of these dietary components were 

excessive relative to recommendations. Three-quarters (74%) of children had usual 

sodium intakes that were excessive relative to the UL. In addition, less than 1 in 5 

children (17%) met the Dietary Guidelines recommendation for saturated fat. 

Diet Quality 

 Total HEI-2005 scores, which provide an overall measure of diet quality, were 

comparable for WIC children and nonparticipant children. 

 For all children, HEI-2005 scores indicated that intakes of whole grains and dark 

green and orange vegetables and legumes were low relative to recommendations. 

 In addition, HEI-2005 scores indicate that all children had intakes of saturated fat, 

sodium, and empty calories that exceeded recommended limits. 

 Compared with higher-income nonparticipant children, WIC children had lower 

scores for Dark Green and Orange Vegetables and Legumes, and for Whole Grains. 

 On the other hand, WIC children had a higher score for Sodium than either group of 

nonparticipants and had a higher score for Meat and Beans than higher-income 

nonparticipants. 

 WIC children obtained a smaller share of their total calorie intake from empty calories 

than income-eligible nonparticipant children. The difference in intakes of empty calories 

could be attributable to the fact that WIC children were more likely than income-eligible 

nonparticipant children to consume WIC cereals, which are lower in sugar.
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status xvii

Food Consumption Patterns 

Differences in food consumption patterns provide context for the differences in diet adequacy 

and excess and diet quality described above. Some examples of this include the following:14

 WIC children were less likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume 

discrete portions of vegetables and raw vegetables. These differences in food choices 

likely contributed to the lower HEI-2005 scores for Dark Green and Orange Vegetables 

and Legumes observed among WIC children in relation to higher-income nonparticipant 

children. 

 WIC children were less likely than either group of nonparticipant children to consume 

discrete portions of fruit (excluding juice). 

 WIC children were also less likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to 

consume discrete whole grain items, which resulted in a lower HEI score for Whole 

Grains among WIC children, relative to higher-income nonparticipant children. 

 WIC children were more likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume 

regular soda and noncarbonated sweetened beverages. WIC children were also more 

likely than either group of nonparticipant children to consume whole milk. 

 On the other hand, WIC children were more likely than either group of nonparticipant 

children to consume cow’s milk and less likely than income-eligible nonparticipants to 

consume added fats and oils. 

Overweight and Obesity 

 Approximately 21 percent of WIC children and nonparticipant children were overweight 

or obese (12% and 9%, respectively). 

 There were no differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in the 

proportions that were overweight or obese. 

Implications for WIC Nutrition Education 

Findings from this study confirm that continued nutrition education efforts are needed to help 

improve the quality of WIC children’s diets. The findings point to specific food consumption 

practices that may be useful targets for WIC nutrition education efforts with parents or 

caregivers: 

                                                            

14 Differences in the proportions of children consuming foods from the “supermarket aisle” food groups do not 

necessarily reflect differences in total food consumption from a food group because some foods may be consumed 

as part of a mixed dish and are therefore not counted in estimates for individual food groups.
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status xviii

 Consumption of whole milk. WIC children were more likely than either group of 

nonparticipant children to consume whole milk and less likely to consume lower-fat milk 

(including 2%, 1% and skim milk). Consumption of whole milk is not recommended for 

individuals over 2 years old because it is less nutrient-dense and contributes more empty 

calories than lower fat versions. Lower-fat milks have the same amounts of calcium and 

other nutrients as whole milk, but contribute fewer empty calories and less saturated fat. 

Whole milk is allowed in the new food packages for children 12–23 months old, and lowfat (1%), and fat-free (skim) milk are the standard milks authorized for children 2 years 

old and older. WIC nutrition education efforts should educate caregivers on the benefits 

of providing lower-fat milks to children over 2 years old. 

 Low consumption of fruits and vegetables. WIC children were less likely than higherincome nonparticipants to consume discrete portions vegetables and fruit (excluding 

juice). Increasing total consumption of fruits and vegetables is an effective strategy for 

increasing intakes of potassium and fiber and better aligning WIC children’s food choices 

with the Dietary Guidelines. Since the new WIC food package for children includes 

separate benefits to purchase fruits and vegetables, nutrition education efforts should 

encourage caregivers to offer a variety of fruits and vegetables to children each day—

both as discrete items and as part of mixed dishes. 

 Low consumption of whole grains. WIC children had lower concentrations of whole 

grains in their diets relative to higher-income nonparticipant children. The recommended 

concentration of whole grains in the Dietary Guidelines allows individuals to meet 

nutrient requirements without exceeding calorie needs. However, whole grains must 

replace refined (or non-whole) grains so that excess calories are not consumed. The new 

WIC food packages allow options for whole grain items such as whole grain cereals and 

breads. Nutrition education efforts with caregivers should focus on selecting WIC foods 

that are whole grain over non-whole grain options. 

 Consumption of empty calories. Another important focal point for WIC nutrition 

education is intakes of empty calories. For all children, intakes of empty calories greatly 

exceeded limits specified in the Dietary Guidelines. In addition, WIC children were more 

likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume regular soda and 

noncarbonated sweetened beverages, such as juice drinks. Nutrition education efforts 

should focus on decreasing intakes of foods that contribute empty calories in order to 

improve the overall quality of WIC children’s diets. This is also essential for reducing the 

prevalence of overweight and obesity. 

Continuing to target specific food choices through WIC nutrition education, such as the ones 

described above, may be an effective way to affect behavioral change that results in improved 

diet quality among WIC children. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 

Over time, nutrition assistance programs have expanded their focus from ensuring that program 

participants have enough to eat to improving the quality of the foods participants can access with 

program benefits. This shift reflects a growing consensus about the important role diet plays in 

the development of chronic diseases and recognition that benefits provided by Federal nutrition 

assistance programs should appropriately reflect Federal nutrition policy, which is based on the 

Dietary Guidelines for Americans, for the target populations. The Special Supplemental 

Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) provides nutrient-dense foods, 

nutrition education, and referrals to health care services for low-income pregnant, breastfeeding, 

and postpartum women; infants; and children up to 5 years old who are at nutritional risk. WIC 

aims to combat malnutrition and under-nutrition during critical periods of early childhood 

growth and development. WIC is funded by the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) of the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture (USDA).

FNS recognizes that strategies for improving the nutrition of WIC participants should be 

scientifically-based and use valid and reliable information about the current dietary practices of 

WIC participants. This study was commissioned in 2012 to provide such information. The study 

analyzes National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data from 2005 to 2008 

to examine differences in diet quality between WIC participants and nonparticipants. Although 

more recent data were available (NHANES 2009–2010), these data were not used for the 

primary analyses in this study due to substantial changes in the WIC food packages implemented 

in 2009. Due to the gradual implementation of new WIC food packages during the 2009-2010 

NHANES wave, we were unable to determine whether NHANES respondents were receiving the 

old or new WIC food package during the survey data collection. However, NHANES 2007–2010 

data were used to analyze dietary supplement use and nutrient intakes from supplements, because 

these data were not available in NHANES 2005–2006. 

Because the numbers of infants and pregnant, postpartum, and breastfeeding women in 

NHANES were small, the analysis focused on children who were age-eligible for WIC (children 

1–4 years old; up to 5 years old) (WIC children). Appendix E provides key findings for a limited 

set of outcomes for women and infants. The report updates a previous study that analyzed 1999–

2004 NHANES data and provides information on the quality of young children’s from multiple 

perspectives, including usual nutrient intakes and food consumption patterns. Information is 

presented for WIC children and two groups of nonparticipant children—those who were incomeeligible for WIC but did not participate in the program (based on caregiver report), and higherincome children who were not eligible for the program. Income-eligible nonparticipants were 

defined as children from families whose annual income is at or below 185 percent of the U.S. 

Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) poverty guideline. Higher-income 

nonparticipants were defined as children from families with annual income greater than 185 

percent of the poverty guideline. 

The intent of this report is to provide comprehensive picture of the diets of WIC children—a 

reference point that can be used to target efforts to improve children’s diets and as a benchmark 

for monitoring children’s diets over time. This research was not designed to assess the impact of 

WIC or in any way attribute differences observed between WIC participants and nonparticipants 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 2

to an effect of the program. Estimation of program impacts requires a randomized experiment or 

quasi-experimental design to control for selection bias (Wilde, 2007; Fox, Hamilton, & Lin, 

2004). In this report, we present only results of descriptive data analyses and comparisons 

between WIC participants and nonparticipants. 

We provide data on the adequacy of usual nutrient intakes of WIC participants and 

nonparticipants measured relative to accepted nutrition standards. Overall diet quality is 

measured in terms of the Healthy Eating Index-2005 and Healthy Eating Index-2010. We also 

present data on calorie intakes and weight status, as measured by body mass index. We provide 

context for these findings by examining food consumption patterns from three different 

perspectives: (1) proportions of children consuming the types of foods provided in the WIC food 

package, (2) proportions of children consuming foods from specific food groups and subgroups, 

and (3) average amounts of foods consumed from these food groups and subgroups, as measured 

in USDA Food Pattern units and in grams. 

This introductory chapter provides an overview of WIC, as well as a brief description of the data 

and methods used in the study. Findings are discussed in the chapters that follow: usual intakes of 

nutrients (Chapter 2), calorie intakes and body mass index (Chapter 3), empty calories (Chapter 

4), food consumption patterns (Chapter 5), and the Healthy Eating Index-2005 (Chapter 6). Key 

findings and conclusions are discussed in Chapter 7. Supporting information for the data and 

documentation of analytic methods is provided in Appendix A. Detailed data tables are presented 

in Appendices B and C. Appendix D discusses and presents data on the Healthy Eating Index2010. Lastly, Appendix E provides a summary of key findings for a limited set of outcomes for 

women and infants and corresponding data tables. 

The WIC Program 

WIC is the third largest of the 15 domestic nutrition assistance programs administered by FNS. 

In Federal fiscal year (FY) 2013, the program provided benefits to nearly 8.7 million participants 

per month, on average, at an annual cost of $6.5 billion.WIC food benefits comprise the largest 

component of program costs at $4.5 billion, or 70 percent of total program costs (USDA, 2014).

WIC provides Federal grants to States for supplemental foods, health care referrals, and nutrition 

education. Food benefits are provided to participants through food instruments, including 

electronic benefits, which are redeemable at authorized food stores. Benefits are based on 

specific food items determined by individual States and therefore, the cash value of monthly 

benefits varies by State and region. The national average value of monthly benefits in FY 2013 

was $43.26 per month (USDA, 2014). In FY 2012, about 54 percent of WIC participants were 

children 1–4 years old, 23 percent were infants, and 24 percent were women (Exhibit 1-1).15

Over half of all infants born in the U.S. participate in the WIC program.16 WIC operates in 50 

States, the District of Columbia, 34 Indian Tribal Organizations, and 5 territories. 

                                                            

15 http://www.fns.usda.gov/sites/default/files/pd/37WIC_Monthly.pdf , accessed 5/2/2014. 16 Data obtained at http://www.fns.usda.gov/wic/about-wic-wic-glance
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 3

Exhibit 1-1. Distribution of WIC Participants by Eligibility Category

Source: Johnson et al. (2013) WIC Participant and Program Characteristics 2012 

WIC Eligibility 

Applicants to WIC must reside in the State where they apply to the program and they must meet 

three eligibility criteria: categorical eligibility, income or adjunct eligibility, and be individually 

determined to be at “nutritional risk” by a health professional. There are five categories of WIC 

eligibility: (1-3) pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women; (4) infants; and (5) children 

up to 5 years old. Income eligibility is assessed in two ways. Individuals in these groups are 

automatically income-eligible due to enrollment (or enrollment of a family member) in the 

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Medicaid, Temporary Assistance for 

Needy Families (TANF), or certain other State-administered programs. Individuals who are not 

automatically income-eligible must have a gross annual family income at or below 185 percent 

of the DHHS poverty guideline for the size of their family. In 2012, three-quarters (74.6%) of 

WIC enrollees reported receiving benefits from at least one public assistance program that 

classified them as automatically income-eligible for WIC (Johnson et al., 2013). 

Additionally, applicants must be determined to be at nutritional risk by a health care professional 

such as a physician, nutritionist, or nurse. The health professional can be the applicant’s personal 

provider or a professional from the WIC clinic. Nutritional risk is based on medical and dietary 

conditions such as anemia, underweight status or high weight-for-height status, maternal age, 

history of pregnancy complications, poor pregnancy outcomes, inappropriate dietary patterns, or 

inadequate diet. All applicants must be seen by a health professional, and have their height and 

weight measured and blood drawn to test for anemia. The USDA provides a list of nutritional 

risk criteria, based on recommendations from the Institute of Medicine (IOM), to establish 

consistency across States; however, very few income-eligible people fail to meet nutrition risk 

criteria (Oliveira & Blaylock, 2003). 

Food Benefits 

State agencies use Federal grant money to provide WIC participants with food instruments—and 

in some States or select areas within States, electronic benefit cards—that can be used to 

purchase specific food items from authorized food vendors. WIC food packages are designed to 

supplement participants’ diets with specific nutrients and food groups. Food packages are 

10%

7%

7%

23%

19%

14%

12%

9% Pregnant

Breast‐feeding

Postpartum

Infants

1 Year Old

2 Year Old

3 Year Old

4 Year Old
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 4

tailored to the specifics needs of different participation groups (for example, infants, children, 

and pregnant and breastfeeding women). State WIC agencies designate specific brands and sizes 

of approved food products within categories determined by FNS according to the nutritional 

content of each item and cost containment goals of each State agency. The WIC food package 

for children that was in place when NHANES 2005–2008 data were collected included foods in 

five categories: juice, cereal, milk and/or cheese, eggs, and legumes (dried beans or peanut 

butter).

Major changes in the content of the WIC food packages were implemented nationwide in 2009, 

after the data used in this study were collected. Changes focused on providing additional 

nutrients and foods that are typically under-consumed by the WIC population, and less of the 

nutrients that are typically over-consumed. New food packages provide participants with a wider 

variety of foods, including fruits and vegetables and whole grains. They also provide WIC State 

agencies greater flexibility in prescribing food packages to accommodate the cultural food 

preferences of participants. 

Nutrition Education 

FNS regulations require local WIC service agencies to offer participants (or their caregivers) at 

least two nutrition education sessions during each certification period (Johnson et al., 2013). 

Participants may be counseled in one-on-one settings or attend group classes. As part of nutrition 

education and counseling, breastfeeding is promoted as the optimal source of infant nutrition. 

Nutrition education has two main goals: 

1. to emphasize the relationship between nutrition, physical activity, and health, with special 

emphasis on the nutritional needs of pregnant, postpartum, and breastfeeding women, 

infants, and children under 5 years old 

2. to assist individuals at nutritional risk in achieving positive changes in dietary and 

physical activity habits through optimal use of WIC supplemental foods and other 

nutritious foods. 

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 

NHANES is conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) and is designed to 

provide national estimates of the health and nutrition status of the civilian, non-institutionalized 

population in the 50 United States. The survey includes interviews, physical examinations, and 

laboratory tests. Beginning in 1999, NHANES became a continuous annual survey with data 

released in public data files every two years. All of the analyses in this report are based on 

survey data from NHANES 2005–2008, except the analyses of dietary supplement use and 

nutrient intakes from supplements. These analyses were based on NHANES 2007–2010 data, 

because 24-hour data on dietary supplements were not available in NHANES 2005–2006. These 

data are described below and more fully in Appendix A. 

NHANES Dietary Interview Data 

This study relies primarily on data from the NHANES 24-hour dietary recall interview, which 

collects quantitative data on foods and beverages consumed during the preceding 24 hours (Day1 Dietary Recall). The dietary recall is collected using USDA’s dietary data collection method—
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 5

the Automated Multiple-Pass Method (AMPM). Respondents are provided with measurement 

aids to assist in estimating the portion sizes of foods consumed. The first dietary interview is 

conducted in person and the second dietary interview is conducted by telephone, 3–10 days after 

the initial dietary interview. The Day-2 Dietary Recall is used to control for within-person dayto-day variance in nutrient intakes when estimating usual nutrient intakes. For children less than 

6 years old, the dietary recall interviews are conducted with a proxy who is generally the person 

most knowledgeable about the child’s dietary intake. For children 6 to 11 years, the interviews 

are conducted with the child and the proxy. 

The dietary interview component of NHANES is referred to as What We Eat in America 

(WWEIA),17 and is designed in partnership between NCHS and the USDA’s Food Surveys 

Research Group. USDA's Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies (FNDDS) is used to 

process the dietary intake data. FNDDS includes comprehensive information that is used to code 

individual foods and portion sizes reported by respondents, and it also includes nutrient values 

for calculating daily nutrient intakes. FNDDS nutrient values are updated for every 2-year 

WWEIA release cycle. NCHS’ public data releases of NHANES data include an individual foodlevel file (containing one record for each food item reported by each respondent) and a total 

nutrient-intakes file (containing one record per respondent with total nutrient intakes for the day) 

(CDC, 2013). 

NHANES Interview and Examination Data 

This study also uses data collected through the NHANES household interview, survey 

questionnaires, and physical examination. These NHANES components gather information on 

socio-demographic characteristics (WIC program participation, age, and sex) and body 

measurements (height and weight). 

Other Data Sources 

Food Patterns equivalents data—which were formerly referred to as MyPyramid equivalents 

data—were used to construct several nutrition outcome measures (Bowman et al., 2013). The 

analysis was conducted prior to the release of the Food Patterns Equivalents Database (FPED), 

so the main source of Food Patterns data was the MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED). 

The following data sources were used to obtain Food Patterns data for each food reported in the 

NHANES 2005–2008 data: 

 MyPyramid Equivalents Database for USDA Survey Foods, version 2.0 (MPED 2.0) 

 Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Addendum to MPED 2.0B 

 CNPP Fruit Database (03–04) 

                                                            

17 What We Eat in America (WWEIA), NHANES is a national food survey conducted as a partnership between the 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). WWEIA 

represents the integration of two nationwide surveys—USDA's Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals 

(CSFII) and DHHS' NHANES. Under the integrated framework, DHHS is responsible for the sample design and 

data collection. USDA is responsible for the survey's dietary data collection methodology, development and 

maintenance of the food and nutrient databases used to code and process the data, and data review and processing. 

The two surveys were integrated in 2002.
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 6

These sources provide data on the amounts of over 30 Food Pattern components included in 100 

grams of food (Bowman et al., 2008; Bowman et al., 2013). The Food Pattern components are 

defined as the numbers of cup equivalents of fruit, vegetables, and dairy; ounce equivalents of 

grains and protein foods; teaspoon equivalents of added sugars; and gram equivalents of solid 

fats and oils; and number of alcoholic drinks. We linked each unique food reported in the 

NHANES 2005–2008 food-level files to the appropriate Food Patterns data source, and 

computed the amounts of each Food Pattern component consumed, based on the amount of food 

reported by each individual.

NHANES Samples for Tabulation 

This report contains tabulations of dietary measures for WIC participants and two groups of 

nonparticipants. WIC participants were defined as children whose caregiver reported that they 

currently received WIC benefits. Children whose caregiver did not report current receipt of WIC 

benefits were considered nonparticipants. Income-eligible nonparticipants were defined as 

children in families with an annual family income of less than or equal to 185 percent of the 

DHHS poverty guidelines for the size of their family. Higher-income nonparticipants were 

defined as children in families with an annual family income greater than 185 percent of the 

DHHS poverty guidelines. 

All analyses in this report are based on NHANES respondents with complete Day-1 Dietary 

Recall data. To compute all dietary measures other than usual nutrient intakes, we used only 

Day-1 Dietary Recall data. For the usual nutrient intake analysis, we used both Day-1 and Day-2 

Dietary Recall data. For most analyses, the analysis sample included children 1–4 years old (that 

is, children 1 year old up to 5 years old).18 Appendix E includes a summary of key findings for 

selected outcomes for pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women and for infants 0–11 

months old (up to 12 months) and corresponding tabulations. Because sample sizes for many of 

the analyses of infants and women are small, many point estimates are statistically unreliable. 

We report these point estimates in Appendix E, but they should be interpreted with caution. 

Tabulations of WIC participants, income-eligible nonparticipants, and higher-income 

nonparticipants are provided for all children 1–4 years old. In addition, most of the tabulations 

included in the appendices provide separate estimates for children 1 year old, 2 years old, 3 years 

old, and 4 years old. Sample sizes and weighted population counts for the groups of WIC 

participant children and both groups of nonparticipant children are shown in Exhibit 1-2.19

Sampling weights for this subsample of the NHANES population are discussed in Appendix A. 

                                                            

18 Children 1 year old are excluded from estimates for nutrition outcomes that apply only to children 2 years old and 

older.

19 Similar tables for infants and women are presented in Appendix E. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 7

Exhibit 1-2. WIC Analytic Sample: Sample Sizes and Weighted Population Counts 

All children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Sample sizes 

All children 1,956 791 496 606 

 1 year old 566 305 96 153 

 2 years old 587 223 162 183 

 3 years old 389 132 104 134 

 4 years old 414 131 134 136 

Weighted population counts 

All children 16,139,722 4,511,493 3,467,431 7,529,940 

 1 year old 3,851,898 1,492,788 533,805 1,721,087 

 2 years old 4,231,516 1,171,965 962,333 1,961,955 

 3 years old 3,817,675 914,437 814,992 1,864,752 

 4 years old 4,238,633 932,302 1,156,301 1,982,146 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recall data. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: ’All children” includes respondents with missing WIC participation or income. Weighted population counts are 

based on NHANES dietary day-1 sample weights. 

Characteristics of WIC Participant and Nonparticipant Children 

Exhibit 1-3 presents race and ethnicity data for WIC children, income-eligible nonparticipant 

children, and higher-income nonparticipant children. WIC children were more likely than 

income-eligible and higher-income nonparticipant children to be Mexican American or other 

Hispanic, and were less likely to be non-Hispanic white. WIC children were also more likely 

than higher-income nonparticipant children to be non-Hispanic black.

Exhibit 1-3. Race and Ethnicity of WIC Participants and Nonparticipants 

All children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error 

Race/ethnicity

Children 1–4 years old 

 Mexican American 15.9 (1.86) 29.5 (3.23) 17.0 ** (2.42) 7.3 *** (1.10) 

 Other Hispanic 7.1 (1.28) 12.1 (2.89) 5.8 * (1.29) 4.5 * (1.19) 

 Non-Hispanic White 55.1 (3.38) 29.8 (5.43) 48.2 ** (4.40) 72.8 *** (3.00) 

 Non-Hispanic Black 14.3 (1.96) 22.6 (3.57) 19.4 (3.49) 7.3 *** (1.06) 

 Other race, multi-racial 7.7 (1.25) 5.9 (1.11) 9.6 (2.17) 8.1 (1.84) 

Sample size, unweighted 1,956 791 496 606 

Sample size, weighted 16,139,722 4,511,493 3,467,431 7,529,940 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 demographics data. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: ’All children includes respondents with missing WIC participation or income. Significant differences in 

proportions are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison 

to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 8

General Analytic Approach 

We describe differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in their nutrient 

intakes, body mass index, food consumption patterns, and overall diet quality. We provide 

descriptive statistics with significance tests that indicate whether differences between WIC 

children and either group of nonparticipant children are statistically significant. 

WIC participants generally tend to be younger than both groups of nonparticipant children. For 

this reason, we present age-adjusted estimates that eliminate between-group differences that are 

due solely to differences in the age distributions of the groups. Data for all children are “builtup” from estimates for smaller age groups, standardized according to the age distribution of the 

U.S. population in the year 2010.20

We tested the statistical significance of differences between WIC children and each group of 

nonparticipant children using t-tests. Detailed tables provided in Appendices B–E differentiate 

three levels of statistical significance (p <.001, .01, and .05). Because of the large number of ttests conducted (comparing WIC children and each group of nonparticipant children, overall and 

by age group), we urge caution in interpreting results; a proportion of these tests would be 

expected to be significant just by chance. Although some comparisons may be statistically 

significant, the practical significance of the results may be limited, and should be interpreted 

with this limitation in mind. 

We generally focus discussions on differences between WIC participants and one or both groups 

of nonparticipants, although we may make reference to other between-group differences (for 

example, by year of age) when the differences are noteworthy. The statistical significance of 

these secondary comparisons has not been tested, however, because of the large number of 

statistical tests computed and because these comparisons are not the focus of this report. 

Additional information about the analytic approach, including use of NHANES sampling 

weights, calculation of standard errors, and age standardization is provided in Appendix A. We 

also identify individual point estimates that do not meet the standards of reliability or precision 

because of large coefficients of variation. In keeping with NHANES reporting guidelines, such 

estimates are reported in detailed tables, but are clearly flagged with a “u” for unreliable. In some 

cases, between-group differences may be statistically significant even when one point estimate is 

unreliable. We do not discuss results in the text that were determined to be unreliable and do not 

discuss comparisons where either estimate in the comparison was determined to be unreliable. 

In the following chapters, we summarize key findings and illustrate observed differences 

between WIC children and nonparticipant children in a variety of graphics and tables. In the 

graphics, we denote differences that are statistically significant at the 5-percent level or better. 

                                                            

20 Age standardization was applied to estimates for the following age groups: children 1 year old, children 2 years 

old, children 3 years old, children 4 years old. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 9

As noted previously, this research was not designed to measure the impact of WIC participation 

on diet quality. Thus, significant differences that appear between WIC participants and 

nonparticipants cannot be attributed to participation in WIC. At the same time, the absence of a 

significant difference cannot be interpreted as evidence that participation in WIC has no effect. 

Accurate assessment of WIC impacts requires specially designed studies or, at minimum, 

complex analytical models that require a variety of measures, some of which are not available in 

the NHANES data.
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 10

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Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 11

CHAPTER 2. USUAL NUTRIENT INTAKES 

To assess the prevalence of adequate and excessive nutrient intakes among WIC children and 

nonparticipant children (1–4 years old), we estimated usual intakes of vitamins, minerals, 

macronutrients, and other dietary components. We then compared usual intake distributions to the 

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) and selected 2010 Dietary Guidelines recommendations. The 

DRIs, established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine provide guidelines 

on intake amounts appropriate for a given individual based on age, gender, and life stage (IOM, 

1997; IOM, 1998; IOM, 2000; IOM, 2001; IOM, 2005a; IOM, 2005b; IOM, 2006; IOM, 

2011).The DRIs are the most up-to-date scientific standards for determining whether diets provide 

enough nutrients to meet requirements without being excessive. The DRIs include four different 

standards (see text box) and we used the most appropriate standard for each nutrient. 

We used the method developed by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) to estimate usual intake 

distributions, mean intakes, and the percent of individuals with usual intakes that were above, 

below, or within DRI standards or 2010 Dietary Guidelines recommendations (Parsons, Munuo, 

Buckman, Tooze, & Dodd, 2009). Estimates reflect nutrient intakes from foods and beverages and 

do not include nutrient contributions from dietary supplements. A detailed description of the NCI 

method and the DRI standards are provided in Appendix A. Full tabulations (including mean 

intakes, usual intake distributions, and percent of children above, below, or within standards and 

recommendations) are provided in Appendix B, Tables B-1 to B-36. When discussing differences 

between WIC participants and nonparticipants, we focus only on statistically significant 

differences. 

Usual Nutrient Intakes 

Data 

 NHANES 2005–2008: One or two 24-hour 

recalls per child 

Sample 

 Children 1–4 years old; children 2–4 years for 

comparison to 2010 Dietary Guidelines

Measures 

 National Cancer Institute (NCI) method for 

estimating: 

o Mean usual intake 

o Percent of children with usual intakes 

above, below, or within standards 

o Distributions of usual intake 

Dietary Supplement Use 

Data 

 NHANES 2007–2010: Total Nutrient Intakes 

files and Dietary Supplements files 

Sample 

 Children 1–4 years old 

Measures 

 Percent taking dietary supplement 

 Percent contribution of dietary supplements 

to total nutrient intakes 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 12

Usual Intakes of Vitamins and Minerals with Defined Estimated Average 

Requirements 

The EAR is the average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirement of half of the 

healthy individuals in a life stage and gender group. The proportion of a group with usual intakes 

greater than or equal to the EAR is an estimate of the prevalence of adequate intakes in that 

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) and Dietary Guidelines Recommendations 

 

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): The EAR is the average daily nutrient intake level 

estimated to meet the requirement of half of the healthy individuals in a life stage and gender 

group. The proportion of a group with usual intakes equal to or greater than the EAR is an 

estimate of the prevalence of adequate usual intakes in that population group. In this chapter, 

we focus on the prevalence of adequate usual intakes for the following vitamins and minerals 

that have defined EARs: vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, vitamin E, 

folate, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, and zinc. 

Adequate Intake (AI): The AI is a recommended average intake level that is assumed to be 

adequate for healthy individuals in a life stage and gender group, based on observed or 

experimentally determined estimates of intake. An AI is defined when insufficient data are 

available to estimate requirements and establish an EAR. Unlike an EAR, the AI cannot be 

used to estimate the prevalence of adequate intakes in a population. Instead, assessment 

focuses on comparison of mean usual intakes to the AI. Populations with mean usual intakes 

that meet or exceed AI levels can be assumed to have high levels of nutrient adequacy. 

However, when mean usual intakes fall below the AI, no firm conclusions can be drawn about 

the prevalence of adequate usual intakes. In this chapter, we focus on intakes of potassium, 

dietary fiber, and sodium by examining the mean usual intakes as a percent of the AI. 

Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): The UL is the maximum level of daily nutrient intake that 

is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for almost all individuals in the general 

population. As intake increases above the UL, the potential risk of adverse effects may 

increase. We assessed intakes of sodium relative to the UL. (ULs for other nutrients are based 

on intakes from foods and supplements and are not examined in this report.) 

Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR): The AMDRs reflect a range of usual 

intakes associated with reduced risk of chronic disease, while providing adequate intakes of 

other essential nutrients (IOM 2005). The DRIs define AMDRs for intakes of macronutrients as 

percentages of total calorie intake. Intakes that are above or below the AMDR may increase 

risk of chronic disease. In this chapter, we focus on the percent of individuals with usual 

intakes of total fat, protein, and carbohydrate (as a percent of total calories) above, below, or 

within the AMDRs. 

2010 Dietary Guidelines Recommendations: The 2010 Dietary Guidelines provide 

quantitative recommendations for intakes of saturated fat (as a percent of total calories), 

sodium, and cholesterol. The recommendations apply to individuals 2 years old and older. In 

this chapter, we focus on usual intakes of saturated fat that meet the Dietary Guidelines

recommendation of less than 10 percent of total calories from saturated fat. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 13

population group.21 We assessed the prevalence of adequate usual intakes for the following 

vitamins and minerals with defined EARs: vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin B6, vitamin 

B12, vitamin E, folate, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, and 

zinc. Nearly all children 1–4 years old (98% to 100%) had adequate usual intakes of folate, iron, 

magnesium, niacin, phosphorus, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin A, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, vitamin 

C, and zinc (Exhibit 2-1). 

Exhibit 2-1. Percent of Children 1–4 Years Old with Adequate Usual Intakes 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution 

of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer Institute (NCI) 

method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants 

and nonparticipants. 

Eighty-five percent of children had adequate usual intakes of calcium. The prevalence of adequate 

usual intakes was markedly lower for vitamin E (17%) and vitamin D (16%). For most vitamins 

and minerals, the prevalence of adequate usual intakes was similar for WIC children and both 

groups of nonparticipant children (Exhibit 2-2). 

                                                            

21 For women of childbearing age, it is not appropriate to use this method to assess the prevalence of adequate usual 

intakes of iron. The exception for iron, however, is not applicable to this analysis which focuses on young children. 

16%

17%

85%

98%

99%

99%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Vitamin D

Vitamin E

Calcium

Vitamin A

Magnesium

Vitamin C

Niacin

Zinc

Folate

Thiamin

Iron

Phosphorus

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B12

Riboflavin

Percent of Children
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 14

Exhibit 2-2. Prevalence of Adequate Usual Intakes of Vitamins and Minerals 

 Percent of children 1–4 years old 

 All children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipant 

Higher-income 

nonparticipant 

Vitamins 

Vitamin A 98.3 98.0 98.2 98.9 

Vitamin C 99.4 99.6 99.5 99.4 

Vitamin D 15.6 16.7 12.5 16.7 

Vitamin B6 100.0 100.0 99.8 100.0 

Vitamin B12 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Vitamin E 17.1 21.5 18.1 10.2*

Folate 99.8 99.9 99.4 99.9 

Niacin 99.7 99.8 99.4 99.6 

Riboflavin 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Thiamin 99.9 100.0 99.8 99.9 

 Minerals 

Calcium 85.3 86.6 84.4 86.3 

Iron 99.9 100.0 100.0 99.8 

Magnesium 99.2 99.2 99.0 99.2 

Phosphorus 99.9 99.9 99.8 99.9 

Zinc 99.8 99.8 99.9 99.8 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution 

of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer Institute (NCI) 

method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants 

and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 

level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits 

at the time of the interview. 

It is important to note that the low prevalence of adequate usual intakes of vitamin E among 

children is unlikely to have meaningful public health significance. The 2010 Dietary Guidelines

Advisory Committee examined nutrients with usual intakes below recommendations—referred to 

as “shortfall nutrients”—to identify those of public health concern (Dietary Guidelines Advisory 

Committee, 2010). Examination of biochemical indices did not indicate a related public health 

problem for vitamin E. In addition, it has been suggested that the EARs for vitamin E may need to 

be reassessed (Devaney et al., 2007). Although the 2010 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee 

did consider vitamin D to be of public health concern, it also stated that 80 percent of Americans 

have adequate vitamin D blood levels (USDA & DHHS, 2010). Vitamin D is unique in that 

sunlight on the skin enables the body to make vitamin D. For these reasons, findings related to the 

prevalence of adequate usual intakes for these nutrients should be interpreted with caution. 

For these reasons, findings related to the prevalence of adequate usual intakes for these nutrients 

should be interpreted with caution. 

Usual Intakes of Nutrients Assessed Using Adequate Intake Levels 

EARs are not defined for potassium, fiber, or sodium, so it is not possible to assess the adequacy 

of usual intakes of these dietary components. Populations with mean usual intakes that meet or 

exceed AI levels can be assumed to have high levels of nutrient adequacy. However, when mean 

usual intakes fall below the AI, no firm conclusions can be drawn about the prevalence of 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 15

adequate usual intakes. We examined intakes of potassium, fiber, and sodium by examining mean 

usual intakes as a percent of the AI. 

Potassium 

Children 1–4 years old had a mean usual intake of potassium that was equivalent to 63 percent of 

the AI (Appendix B, Table B-18). WIC children had a higher mean usual intake of potassium than 

either income-eligible or higher-income nonparticipant children (67% of AI versus 60% and 61% 

of AI, respectively) (Exhibit 2-3). Given the limitations of the AI standard, these differences do 

not necessarily imply that WIC children were more likely than nonparticipant children to have 

adequate usual intakes of potassium. 

Exhibit 2-3. Usual Intakes of Potassium and Fiber, as a Percent of Adequate Intake (AI)

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution 

of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer Institute (NCI) 

method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age 

distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at 

least the .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving 

WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

Fiber 

Mean usual intakes of fiber were assessed as a percent of the AI and on a gram-per-calorie basis. 

The standard used to establish AIs for fiber is 14 grams per 1,000 calories, based on the median 

calorie intake for each age and gender group, as reported in the 1994–96, 98 Continuing Survey 

of Food Intakes by Individuals (IOM, 2005b).22 

Usual fiber intakes of WIC children and nonparticipant children were low relative to the AI. 

Overall, children’s mean usual intake of fiber was equivalent to 48 percent of the AI (Appendix 

B, Table B-21). There were no differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in 

                                                            

22 Estimated intakes of fiber include dietary fiber only, but AIs are established for total fiber (dietary and functional). 

Therefore, mean usual intakes of fiber may be underestimated. 

67%

48%

60%*

48%

61%*

48%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Potassium Fiber

Mean Percent of Al

Children 1-4 years old

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 16

usual fiber intakes (Exhibit 2-3). On a gram-per-1,000 calorie basis, mean usual intakes of fiber 

were about 7, which is approximately half of the 14 gram standard used in setting the AI 

(Appendix B, Table B-22). When fiber intakes were examined on a gram-per-calorie basis, WIC 

children had a lower mean usual intake of fiber than higher-income nonparticipant children, 

although the magnitude of the difference was small (6.7 g per 1,000 calories versus 7.2 g per 

1,000 calories). This suggests that WIC children are achieving a comparable usual fiber intake 

because they are consuming more calories than higher-income nonparticipant children (this is 

discussed in Chapter 3). 

Sodium 

For sodium, we assessed usual intakes relative to the UL as well as the AI. The UL is the 

maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for 

almost all individuals in the general population. As intake increases above the UL, the potential 

risk for adverse effects may increase. For sodium, individuals with usual intakes that exceed the 

UL may be at increased risk of hypertension. 

Overall, children’s mean usual intake of sodium was almost twice the AI (194% of AI) (Appendix 

B, Table B-19). There were no differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in 

usual sodium intakes. In addition, 74 percent of all children had usual sodium intakes that were 

excessive relative to the UL. There were no differences between WIC children and nonparticipant 

children in the proportion of children with usual intakes that exceeded the UL (Exhibit 2-4). 

Exhibit 2-4. Percent of Children with Usual Sodium Intakes above the Tolerable Upper Intake Level 

(UL)

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution 

of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer Institute (NCI) 

method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age 

distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at 

least the .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving 

WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

75% 77% 74%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Percent of Children

Children 1-4 years old

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 17

Usual Intakes of Macronutrients 

The DRIs define AMDRs for intakes of macronutrients (for example, total fat, protein, and 

carbohydrate). AMDRs are expressed as a percent of total calorie intakes and reflect a range of 

usual intakes associated with reduced risk of chronic disease, while providing adequate intakes of 

other essential nutrients (IOM, 2005). Intakes that are above or below the AMDR may increase 

risk of chronic disease. In assessing usual intakes relative to the AMDRs, we focused on the 

percent of children with usual intakes of total fat, protein, and carbohydrate (as a percent of 

calories) that were above, below, or within the respective AMDR. We also examined the percent 

of children with usual intakes of saturated fat that were consistent with the 2010 Dietary 

Guidelines recommendation (less than 10% of total calories from saturated fat). Children less than 

2 years old were excluded from the analysis of usual saturated fat intakes because the Dietary 

Guidelines do not apply to them. 

Total Fat 

Overall, 70 percent of children 1–4 years old had usual intakes of total fat that were consistent 

with the AMDR (Exhibit 2-5). Children with intakes that were not consistent with the AMDR 

were more likely to have fat intakes that were below the range recommended in the AMDR than 

to exceed the range. WIC children were less likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to 

have usual intakes of fat that were consistent with the AMDR (64% versus 74%); however, the 

proportions of WIC children and nonparticipant children with intakes above and below the 

AMDR were comparable (Exhibit 2-5). 

Exhibit 2-5. Usual Intakes of Macronutrients Compared to Standards

 Percent of children 1– 4 years old 

 All children WIC 

participants 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipant 

Higher-income 

nonparticipant 

Total fat 

Less than the AMDR 23.3 26.5 21.1 22.3 

Within the AMDR 69.8 63.8 69.6 73.7*

Above the AMDR 6.9 9.8 9.4 4.1 

Protein 

Less than the AMDR 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.7 

Within the AMDR 98.7 99.3 99.7 97.2 

Above the AMDR 1.0 0.6 0.2 2.1 

Carbohydrate 

Less than the AMDR 3.3 4.1 3.5 3.3 

Within the AMDR 94.4 92.1 94.7 94.3 

Above the AMDR 2.3 3.8 1.8 2.4 

Saturated fat, consistent w/ DGa 17.1 19.2 10.6 nr 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution 

of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer Institute (NCI) 

method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person For higher-income nonparticipants, the proportion of 

children with usual intakes of saturated fat that met the Dietary Guidelines recommendation could not be 

estimated using the NCI method. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. 

Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. 

Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 18

interview. AMDR = Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range; DG = 2010 Dietary Guidelines; nr = not 

reliable. a The 2010 Dietary Guidelines recommendation is less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fat. 

Estimates exclude children less than 2 years old. 

Protein 

The vast majority (99%) of WIC children and nonparticipant children had usual intakes of protein 

that were consistent with the AMDR (Exhibit 2-5). Usual intakes of protein were comparable for 

WIC children and nonparticipant children. 

Carbohydrate 

Similarly, almost all children (94%) had usual intakes of carbohydrate that were consistent with 

the AMDR, and intakes were comparable for WIC children and nonparticipant children (Exhibit 

2-5). 

Saturated Fat 

Less than 1 in 5 children (17%) met the Dietary Guidelines recommendation for saturated fat 

(Exhibit 2-5). There were no differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in the 

proportion that met the Dietary Guidelines recommendation for saturated fat (Exhibits 2-5 and 2-

6).23

Exhibit 2-6. Percent of Children Meeting the Dietary Guidelines Recommendation for Saturated Fat 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution 

of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer Institute (NCI) 

method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants 

and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at least the .05 level. Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. 

                                                            

23 For higher-income nonparticipants, the proportion of children with usual intakes of saturated fat that met the 

Dietary Guidelines recommendation could not be estimated using the NCI method.

19%

11%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Percent of Children

Children 2–4 years old 

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 19

Use of Dietary Supplements and Nutrient Intakes from Dietary Supplements 

Information on dietary supplement use is important in assessing usual nutrient intakes. Because 

the NHANES dietary recall interview did not start collecting data on 24-hour dietary supplement 

use until NHANES 2007–2008, the usual nutrient intake estimates reported previously in this 

chapter do not include contributions from dietary supplements. 

To gain some perspective on the contributions of dietary supplements to children’s nutrient 

intakes, we estimated the prevalence of supplement use and mean daily nutrient intakes from 

supplements using data from NHANES 2007–2010. We also examined the percent contribution of 

supplements to total nutrient intakes. Mean daily intakes of nutrients from foods and supplements 

are provided in Appendix C, Table C-2. The contribution of dietary supplements to nutrient intake 

levels recommended in the DRIs was also examined. Findings are not discussed in the chapter but 

are provided in Appendix C, Table C-4. All estimates were based on one-day intakes, and the 

analysis focused on intakes of vitamin and minerals among supplement users. The NHANES 

dietary supplement files do not include data for vitamin A and vitamin E, so these nutrients are 

not included in the analysis. Full tabulations are provided in Appendix C, Tables C-1 to C-4. 

Prevalence of Supplement Use 

More than 1 in 4 children (27%) took one or more supplements on the day covered in the dietary 

recall (Appendix C, Table C-1). Overall, WIC children were less likely than either incomeeligible or higher-income nonparticipant children to use supplements on the intake day (14% 

versus 26% and 34%, respectively) (Exhibit 2-7). 

Exhibit 2-7. Prevalence of Dietary Supplement Use on Intake Day 

Source: NHANES 2007–2010 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on one dietary recall per person. Totals for all children are age-adjusted to account for 

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are 

noted by * (at least the .05 level. Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as 

children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

14%

8%

16% 16% 17%

26%*

13%

32%*

21%

38%* 34%*

15%*

30%*

37%*

52%*

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

All Children 1‐4

Years

1 Year old 2 Years old 3 Years old 4 Years old

Percent of Children

Children 1-4 years old

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 20

Supplement use was more common after the first year of life, increasing from 12 percent among 

children 1 year to 26-28 percent among children 2 and 3 years old and 40 percent among children 

4 years old (Appendix C, Table C-1). WIC children in each age group were less likely than their 

higher-income nonparticipant counterparts to use dietary supplements (Exhibit 2-7). The 

magnitude of the differences between WIC children and higher-income nonparticipant children 

was largest among children 4 years old (17% versus 52%). Among children 2 and 4 years old, 

WIC children were less likely than income-eligible children to use a dietary supplement (16% 

versus 32% for children 2 years old, and 17% versus 38% for children 4 year old). 

Contribution of Supplements to Total Daily Nutrient Intakes 

We examined the percent contribution of supplements to total nutrient intakes in two groups of 

supplement users: (1) all supplement users, which includes children that took any dietary 

supplement on the day covered in the dietary recall; and (2) multivitamin users, which includes 

the subset of supplement users that took at least one multivitamin on the intake day. 

Multivitamins were defined as supplements that contained three or more vitamins and at least one 

mineral. 

Among all supplement users, supplements contributed approximately half (48%) of total daily 

intakes of vitamin D and 42 to 44 percent of total daily intakes of vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and 

folate (Exhibit 2-8). Supplements contributed 38 percent of vitamin C intakes and 23 to 28 

percent of iron, riboflavin, niacin, thiamin, and zinc intakes. Supplements made smaller 

contributions to total daily intakes of calcium (5%), magnesium (4%), phosphorus (3%), and 

potassium (less than 1%). 

Among multivitamin users, multivitamins contributed approximately 50 percent of users’ total 

daily intakes of vitamin D, B6, B12, and folate (Appendix C, Table C-3). In addition, 

multivitamins contributed 36 to 39 percent of zinc and vitamin C intakes and 23 to 28 percent of 

riboflavin, niacin, thiamin, and iron intakes. Multivitamins made smaller contributions to total 

daily intakes of calcium (6%), magnesium (5%), phosphorus (4%), and potassium (less than 1%). 

In both groups of supplement users, there were no differences between WIC children and 

nonparticipant children in the contribution of supplements and multivitamins to total daily 

nutrient intakes. 

 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 21

Exhibit 2-8. Proportion of Daily Nutrient Intakes from Dietary Supplements, among All Supplement 

Users 

Source: NHANES 2007–2010 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods, beverages, and dietary supplements. 

Notes: Estimates are based on one dietary recall per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Totals are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants 

and nonparticipants. 

   

3%

4%

5%

23%

23%

26%

27%

28%

38%

42%

42%

44%

48%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Phosphorus

Magnesium

Calcium

Riboflavin

Iron

Niacin

Thiamin

Zinc

Vitamin C

Vitamin B6

Folate

Vitamin B12

Vitamin D

Percent Contribution to Daily Nutrient Intakes

Children 1-4 years old
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 22

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Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 23

CHAPTER 3. USUAL INTAKES OF CALORIES AND BODY MASS INDEX 

In this chapter, we examine usual intakes of calories and body mass index (BMI). Achieving and 

maintaining an appropriate body weight is vital to sustaining good health (USDA & DHHS, 

2010). The key to maintaining a healthy weight is achieving calorie (or energy) balance over 

time—this refers to the relationship between calories consumed and expended. The total number 

of calories a child needs each day varies by age, gender, height, weight, and level of physical 

activity (Exhibit 3-1). Imbalances between calorie intake and expenditure result in gains or losses 

of body fat, which affects body weight. Excess calorie consumption over time can result in 

overweight and obesity. 

It is difficult to assess whether usual calorie intakes are consistent with or exceed requirements. 

An individual’s estimated energy requirement (EER) is only an approximation of calorie 

requirements and actual requirements vary among individuals. Calorie requirements are also 

strongly influenced by physical activity, but activity levels are not precisely measured in most 

surveys, including NHANES. In addition, dietary intake is often underreported in surveys, 

especially by individuals who are overweight or obese (Moshfegh, et al., 2008), which makes it 

difficult to assess accurately the appropriateness of usual calorie intakes. Thus, BMI is 

recommended for assessing the appropriateness of usual calorie intakes (for children 2 years and 

older) because it provides a reliable indicator of the extent to which long-run (or usual) calorie 

intakes are consistent with or exceed requirements (IOM, 2005a). 

Exhibit 3-1. Estimated Daily Calorie Needs by Age and Physical Activity Levela,b

Age 

Estimated daily calories needsc

Sedentary Moderately active Active 

Children 

 2–3 years old 1,000–1,200d 1,000–1,400d 1,000–1,600d

 4 years old 1,200–1,400d 1,400–1,600d 1,500–1,900d,e

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for 

Americans, 2010. 7th Edition, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 2010. 

http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/DGAs2010-PolicyDocument.htm 

Notes: Estimated amounts of calories needed to maintain calorie balance for various age groups at three different 

levels of physical activity. The estimates are rounded to the nearest 100 or 200 calories. An individual’s 

calorie needs may be higher or lower than these average estimates. 

a Calorie needs are not estimated for children 1 year old. 

b Sedentary means a lifestyle that includes only the light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life. 

Moderately active means a lifestyle that includes physical activity equivalent to walking about 1.5 to 3 miles 

per day at 3 to 4 miles per hour, in addition to the light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life. 

Active means a lifestyle that includes physical activity equivalent to walking more than 3 miles per day at 3 to 

4 miles per hour, in addition to the light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life. c Based on Estimated Energy Requirements (EER) equations, using reference heights (average) and reference 

weights (healthy) for each age group. For children, reference height and weight vary. EER equations are from 

the Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, 

Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington (DC): The National Academies Press; 2002. d The calorie ranges shown are to accommodate needs of different ages within the group. For children, more 

calories are needed at older ages. e Estimates for children 4 years old reflect averages for active boys and girls.
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 24

In this chapter, we present key findings on usual calorie intakes and BMI separately for each age 

group. We discuss only statistically significant differences between WIC children and 

nonparticipant children below. 

Usual Intakes of Calories 

We used the method developed by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) to estimate usual intakes of 

calories (Parsons, Munuo, Buckman, Tooze, & Dodd, 2009). A detailed description of the NCI 

method is provided in Appendix A. 

WIC children overall had a higher usual calorie intake than higher-income nonparticipants (1,482 

calories versus 1,373 calories) (Appendix C, Table C-5). No differences were observed between 

WIC children and nonparticipant children by year of age (Exhibit 3-2). 

Usual Intakes of Calories 

Data 

 NHANES 2005–2008: One or two 24-hour recalls per child 

Sample 

 Children 1–4 years old 

Measures 

 National Cancer Institute (NCI) method for estimating: 

• Mean usual intake 

• Distributions of usual intake 

Body Mass Index 

Data 

 NHANES 2005–2008 

• Single 24-hour recall per person 

• Body measures file 

Sample 

 Children 2–4 years old 

Measures 

 Proportion of children in each weight category, based on BMI-for-age 

percentiles 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 25

Exhibit 3-2. Usual Intakes of Calories

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution 

of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer Institute (NCI) 

method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at 

least the .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving 

WIC benefits at the time of the interview.

Body Mass Index 

BMI is a measure of the relationship between height and weight and is a widely accepted index 

for classifying the weight status of individuals as underweight, having a healthy weight, 

overweight, or obese. Individuals who are overweight or obese have an increased risk of many 

health problems, including type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer (USDA & 

DHHS 2010). BMI can also be used to assess the appropriateness of usual calorie intakes (IOM, 

2005a). 

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends using BMI to screen for 

overweight and obesity in children beginning at 2 years old. Because children grow at different 

rates at different times, children’s weight status is determined by using BMI-for-age percentiles 

that take into account a child’s age and gender. The CDC defines four different weight categories 

for children based on BMI-for-age percentiles (Exhibit 3-3). A BMI in the healthy range indicates 

that usual calorie intakes are consistent with requirements, and a BMI above the healthy range 

indicates that usual calorie intakes exceed requirements. 

To assess weight status and estimate the prevalence of overweight and obesity among WIC 

children and nonparticipant children, we assigned NHANES sample members to weight 

categories based on their BMI-for-age percentiles. The analysis excludes children 2 years old and 

younger because BMI standards do not apply to them. 

1,290

1,528 1,547 1,556

1,465 1,466 1,517 1,529

1,373 1,399 1,425 1,477

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

1 Year 2 Years 3 Years 4 Years

Calories

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 26

Exhibit 3-3. Weight Categories for Children, Based on BMI-for-Age Percentiles

Weight category Children (2–4 years old)a 

Underweight BMI < 5th percentile 

Healthy weight 5th percentile ≤ BMI < 85th percentile 

Overweight 85th ≤ BMI < 95th percentile 

Obese BMI ≥ 95th percentile 

a The CDC recommends using BMI to screen for overweight and obesity in children beginning at 2 years old. 

More than three-quarters of children 2–4 years old (77%) had a healthy weight (Appendix C, 

Table C-6). Approximately 1 in 10 (12%) were overweight and another 9 percent were obese. 

Compared to children 2 and 3 years old, children 4 years old had a higher rate of obesity (11% 

versus 7% and 8% for children 2 and 3 years old, respectively) (Appendix C, Table C-6). 

Children 2 years old had the highest prevalence of overweight, relative to children 3 and 4 

years old (15% versus 11% and 10% for children 3 and 4 years old). 

When examining all children 2–4 years old together, there were no differences between WIC 

children and either group of nonparticipant children in the proportion of children in each 

weight category (Exhibit 3-4). 

Exhibit 3-4. Distributions of Weight Status 

Children 2–4 Years Old 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 body measures data. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data and height and weight data, 2–4 years old. 

Notes: For children, weight categories are defined as: underweight if BMI-for-age is < the 5th percentile on the CDC 

BMI-for-age growth chart; healthy weight if BMI-for-age is >= 5th and < the 85th percentiles; overweight if 

BMI-for-age is >= than the 85th and < the 95th percentiles; and obese if BMI-for-age is >= the 95th percentile. 

Percentages for all children 2–4 years old are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC 

participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at least the .05 level). 

Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the 

time of the interview.

3%

3%

3%

80%

74%

74%

10%

14%

12%

8%

9%

11%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Higher‐Income Nonparticipants

Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants

WIC Participants

Underweight Healthy Weight Overweight Obese
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 27

CHAPTER 4. CONSUMPTION OF EMPTY CALORIES 

In this chapter, we examine the contribution of empty calories to total calorie intakes for WIC 

children and nonparticipant children. The consumption of empty calories is an important aspect of 

diet quality. Foods and beverages that contain empty calories contribute calories to a diet while 

providing few nutrients. For children, empty calories come from two main sources: solid fats and 

added sugars. The 2010 Dietary Guidelines recommend reducing consumption of solid fats and 

added sugars to allow for intake of recommended amounts of nutrient-dense foods (that is, foods 

that are fat-free or low fat with no added sugars) without exceeding overall calorie needs. The 

Dietary Guidelines specify maximum daily limits for empty calories for individuals 2 years and 

older, based on estimated calorie needs for three different physical activity levels (Exhibit 4-1). 

As shown in Exhibit 4-1, maximum daily limits for empty calories range from 121 to 137 

calories, or 10 to 14 percent of total calories for sedentary individuals,24 among children 2–4 years 

old. Children under 2 years old were excluded from the analysis because the Dietary Guidelines

do not apply to them. 

To assess the consumption of empty calories among WIC participants and nonparticipants, we 

estimated the percent contribution of empty calories to total calorie intakes. Additional 

information on the construction of the empty calories measures is provided in Appendix A. 

Estimates are based on a single day of intake. In this chapter, we discuss only statistically 

significant differences between WIC participants and income-eligible or higher-income 

nonparticipants. 

Exhibit 4-1. Estimated Calorie Needs and Maximum Limits on Empty Calories

Age Group 

Estimated daily calories needsa Maximum daily limit on empty calories 

Sedentary Moderately active Active Calories As a percent of total 

caloriesb

Children 

 2–3 years old 1,000 1,200 1,400 137 14 

 4 years oldc 1,300 1,500 1,900 121 10 a Estimated daily calorie needs are rounded to the nearest 200 calories for consistency with USDA Food Patterns. An 

individual’s calorie needs may be higher or lower than these average estimates. 

b Maximum limits for empty calories are expressed as a percent of total calories, based on estimated calorie needs for 

sedentary individuals. 

c Estimates for children 4 years old reflect averages for boys and girls. 

Empty Calories Consumed by WIC Children and Nonparticipant Children 

All groups of children greatly exceeded maximum limits for empty calories specified in the 2010 

Dietary Guidelines (Exhibit 4-1 and Appendix C, Table C-7). Among children 2 and 3 years old, 

the contribution of empty calories to total calorie intakes was more than double the maximum 

                                                            

24 Since we were unable to match activity level with calorie needs, we used the sedentary level of physical activity to 

provide context for the findings. However, this may overstate the extent to which excess empty calories are 

consumed. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 28

limit (32% versus 14%). Among children 4 years old, empty calories contributed more than three 

times the maximum limit (34% versus 10%). 

WIC children obtained a smaller share of their total calorie intake from empty calories than 

income-eligible nonparticipant children (32% versus 35%) (Exhibit 4-2). This difference was 

driven largely by children 3 years old—WIC children in this age group obtained 

approximately 5 percent less of their total calorie intake from empty calories, relative to 

income-eligible nonparticipants (31% versus 36%). There were no differences between WIC 

children and higher-income nonparticipant children in the proportion of total calories 

contributed by empty calories. 

Exhibit 4-2. Average Percent of Total Calories Contributed by Consumption of Empty Calories

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 2–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. Total percentages are age-adjusted to account for 

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are 

noted * (at least the .05 level. Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children 

receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview.

32% 35%* 32% 32% 33% 31% 36%* 34% 34% 32% 31% 34%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Percent

All children 2‐4 years 2 years old 3 years old 4 years old

of Total Calories

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants

Empty Calories 

Data 

 NHANES 2005–208: Single 24-hour recall per child 

 MyPyramid Equivalents Database, Version 2.0 

 CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B 

Sample 

 Children 2–4 years old 

Measures 

 Percent of total calories contributed by empty calories, 

from solid fats and added sugars 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 29

CHAPTER 5. FOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERNS 

In this chapter, we examine the food consumption patterns of WIC children and nonparticipant 

children using three measures: (1) the proportions of children consuming foods provided in the 

WIC food package, (2) the proportions of children consuming foods from specific food groups 

and subgroups, and (3) the average amounts of those food groups and subgroups consumed. The 

food groups and subgroups used in the analysis were defined using the “supermarket aisle” 

approach (Cole & Fox, 2008). This approach categorizes foods into one of ten major food groups 

(see Exhibit 5-1) and then into subgroups within the major groups. For example, whole milk, 2% 

milk, cheese, and yogurt are subgroups in the milk and milk products group. The complete list of 

major food groups and subgroups included in the supermarket aisle approach is shown in Exhibit 

5-1. 

The first outcome summarized involves the consumption of foods provided in the WIC food 

package. The WIC food package for children that was in place when NHANES 2005–2008 data 

were collected included the following types of foods (see Exhibit 5-2): milk, cheese, eggs, 100% 

fruit juice, peanut butter, legumes, and cereal. Federal WIC regulations specify the types and 

quantities of each type of food allowed to be provided in the food package. We identified the 

types of foods provided by WIC in the NHANES data based on food descriptions (hereafter 

referred to as WIC foods). For juices and cereals, we also compared the nutrient content of the 

food to WIC regulatory requirements in order to identify the types of juices and cereals that are 

allowed by WIC (see Exhibit 5-2). We compared the proportions of WIC children and 

nonparticipant children who consumed the various WIC foods on the day covered in the dietary 

recall. 

Food Consumption Patterns 

Data 

 NHANES 2005–2008: Single 24-hour recall per child 

 MyPyramid Equivalents Database, Version 2.0 

 CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B 

 CNPP Fruit Database (03–04) 

Sample 

 Children 1–4 years old 

Measures 

 Proportion of children consuming foods provided by WIC 

 Proportion of children consuming foods from supermarket aisle food 

groups in a day 

• Proportion of children consuming foods from supermarket aisle 

subgroups, among those consuming the major food group 

 Mean amounts of supermarket aisle food groups and subgroups 

consumed in a day, across the total population 

• Amounts in USDA Food Pattern units 

• Amounts in grams 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 30

Exhibit 5-1. Supermarket Aisle Food Groups and Subgroups Used to Classify Types and Amounts 

of Foods Consumed by WIC Children and Nonparticipant Children

Grains Fruit and 100% Fruit Juice Organ meats Beverages Other Than Milk 

Bread Fresh orange Hot dogs and 100% Fruit Juice 

Rolls Fresh other citrus Turkey Coffee 

English muffin Fresh apple Cold cuts Tea 

Bagels Fresh banana Fish Beer 

Biscuits, scones, croissants Fresh melon Shellfish Wine 

Muffins Fresh watermelon Bacon/sausage Liquor 

Cornbread Fresh grapes Eggs Water 

Corn tortillas Fresh peach/nectarine Beans (dry, cooked) Regular soda 

Flour tortillas Fresh pear Baked/refried beans Sugar-free soda 

Taco shells Fresh berries Soy products Noncarbonated sweetened 

Crackers Other fresh fruit Chili con carne drinks 

Breakfast/granola bar Avocado/guacamole Meat mixtures w/ red meat Noncarbonated low-calorie/ 

Pancakes, waffles, French toast Lemon/lime - any form Meat mixtures w/ chicken/turkey sugar free drinks 

Cold cereal Canned or frozen in syrup Meat mixtures w/ fish Sweets and Desserts 

Hot cereal Canned or frozen, no syrup Hamburgers/cheeseburgers Sugar and sugar substitutes 

Rice Applesauce, canned/frozen Sandwiches (excl hamburger) Syrups/sweet toppings 

Pasta apples Hot dogs Jelly 

Vegetables Canned/frozen peaches Luncheon meat Jello 

Raw lettuce/greens Canned/frozen pineapple Beef, pork, ham Candy 

Raw carrots Other canned/frozen Protein/meal enhancement Ice cream 

Raw tomatoes Non-citrus juice Nuts Pudding 

Raw cabbage/coleslaw Citrus juice Peanut/almond butter Ice/popsicles 

Other raw vegetables, higher in Dried fruit Seeds Sweet rolls 

 vitamins A or Ca Milk and Milk Products Mixed Dishes Cake/cupcakes 

Other raw vegetables, lower in Unflavored whole milk Tomato sauce & meat (no pasta) Cookies 

 vitamins A or Ca Unflavored 2% milk Chili con carne Pies/cobblers 

Salads (w/greens) Unflavored 1% milk Meat mixtures w/ red meat Pastries 

Cooked green beans Unflavored skim milk Meat mixtures w/ chicken/turkey Doughnuts 

Cooked corn Unflavored milk-% fat nfs Meat mixtures w/ fish Salty Snacks 

Cooked peas Flavored whole milk Hamburgers/cheeseburgers Corn-based salty snacks 

Cooked carrots Flavored 2% milk Sandwiches (excl hamburger) Pretzels/party mix 

Cooked broccoli Flavored 1% milk Hot dogs Popcorn 

Cooked tomatoes Flavored skim milk Luncheon meat Potato chips 

Cooked mixed Flavored milk-% fat nfs Beef, pork, ham Added Fats and Oils 

Cooked starchy Soymilk Chicken, turkey Butter 

Other cooked deep yellow Dry or evaporated milk Mexican entrees Margarine 

Other cooked dark green Yogurt Macaroni & cheese Other added fats 

Other cooked vegetable, higher in Cheese Pasta dishes, Italian style Other added oils 

 vitamins A or Ca Meat and Meat Alternates Rice dishes Salad dressing 

Other cooked vegetable, lower in Beef Other grain mixtures Mayonnaise 

 vitamins A or Ca Ground beef Meat soup Gravy 

Other fried Pork Bean soup Cream cheese 

Cooked potatoes-not fried Ham Grain soups Cream /sour cream 

Cooked potatoes-fried Lamb and misc. meats Vegetables mixtures (inc soup) Other 

Vegetable juice Chicken 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 31

Exhibit 5-2. Foods Provided to Children in the WIC Food Package (WIC Food Package IV)a

Food Group Allowed Forms and Quantity per Month Food or Nutrient Requirement 

Milk 24 quarts (qts) fluid whole milk or fluid skim or 

low fat milk; 

Substitutions for fluid milk: 

• Cultured buttermilk (1 qt for 1qt) 

• Evaporated whole milk or evaporated skim 

milk (13 oz for 1qt fluid milk) 

• Dry whole milk (1 lb for 3qt fluid milk) 

• Nonfat or low fat dry milk (1 lb for 5 qt fluid 

milk) 

• Cheese (1 lb for 3 qt fluid milk; to maximum 

of 4 lb of cheese) 

Flavored or unflavored whole milk with 100 

International Units of vitamin D per qt; 

Or 

Flavored or unflavored pasteurized fluid skim or 

low fat milk with 100 International Units (IU) of 

vitamin D per qt and 2000 IU of vitamin A per qt. 

Domestic cheese (pasteurized process 

American, Monterey Jack, Colby, natural 

Cheddar, Swiss, Brick, Muenster, Provolone, 

Mozzarella Part-skim or Whole) 

Eggs 2 or 2 1⁄2 dozen fresh eggs 

1.5 lb dried egg mix may be substituted for 2 

dozen; 

2 lb dried egg mix may be substituted for 21⁄2 

dozen 

Juice 288 fl oz. 

(9.6 oz/day) 

100% fruit or vegetable juice; 

≥ 30 mg vitamin C per 100 milliliters 

Cereal 36 oz. 

(3.6 oz/day) 

≥ 28 mg iron per 100g 

≤ 21.2 g total sugar per 100g 

Legumes 1lb dry beans or peas 

Or 

18 oz peanut butter 

a The 2005–2008 NHANES data were collected prior to the implementation of the revised WIC food packages in 2009 

(Federal Registrar 2007). Thus, the analysis for this study was based on the foods provided in the WIC food packages 

prior to revisions.

The second outcome we discuss involves estimates of the proportions of children consuming 

foods from supermarket aisle food groups and subgroups, in any amount, on the day covered 

in the dietary recall. Percentages reported for food subgroups are conditional and include only 

children who consumed one or more foods from the major (supermarket aisle) food group. So, for 

example, the percentage of children consuming fluid milk was computed with a denominator 

equal to the number of children consuming any foods from the “milk and milk products” major 

group. This approach allows us to compare food choices of WIC children with those of 

nonparticipant children while controlling for overall levels of consumption at the major food 

group level. The proportions of children consuming a specific food subgroup for the analysis 

using the supermarket aisle groups may differ from the proportion of children consuming a WIC 

food. The estimates using the supermarket aisle subgroups are conditional and include only 

children who consumed one or more foods from the major (supermarket aisle) food group; 

whereas, the estimates for the proportions of children consuming WIC foods includes all children. 

All of the supermarket aisle food groups and subgroups reflect foods consumed as discrete items. 

Combination items, including sandwiches, Mexican entrees, green salads, and soups that were 

reported in the dietary recall as individual components, were counted as one food choice. For 

example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was counted as one item and 

included in the “cheeseburger/ hamburger” subgroup. In discussing findings, we focus on major 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 32

food groups and subgroups that were consumed by at least 2 percent of children in any 

participation/eligibility group. Appendix C, Table C-9, includes data for every food group and 

subgroup defined in the supermarket aisle approach. 

The third outcome discussed involves estimates of the average amounts of foods consumed 

from supermarket aisle food groups and subgroups across the total population—that is, 

including both children that consumed the supermarket aisle food group or subgroup and children 

that did not. These average amounts were computed in both grams and USDA Food Patterns units 

(cup and ounce equivalents; cup eq or oz eq). Average amounts are reported in Food Pattern units 

of cup or ounce equivalents for most major food groups and for subgroups within these major 

groups. For selected major food groups and subgroups (mixed dishes, other beverages, sweets and 

desserts, salty snacks, and added fats and oils), average amounts are more appropriately reported 

in grams. The estimates reflect average daily amounts of foods consumed on the day covered in 

the dietary recall. Because the estimates include both consumers and non-consumers, findings for 

some food groups and subgroups are heavily influenced by large proportions of non-consumers.25 

In summarizing findings, we focus on significant differences between WIC children and 

nonparticipant children in amounts consumed at the major food group level. We also focus 

findings on food subgroups that were consumed in an average amount of at least 0.1 cup or ounce 

equivalent for grains, fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products, and meat/meat alternates; or a 

minimum gram amount, depending on the food group. Detailed data are shown in Appendix C, 

Tables C-10 and C-12. 

It is important to note that findings presented in this chapter should not be construed as 

representing total intakes of USDA Food Pattern food groups or compared to recommendations 

for these food groups. We did not estimate total intakes of USDA Food Pattern food groups. 

These data have been estimated by the USDA using NHANES 2005–2006 and 2007–2008 data 

and can be found on the USDA website (by age/gender, race/ethnicity, and income subgroups): 

http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=23868. In this chapter, we include 

comparisons to these data to provide some perspective on how intakes of food groups from 

discrete food items compare to total consumption. 

Consumption of WIC Foods 

To obtain foods through WIC, participants redeem WIC food instruments, including electronic 

benefits at approved retailers. To aid both WIC participants and retailers, the vouchers are 

preprinted with allowable types and quantities of WIC-approved foods. The flexibility of food 

offerings varies by food group. Substitutions for fluid milk and eggs may be granted by the local 

WIC agency (and printed on vouchers) to meet individual dietary needs. Legumes may be 

provided as dry beans or peas, or as peanut butter. For cereal and juice, participants are given a 

list of “WIC-Approved Foods” that specifies all brands, types, and package sizes of allowable 

items that can be selected. Each State’s list of WIC-approved foods is based on the Federal 

                                                            

25 Average amounts consumed were also estimated among consumers only. Full tabulations for this analysis are 

provided in Appendix C, Tables C-11 and C-13 in Food Pattern units and in grams, respectively.
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 33

nutrient requirements for WIC foods as well as cost containment practices, which vary by State 

WIC agency. 

Virtually all children (95%) consumed at least one WIC food on the day covered in the dietary 

recall (Appendix C, Table C-8). There were no differences between WIC participants and 

nonparticipants in this regard. However, there were a number of differences between WIC 

participants and nonparticipants in the proportions consuming specific types of WIC foods. WIC 

children were more likely than one or both groups of nonparticipant children to consume five of 

the seven types of foods provided in the WIC food package on the day covered in the dietary 

recall (Exhibit 5-3). 

Exhibit 5-3. Percent of Children Consuming WIC Foods 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Percentages are age-adjusted to account for different 

age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * 

(at least the .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children 

receiving WIC at the time of the interview 

There were no differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in the percentages 

consuming peanut butter or WIC cheese. However, WIC children were more likely than either 

income-eligible or higher-income nonparticipant children to consume WIC juice (31% versus 

19% and 20%, respectively) and beans (16% versus 8% and 7%, respectively). WIC children 

were also more likely than income-eligible nonparticipant children to consume milk (87% versus 

78%) and WIC cereals (28% versus 16%). Compared to higher-income nonparticipant children, 

WIC children were more likely to consume eggs (26% versus 15%).

Consumption of Supermarket Aisle Food Groups 

Consumption of Grains as Discrete Food Items 

Almost all children (90%) consumed a discrete grain or grain-based item on the day covered 

in the dietary recall (Exhibit 5-4). This excludes grains and grain-based foods included in 

mixed dishes, such as sandwiches and pasta-based dishes. Overall, WIC children were less 

likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume a discrete grain item (87% 

versus 93%) (Exhibit 5-5). 

87%

33%

26%

31%

10%

16%

28%

78%*

33%

25%

19%*

12% 8%*

16%*

83%

39%

15%*

20%*

14%

7%*

21%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Milk Cheese Eggs Juice Peanut Butter Beans Cereal

Percentage of Children

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 34

Exhibit 5-4. Percent of Children Consuming Any Discrete Foods from 10 Major Supermarket Aisle 

Food Groups

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Starting in NHANES 2005-2006, the consumption of 

drinking water was collected during the dietary recall. This analysis includes drinking water in the “beverages 

excluding milk and juice” major food group. Combination items, including sandwiches, Mexican entrees, 

green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, were counted as 

one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was counted as one item 

and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. ‘All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Percentages are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC 

participants and nonparticipants. 

Exhibit 5-5. Percent of WIC Children and Nonparticipant Children Consuming Any Discrete Foods 

from Major Supermarket Aisle Food Groups 

25%

42%

64%

66%

81%

82%

85%

90%

90%

92%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Added Fats and Oils

Salty Snacks

Vegetables

Meat and Meat Alternates

Fruit and 100% Juice

Sweets and Desserts

Mixed Dishes

Milk and Milk Products

Grains

Beverages (excl. milk and juice)

Percent of Children

87%

59%

83%

91%

71%

90% 92%

81%

44%

19%

88%

63%

76%

86%

64%

85%

92%

81%

38%

26%*

93%*

68%*

83%

92%

66%

82%*

92%

82%

42%

26%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Grains Vegetables Fruit and

100% Juice

Milk and

Milk

Products

Meat and

Meat

Alternates

Mixed

Dishes

Beverages

(excl milk

and juice)

Sweets and

Desserts

Salty

Snacks

Added Fats

and Oils

Percentage of Children

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 35

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Starting in NHANES 2005-2006, the consumption of 

drinking water was collected during the dietary recall. This analysis includes drinking water in the “beverages 

excluding milk and juice” major food group. . Combination items, including sandwiches, Mexican entrees, 

green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, were counted as 

one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was counted as one item 

and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. Percentages are age-adjusted to account for 

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are 

noted by * (at least the .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as 

children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

Consumption of discrete whole-grain items was low for all children—among children consuming 

at least one discrete grain item, only 40 percent consumed a whole grain item. WIC children were 

less likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume a whole grain item (33% 

versus 47%) (Exhibit 5-6). 

Exhibit 5-6. Percent of Children Consuming Discrete Whole Grain Items, Among Those Consuming 

Any Discrete Grain Items 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Combination items, including sandwiches, Mexican 

entrees, green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, were 

counted as one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was counted 

as one item and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. Percentages are age-adjusted to 

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in 

proportions are noted by * (at least the.05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, 

identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

33% 35%

47%*

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Percentage ofChildren

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 36

Average Amounts Consumed 

On average, children consumed 1.7 ounce equivalents of discrete grain items and 0.4 ounce 

equivalents of discrete whole grain items over the course of a day (Appendix C, Table C-10).26

The average amounts of discrete grain items consumed were comparable for WIC children and 

nonparticipant children. However, WIC children consumed a smaller average amount of discrete 

whole grain items than higher-income nonparticipant children (0.3 oz eq versus 0.4 oz eq) 

(Appendix C, Table C-10). 

Consumption of Specific Grain Items 

Among children eating at least one discrete grain item, cold cereal was the most common item 

consumed (55% of all children) (Appendix C, Table C-9). There were several differences between 

WIC participants and nonparticipants in the specific types of discrete grain items consumed and 

the average amounts of these items consumed. These differences are summarized in Exhibit 5-7. 

Exhibit 5-7. Differences between WIC Participants and Nonparticipants in Discrete Grain Choices 

and Average Amounts Consumed

WIC Participants: 

Were less likely to 

consume... 

Consumed smaller

amounts of... 

Were more likely to 

consume... 

Consumed larger

amounts of ... 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Pancakes, waffles, 

French toast 

Pancakes, waffles, 

French toast; 

Corn tortillas; Cold 

cereal -- 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Crackers; 

Breakfast/granola 

bar; Pancakes, 

waffles, French 

toast; Pasta 

Pancakes, waffles, 

French toast 

Bread; Corn tortillas; 

Cold cereal 

Cold cereal 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Findings are limited to foods consumed by at least 2 percent of children and/or an average amount of at least 

0.1 ounce equivalent. Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Combination items, including 

sandwiches, Mexican entrees, green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual 

components, were counted as one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and 

roll was counted as one item and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. Differences are 

statistically significant at the .05 level or better. 

-- Denotes no significant differences. 

                                                            

26 When grains and whole grains from mixed dishes and other food groups (for example, sweets and desserts) are 

included in estimates of average consumption of grains, means range from 4.3 to 5.1 ounce equivalents for grains and 

0.4 to 0.6 ounce equivalents for whole grains (NHANES, WWEIA 2005–2006 and 2007–2008, children 2–5 years 

old; available at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=23868). Thus, grains and whole grains are 

consumed from many different sources, not just as discrete items. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 37

Consumption of Vegetables as Discrete Food Items 

Overall, 64 percent of children consumed at least one vegetable as a discrete food item on the day 

covered in the dietary recall (Exhibit 5-4). WIC children were less likely than higher-income 

nonparticipant children to consume at least one discrete vegetable (59% versus 68%) (Exhibit 5-

5). Among children consuming any discrete vegetables, WIC children were less likely than 

higher-income nonparticipant children to consume raw vegetables and the magnitude of the 

difference was quite large (14% versus 25%) (Exhibit 5-8). WIC children consumed cooked 

vegetables other than potatoes at about the same rate as nonparticipant children; however, WIC 

children were considerably more likely to consume cooked potatoes than higher-income 

nonparticipant children (63% versus 48%) (Exhibit 5-8). 

Exhibit 5-8. Percentage of Children Consuming Discrete Raw and Cooked Vegetables, Among 

Those Consuming Any Discrete Vegetables

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Combination items, including sandwiches, Mexican 

entrees, green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, were 

counted as one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was counted 

as one item and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. ‘Percentages are age-adjusted to 

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in 

proportions are noted by * (at least the.05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, 

identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

Average Amounts Consumed 

On average, children consumed 0.4 cup equivalents of discrete vegetables over the course of a 

day (Appendix C, Table C-10).27 There were no differences between WIC children and 

nonparticipant children in the average amounts of discrete vegetables consumed over the course 

                                                            

27 When vegetables from mixed dishes and other food groups are included, average consumption of vegetables was 

0.7 to 0.8 cup equivalents (NHANES, WWEIA 2005–2006 and 2007–2008, children 2–5 years old; available at 

http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=23868). Thus, vegetables are consumed from different sources, 

not just as discrete items.

14%

63% 63%

16%

61% 57%

25%*

65%

48%*

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Raw Vegetables Cooked Vegetables, Excluding

Potatoes

Cooked Potatoes

Percentage of Children

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 38

of a day (Appendix C, Table C-10). In addition, WIC children and nonparticipant children 

consumed comparable amounts of raw vegetables and cooked vegetables. 

Consumption of Specific Vegetable Items 

Among WIC children and nonparticipant children that consumed at least one discrete vegetable, 

fried potatoes were the most commonly consumed vegetable (36%), followed by cooked tomatoes 

(23%),28 cooked potatoes that were not fried (20%), cooked green beans (15%), and cooked corn 

(12%) (Appendix C, Table C-9). WIC children were more likely than higher-income 

nonparticipant children to consume cooked potatoes overall and cooked potatoes that were not 

fried (Exhibit 5-9 and Appendix C, Table C-9). There were no differences between WIC children 

and nonparticipant children in the average amounts of specific types of discrete vegetables 

consumed. 

Exhibit 5-9. Percentage of Children Consuming the Five Most Common Vegetables, Among Those 

Consuming Any Discrete Vegetables 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Combination items, including sandwiches, Mexican 

entrees, green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, were 

counted as one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was counted 

as one item and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. Percentages are age-adjusted to 

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in 

proportions are noted by * (at least the .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, 

identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

Consumption of Fruit and 100% Fruit Juice as Discrete Food Items 

More than three-quarters (81%) of all children consumed fruit or 100% fruit juice on the day 

covered in the dietary recall (Exhibit 5-4). There were no differences between WIC children and 

nonparticipant children in the proportions who consumed a discrete item from the fruit and 100% 

fruit juice group (Exhibit 5-5). Among children consuming any fruit or 100% fruit juice as 

discrete items, WIC children were less likely than either group of nonparticipant children to 

                                                            

28 Tomatoes may be more likely to be consumed than reflected in this analysis since many mixed dishes contain 

tomatoes.

37%

29% 25%

12%

18%

36%

28% 23%

16% 15%

36%

14%*

23%

10% 13%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Fried Potatoes Cooked Potatoes,

Not Fried

Cooked Tomatoes Cooked Corn Cooked Green

Beans

Percentage of Children

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 39

consume whole fruit29 (71% versus 80% for both groups of nonparticipants) and were more likely 

to consume 100% fruit juice (80% versus 62% and 64%) (Exhibit 5-10). Rates of consumption of 

fresh fruit were similar for WIC participants and nonparticipants. 

Exhibit 5-10. Percentage of Children Consuming Whole Fruit, 100% Fruit Juice, and Fresh Fruit, 

Among Those Consuming Fruit or 100% Fruit Juice as Discrete Items 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Combination items, including sandwiches, Mexican 

entrees, green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, were 

counted as one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was counted 

as one item and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. ‘All children’ includes children with 

missing WIC participation or income. Percentages are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions 

of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at least the.05 

level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits 

at the time of the interview. 

Average Amounts Consumed 

Children consumed an average of 1.5 cup equivalents of fruit and 100% fruit juice as discrete 

items over the course of a day (Appendix C, Table C-10).30 WIC children consumed a larger 

average amount of fruit and 100% fruit juice than income-eligible nonparticipants (1.6 cup eq 

versus 1.3 cup eq) (Appendix C, Table C-10). Average amounts consumed of fresh fruit, 

whole fruit, and canned or frozen fruit were comparable for WIC children and nonparticipant 

children. However, WIC children consumed a larger amount of 100% fruit juice than either 

income-eligible or higher-income nonparticipant children (0.9 cup eq versus 0.5 and 0.7 cup 

eq, respectively). The difference for 100% fruit juice was driven by a larger amount of non-

                                                            

29 Whole fruit was defined as fresh, canned, frozen, or dried fruit. 30 Estimates are comparable when all fruit sources are included (1.4 to 1.5 cup equivalents; NHANES, WWEIA 

2005–2006 and 2007–2008, children 2–5 years old; available at 

http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=23868). Thus, most fruit is consumed as discrete items.

71%

80%

64%

80%*

62%* 61%

80%*

64%* 64%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Any Whole Fruit 100% Fruit Juice Fresh Fruit

Percentage of Children

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 40

citrus juice consumed by WIC children, as compared to either income-eligible or higherincome nonparticipant children (0.8 cup eq versus 0.4 and 0.5 cup eq, respectively). 

 

Consumption of Specific Fruits and 100% Fruit Juices 

For children in all participation/eligibility groups, fresh bananas and apples were the most 

commonly consumed fruits (Appendix C, Table C-9). There were several differences between 

WIC children and nonparticipant children in the specific types of fruits and 100% fruit juices 

consumed and the average amounts of these items consumed. These differences are summarized 

in Exhibit 5-11. 

Exhibit 5-11. Differences between WIC Participants and Nonparticipants in Discrete Fruit and 100% 

Fruit Juice Choices and Average Amounts Consumed

WIC Participants: 

Were less likely to 

consume... 

Consumed smaller

amounts of... 

Were more likely

to consume... 

Consumed larger

amounts of ... 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Other canned or frozen 

fruit;a -- Fresh banana; 

Non-citrus juice 

Fresh banana; Noncitrus juice 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Other canned or frozen 

fruit;a -- Non-citrus juice Non-citrus juice 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Findings are limited to foods consumed by at least 2 percent of children and/or an average amount of at least 

0.1 cup equivalents. Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Combination items, including 

sandwiches, Mexican entrees, green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual 

components, were counted as one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and 

roll was counted as one item and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. Differences are 

statistically significant at the .05 level or better. 

a Includes other canned or frozen fruits such as fruit cocktail, pears, mandarin oranges, grapes, blueberries, 

strawberries, mangoes, and papaya. 

-- Denotes no significant differences. 

Consumption of Milk and Milk Products as Discrete Food Items 

Almost all children (90%) consumed milk or milk products (including cheese and yogurt) as 

discrete items on the day covered in the dietary recall (Exhibit 5-4). The proportions of WIC 

children and nonparticipant children consuming foods from the milk and milk products group 

were similar (Exhibit 5-5). Among children consuming milk or milk products, WIC children 

were more likely than either group of nonparticipant children to consume any cow’s milk 

(96% versus 89% and 91%). 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 41

Average Amounts Consumed 

On average, children consumed 1.9 cup equivalents of milk and milk products as discrete items 

over the course of a day (Appendix C, Table C-10). 31 This was mostly consumed in the form of 

cow’s milk (1.6 cup equivalents). WIC children consumed a larger average amount of milk and 

milk products and cow’s milk than income-eligible nonparticipant children (for milk and milk 

products: 2.1 cup eq versus 1.5 cup eq; for cow’s milk: 1.8 cup eq versus 1.3 cup eq) (Appendix 

C, Table C-10). 

Consumption of Specific Types of Milk and Milk Products 

For children in all three participation/eligibility groups, unflavored whole milk was the most 

commonly consumed type of milk (45% of all children) (Appendix C, Table C-9). Among those 

consuming any discrete milk and milk products, WIC children were more likely to consume 

unflavored whole milk than income-eligible or higher-income nonparticipant children (56% 

versus 41% for both groups of nonparticipants) and were less likely than higher-income 

nonparticipant children to consume unflavored non-whole milk (2%, 1% and skim) (39% versus 

50%) (Exhibit 5-12). WIC children were also less likely than higher-income nonparticipant 

Exhibit 5-12. Percentage of Children Consuming Whole Milk and Non-Whole Milk, Among Those 

Consuming Any Milk and Milk Products as Discrete Items

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Combination items, including sandwiches, Mexican 

entrees, green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, were 

counted as one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was counted 

as one item and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. Percentages are age-adjusted to 

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in 

proportions are noted by * (at least the .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, 

identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

                                                            

31 Estimates are similar when all sources of milk and milk products are included (2.0 to 2.3 cup equivalents; 

NHANES, WWEIA 2005–2006 and 2007–2008, children 2–5 years; available at 

http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=23868). Thus, most milk and milk products are consumed as 

discrete items.

56%

39%

1% 4%

41%* 46%

3% 3%

41%*

50%*

2% 6%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Unflavored Whole Milk Unflavored 2%, 1%, Skim Flavored Whole Milk Flavored 2%, 1%, Skim

Percentage of Children

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 42

children to consume yogurt (12% versus 20%), cheese (26% versus 36%), and soy milk (1% 

versus 5%). WIC children consumed a larger amount of unflavored whole milk than either group 

of nonparticipant children (1.1 cup eq versus 0.6 and 0.8 cup eq, respectively) and consumed a 

larger amount of yogurt compared with income-eligible nonparticipant children (0.1 cup eq versus 

0.0 cup eq). 

Consumption of Meat and Meat Alternates as Discrete Food Items 

Two-thirds (66%) of all children consumed a discrete meat or meat alternate on the day covered 

in the dietary recall (Exhibit 5-4). This excludes meat and meat alternates included in mixed 

dishes, such as sandwiches and pasta-based dishes. There were no differences between WIC 

children and nonparticipant children in the proportions consuming a discrete meat or meat 

alternate item (Exhibit 5-5). 

Average Amounts Consumed 

Children consumed an average of 1.5 ounce equivalents of discrete meat and meat alternates over 

the course of a day (Appendix C, Table C-10).32 WIC children consumed a larger average amount 

of meat and meat alternates than higher-income nonparticipant children (1.6 oz eq versus 1.3 oz 

eq) (Appendix C, Table C-10). 

Consumption of Specific Meat and Meat Alternate Items 

Chicken was the most common meat item consumed by children (43%) (Appendix C, Table C-9). 

Among children consuming meat and meat alternates as discrete items, WIC children were more 

likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume eggs (32% versus 19%) and beans 

(11% versus 3%). 

There were few differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in the amounts of 

individual types of meat and meat alternates consumed. WIC children consumed a larger amount 

of eggs than higher-income nonparticipant children (0.3 oz eq versus 0.2 oz eq). 

Consumption of Mixed Dishes 

Most children (85%) consumed one or more mixed dish on the day covered in the dietary recall 

(Exhibit 5-4). WIC children were more likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to 

consume a mixed dish over the course of a day (90% versus 82%) (Exhibit 5-5). 

Average Amounts Consumed 

WIC children consumed a larger average amount of mixed dishes overall than higher-income 

nonparticipant children (197 g versus 160 g) (Appendix C, Table C-10). 

                                                            

32 When meat and meat alternates from mixed dishes and other food groups are included, average consumption of 

protein foods was 2.8 to 3.0 ounce equivalents (NHANES, WWEIA 2005–2006 and 2007–2008, children 2–5 years 

old; available at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=23868). Thus, meat and meat alternates are 

consumed from many different sources, not just as discrete items.
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 43

Consumption of Specific Mixed Dishes 

Sandwiches were the most commonly consumed type of mixed dish for children in all three 

participation/eligibility groups (Appendix C, Table C-9). There were several differences between 

WIC children and nonparticipant children in the specific types and amounts of mixed dishes 

consumed, as summarized in Exhibit 5-13. 

Exhibit 5-13. Differences between WIC Participants and Nonparticipants in Types and Average 

Amounts of Mixed Dishes Consumed

WIC participants: 

Were less likely to 

consume... 

Consumed smaller

amounts of... 

Were more likely

to consume... 

Consumed larger

amounts of ... 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Pizza with meat Pizza with meat -- -- 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Peanut butter 

sandwiches; 

Vegetables mixtures 

(including soup) 

-- 

Meat soup; Grain 

soup 

Rice dishes 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Findings are limited to foods consumed by at least 2 percent of children and/or an average amount of at least 

7 grams. Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Combination items, including sandwiches, 

Mexican entrees, green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, 

were counted as one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was 

counted as one item and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. Differences are statistically 

significant at the .05 level or better. 

-- Denotes no significant differences. 

Consumption of Beverages Other Than Milk and 100% Fruit Juice 

Most children (92%) drank at least one beverage other than milk or 100% fruit juice (including 

water)33 on the day covered in the dietary recall (Exhibit 5-4). There were no differences between 

WIC children and nonparticipant children in the proportions consuming these beverages (Exhibit 

5-5). 

Average Amounts Consumed 

WIC children consumed a smaller average amount of beverages other than milk and 100% fruit 

juice than income-eligible nonparticipant children (519 grams versus 649 grams) (Appendix C, 

Table C-10). 

Consumption of Specific Types of Beverages 

Plain water, noncarbonated sweetened drinks (for example, fruit drinks and sports drinks), and 

regular soda were the most frequently consumed beverages other than milk and 100% fruit juice 

(Appendix C, Table C-9). WIC children were more likely than higher-income nonparticipant 

                                                            

33 Starting in NHANES 2005-2006, the consumption of drinking water was collected during the dietary recall. This 

analysis includes drinking water in the “beverages excluding milk and juice” major food group.
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 44

children to consume regular soda (29% versus 19%) and noncarbonated sweetened beverages 

(50% versus 37%) (Exhibit 5-14). Other differences between WIC children and nonparticipant 

children in the specific types and amounts of beverages consumed are shown in Exhibit 5-15. 

Exhibit 5-14. Percent of Children Consuming Regular Soda, Sugar-free Soda, and Sweetened 

Beverages, Among Those Consuming Any Beverages (Other than Milk and 100% Fruit Juice) as 

Discrete Items 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Combination items, including sandwiches, Mexican 

entrees, green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, were 

counted as one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was counted 

as one item and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. ‘Percentages are age-adjusted to 

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in 

proportions are noted by * (at least .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, 

identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

Exhibit 5-15. Differences between WIC Participants and Nonparticipants in Beverage Choices and 

Average Amounts Consumed

WIC participants: 

Were less likely to 

consume... 

Consumed smaller

amounts of... 

Were more likely

to consume... 

Consumed larger

amounts of ... 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants -- 

Water; 

Noncarbonated, 

sweetened drinks 

-- -- 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Water 

-- 

Tea; 

Noncarbonated, 

sweetened drinks; 

Regular soda 

Noncarbonated, 

sweetened drinks; 

Regular soda 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Findings are limited to foods consumed by at least 2 percent of persons and/or an average amount of at least 

15 grams. Estimates reflect foods consumed as discrete items. Combination items, including sandwiches, 

Mexican entrees, green salads, and soups that were reported in the dietary recall as individual components, 

were counted as one food choice. For example, a sandwich reported as beef patty, cheese, and roll was 

counted as one item and included in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” subgroup. Differences are statistically 

significant at the .05 level or better. 

-- Denotes no significant differences. 

29%

4%

50%

23%

3%

53%

19%*

4%

37%*

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Regular Soda Sugar‐free Soda Noncarbonated Sweetened

Beverages

Percentage of Children

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 45

Consumption of Sweets and Desserts 

About eight in ten children (82%) consumed at least one type of sweet or dessert as a discrete 

item on the day covered in the dietary recall (Exhibit 5-4). There were no differences between 

WIC children and nonparticipant children in the proportions consuming sweets and desserts 

(Exhibit 5-5). 

Average Amounts Consumed 

WIC children consumed a smaller average amount of sweets and desserts than income-eligible 

nonparticipant children (56 g versus 67 g) (Appendix C, Table C-10). 

Consumption of Specific Types of Sweets and Desserts 

For WIC children and nonparticipant children, cookies and candy were the most commonly 

consumed sweets and desserts (Appendix C, Table C-9). Cookies were consumed by nearly 

half of all children (46%) and candy was consumed by 41 percent of all children. Among 

children consuming sweets and desserts, there were few differences between WIC children 

and nonparticipant children in the specific types and amounts of sweets and desserts 

consumed. WIC children were more likely than higher-income nonparticipants to consume 

sugar and sugar substitutes (10% versus 4%) and were less likely than either group of 

nonparticipants to consume syrups and sweet toppings (13% versus 20% and 22%). WIC 

children consumed a smaller amount of ice cream than either income-eligible or higherincome nonparticipant children (11 g versus 18 g and 17 g, respectively). 

Consumption of Salty Snacks 

Overall, 42 percent of children consumed a salty snack food on the day covered in the dietary 

recall (Exhibit 5-4). WIC children and nonparticipant children consumed salty snacks at 

similar rates (Exhibit 5-5). 

Average Amounts Consumed 

There were no differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in the average 

amounts of salty snacks consumed (Appendix C, Table C-10). 

Consumption of Specific Types of Salty Snacks 

Among those consuming salty snacks, WIC children were less likely than higher-income 

nonparticipant children to consume pretzels and party mix (11% versus 23%) (Appendix C, 

Table C-9). Rates of consumption and average amounts consumed for other types of salty 

snacks were comparable for WIC children and nonparticipant children. 

 

Consumption of Added Fats and Oils 

One-quarter of all children consumed fats and oils that were added to foods (for example 

butter, margarine or salad dressing) (Exhibit 5-4). This does not include fats added during 

cooking or included as part of a mixed dish. WIC children were less likely than incomeeligible nonparticipant children to consume added fats and oils as discrete items (19% versus 

26%) (Exhibit 5-5). 

Average Amounts Consumed 

There were no differences between WIC participants and nonparticipants in the average 

amounts of added fats and oils consumed (Appendix C, Table C-10). 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 46

Consumption of Specific Types Added Fats and Oils 

Rates of consumption of different types of added fats and oils were comparable for WIC 

children and nonparticipant children consuming any added fats and oils (Appendix C, Table 

C-9). 

 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 47

CHAPTER 6. THE HEALTHY EATING INDEX-2005 

In this chapter, we examine the overall quality of the diets consumed by WIC children and 

nonparticipant children using the Healthy Eating Index (HEI). The HEI is a measure of diet 

quality that assesses conformance to key recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines (USDA & 

DHHS 2010). It has been adopted by the USDA as a tool to monitor the quality of foods 

consumed by the U.S. population overall, as well as progress toward healthier eating habits 

among nutrition assistance program participants (Guenther et al., 2008). The HEI was first created 

in 1995 by the USDA’s Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP). It was revised in 

2006 to reflect the 2005 Dietary Guidelines (HEI-2005) and updated in 2012 to reflect the 2010

Dietary Guidelines (HEI-2010). Because the HEI-2005 provides a measure of diet quality relative 

to the dietary recommendations that were in place at the time the data used in this analysis were 

collected, we present findings based on the HEI-2005 in this chapter and findings based on the 

HEI-2010 in Appendix D. 

All analyses are limited to children 2–4 years old because the Dietary Guidelines do not apply to 

children less than 2 years old. HEI scores were estimated at the population level, using the 

population ratio method.34 The analysis is based on data from the NHANES 2005–2008, and 

estimates are based on a single day of intake. We discuss only statistically significant differences 

of WIC children and nonparticipant children below. We present detailed results in Appendix C, 

Table C-14.

                                                            

34 This method involves calculating mean intakes of relevant food groups, nutrients, and calories for the population, 

and then calculating the ratios of the means with calories in the denominator, and comparing with HEI standards for 

scoring (as shown in Exhibit 6-1 and Appendix E, Figure E-1). See Appendix A for more detail.

Healthy Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005) 

Data 

 NHANES 2005–2008: Single 24-hour recall per 

child 

 MyPyramid Equivalents Database, version 2.0 

 CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B 

 CNPP 03–04 Fruit Database 

Sample 

 Children 2–4 years old 

Measures 

 HEI-2005 Total Score 

 HEI-2005 Component Scores 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 48

Healthy Eating Index-2005 

The HEI-2005 is a scoring metric that is made up of 12 components, each reflecting a key aspect 

of diet quality. The standards used to assign HEI-2005 component scores are expressed on a 

density basis (that is, amounts per 1,000 calories or a percent of calories) rather than absolute 

amounts of foods consumed. The use of such standards in assessing diet quality reflects the 

recommendation that individuals should strive to meet food group and nutrient guidelines while 

maintaining energy balance, rather than meeting these guidelines simply by consuming large 

quantities of food.

The HEI-2005 consists of nine adequacy components, which are dietary components individuals 

are recommended to consume to ensure adequate nutrient intakes, and include the following: 

Total Fruit, including Juice; Whole Fruit; Total Vegetables; Dark Green and Orange Vegetables 

and Legumes; Total Grains; Whole Grains; Milk; Meat and Beans; and Oils. The remaining three 

components, referred to as moderation components that individuals are recommended to limit, 

assess intakes of Saturated Fat, Sodium, and Empty Calories, which are commonly consumed in 

excess. 

The HEI-2005 components and standards for scoring are shown in Exhibit 6-1. The exhibit also 

shows the intake criteria corresponding to minimum and maximum scores for each component. 

Maximum scores range from 5 to 20 points. Scores for intakes between the minimum and 

maximum standards are scored proportionately.35 For example, an intake that is halfway between 

the criteria for the maximum and minimum scores yields a score that is half the maximum score. 

Higher scores for each of the adequacy components reflect greater consumption, while higher 

scores for each of the moderation components reflect lower consumption. Scores for each of the 

12 components are summed to create a total HEI-2005 score, with a range from 0 to 100. 

Total HEI-2005 Scores 

The total HEI-2005 score for all children was 63 out of a possible 100 points (Exhibit 6-2). There 

were no differences in total HEI-2005 scores between WIC children and either group of 

nonparticipant children. The low total HEI-2005 score suggest that the diets of children in all 

three participation/eligibility groups fell considerably short of meeting the recommendations in 

the 2005 Dietary Guidelines. 

                                                            

35 For Saturated Fat and Sodium, a score of 8 is assigned for intake levels that reflect the 2005 Dietary Guidelines

recommendations—less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fat and less than 1.0 grams of sodium per 1,000 

calories, respectively. Intakes between the standard for scores of 0 and 8 and between 8 and 10 are scored 

proportionately. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 49

Exhibit 6-1. Healthy Eating Index-2005 Components and Standards for Scoring 

Component Maximum 

score 

Standard for 

minimum 

score of zero Standard for maximum score 

Adequacy components (higher score indicates higher consumption) 

1. Total Fruit (including 100% fruit juice) 5 No intake ≥ 0.8 cup equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

2. Whole Fruit 5 No intake ≥ 0.4 cup equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

3. Total Vegetables 5 No intake ≥ 1.1 cup equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

4. Dark Green and Orange 

 Vegetables and Legumes 5 No intake ≥ 0.4 cup equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

5. Total Grains 5 No intake ≥ 3.0 oz equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

6. Whole Grains 5 No intake ≥ 1.5 oz equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

7. Milk 10 No intake ≥ 1.3 cup equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

8. Meat and Beans 10 No intake ≥ 2.5 oz equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

9. Oils 10 No intake ≥ 12 grams per 1,000 kcal 

Moderation components (higher score indicates lower consumption) 

10. Saturated Fata 10 ≥ 15% ≤ 7% of calories 

11. Sodiuma 10 ≥ 2.0 grams ≤ 0.7 grams per 1,000 kcal 

12. Empty Caloriesb 20 ≥ 50% ≤ 20% of calories 

Total Score 100 

Source: Healthy Eating Index-2005, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion 

(CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 1, December 2006. 

Note: Equiv. = equivalent; kcal = calories; oz equiv. = ounce equivalent. a Saturated fat and sodium get a score of 8 for the intake levels that reflect the 2005 Dietary Guidelines, <10% 

of calories from saturated fat and 1.1 grams of sodium per 1,000 kcal, respectively. b The term “Empty Calories” was substituted for the HEI-2005 component for “calories from solid fats, alcoholic 

beverages, and added sugars” to promote consistency throughout the report. The HEI-2010 renamed this 

component to be empty calories to provide a more concise term that would convey the concept to consumers 

(Guenther et al., 2013). All calories consumed from alcohol are included in the empty calories component. 

Exhibit 6-2. Health Eating Index-2005 Total Scores 

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Health Eating Index-2005, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 1, December 2006. Sample includes 

NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 2–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Scores are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants 

and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (at least the .05 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. 

63.2 63.7 61.8 62.8

0

20

40

60

80

100

All Children WIC Participants Income‐Eligible

Nonparticipants

Higher‐Income

Nonparticipants

Children 2-4 years old
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 50

HEI-2005 Component Scores 

Children in all three participation/eligibility groups achieved or came close to achieving the 

maximum score (of 5.0) for Total Fruit, Whole Fruit, and Total Grains (Exhibit 6-3), and the 

maximum score (of 10.0) for Milk (Exhibit 6-4). For WIC children and nonparticipant children, 

scores for Dark Green and Orange Vegetables and Legumes were very low, ranging from 0.4 to 

1.0 out of a possible 5. Scores for Whole Grains were also low, ranging from 0.9 to 1.2. In 

addition, the score for Total Vegetables was about 50 percent of the maximum possible score, 

ranging from 2.2 to 2.3 out of 5. These low scores indicate that children are not consuming 

recommended amounts of foods that contain vegetables—specifically dark green vegetables, 

orange vegetables, and legumes—and whole grains. 

Exhibit 6-3. Healthy Eating Index-2005 Component Scores for Components with a Maximum Score 

of 5 Points

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Health Eating Index-2005, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 1, December 2006. Sample includes 

NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 2 to 4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. Scores are age-adjusted to account for different 

age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in mean scores are noted by 

* (at least the .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children 

receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

For children in all three participation/eligibility groups, scores for Saturated Fat (ranging from 4.4 

to 5.2 out of 10), Sodium (ranging from 4.6 to 5.3 out of 10), and Empty Calories (ranging from 

10.2 to 11.3 out of 20) were roughly half of the maximum possible scores. The low scores for 

these components indicate that children are consuming more saturated fat, sodium, and empty 

calories than is recommended. 

Compared with higher-income nonparticipant children, WIC children had lower scores for 

Dark Green and Orange Vegetables and Legumes (0.4 versus 1.0) and for Whole Grains (0.9 

5.0 4.9

2.3

0.4

4.8

0.9

4.8 4.9

2.2

0.8

5.0

1.0

5.0 5.0

2.3

1.0*

4.9

1.2*

0

1

2

3

4

5

Total Fruit Whole Fruit Total Vegetables Dark Green and

Orange

Vegetables and

Legumes

Total Grains Whole Grains

Children 2-4 years old

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 51

versus 1.2) (Exhibit 6-3). They also had a higher score for Meat and Beans (8.0 versus 6.8) 

(Exhibit 6-4). WIC children received a higher score for Sodium than either group of 

nonparticipant children (5.3 versus 4.6 for both groups of nonparticipants) (Exhibit 6-4), and 

also received a higher score for Empty Calories than income-eligible nonparticipant children 

(11.3 versus 10.2) (Exhibit 6-5). Higher scores for Sodium and Empty Calories indicate lower 

consumption of these components. 

Exhibit 6-4. Healthy Eating Index-2005 Component Scores for Components with a Maximum Score 

of 10 Points

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Health Eating Index-2005, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 1, December 2006. Sample includes 

NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 2 to 4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. Scores are age-adjusted to account for different 

age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in mean scores are noted by 

* (at least the .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children 

receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

Exhibit 6-5. Healthy Eating Index-2005 Component Score for Empty Calories

Sources: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls; MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03–04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Health Eating Index-2005, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 1, December 2006. Sample includes 

NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 2–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. Scores are age-adjusted to account for different 

age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in mean scores are noted by 

* (at least the .05 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children 

receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

 

9.9

8.0

5.8 5.2 5.3

9.7

8.4

5.8

4.4 4.6*

10.0

6.8*

5.6 5.1

4.6*

0

2

4

6

8

10

Milk Meat and Beans Oils Saturated Fat Sodium

Children 2-4 years old

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants

11.3 10.2* 11.3

0

5

10

15

20 Children 2-4 years old

WIC Participants Income‐Eligible Nonparticipants Higher‐Income Nonparticipants
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 52

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Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 53

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION 

This report uses data available from NHANES 2005–2008 to provide a comprehensive picture of 

the diets of children participating in WIC. This information can be used to target efforts to 

improve participants’ diets and as a benchmark for monitoring participants’ diets over time. The 

diets of WIC children are compared to the diets of two groups of nonparticipants—those who 

were income-eligible for WIC but did not participate in the program, and higher-income children 

who were not eligible for the program. This research was not designed to assess the impact of 

WIC or in any way attribute differences observed between WIC participants and nonparticipants 

to an effect of the program. 

The report examines the quality of the diets consumed by WIC children and nonparticipant 

children. Main findings from this study include the following: 

 Overall, the findings indicate that the diets of children that participated in WIC were 

generally comparable to the diets of children who did not participate in the program. 

Diet Adequacy and Excess 

 Almost all young children (98% to 100%) had adequate usual intakes of vitamins and 

minerals with defined EARs, except calcium, vitamin E, and vitamin D. 

 In general, WIC children and nonparticipant children had usual intakes of vitamins and 

minerals that were similar. 

 For all children, usual intakes of potassium and fiber were below the AI. Given the 

limitations of the AI standard, no firm conclusions can be drawn about the adequacy of 

children’s intakes of potassium or fiber. 

 There were no differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in usual 

intakes of saturated fat or sodium; however, intakes of these dietary components were 

excessive relative to recommendations. Three-quarters (74%) of children had usual 

sodium intakes that were excessive relative to the UL. In addition, less than 1 in 5 children 

(17%) met the Dietary Guidelines recommendation for saturated fat. 

Diet Quality 

 Total HEI-2005 scores, which provide an overall measure of diet quality, were 

comparable for WIC children and nonparticipant children. 

 For all children, HEI-2005 scores indicate that intakes of whole grains and dark green and 

orange vegetables and legumes were low relative to recommendations. 

 HEI-2005 scores indicate that all children had intakes of saturated fat, sodium, and 

empty calories that exceeded recommended limits. 

 Compared with higher-income nonparticipant children, HEI-2005 scores indicate that 

WIC children consumed fewer dark green and orange vegetables and legumes, and 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 54

fewer whole grains. On the other hand, WIC children had a higher score for Sodium 

than either group of nonparticipants and had a higher score for Meat and Beans than 

higher-income nonparticipants. 

 Compared with income-eligible nonparticipant children, WIC children obtained a 

smaller share of their total calorie intake from empty calories. The difference in 

intakes of empty calories could be attributable to the fact that WIC children were more 

likely than income-eligible nonparticipant children to consume WIC-approved cereals, 

which are lower in sugar. 

Food Consumption Patterns 

Differences in food consumption patterns provide context for the differences in diet adequacy and 

excess and diet quality described above. Some examples of this include the following:36 

 WIC children were less likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume 

discrete portions of vegetables and raw vegetables. These differences in food choices 

likely contributed to the lower HEI-2005 scores for Dark Green and Orange Vegetables 

and Legumes observed among WIC children in relation to higher-income nonparticipant 

children. 

 WIC children were less likely than either group of nonparticipant children to consume 

discrete portions of fruit (excluding juice). 

 WIC children were also less likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume 

discrete whole grain items, which resulted in a lower HEI score for Whole Grains among 

WIC children, relative to higher-income nonparticipant children. 

 WIC children were more likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume 

regular soda and noncarbonated sweetened beverages. WIC children were also more likely 

than either group of nonparticipants to consume whole milk. 

 On the other hand, WIC children were more likely than either group of nonparticipant 

children to consume cow’s milk and less likely than income-eligible nonparticipant 

children to consume added fats and oils. 

Overweight and Obesity 

 Approximately 21 percent of WIC children and nonparticipant children were overweight 

or obese (12% and 9% were overweight and obese, respectively). 

                                                            

36 Differences in the proportions of children consuming foods from the “supermarket aisle” food groups do not 

necessarily reflect differences in total food consumption from a food group because some foods may be consumed as 

part of a mixed dish and are therefore not counted in estimates for individual food groups.
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 55

 There were no differences between WIC children and nonparticipant children in the 

proportions that were overweight or obese. 

Implications for WIC Nutrition Education 

Findings from this study confirm that continued nutrition education efforts are needed to help 

improve the quality of WIC participants’ diets. The findings point to specific food consumption 

practices that may be useful targets for WIC nutrition education efforts with parents or caregivers: 

 

Consumption of whole milk 

WIC children were more likely than either group of nonparticipant children to consume whole 

milk and less likely to consume lower-fat milk (including 2%, 1% and skim milk). Consumption 

of whole milk is not recommended for individuals over 2 years old because it is less nutrientdense and contributes more empty calories than lower-fat versions. Lower-fat milks have the 

same amounts of calcium and other nutrients as whole milk, but contribute fewer empty calories 

and less saturated fat. Whole milk is allowed in the new food packages for children 12–23 months 

old, and low-fat (1%), and fat-free (skim) milk are the standard milks authorized for children 2 

years old and older. WIC nutrition education efforts should educate caregivers on the benefits of 

providing lower-fat milks to children over 2 years old. 

Low consumption of fruits and vegetables 

WIC children were less likely than higher-income nonparticipants to consume discrete portions 

vegetables and fruit (excluding juice). Increasing total consumption of fruits and vegetables is an 

effective strategy for increasing intakes of potassium and fiber and better aligning WIC children’s 

food choices with the Dietary Guidelines. Since the new WIC food package for children includes 

separate benefits to purchase fruits and vegetables, nutrition education efforts should encourage 

caregivers to offer a variety of fruits and vegetables to children each day—both as discrete items 

and as part of mixed dishes. 

Low consumption of whole grains 

WIC children had lower concentrations of whole grains in their diets relative to higher-income 

nonparticipant children. The recommended concentration of whole grains in the Dietary 

Guidelines allows individuals to meet nutrient requirements without exceeding calorie needs. 

However, whole grains must replace refined (or non-whole) grains so that excess calories are not 

consumed. The new WIC food packages allow options for whole grain items such as whole grain 

cereals and breads. Nutrition education efforts with caregivers should focus on selecting WICapproved whole-grain items over refined grain options. 

Consumption of empty calories 

Another important focal point for WIC nutrition education is intakes of empty calories. For all 

children, intakes of empty calories greatly exceeded limits specified in the Dietary Guidelines. In 

addition, WIC children were more likely than higher-income nonparticipant children to consume 

regular soda and noncarbonated sweetened beverages, such as juice drinks. Nutrition education 

efforts should focus on decreasing intakes of foods that contribute empty calories in order to 

improve the overall quality of WIC children’s diets. This is also essential for reducing the 

prevalence of overweight and obesity. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 56

Continuing to target specific food choices through WIC nutrition education, such as the ones 

described above, may be an effective way to affect behavioral change that results in improved diet 

quality among WIC children. 

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Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status 57

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Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-1

APPENDIX A. DATA AND METHODS 

All estimates in this report are based on data from the National Health and Nutrition 

Examination Survey (NHANES), analyzed alone or in conjunction with various Food Patterns 

equivalents data sources. In this appendix, we describe the data, estimation procedures for the 

nutrition outcomes, and statistical methods. 

Data Sources 

NHANES Data 

The NHANES is designed to assess the health and nutritional status of adults and children in the 

United States. The survey collects both interviews and physical examination data on a nationally 

representative sample of the U.S. population. NHANES is conducted by the National Center for 

Health Statistics (NCHS), part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 

NHANES has been conducted on a periodic basis since 1971. Beginning in 1999, NHANES 

became a continuous annual survey with data released in public data files every 2 years (e.g., 

1999–2000, 2001–2002, 2003–2004, etc.). Each 2-year survey wave collects data on 

approximately 10,000 persons. NCHS recommends combining two or more 2-year survey waves 

of the continuous NHANES to increase sample size and produce estimates with greater statistical 

reliability. 

All of the estimates in this report are based on two 2-year cycles of NHANES data. We based 

analyses on NHANES 2005–2006 and 2007–2008, except for the analysis of dietary supplement 

use among children, which was based on NHANES 2007–2008 and 2009–2010 (24-hour 

supplement data was not available in NHANES 2005–2006). We excluded data from NHANES 

2009–2010 for most analyses in this study to prevent including any impact of the 2009 change to 

the WIC food package on the findings. 

NHANES includes a household interview conducted in respondents’ homes, and a physical 

examination conducted in Mobile Exam Centers (MEC). Additional interview data are collected 

at the time of the MEC exam, including a 24-hour dietary recall interview. A second dietary 

recall interview is conducted by telephone 3 to 10 days after the MEC exam. Starting in 2007–

2008, NHANES began collecting 24-hour intakes of dietary supplements as part of the dietary 

recall interview. For this study, we used data from the following NHANES data files: 

 Body Measures (BMX) 

 Demographics Variables and Sample Weights (DEMO) 

 Dietary Interview: Individual Foods–Day 1 (DR1IFF) 

 Dietary Interview: Individual Foods–Day 2 (DR2IFF) 

 Dietary Interview: Total Nutrient Intakes–Day 1 (DR1TOT) 

 Dietary Interview: Total Nutrient Intakes–Day 2 (DR2TOT) 

 Dietary Supplement Use 24-Hour: Total Dietary Supplements–Day 1 (DS1TOT) 

 Dietary Supplement Use 24-Hour: Individual Dietary Supplements–Day 1 (DS1IDS) 

 Dietary Supplement Database: Product Information(DSPI) 

 Food Security (FSQ) 

 Income (INQ) 

 Reproductive Health (RHQ) 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-2

All analyses in this report are based on NHANES respondents with complete Day-1 Dietary 

Recall data. To compute all dietary measures, we used Day-1 Dietary Recall data. To estimate 

usual nutrient intakes, we used Day-1 Dietary Recall data in conjunction with Day-2 Dietary 

Recall data to control for within-person day-to-day variance in nutrient intakes. 

Food Patterns Equivalents Data 

Food Patterns equivalents data—which were formerly referred to as MyPyramid equivalents 

data—were used to construct several nutrition outcome measures for this study (Bowman et al., 

2008; Bowman et al., 2013). The analysis for this study was conducted prior to the release of the 

Food Patterns Equivalents Database (FPED) in 2013, so the main source of Food Patterns data 

was the former MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED). The following data sources were 

used to obtain Food Patterns data for each food reported in the NHANES 2005–2008 data: 

 MyPyramid Equivalents Database for USDA Survey Foods, version 2.0 (MPED 2.0) 

 Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Addendum to MPED 2.0B 

 CNPP Fruit Database (03–04) 

The Food Patterns data sources provide data on the amounts of over 30 Food Patterns 

components included in 100 grams of food (Bowman et al., 2008; Bowman et al., 2013). The 

Food Pattern components are defined as the number of cup equivalents of fruit, vegetables, and 

dairy; ounce equivalents of grains and protein foods; teaspoon equivalents of added sugars; gram 

equivalents of solid fats and oils; and number of alcoholic drinks. We linked each unique food 

reported in the NHANES 2005–2008 Individual Foods Files to the appropriate Food Patterns 

data source, and computed the amounts of each Food Pattern component consumed, based on the 

amount of food consumed by each individual. 

Analysis Sample 

For most analyses, our analysis sample consisted of children 1–4 years old. Children that 

consumed breast milk were excluded because they have incomplete dietary recall data. Several 

of the outcome measures used in this study do not apply to children younger than 2 years, 

including the HEI, BMI, consumption of empty calories, and usual nutrient intakes of saturated 

fat, sodium, and cholesterol relative to Dietary Guidelines recommendations. The analyses for 

these measures were limited to children 2-4 years. Appendix E includes tabulations for selected 

outcomes for infants 0–11 months old and pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women. 

Because sample sizes for many of the analyses of infants and women are small, many point 

estimates are statistically unreliable. We report these point estimates in the Appendix E, but they 

should be interpreted with caution. 

Subgroups for Tabulation 

For each outcome, we calculated estimates for all children 1–4 years old in the sample and for 

subgroups defined by program participation and income, and for some outcomes, by age. 

Program Participation and Income 

WIC participation was measured at the individual level, based on persons (or caregiver) 

reporting that they currently receive WIC benefits using variable FSD660. Those who did not 

report current WIC receipt were considered nonparticipants. Income-eligible nonparticipants 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-3

were defined as persons with annual family income less than or equal to 185 percent of the U.S. 

Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) poverty guidelines. Higher-income 

nonparticipants were defined as persons with annual family income greater than 185 percent of 

the DHHS poverty guideline. Income as a percent of poverty level was identified through the 

variable INDFMPIR. 

Age Groups 

We tabulated data for all children 1–4 years old, and by age groups: 

 Children 1 year old 

 Children 2 years old 

 Children 3 years old 

 Children 4 years old 

Ages are calculated based on age at the time of the MEC exam when the first dietary recall was 

collected, rather than age at the time of the household interview. 

Methods for Estimating Nutrition Outcome Measures 

We used several outcome measures to examine the diet quality of WIC participants and 

nonparticipants. In this section, we describe the methods used to construct each measure. 

Usual Nutrient Intakes 

To assess the prevalence of adequate and excessive nutrient intakes among WIC children and 

nonparticipant children, we estimated usual nutrient intakes of vitamins, minerals, 

macronutrients, and other dietary components. We then compared usual nutrient intake 

distributions to the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) and selected recommendations of the 2010 

Dietary Guidelines. 

Dietary Reference Intakes 

The DRIs, established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine, provide 

guidelines on intake amounts appropriate for a given individual based on age, gender and life 

stage (IOM, 1997; IOM, 1998; IOM, 2000; IOM, 2001; IOM, 2005a; IOM, 2005b; IOM, 2006; 

IOM, 2011). The DRIs are the most up-to-date scientific standards for determining whether diets 

provide enough nutrients to meet requirements without being excessive. Four different DRI 

standards were used to assess the usual nutrient intakes of WIC children and nonparticipant 

children: 

 Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) 

 Adequate Intake Levels (AIs) 

 Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) 

 Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs). 

DRI values for each nutrient in the analysis are shown in Figure A-1 for each age group. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-4

Figure A-1. Dietary Reference Intakes and Dietary Guidelines Recommendations, by Age 

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) 

Age 

Vitamin 

A (mcg 

RAE) 

Vitamin 

C (mg) 

Vitamin 

D (mcg)

Vitamin 

B6 (mg)

Vitamin 

B12 (mcg)

Vitamin 

E (mcg)

Folate 

(mcg 

DFE) 

Niacin 

(mg) 

Selenium 

(mcg) 

Copper 

(mg) 

1–3 years 210 13 10 0.4 0.7 5 120 5 17 0.26 

4 years 275 22 10 0.5 1.0 6 160 6 23 0.34 

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) 

Riboflavin 

(mg) 

Thiamin 

(mg) 

Calcium 

(mg) 

Iron 

(mg) 

Magnesium 

(mg) 

Zinc 

(mg) 

Carbohydrate 

(g) 

Protein 

(g/kg body weight) 

1–3 years 0.4 0.4 500 3.0 65 2.5 100 0.87 

4 years 0.5 0.5 800 4.1 110 4.0 100 0.76 

Adequate Intake (AI) 

Potassium 

(mg) 

Sodium 

(mg) 

Fiber 

(g) 

Linoleic acid 

(g) 

Linolenic acid 

(g) 

Choline 

(mg) 

1–3 years 3000 1000 19 7 0.7 200 

4 years 3800 1200 25 10 0.9 250 

 Upper Tolerable Intake Level (UL) 

Sodium 

(mg)

 1–3 years 1500 

4 years 1900 

Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) 

Total Fat Linoleic Acid Linolenic Acid Carbohydrate Protein 

Percent of total calories 

1–3 years 30–40 5–10 0.6–1.2 45–65 5–20 

4 years 25–35 5–10 0.6–1.2 45–65 10–30 

2010 Dietary Guidelines Recommendations 

Saturated fat 

(percent of total calories) 

Cholesterol 

(mg) 

2–4 yearsa < 10 < 300 

Sodium 

(mg) 

2–4 yearsa < 2,300 

Sources: Institute of Medicine (IOM). “The Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements.” 

 Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2006; IOM. “Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and 

Vitamin D.” Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2010. 

Note: g = grams, mg = milligrams, mcg = micrograms, kg = kilograms, RAE = retinol activity equivalent, DFE = 

dietary folate equivalent. 

a Children younger than 2 years old are excluded from the usual intake analysis of saturated fat, cholesterol, 

and sodium relative to the Dietary Guidelines since the recommendations apply only to children 2 years and 

older. 

When enough information is available about the distribution of nutrient requirements in the 

population, the DRIs define an Estimated Average Requirement (EAR). The EAR is the 

average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirement of half of the healthy 

individuals in a life stage and gender group. The EAR is used to assess the prevalence of 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-5

inadequate intakes using the IOM-recommended “EAR cut-point method” (IOM, 2006). The 

EAR cut-point method was used to analyze all nutrients for which EARs have been established. 

When information on the distribution of requirements is insufficient to establish an EAR, the 

DRIs define an Adequate Intake level (AI). The AI is the level of intake that is assumed to be 

adequate, based on observed or experimentally determined estimates of intake by apparently 

healthy people. AIs cannot be used to determine the proportion of a population with inadequate 

intakes. Instead, assessment focuses on comparison of mean usual intakes to the AI. Populations 

with a mean usual intake equivalent to or greater than the population-specific AI can be assumed 

to have high levels of nutrient adequacy. However, when mean usual intakes fall below the AI, 

no firm conclusions can be drawn about the prevalence of adequate usual intakes. 

The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) is the highest usual nutrient intake level that is likely 

to pose no risk of adverse health effects to individuals in the specified life stage group. As intake 

increases above the UL, the risk of adverse effects increases. For most nutrients for which ULs 

have been established, the UL is based on intake from food, water, and dietary supplements 

(IOM, 2006). For some nutrients, the UL applies only to synthetic forms obtained from dietary 

supplements, fortified foods, or over-the-counter medications. 

The DRIs also define Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) for intakes of 

macronutrients (total fat, carbohydrate, and protein) and key fatty acids (linoleic acid and 

linolenic acid). The AMDRs reflect a range of usual nutrient intake associated with reduced risk 

of chronic disease, while providing adequate intakes of other essential nutrients (IOM, 2005a). 

AMDRs are expressed as percentages of total calorie intake because their requirements are not 

independent of each other or of the total calorie requirement of the individual (IOM, 2006). A 

key feature of AMDRs is that they specify ranges of intake. Intakes that fall outside of these 

ranges (i.e., exceed upper bound or fall below lower bound) may increase risk of chronic disease. 

The 2010 Dietary Guidelines also include quantitative recommendations for saturated fat, 

cholesterol, and sodium that encourage reduced intakes of these nutrients. Recommendations for 

saturated fat (as a percent of total calories) and cholesterol are the same for all age groups. 

Sodium recommendations vary by age. Dietary Guidelines recommendations are shown in 

Figure A-1. 

Estimating Usual Nutrient Intakes 

The DRIs, which are used to assess the prevalence of inadequate and excessive nutrient intakes, 

are intended to be applied to measures of usual intakes or long-term averages of daily intakes. 

Therefore, information about the distribution of usual nutrient intakes is needed for assessing 

diets of population groups. Experts in dietary assessment have found that data from single 24-

hour dietary recalls will lead to biased estimates of the distribution of usual intakes, as well as 

the proportion of a group with usual intakes above or below a standard (Beaton et al., 1983). This 

is due to the fact that nutrient intakes for an individual vary from day to day. An extensive body 

of methodological research investigating the use of 24-hour recall data to estimate the 

distribution of usual intakes for population groups has evolved, which recommends that the data 

include a second 24-hour recall for at least a subset of the population (National Research 

Council, Subcommittee on Criteria for Dietary Evaluation, 1986; Nusser et al., 1996; Dodd, 

2006; Tooze et al., 2006). 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-6

We used the method developed by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) to estimate the usual 

intake distributions, mean intakes, and percent of individuals above, below, or within the 

standards established in the DRIs or recommended in the 2010 Dietary Guidelines. The NCI 

method involves the use of two SAS macros that are available on NCI’s website (Parsons et al.,

2009). The first macro, Mixtran, transforms the data and fits the model. The second macro, 

Distrib, uses the parameters estimated by the Mixtran macro to estimate the usual intake statistics 

through simulation. The Distrib macro also provides the estimated percent of the population 

whose intake falls below a given value (e.g., a DRI value or Dietary Guidelines

recommendation). To estimate standard errors of the estimated percentiles and percentages, we 

used the balanced repeated replication (BRR) method. 

Use of Dietary Supplements and Nutrient Intake from Supplements 

Information on dietary supplement use is important in assessing usual nutrient intakes. Because 

the NHANES dietary recall interview did not start collecting data on 24-hour dietary supplement 

use until NHANES 2007–2008, the estimates of usual nutrient intakes presented in this report do 

not include contributions from dietary supplements. To gain some perspective on the 

contributions of dietary supplements to nutrient intakes, we estimated the (1) prevalence of 

supplement use, (2) mean daily nutrient intakes from supplements, (3) percent contribution of 

supplements to total nutrient intakes, and (4) percent contribution of supplements to DRIs. 

This analysis used data from NHANES 2007–2010, which is the only analysis in the report that 

used NHANES 2009–2010 data. All estimates were based on one-day intakes and estimated for 

three groups: all children (supplement users and nonusers), supplement users only, and 

multivitamin users only. To be classified as a multivitamin, a dietary supplement had to contain 

at least 3 vitamins and at least 1 mineral. The Dietary Supplement Database: Product Information 

file identified the number of vitamins and mineral contained in each dietary supplement reported 

by NHANES participants. Nutrients included in the analysis were vitamin C, vitamin B6, vitamin 

B12, vitamin D, folate, niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, 

phosphorus, zinc, copper, selenium, and choline. The NHANES dietary supplement files did not 

include data for vitamin A and vitamin E, so these nutrients were not included in the analysis. 

Usual Intake of Calories 

Usual intake of calories was computed using the NCI Mixtran and Distrib SAS macros (Parsons 

et al., 2009). The Mixtran macro transforms the data and fits the model used for calculating the 

estimates. The Distrib macro uses the parameters estimated by the Mixtran macro to calculate the 

mean and distribution of the variable of interest based on the model established for the 

population being examined. 

Body Mass Index 

Weight status is defined using the body mass index (BMI), a measure of the relationship between 

height and weight. BMI is a widely accepted index for classify the weight status of individuals as 

underweight, healthy weight, overweight, or obese. NHANES collects body measurement data 

during the MEC exam, including body weight and height (or recumbent length for children less 

than 2 years old). These data are available in the NHANES Body Measures Files. These files 

also include a variable for BMI, defined as follows: 

BMI = weight in kilograms ÷ (height in meters)2
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-7

For children, the CDC recommends using BMI to screen for overweight and obesity beginning at 

2 years old. Because children grow at different rates at different times, children’s weight status is 

determined by using BMI-for-age percentiles that take into account a child’s age and gender. We 

used the SAS program provided on CDC’s website to estimate BMI-for-age percentiles for 

children. We classified children’s weight status based on comparison of BMI-for-age percentiles 

with the standards defined by the CDC (Exhibit 3-3). Children 1 year old and individuals with 

missing BMI or height and weight data were excluded from the analysis. 

Consumption of Empty Calories 

The consumption of empty calories is an important aspect of diet quality. Foods and beverages 

that contain empty calories contribute calories to a diet while providing few nutrients. Empty 

calories come from two main sources: solid fats and added sugars. The 2010 Dietary Guidelines

recommend reducing consumption of solid fats and added sugars to allow for increased intake of 

recommended amounts of nutrient-dense foods (that is, foods that are fat-free or low fat with no 

added sugars) without exceeding overall calorie needs. The Dietary Guidelines specify 

maximum daily limits for empty calories for individuals 2 years and older, based on estimated 

calorie needs for three different physical activity levels (Exhibit 4-1). As shown in Exhibit 4-1, 

maximum daily limits for empty calories range from 121 to 137 calories, or 10 to 14 percent of 

total calories, among children who are age-eligible to participate in WIC. 

To assess the consumption of empty calories among WIC children and nonparticipant children, 

we estimated the percent contribution of empty calories to total calorie intakes. Children less 

than 2 years old were excluded from the analysis because the Dietary Guidelines do not apply to 

them. To construct this measure, we obtained data on total calories from the NHANES 

Individual Foods Files and Total Nutrients Files, and obtained data on solid fats and added 

sugars from the Food Patterns equivalents data sources described previously. The HEI SAS 

programs include a formula for estimating the number of calories from solid fats, added sugars, 

and alcohol for each individual. We modified this code to also estimate the number of calories 

from solid fats and added sugars only. We then estimated percent of total calories from empty 

calories among all children and by participation/eligibility status and age group. 

Consumption of Foods Provided in the WIC Food Package 

We examined the proportion of children consuming the types of foods provided in the WIC food 

package (hereafter referred to as WIC foods). The WIC food package for children that was in 

place when NHANES 2005–2008 data were collected included the following types of foods (see 

Exhibit 5-1): milk, cheese, eggs, 100% fruit juice, peanut butter, legumes, and cereal. For each 

type of food, WIC specifies the allowable types and quantities of foods to be provided in the 

food package. We identified WIC foods in the NHANES data based on food descriptions. For 

juices and cereals, we also compared the nutrient content of the food to WIC regulatory 

requirements in order to identify the specific types of juices and cereals allowed by WIC (see 

Exhibit 5-1). We compared the proportions of WIC children and nonparticipant children who 

consumed of the various WIC food on the day covered in the dietary recall. 

Food Choices Defined Using the Supermarket Aisle Approach 

To further examine the food choices of WIC children and nonparticipant children, we 

categorized all foods reported in Day-1 Dietary Recalls according to the food groups and 

subgroups defined in the supermarket aisle approach used by Cole & Fox (2008). This approach 

categorizes foods into major food groups and subgroups based on supermarket groupings, as 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-8

show in Figure A-2. We made slight modifications to the food groups defined by Cole & Fox 

(2008) to reflect the types of foods reported in NHANES 2005–2008. Sandwiches, Mexican 

entrees, salads, and soups that were reported as multiple components in a dietary recall were 

counted as one food choice. Grains were classified as whole grains if at least 50 percent of the 

total grains were whole grains (using data the Food Patterns equivalents data sources). 

Vegetables that were not categorized separately by type were assigned to the “other raw” or 

“other cooked” vegetables groups. Within these two groups, vegetables in the top quartile of the 

distribution of vitamins A or C per 100 grams were categorized as "higher in vitamins A or C" 

(at least 58 mg of vitamin C and/or 54 mcg of vitamin A for raw vegetables; and at least 24 mg 

of vitamin C and/or 47 mcg of vitamin A for cooked vegetables); all others were categorized as 

"lower in vitamins A or C." 

We estimated the percent of children consuming one or more foods (in any amount) from each of 

the 11 major supermarket aisle food groups on the day covered in the dietary recall. Within the 

supermarket aisle subgroups, we estimated the percent of children consuming one or more foods 

from the subgroup among those who consumed any foods in the corresponding major group. For 

example, the percent of children consuming each of the grain subgroups is conditional on 

consuming any grains. This approach allows us to compare food choices of WIC children and 

nonparticipant children while controlling for different overall levels of consumption at the major 

food group level. All of the supermarket aisle food groups and subgroups reflect foods consumed 

as discrete items. 

Average Amounts of Food Consumed from Supermarket Aisle Food Groups 

We examined the mean amounts of food consumed by WIC children and nonparticipant children 

on the day covered in the dietary recall from each of the major food groups and subgroups 

defined in the supermarket aisle approach. We estimated amounts in both grams and Food 

Patterns units among the total population and among consumers only. To construct these 

measures, we used the Individual Foods Files, the Food Patterns equivalents data, and the major 

food groups and subgroups defined in the supermarket aisle approach. To estimate average 

amounts consumed in grams, gram amounts for foods reported consumed within each food group 

and subgroup were summed to create daily totals for each child. To estimate average amounts 

consumed in Food Patterns units, we used Food Patterns equivalents data to obtain cup and 

ounce equivalents data for foods in the milk and milk products, fruits, vegetables, meat and meat 

alternates, and grains groups and their associated subgroups. Food Patterns units for each food 

group and subgroup were summed to create daily totals in cup or ounce equivalents for each 

child. For foods that were reported as multiple components but counted as one item in the food 

choices analysis, we summed the gram and Food Patterns units for all components reported so 

that foods were handled the same way in both analyses. We then estimated the mean amounts of 

grams and Food Patterns units over the total population, which included all children regardless of 

whether or not the food group or subgroup was consumed. To estimate the average amounts 

consumed among consumers only, we included only those children that consumed the specific 

food group or subgroup. The estimates reflect average daily amounts of foods consumed on the 

day covered in the dietary recall. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-9

Figure A-2. Supermarket Aisle Food Groups and Subgroups 

Major Group Subgroup Major Group Subgroup 

Grains Fruit and 100% Fruit Juice

Bread Fresh orange 

Rolls Fresh other citrus 

English muffins Fresh apple 

Bagels Fresh banana 

Biscuits, scones, croissants Fresh melon 

Muffins Fresh watermelon 

Cornbread Fresh grapes 

Corn tortillas Fresh peach/nectarine 

Flour tortillas Fresh pear 

Taco shells Fresh berries 

Crackers Other fresh fruit 

Breakfast/granola bars Avocado/guacamole 

Pancakes, waffles, French toast Lemon/lime-any form 

Cold cereal Canned or frozen fruit, total 

Hot cereal Canned or frozen in syrup 

Rice Canned or frozen, no syrup 

Pasta Applesauce, canned/frozen apples 

Vegetables Canned/frozen peaches 

Raw vegetables Canned/frozen pineapple 

Raw lettuce/greens Other canned/frozen 

Raw carrots Fruit juice 

Raw tomatoes Non-citrus juice 

Raw cabbage/coleslaw Citrus juice 

Other raw vegetables (higher in vitamins A and C)1 Dried fruit 

Other raw vegetables (lower in vitamins A and C) 1 Meat and Meat Alternates 

Salads (w/greens) Beef 

Cooked vegetables, excl. potatoes Ground beef 

Cooked green beans Pork 

Cooked corn Ham 

Cooked peas Lamb and misc. meats 

Cooked carrots Chicken 

Cooked broccoli Turkey 

Cooked tomatoes Organ meats 

Cooked mixed Hot dogs 

Cooked starchy Cold cuts 

Other cooked deep yellow Fish 

Other cooked dark green Shellfish 

Other cooked vegetables (higher in vitamins A and C)1 Bacon/sausage 

Other cooked vegetables (lower in vitamins A and C)1

 Eggs 

Other fried Beans (dry, cooked) 

Cooked potatoes-not fried Baked/refried beans 

Cooked potatoes-fried Soy products 

Vegetable juice Protein/meal enhancement 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-10

Figure A-2. Supermarket Aisle Food Groups and Subgroups–Continued 

Mixed Dishes Nuts 

Tomato sauce and meat (no pasta) Peanut/almond butter 

Chili con carne Seeds 

Meat mixtures w/red meat Milk and Milk Products 

Meat mixtures w/chicken/turkey Unflavored whole milk 

Meat mixtures w/fish Unflavored 2% milk 

Hamburgers/cheeseburgers Unflavored 1% milk 

Sandwiches (excl. hamburger) Unflavored skim milk 

Hot dogs Unflavored milk-% fat nfs 

Luncheon meats Flavored whole milk 

Beef, pork, ham Flavored 2% milk 

Chicken, turkey Flavored 1% milk 

Cheese (no meat) Flavored skim milk 

Fish Flavored milk-% fat nfs 

Peanut butter Soymilk 

Breakfast sandwiches Dry of evaporated milk 

Pizza (no meat) Yogurt 

Pizza w/meat Cheese 

Breast milk 

Infant formula 

Mexican entrees 

Macaroni and cheese 

Pasta dishes, Italian style Sweets and Desserts 

Rice dishes Sugar and sugar substitutes 

Other grain mixtures Syrups/sweet toppings 

Meat soup Jelly 

Bean soup Jello 

Grain soups Candy 

Vegetable mixtures (inc soup) Ice cream 

Entrée salad Pudding 

Beverages (excluding milk and 100% fruit juice) Ice/popsicles 

Coffee Sweet rolls 

Tea Cake/cupcakes 

Beer Cookies 

Wine Pies/cobblers 

Liquor Pastries 

Energy drinks Doughnuts 

Water Added Fats and Oils

Regular soda Butter 

Sugar-free soda Margarine 

Noncarbonated sweetened beverage Other added fats 

Non carbonated low-calorie/sugar free beverage Other added oils 

Salty Snacks Salad dressing 

Corn-based salty snacks Mayonnaise 

Pretzels/party mix Gravy 

Popcorn Cream cheese 

Potato chips Cream/sour cream 

Other

1 "Other raw" and "Other cooked" vegetables include all vegetables not categorized separately. Within these two groups, 

vegetables in the top quartile of the distribution of Vitamins A or C per 100 grams were categorized as "higher in vitamins A 

or C"; all others are "lower in vitamins A or C." Raw vegetables higher in vitamins A or C include broccoli, peppers (sweet 

and hot), snow peas, seaweed, and leeks. Raw vegetables lower in vitamins A or C include onions, cucumbers, celery, 

radishes, mushrooms, asparagus, squash, and green peas. Cooked vegetables higher in nutrients include cabbage, 

peppers, asparagus, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, and snow peas. Cooked vegetables lower in vitamins A or C include 

squash, artichokes, onions, mushrooms, eggplant, beets, and yellow string beans. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-11

The results for the average amounts of foods consumed from supermarket aisle food groups 

should not be used to represent total food group intake or compared to USDA Food Pattern 

recommendations. Total food group intakes for each USDA Food Pattern group were not 

estimated for this study, but have been estimated by the USDA using NHANES 2005–2006 and 

2007–2008 data and can be found at the website listed below. 

http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=23868

Health Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005) and HEI-2010 

To estimate mean HEI-2005 and HEI-2010 component and total scores, we used the following 

resources developed by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) and available on their website: 

 SAS programs that estimate mean component and total scores, and corresponding 

standard errors and confidence intervals 

(HEI2005_NHANES0102_MC_PopulationScore.sas; and 

HEI2010_NHANES0708_MC_PopulationScore.sas) 

 Two SAS macros that allocate beans and peas to the protein/meat and beans and 

vegetable components, and apply the HEI scoring algorithm 

(hei2005.beanspeas.allocation.macro.sas and hei2005.score.macro.sas; 

hei2010.beanspeas.allocation.macro.sas and hei2010.score.macro.sas) 

NCI’s SAS programs and macros are designed to estimate mean HEI component and total scores 

and corresponding standard errors and confidence intervals using one day of dietary intake data 

from NHANES (NCI, 2013). The SAS code uses SAS survey procedures to account for the 

complex survey design and a Monte Carlo simulation step to compute standard errors. The SAS 

programs read in the variables needed from the NHANES Individual Foods Files and Total 

Nutrient Intakes Files, as well as variables from the Food Patterns equivalents database. We 

adapted NCI’s SAS code to calculate HEI scores for NHANES 2005–2008 and to import the 

Food Patterns data sources (described previously). 

The SAS programs use the population ratio method and one day of dietary intake data to estimate 

mean component and total HEI scores. In this method, the ratio between the population’s total 

intake of a food group or nutrient of interest and their total calorie intake is computed, rather than 

using means of individual scores or means of individual ratios. This convention is usually 

suggested largely because of two factors: (1) it reduces possible bias resulting from correlations 

between an individual’s one-day food or nutrient to energy ratio and his or her energy intake, and 

(2) there is usually less score truncation in the HEI scoring system for the group-level HEI 

measure than in the mean of the individual-level HEI scores (Freedman et al., 2008). 

Statistical Methods 

The study team produced all estimates for this report using SAS (version 9.3 and 9.4). 

Sample weights were used to account for sample design and nonresponse. Information about the 

NHANES survey design (strata and primary sampling units) was used for estimating variances 

and testing for statistical significance. Thus, the SAS procedures used included SURVEYREG 

and SURVEYMEANS. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-12

The NHANES analytic guidelines recommend calculating standard errors using procedures that 

account for the complex sampling design effect to produce an asymptotically unbiased estimate 

of the variance. Following the NHANES guidelines, we estimated standard errors using replicate 

weights that account for the complex survey design. Standard errors are included in Appendix 

tables only. 

Sampling Weights 

The study team applied weights reflecting the sampling design of the NHANES to project 

sample statistics to population statistics. We constructed 4-year weights according to the 

NHANES analytic guidelines because all estimates are based on two waves of NHANES data. 

NHANES provides several weights for use in analyzing each wave of data, including full sample 

2-year interview weights, full sample 2-year examination weights, and day-1 dietary sample 

weights. Because we subset the NHANES sample to those with complete and reliable Day-1 

Dietary Recall data, we primarily used the day-1 dietary sample weights. Day-1 weights adjust 

for the non-response in the Day-1 Dietary Recall and the differential allocation by day of the 

week for the dietary intake data collection. 

 

Age-Adjusted Statistics 

We used age-adjustment to produce estimates for the “All children ages 1–4” group. When 

adjusting the estimates, we used a single weight for each age included in the total group. Ageadjustment eliminates differences between comparison groups due solely to differences in the 

age distributions of the groups. The age-adjusted estimates are calculated as the weighted 

average of estimates computed for each age using weights equal to the proportion of the 2010 

United States population of the same age. Figure A-3 shows the population distribution used for 

age-adjustment. Two approaches were used for age-adjustment. 

Figure A-3. Census 2010 population for DRI Age Groups 

 Age Population Percent 

 1 year old 3,978,070 24.47 

 2 years old 4,096,929 25.20 

 3 years old 4,119,040 25.34 

 4 years old 4,063,170 24.99 

Source: Census 2010 Summary File 1 (SF1). 

http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP2&prodType=table

We used the first approach for the HEI-2005, HEI-2010, and usual nutrient intakes outcomes. In 

this approach, each DRI age-group mean score was calculated. The mean score for each 

comparison group was computed as the weighted average of the age-group estimates for that 

group, using population weights. We used the same set of weights for each comparison group. 

We used the following equation to calculate standard errors for HEI-2005, HEI-2010, and usual 

nutrient intakes: 

ඩ෍ ቂ൫ܵܧ೔௑

൯

ଶ

ൈ ሺܭ௜ሻଶቃ

௃

௜ୀଵ

೔௑ܧܵ where

 is the standard error for DRI age-group “i” and ܭ ௜is the population weight 

adjustment for that age group. 
Diet Quality of American Young Children by WIC Participation Status A-13

The second approach was used for the consumption of empty calories, BMI, and food choices 

outcomes. In this approach, the outcome was first calculated for each individual. Special SAS 

procedures were used to calculate age-adjusted estimates and standard errors. Population weight 

adjustments for each DRI age group were incorporated into PROC SURVEYMEANS and PROC 

SURVEYREG. Output from running PROC SURVEYREG provided separate estimates and 

standard errors for all persons, WIC participants, income-eligible nonparticipants, and higherincome nonparticipants. 

Age-adjustment was not applied to the average amounts of foods consumed outcome. 

Insufficient sample sizes prevented the computation of reliable estimates for numerous 

components of this analysis. For many of the food subgroups included, specific age groups 

contained zero participants consuming food in that subgroup. When no one in an age or 

comparison group consumed a food, we lacked the variation required to use age-adjustment 

procedures. 

Statistical Significance 

We conducted t-tests to determine whether differences in outcomes between WIC participants 

and each group of nonparticipants (income-eligible nonparticipants and higher-income 

nonparticipants) reached statistical significance. When examining multiple outcome categories 

simultaneously for the usual nutrient intake distributions, we use the Bonferroni adjustment for 

multiplicity (Lohr, 1999). All tabulations in the Appendices indicate statistically significant 

differences at the .05, .01, and .001 levels. All graphics throughout the report indicate 

statistically significant differences at the .05 level or better. 

Indicators of Statistical Reliability 

We tested all estimates for statistical reliability according to recommendations in the NHANES 

analytic guidelines on variance estimation. These guidelines recommend that estimates have a 

relative standard error of 30% or less, rather than a minimum sample size. Because the design 

effect is highly variable for different variables within each 2-year cycle of the continuous 

NHANES, the analytic guidelines do not set a single minimum sample size for analysis (CDC, 

2013b). We flagged estimates in each table with “u” if the coefficient of variation (ratio of the 

standard error to the mean expressed as a percent) was greater than 30%, to indicate that the 

estimate is statistically unreliable. We did not discuss estimates in the text that were determined 

to be unreliable and did not discuss comparisons where either variable in the comparison was 

unreliable. Although some comparisons may be statistically significant, the practical significance 

of the results may be limited, and should be interpreted with this limitation in mind. 
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Appendix B. 

Detailed Tables for Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages

 
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Table B-1. Vitamin A (mcg RAE): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table.

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Hig

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 551 (11.5) 791 535 (15.7) 496 543 (18.5)  1 year olds 566 551 (17.4) 305 541 (26.4) 96 536 (41.0)  2 year olds 587 569 (18.3) 223 555 (37.6) 162 538 (22.8)  3 year olds 389 534 (27.9) 132 521 (27.4) 104 494 (41.9)  4 year olds 414 550 (26.5) 131 521 (32.5) 134 605 (39.4) 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements 

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 98.3 (0.62) 791 98.0 (0.90) 496 98.2 (1.09)  1 year olds 566 99.6 (0.37) 305 99.8 (0.35) 96 99.7 (1.32)  2 year olds 587 98.3 (0.88) 223 99.3 (0.82) 162 99.7 (0.57)  3 year olds 389 98.7 (1.17) 132 99.8 (0.38) 104 96.7 (2.85)  4 year olds 414 96.5 (1.96) 131 93.1 (3.45) 134 96.9 (2.92) 
Table B-1. Vitamin A (mcg RAE): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 

Distribution of Usual Intake 

All children, 1–4 years old 285 331 363 416 530 662 742 8 1 year olds 309 352 382 430 533 652 723 7 2 year olds 266 317 353 413 543 693 789 8 3 year olds 271 318 351 403 516 645 722 7 4 year olds 293 338 369 419 528 656 735 7WIC participants 294 335 364 410 513 632 708 7 1 year olds 314 353 381 424 521 634 704 7 2 year olds 284 329 360 410 526 666 755 8 3 year olds 321 359 386 428 516 603 658 6 4 year olds 259 299 328 378 491 626 717 7Income-eligible nonparticipants 289 332 364 416 526 648 724 7 1 year olds 305 344 375 425 526 630 696 7 2 year olds 315 357 386 433 528 630 690 7 3 year olds 232 275 308 359 473 601 684 7 4 year olds 303 351 387 446 577 730 828 8Higher-income nonparticipants 301 347 380 434 550 675 753 8 1 year olds 313 357 388 442 551 667 737 7 2 year olds 276 329 368 428 567 720 814 8 3 year olds 301 346 379 435 555 687 769 8 4 year olds 317 354 384 429 527 627 690 7

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-2. Vitamin B6 (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants High

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 1.31 (0.021) 791 1.45 (0.038) 496 1.31 ** (0.036) 60 1 year olds 566 1.13 (0.040) 305 1.16 (0.047) 96 1.14 (0.069) 15 2 year olds 587 1.33 (0.030) 223 1.49 (0.042) 162 1.34 (0.066) 18 3 year olds 389 1.34 (0.045) 132 1.59 (0.108) 104 1.32 (0.083) 13 4 year olds 414 1.44 (0.049) 131 1.56 (0.085) 134 1.41 (0.066) 13

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements 

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 100.0 (0.03) 791 100.0 (0.05) 496 99.8 (0.30) 60 1 year olds 566 100.0 (0.01) 305 100.0 (0.00) 96 99.6 (1.17) 15 2 year olds 587 100.0 (0.06) 223 100.0 (0.03) 162 100.0 (0.04) 18 3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.03) 132 99.9 (0.16) 104 99.9 (0.08) 13 4 year olds 414 99.9 (0.10) 131 99.9 (0.13) 134 99.8 (0.35) 13
Table B-2. Vitamin B6 (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake 

All children, 1–4 years old 0.78 0.88 0.94 1.05 1.27 1.53 1.68 1.79  1 year olds 0.75 0.82 0.86 0.94 1.10 1.29 1.40 1.48  2 year olds 0.77 0.87 0.95 1.06 1.30 1.56 1.72 1.84  3 year olds 0.79 0.89 0.95 1.06 1.29 1.57 1.73 1.84  4 year olds 0.82 0.94 1.01 1.14 1.40 1.70 1.88 2.00 WIC participants 0.84 0.94 1.02 1.14 1.41 1.70 1.89 2.02  1 year olds 0.78 0.85 0.90 0.97 1.13 1.31 1.42 1.50  2 year olds 0.89 1.01 1.09 1.20 1.46 1.74 1.90 2.02  3 year olds 0.80 0.93 1.02 1.17 1.52 1.90 2.16 2.35  4 year olds 0.87 0.99 1.07 1.21 1.51 1.85 2.06 2.21 Income-eligible nonparticipants 0.73 0.83 0.90 1.02 1.27 1.54 1.71 1.83  1 year olds 0.58 0.67 0.74 0.86 1.11 1.37 1.54 1.67  2 year olds 0.84 0.93 0.99 1.10 1.32 1.55 1.69 1.79  3 year olds 0.75 0.85 0.92 1.04 1.29 1.56 1.73 1.85  4 year olds 0.76 0.87 0.95 1.07 1.35 1.68 1.89 2.03 Higher-income nonparticipants 0.80 0.88 0.94 1.03 1.22 ** 1.42 *** 1.55 ** 1.63 *

 1 year olds 0.81 0.86 0.90 0.96 1.08 1.20 1.28 1.34 

 2 year olds 0.72 0.81 0.88 * 0.98 ** 1.21 ** 1.45 * 1.59 * 1.69 

 3 year olds 0.83 0.90 0.95 1.03 1.21 1.39 1.51 1.59 

 4 year olds 0.86 0.96 1.03 1.15 1.39 1.64 1.80 1.91 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-3. Vitamin B12 (mcg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher-in

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 4.33 (0.079) 791 4.64 (0.131) 496 4.34 (0.140) 606  1 year olds 566 4.25 (0.114) 305 4.53 (0.211) 96 4.02 (0.308) 153  2 year olds 587 4.45 (0.146) 223 4.66 (0.218) 162 4.20 (0.228) 183  3 year olds 389 4.26 (0.181) 132 4.88 (0.329) 104 4.30 (0.288) 134  4 year olds 414 4.35 (0.177) 131 4.50 (0.271) 134 4.83 (0.293) 136 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EAR

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 100.0 (0.01) 791 100.0 (0.00) 496 100.0 (0.03) 606  1 year olds 566 100.0 (0.00) 305 100.0 (0.02) 96 99.9 (0.12) 153  2 year olds 587 100.0 (0.02) 223 100.0 (0.00) 162 100.0 (0.01) 183  3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.00) 132 100.0 (0.00) 104 100.0 (0.02) 134  4 year olds 414 100.0 (0.02) 131 100.0 (0.01) 134 100.0 (0.04) 136 
Table B-3. Vitamin B12 (mcg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake 

All children, 1–4 years old 2.34 2.70 2.95 3.35 4.19 5.15 5.73 6.14  1 year olds 2.34 2.69 2.93 3.32 4.13 5.05 5.57 5.96  2 year olds 2.18 2.58 2.86 3.32 4.29 5.39 6.07 6.56  3 year olds 2.37 2.72 2.95 3.33 4.13 5.05 5.59 5.97  4 year olds 2.47 2.81 3.04 3.41 4.21 5.12 5.68 6.06 WIC participants 2.63 2.98 3.23 3.63 4.49 5.47 6.08 6.51  1 year olds 2.39 2.76 3.03 3.44 4.36 5.41 6.05 6.51  2 year olds 2.58 2.96 3.21 3.62 4.51 5.52 6.13 6.58  3 year olds 2.89 3.24 3.49 3.89 4.76 5.68 6.29 6.72  4 year olds 2.65 2.96 3.19 3.55 4.34 5.25 5.83 6.24 Income-eligible nonparticipants 2.31 2.66 2.92 3.34 4.22 5.18 5.77 6.19  1 year olds 1.81 2.16 2.45 2.92 3.90 4.93 5.59 6.09  2 year olds 2.40 2.74 2.97 3.35 4.12 4.94 5.44 5.78  3 year olds 2.22 2.59 2.86 3.28 4.18 5.16 5.77 6.20  4 year olds 2.80 3.15 3.40 3.81 4.69 5.67 6.28 6.70 Higher-income nonparticipants 2.32 2.65 2.89 3.28 4.09 4.94 5.46 5.82 

 1 year olds 2.57 2.88 3.09 3.44 4.10 4.75 5.12 * 5.40 

 2 year olds 2.04 2.46 2.76 3.24 4.33 5.52 6.25 6.76 

 3 year olds 2.38 2.68 2.89 3.25 3.97 4.73 5.18 5.49 

 4 year olds 2.28 2.58 2.82 3.18 3.96 4.77 5.28 5.63 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-4. Vitamin C (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher-

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 90 (2.6) 791 112 (5.0) 496 86 *** (4.5) 606  1 year olds 566 84 (5.8) 305 99 (8.3) 96 87 (10.7) 153  2 year olds 587 103 (4.7) 223 134 (12.6) 162 110 (9.2) 183  3 year olds 389 89 (5.9) 132 117 (9.7) 104 72 *** (9.2) 134  4 year olds 414 82 (4.7) 131 100 (8.5) 134 75 * (6.0) 136 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EA

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 99.4 (0.29) 791 99.6 (0.16) 496 99.5 (0.68) 606  1 year olds 566 99.4 (0.40) 305 99.7 (0.23) 96 99.3 (0.89) 153  2 year olds 587 99.4 (0.35) 223 99.4 (0.36) 162 99.9 (0.24) 183  3 year olds 389 99.2 (0.76) 132 99.7 (0.29) 104 98.8 (2.45) 134  4 year olds 414 99.5 (0.70) 131 99.4 (0.34) 134 99.9 (0.72) 136 
Table B-4. Vitamin C (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 29 37 43 54 80 115 138 156  1 year olds 26 33 39 50 75 108 130 148  2 year olds 28 38 45 58 91 133 163 186  3 year olds 24 32 38 49 76 115 141 161  4 year olds 36 44 49 58 78 102 117 128 WIC participants 33 43 51 65 99 144 175 199  1 year olds 30 39 46 58 87 126 153 173  2 year olds 29 42 51 67 111 175 219 254  3 year olds 35 46 55 70 106 150 181 203  4 year olds 38 47 53 65 92 125 147 163 Income-eligible nonparticipants 31 39 45 55 80 ** 109 *** 128 ** 142 * 1 year olds 25 33 40 52 80 112 133 151  2 year olds 37 47 55 69 101 140 166 185  3 year olds 21 u 28 u 33 u 42 65 ** 93 * 113 128  4 year olds 42 u 48 u 52 58 73 89 99 106 Higher-income nonparticipants 27 34 39 48 ** 71 *** 99 *** 118 *** 133 *

 1 year olds 23 29 34 43 64 91 109 124 

 2 year olds 28 36 42 51 75 ** 103 *** 122 ** 135 *

 3 year olds 23 u 29 u 34 u 44 69 * 104 131 152 

 4 year olds 35 42 47 56 75 96 110 120 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient in

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer Institute (

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Totals are age

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles are noted by * (.05 

(.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC benefits at the time of the in

percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplici

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population groups. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-5. Vitamin D (mcg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants High

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Samp

size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 6.9 (0.14) 791 7.3 (0.22) 496 6.5 * (0.32) 606  1 year olds 566 8.5 (0.29) 305 8.8 (0.46) 96 7.8 (0.94) 153  2 year olds 587 7.3 (0.31) 223 7.7 (0.54) 162 6.5 (0.44) 183  3 year olds 389 6.0 (0.30) 132 6.9 (0.41) 104 5.8 (0.60) 134  4 year olds 414 5.7 (0.23) 131 5.8 (0.28) 134 5.9 (0.41) 136 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 15.6 (1.26) 791 16.7 (2.16) 496 12.5 (2.40) 606  1 year olds 566 31.2 (2.85) 305 33.6 (4.69) 96 25.9 u (7.91) 153  2 year olds 587 20.9 (2.74) 223 22.2 (5.50) 162 13.2 (2.70) 183  3 year olds 389 7.6 u (2.68) 132 11.0 u (4.34) 104 6.1 u (3.60) 134  4 year olds 414 3.1 u (1.60) 131 0.5 u (1.87) 134 5.1 u (3.36) 136 
Table B-5. Vitamin D (mcg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 2.6 3.4 3.9 4.7 6.5 8.7 9.9 10.8  1 year olds 3.4 4.3 5.0 6.0 8.2 10.7 12.1 13.2  2 year olds 2.2 3.0 3.6 4.6 6.8 9.4 11.1 12.3  3 year olds 2.3 2.9 3.4 4.1 5.7 7.6 8.7 9.5  4 year olds 2.6 3.2 3.6 4.2 5.5 7.0 7.9 8.4 WIC participants 3.4 4.1 4.6 5.4 7.0 8.9 10.0 10.8  1 year olds 3.8 4.7 5.4 6.4 8.5 10.9 12.4 13.4  2 year olds 3.0 3.8 4.3 5.2 7.2 9.6 11.1 12.2  3 year olds 3.3 3.9 4.4 5.1 6.7 8.4 9.4 10.2  4 year olds 3.6 4.1 4.3 4.8 5.7 6.7 7.3 7.7 Income-eligible nonparticipants 2.3 ** 2.9 ** 3.4 ** 4.3 * 6.2 8.3 9.6 10.5  1 year olds 2.1 2.9 3.6 4.7 7.3 10.2 12.0 13.5  2 year olds 2.2 2.9 3.4 4.3 6.2 8.4 9.7 10.7  3 year olds 2.3 2.9 3.3 4.0 5.5 7.3 8.4 9.1  4 year olds 2.5 3.1 3.5 4.2 5.7 7.3 8.3 9.0 Higher-income nonparticipants 2.6 3.3 * 3.8 4.7 6.6 8.7 10.0 11.0  1 year olds 3.8 4.7 5.4 6.4 8.6 10.7 12.0 12.9  2 year olds 2.1 2.9 3.5 4.5 6.9 9.8 11.6 12.8  3 year olds 2.2 2.8 3.2 4.0 5.7 7.6 8.7 9.6  4 year olds 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.8 5.3 6.9 7.9 8.5 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls and Vitamin D addendum to the FNDDS 3. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dieta

Data reflect nutrient intake from foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake National Cancer Institute (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
 Table B-6. Vitamin E (mg AT): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 4.1 (0.09) 791 4.2 (0.14) 496 4.2 (0.15) 606  1 year olds 566 3.7 (0.18) 305 3.4 (0.16) 96 4.1 (0.42) 153  2 year olds 587 4.0 (0.13) 223 4.2 (0.22) 162 4.1 (0.19) 183  3 year olds 389 4.1 (0.18) 132 4.2 (0.27) 104 4.1 (0.21) 134  4 year olds 414 4.5 (0.19) 131 4.9 (0.42) 134 4.6 (0.31) 136 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EA

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 17.1 (2.27) 791 21.5 (3.01) 496 18.1 (4.88) 606  1 year olds 566 15.7 (3.85) 305 10.3 u (4.12) 96 26.5 u (11.11) 153  2 year olds 587 18.9 (3.77) 223 26.6 (4.68) 162 17.5 u (8.47) 183  3 year olds 389 17.5 u (6.13) 132 25.7 (5.97) 104 15.0 u (9.59) 134  4 year olds 414 16.1 (3.87) 131 22.9 u (8.38) 134 13.8 u (9.78) 136 
Table B-6. Vitamin E (mg AT): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 2.3 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.9 4.8 5.4  1 year olds 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.6 3.4 4.4 5.1  2 year olds 2.2 2.5 2.7 3.1 3.8 4.7 5.3  3 year olds 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.9 4.7 5.1  4 year olds 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.4 4.3 5.4 6.1 WIC participants 2.0 2.4 2.6 3.0 3.9 5.0 5.8  1 year olds 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.6  2 year olds 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.9 3.8 5.1 6.0  3 year olds 2.1 2.5 2.7 3.1 4.0 5.0 5.7  4 year olds 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 4.6 5.8 6.7 Income-eligible nonparticipants 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 4.1 4.9 5.5  1 year olds 1.7 u 2.1 2.4 2.9 4.0 5.1 5.8  2 year olds 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.3 4.0 4.7 5.1  3 year olds 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.4 4.0 4.6 5.0  4 year olds 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 4.4 5.3 5.9 Higher-income nonparticipants 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.8 4.5 5.0  1 year olds 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.5 4.3 4.9  2 year olds 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.2 3.7 4.3 4.6  3 year olds 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.6  4 year olds 2.3 2.5 2.8 3.2 4.0 5.1 5.8 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient in

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer Institute (

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Totals are age

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles are noted by * (.05 

(.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC benefits at the time of the in

percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplici

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population groups. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-7. Folate (mcg DFE): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Highe

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sampl

size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 383 (7.1) 791 416 (12.7) 496 403 (13.9)  1 year olds 566 299 (9.7) 305 317 (13.7) 96 308 (21.8)  2 year olds 587 381 (11.5) 223 409 (21.0) 162 411 (28.4)  3 year olds 389 422 (18.6) 132 474 (34.5) 104 439 (34.1)  4 year olds 414 429 (15.4) 131 460 (26.8) 134 450 (25.1) 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (E

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 99.8 (0.11) 791 99.9 (0.13) 496 99.4 (0.50)  1 year olds 566 99.7 (0.19) 305 99.9 (0.16) 96 99.0 (1.57)  2 year olds 587 99.9 (0.11) 223 99.9 (0.16) 162 99.6 (0.82)  3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.04) 132 100.0 (0.07) 104 99.9 (0.12)  4 year olds 414 99.6 (0.36) 131 99.7 (0.47) 134 99.1 (0.95) 
Table B-7. Folate (mcg DFE): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 213 241 262 295 367 453 507 5 1 year olds 174 195 210 235 288 351 389 4 2 year olds 203 233 254 288 364 453 511 5 3 year olds 246 277 298 333 408 496 548 5 4 year olds 227 260 283 321 407 512 579 6WIC participants 227 258 279 315 396 491 554 6 1 year olds 186 208 224 248 304 370 412 4 2 year olds 209 242 264 302 387 490 556 6 3 year olds 279 312 335 374 459 552 615 6 4 year olds 233 267 292 334 431 550 630 6Income-eligible nonparticipants 203 235 260 300 386 485 548 5 1 year olds 160 185 205 237 302 369 411 4 2 year olds 193 228 252 295 388 499 571 6 3 year olds 242 277 303 343 429 521 578 6 4 year olds 216 251 277 322 423 547 628 6Higher-income nonparticipants 217 240 258 286 347 * 415 ** 458 ** 4

 1 year olds 167 185 199 222 270 324 358 3

 2 year olds 213 237 255 282 345 415 459 4

 3 year olds 250 273 289 317 375 438 478 5

 4 year olds 236 264 286 320 397 480 536 5

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-8. Niacin (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 14.0 (0.22) 791 14.7 (0.36) 496 14.4 (0.36) 6 1 year olds 566 11.7 (0.42) 305 12.1 (0.47) 96 11.8 (0.72) 1 2 year olds 587 13.7 (0.40) 223 14.6 (0.60) 162 14.7 (0.71) 1 3 year olds 389 14.9 (0.46) 132 16.0 (0.89) 104 15.5 (0.74) 1 4 year olds 414 15.6 (0.45) 131 15.9 (0.82) 134 15.7 (0.69) 1

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EA

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 99.7 (0.11) 791 99.8 (0.07) 496 99.4 (0.52) 6 1 year olds 566 99.2 (0.38) 305 99.6 (0.23) 96 97.6 (2.09) 1 2 year olds 587 99.9 (0.12) 223 99.9 (0.13) 162 99.9 (0.25) 1 3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.01) 132 100.0 (0.02) 104 100.0 (0.04) 1 4 year olds 414 99.7 (0.23) 131 99.9 (0.11) 134 99.8 (0.29) 1
Table B-8. Niacin (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 8.4 9.4 10.1 11.2 13.6 16.3 18.0 19.1  1 year olds 6.6 7.5 8.1 9.1 11.3 13.8 15.3 16.4  2 year olds 8.2 9.2 9.9 11.1 13.4 15.9 17.5 18.6  3 year olds 10.0 10.9 11.6 12.6 14.6 17.0 18.4 19.4  4 year olds 8.7 9.9 10.7 12.1 15.0 18.5 20.6 22.1 WIC participants 8.8 9.9 10.6 11.7 14.3 17.1 18.8 20.1  1 year olds 6.9 7.8 8.5 9.5 11.7 14.2 15.8 16.9  2 year olds 8.6 9.8 10.5 11.7 14.3 17.1 18.8 20.0  3 year olds 10.5 11.5 12.2 13.3 15.7 18.2 19.9 21.1  4 year olds 9.2 10.3 11.1 12.4 15.3 18.6 20.8 22.3 Income-eligible nonparticipants 8.6 9.7 10.4 11.7 14.2 16.9 18.5 19.6  1 year olds 6.0 7.1 7.9 9.2 11.7 14.1 15.5 16.6  2 year olds 8.8 9.9 10.7 11.9 14.5 17.2 18.8 19.9  3 year olds 10.0 11.0 11.8 12.9 15.3 17.7 19.2 20.3  4 year olds 9.4 10.5 11.3 12.6 15.4 18.4 20.2 21.4 Higher-income nonparticipants 8.2 9.1 9.7 10.8 13.0 15.5 17.1 18.2  1 year olds 6.2 6.9 7.5 8.5 10.8 13.3 15.0 16.3  2 year olds 7.8 8.7 9.4 10.4 12.5 14.8 16.1 17.0  3 year olds 10.5 11.2 11.6 12.4 14.0 15.6 16.6 17.3  4 year olds 8.2 9.3 10.3 11.6 14.8 18.4 20.7 22.4 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-9. Riboflavin (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Hig

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 1.87 (0.028) 791 1.97 (0.043) 496 1.86 (0.050) 60 1 year olds 566 1.93 (0.048) 305 2.01 (0.063) 96 1.85 (0.139) 15 2 year olds 587 1.91 (0.051) 223 1.99 (0.083) 162 1.82 (0.072) 18 3 year olds 389 1.83 (0.066) 132 1.99 (0.106) 104 1.82 (0.106) 13 4 year olds 414 1.82 (0.060) 131 1.87 (0.081) 134 1.93 (0.073) 13

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements 

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 100.0 (0.01) 791 100.0 (0.01) 496 100.0 (0.02) 60 1 year olds 566 100.0 (0.00) 305 100.0 (0.00) 96 100.0 (0.02) 15 2 year olds 587 100.0 (0.03) 223 100.0 (0.00) 162 100.0 (0.06) 18 3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.01) 132 100.0 (0.02) 104 100.0 (0.00) 13 4 year olds 414 100.0 (0.00) 131 100.0 (0.01) 134 100.0 (0.04) 13
Table B-9. Riboflavin (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1.11 1.25 1.35 1.51 1.83 2.19 2.40 2.54  1 year olds 1.18 1.32 1.42 1.58 1.90 2.24 2.44 2.58  2 year olds 1.01 1.18 1.29 1.47 1.85 2.28 2.54 2.73  3 year olds 1.11 1.25 1.34 1.49 1.79 2.13 2.32 2.46  4 year olds 1.13 1.26 1.35 1.49 1.78 2.10 2.29 2.41 WIC participants 1.21 1.35 1.45 1.60 1.93 2.27 2.49 2.64  1 year olds 1.25 1.39 1.49 1.64 1.96 2.32 2.54 2.69  2 year olds 1.22 1.37 1.46 1.62 1.94 2.31 2.52 2.68  3 year olds 1.19 1.33 1.44 1.60 1.96 2.32 2.56 2.72  4 year olds 1.20 1.33 1.42 1.56 1.84 2.15 2.33 2.46 Income-eligible nonparticipants 1.10 1.24 1.34 1.49 1.82 2.17 2.38 2.53  1 year olds 1.10 1.23 1.33 1.49 1.82 2.15 2.36 2.52  2 year olds 0.99 1.14 1.25 1.42 1.78 2.17 2.40 2.56  3 year olds 1.15 1.27 1.36 1.50 1.79 2.10 2.30 2.44  4 year olds 1.16 1.30 1.40 1.56 1.90 2.25 2.47 2.61 Higher-income nonparticipants 1.10 1.23 1.33 1.48 1.80 2.14 2.34 2.49  1 year olds 1.18 1.32 1.41 1.57 1.88 2.18 2.36 2.50  2 year olds 0.98 1.14 1.26 1.44 1.86 2.32 2.60 2.79  3 year olds 1.18 1.29 1.36 1.49 1.75 2.03 2.20 2.31  4 year olds 1.08 1.19 1.29 1.42 1.72 2.03 2.22 2.35 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-10. Thiamin (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants High

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 1.17 (0.017) 791 1.26 (0.026) 496 1.17 * (0.029)  1 year olds 566 1.06 (0.030) 305 1.12 (0.034) 96 1.05 (0.070)  2 year olds 587 1.17 (0.031) 223 1.26 (0.042) 162 1.16 (0.052)  3 year olds 389 1.21 (0.038) 132 1.30 (0.068) 104 1.25 (0.056)  4 year olds 414 1.24 (0.036) 131 1.33 (0.060) 134 1.24 (0.056) 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements 

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 99.9 (0.04) 791 100.0 (0.02) 496 99.8 (0.17)  1 year olds 566 100.0 (0.04) 305 100.0 (0.01) 96 99.8 (0.25)  2 year olds 587 99.9 (0.09) 223 100.0 (0.02) 162 99.9 (0.31)  3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.01) 132 100.0 (0.02) 104 100.0 (0.03)  4 year olds 414 99.9 (0.12) 131 99.9 (0.08) 134 99.5 (0.54) 
Table B-10. Thiamin (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 0.73 0.81 0.87 0.96 1.14 1.35 1.48 1.57  1 year olds 0.68 0.75 0.79 0.87 1.03 1.22 1.33 1.41  2 year olds 0.68 0.77 0.83 0.93 1.14 1.37 1.51 1.62  3 year olds 0.83 0.90 0.95 1.03 1.19 1.37 1.48 1.55  4 year olds 0.76 0.84 0.90 1.00 1.21 1.44 1.59 1.69 WIC participants 0.80 0.89 0.94 1.03 1.23 1.44 1.57 1.66  1 year olds 0.75 0.82 0.87 0.94 1.09 1.27 1.37 1.45  2 year olds 0.80 0.89 0.95 1.04 1.24 1.45 1.58 1.67  3 year olds 0.85 0.93 0.99 1.08 1.28 1.48 1.62 1.72  4 year olds 0.81 0.90 0.96 1.07 1.29 1.54 1.70 1.82 Income-eligible nonparticipants 0.71 0.80 0.86 0.96 1.15 1.37 1.49 1.58  1 year olds 0.63 0.70 0.76 0.85 1.04 1.22 1.33 1.42  2 year olds 0.67 0.76 0.82 0.93 1.13 1.36 1.49 1.58  3 year olds 0.84 0.92 0.98 1.06 1.24 1.41 1.52 1.59  4 year olds 0.70 0.79 0.86 0.97 1.21 1.47 1.63 1.74 Higher-income nonparticipants 0.73 0.79 0.85 0.93 1.10 ** 1.29 * 1.42 1.50  1 year olds 0.63 0.69 0.74 * 0.82 * 0.98 1.16 1.27 1.36  2 year olds 0.64 0.73 0.79 0.88 1.09 1.33 1.47 1.57  3 year olds 0.85 0.91 0.95 1.01 1.14 1.28 1.37 1.43  4 year olds 0.77 0.84 0.90 0.99 1.20 1.41 1.55 1.65 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-11. Calcium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher-

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 966 (18.1) 791 972 (24.5) 496 929 (31.6) 60 1 year olds 566 1,048 (24.4) 305 1,072 (39.4) 96 1,018 (88.9) 1 2 year olds 587 1,017 (34.1) 223 999 (58.9) 162 948 (45.0) 1 3 year olds 389 940 (48.1) 132 958 (55.0) 104 900 (67.5) 1 4 year olds 414 858 (33.3) 131 859 (38.8) 134 855 (40.9) 1

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EA

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 85.3 (1.42) 791 86.6 (1.39) 496 84.4 (1.84) 60 1 year olds 566 97.7 (0.80) 305 98.1 (1.27) 96 95.1 (3.56) 1 2 year olds 587 95.6 (1.56) 223 96.5 (1.46) 162 93.4 (2.03) 1 3 year olds 389 92.6 (2.46) 132 94.9 (1.96) 104 95.0 (2.79) 1 4 year olds 414 55.4 (4.80) 131 56.9 (4.84) 134 54.2 (5.44) 1
Table B-11. Calcium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 504 587 646 738 936 1,158 1,292 1,386  1 year olds 581 669 731 827 1,026 1,244 1,369 1,458  2 year olds 513 601 664 766 982 1,226 1,377 1,486  3 year olds 456 540 599 695 902 1,145 1,290 1,392  4 year olds 467 540 589 668 834 1,020 1,132 1,208 WIC participants 533 613 667 754 943 1,151 1,281 1,372  1 year olds 589 679 741 838 1,044 1,272 1,408 1,503  2 year olds 533 619 675 766 964 1,191 1,328 1,429  3 year olds 498 577 633 725 928 1,144 1,287 1,389  4 year olds 514 577 620 691 839 1,001 1,101 1,171 Income-eligible nonparticipants 482 556 612 703 898 1,114 1,250 1,349  1 year olds 502 579 643 748 974 1,226 1,391 1,523  2 year olds 471 554 612 710 915 1,145 1,287 1,386  3 year olds 500 571 622 703 876 1,065 1,183 1,268  4 year olds 455 523 573 654 828 1,023 1,142 1,223 Higher-income nonparticipants 527 609 669 764 965 1,176 1,305 1,395  1 year olds 620 707 768 864 1,046 1,220 1,319 1,392  2 year olds 568 658 721 821 1,044 1,283 1,429 1,530  3 year olds 476 557 615 717 932 1,171 1,322 1,427  4 year olds 448 518 574 658 841 1,029 1,149 1,230 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-12. Iron (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher-

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 10.6 (0.19) 791 11.3 (0.34) 496 10.8 (0.31) 6 1 year olds 566 9.5 (0.40) 305 9.9 (0.52) 96 9.8 (0.73) 1 2 year olds 587 10.1 (0.35) 223 10.8 (0.55) 162 10.4 (0.44) 1 3 year olds 389 11.1 (0.41) 132 12.3 (0.93) 104 11.1 (0.74) 1 4 year olds 414 11.6 (0.39) 131 12.2 (0.66) 134 11.7 (0.54) 1

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EA

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 99.9 (0.05) 791 100.0 (0.04) 496 100.0 (0.12) 6 1 year olds 566 99.6 (0.19) 305 99.9 (0.13) 96 99.9 (0.44) 1 2 year olds 587 99.9 (0.07) 223 100.0 (0.08) 162 100.0 (0.13) 1 3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.01) 132 100.0 (0.05) 104 100.0 (0.06) 1 4 year olds 414 99.9 (0.07) 131 99.9 (0.08) 134 99.9 (0.09) 1
Table B-12. Iron (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 6.0 6.8 7.4 8.3 10.2 12.5 13.9 14.9  1 year olds 4.7 5.5 6.0 6.9 9.0 11.5 13.1 14.3  2 year olds 5.7 6.5 7.0 7.9 9.8 11.9 13.2 14.1  3 year olds 7.0 7.7 8.2 9.1 10.8 12.8 14.0 14.9  4 year olds 6.7 7.6 8.1 9.1 11.1 13.6 15.1 16.1 WIC participants 6.3 7.1 7.7 8.7 10.8 13.3 15.0 16.2  1 year olds 5.1 5.9 6.4 7.3 9.4 11.9 13.5 14.7  2 year olds 5.9 6.8 7.4 8.3 10.4 12.8 14.2 15.3  3 year olds 6.9 7.8 8.4 9.4 11.7 14.4 16.2 17.5  4 year olds 7.1 8.0 8.6 9.6 11.8 14.3 15.9 17.1 Income-eligible nonparticipants 6.4 7.2 7.8 8.7 10.6 12.6 13.8 14.7  1 year olds 5.7 6.4 7.0 7.9 9.7 11.5 12.6 13.5  2 year olds 5.9 6.7 7.3 8.3 10.2 12.3 13.5 14.4  3 year olds 6.7 7.5 8.1 9.0 11.0 13.0 14.2 15.1  4 year olds 7.3 8.0 8.6 9.5 11.4 13.5 14.8 15.7 Higher-income nonparticipants 6.1 6.7 7.2 8.0 9.8 11.8 13.1 14.0  1 year olds 4.2 4.9 5.4 6.3 8.4 10.9 12.6 14.0  2 year olds 5.6 6.3 6.8 7.6 9.3 11.2 12.4 13.2  3 year olds 7.9 8.3 8.7 9.2 10.4 11.6 12.3 12.8  4 year olds 6.4 7.2 7.8 8.8 10.9 13.3 15.0 16.1 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-13. Magnesium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 186 (2.5) 791 192 (3.7) 496 183 (4.1) 606  1 year olds 566 175 (4.7) 305 176 (4.9) 96 179 (10.5) 153  2 year olds 587 193 (4.9) 223 201 (8.2) 162 186 (6.7) 183  3 year olds 389 186 (5.4) 132 201 (9.0) 104 182 (7.8) 134  4 year olds 414 188 (5.3) 131 189 (7.1) 134 185 (7.3) 136 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EA

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 99.2 (0.28) 791 99.2 (0.45) 496 99.0 (0.68) 606  1 year olds 566 100.0 (0.07) 305 100.0 (0.02) 96 99.7 (1.56) 153  2 year olds 587 99.9 (0.05) 223 100.0 (0.04) 162 100.0 (0.14) 183  3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.01) 132 99.9 (0.08) 104 99.9 (0.13) 134  4 year olds 414 96.9 (1.12) 131 97.0 (1.81) 134 96.4 (2.22) 136 
Table B-13. Magnesium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 118 131 140 154 182 214 233 246  1 year olds 113 125 133 146 172 201 217 229  2 year olds 117 132 142 158 190 225 246 261  3 year olds 125 137 145 158 184 212 229 240  4 year olds 117 131 140 154 184 218 238 252 WIC participants 119 133 142 157 188 222 242 257  1 year olds 117 128 136 148 173 200 216 228  2 year olds 121 136 146 162 196 234 257 273  3 year olds 123 137 148 164 198 233 255 271  4 year olds 117 130 139 153 184 218 240 256 Income-eligible nonparticipants 110 123 133 149 180 213 233 247  1 year olds 97 u 111 122 140 175 213 236 254  2 year olds 116 130 139 154 184 214 232 244  3 year olds 111 125 134 149 179 211 230 243  4 year olds 115 128 137 151 181 214 234 248 Higher-income nonparticipants 124 135 143 155 182 209 225 237  1 year olds 118 128 135 147 170 194 209 220  2 year olds 119 134 144 159 192 225 245 258  3 year olds 140 147 153 162 180 199 210 218  4 year olds 118 129 139 153 184 216 238 252 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-14. Phosphorus (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher-

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 1,025 (15.8) 791 1,042 (23.6) 496 1,020 (25.1) 606  1 year olds 566 1,020 (23.7) 305 1,028 (29.4) 96 1,032 (66.0) 153  2 year olds 587 1,064 (34.9) 223 1,072 (57.2) 162 1,008 (42.7) 183  3 year olds 389 1,017 (39.8) 132 1,065 (53.8) 104 1,005 (50.0) 134  4 year olds 414 999 (24.8) 131 1,002 (42.4) 134 1,034 (38.1) 136 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EA

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 99.9 (0.06) 791 99.9 (0.07) 496 99.8 (0.29) 606  1 year olds 566 99.8 (0.12) 305 99.9 (0.11) 96 99.6 (1.13) 153  2 year olds 587 99.8 (0.16) 223 100.0 (0.05) 162 99.8 (0.29) 183  3 year olds 389 99.9 (0.12) 132 99.8 (0.19) 104 100.0 (0.06) 134  4 year olds 414 99.9 (0.10) 131 99.9 (0.17) 134 99.9 (0.23) 136 
Table B-14. Phosphorus (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 620 698 751 834 1,005 1,193 1,304 1,381  1 year olds 625 703 757 839 1,006 1,185 1,285 1,357  2 year olds 603 689 748 842 1,039 1,253 1,385 1,479  3 year olds 620 696 747 828 996 1,183 1,292 1,367  4 year olds 632 703 750 825 979 1,150 1,251 1,320 WIC participants 633 710 763 846 1,022 1,209 1,324 1,404  1 year olds 627 706 759 841 1,011 1,193 1,301 1,374  2 year olds 652 730 781 864 1,042 1,244 1,366 1,455  3 year olds 635 720 777 869 1,056 1,240 1,353 1,431  4 year olds 617 686 734 812 978 1,160 1,274 1,355 Income-eligible nonparticipants 606 680 734 821 1,000 1,190 1,307 1,390  1 year olds 549 629 695 798 1,010 1,229 1,367 1,473  2 year olds 591 668 721 809 987 1,180 1,298 1,378  3 year olds 644 712 761 836 991 1,153 1,252 1,322  4 year olds 639 709 760 841 1,012 1,199 1,313 1,389 Higher-income nonparticipants 638 710 762 843 1,011 1,184 1,289 1,361  1 year olds 665 734 783 861 1,011 1,157 1,242 1,304  2 year olds 615 705 768 865 1,076 1,298 1,430 1,520  3 year olds 652 716 761 837 995 1,164 1,270 1,343  4 year olds 622 685 735 808 963 1,116 1,212 1,275 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-15. Zinc (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher-

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 7.9 (0.14) 791 8.4 (0.21) 496 8.2 (0.22) 606  1 year olds 566 7.2 (0.19) 305 7.5 (0.28) 96 7.4 (0.32) 153  2 year olds 587 8.2 (0.24) 223 8.3 (0.28) 162 8.5 (0.52) 183  3 year olds 389 8.0 (0.32) 132 8.7 (0.52) 104 8.4 (0.48) 134  4 year olds 414 8.4 (0.30) 131 8.9 (0.50) 134 8.5 (0.42) 136 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EA

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 99.8 (0.12) 791 99.8 (0.17) 496 99.9 (0.23) 606  1 year olds 566 100.0 (0.01) 305 100.0 (0.04) 96 100.0 (0.01) 153  2 year olds 587 100.0 (0.02) 223 100.0 (0.00) 162 100.0 (0.04) 183  3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.00) 132 100.0 (0.02) 104 100.0 (0.04) 134  4 year olds 414 99.3 (0.47) 131 99.2 (0.70) 134 99.4 (0.93) 136 
Table B-15. Zinc (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 5.1 5.6 6.0 6.5 7.7 9.1 9.9 10.5  1 year olds 4.8 5.2 5.5 6.0 7.0 8.1 8.8 9.3  2 year olds 5.0 5.5 5.9 6.6 8.0 9.5 10.4 11.1  3 year olds 5.7 6.1 6.4 6.9 7.9 9.0 9.7 10.1  4 year olds 5.0 5.6 6.0 6.6 8.0 9.7 10.8 11.5 WIC participants 5.1 5.7 6.1 6.7 8.1 9.7 10.7 11.4  1 year olds 4.4 5.0 5.3 5.9 7.2 8.7 9.7 10.4  2 year olds 5.5 6.1 6.5 7.0 8.2 9.5 10.2 10.8  3 year olds 5.4 6.0 6.4 7.0 8.5 10.0 11.1 11.8  4 year olds 5.0 5.6 6.1 6.9 8.6 10.5 11.8 12.7 Income-eligible nonparticipants 5.2 5.7 6.1 6.8 8.1 9.5 10.3 10.9  1 year olds 5.3 5.7 6.0 6.4 7.4 8.3 8.8 9.2  2 year olds 5.2 5.8 6.2 6.9 8.3 9.9 10.8 11.5  3 year olds 5.1 5.7 6.1 6.8 8.2 9.8 10.7 11.4  4 year olds 5.2 5.8 6.2 6.9 8.3 9.9 10.9 11.6 Higher-income nonparticipants 5.5 5.9 6.1 6.6 7.5 8.4 ** 9.0 ** 9.4 

 1 year olds 5.0 5.3 5.6 6.0 6.7 7.5 8.0 8.4 

 2 year olds 4.7 5.3 5.7 6.4 7.8 9.3 10.2 10.8 

 3 year olds 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 * 7.5 

 4 year olds 4.9 5.3 5.8 6.4 7.8 9.3 10.3 11.0 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data r

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and 

(.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in househbenefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adj

adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for populati

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-16. Copper (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher-

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 0.79 (0.012) 791 0.80 (0.016) 496 0.81 (0.020) 606  1 year olds 566 0.69 (0.019) 305 0.70 (0.025) 96 0.72 (0.034) 153  2 year olds 587 0.82 (0.024) 223 0.85 (0.031) 162 0.83 (0.041) 183  3 year olds 389 0.80 (0.023) 132 0.81 (0.034) 104 0.84 (0.045) 134  4 year olds 414 0.85 (0.026) 131 0.83 (0.033) 134 0.83 (0.040) 136 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EA

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 99.9 (0.04) 791 100.0 (0.04) 496 99.9 (0.21) 606  1 year olds 566 99.9 (0.07) 305 100.0 (0.04) 96 99.7 (0.76) 153  2 year olds 587 99.9 (0.06) 223 100.0 (0.03) 162 100.0 (0.03) 183  3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.00) 132 100.0 (0.06) 104 100.0 (0.10) 134  4 year olds 414 99.9 (0.11) 131 99.8 (0.16) 134 99.8 (0.33) 136 
Table B-16. Copper (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 0.48 0.54 0.57 0.64 0.77 0.92 1.01 1.08  1 year olds 0.40 0.45 0.49 0.54 0.66 0.81 0.90 0.97  2 year olds 0.46 0.53 0.57 0.64 0.79 0.96 1.06 1.14  3 year olds 0.55 0.60 0.63 0.68 0.79 0.91 0.97 1.02  4 year olds 0.51 0.57 0.61 0.67 0.82 0.99 1.10 1.18 WIC participants 0.48 0.54 0.57 0.64 0.77 0.93 1.02 1.10  1 year olds 0.43 0.48 0.51 0.56 0.68 0.81 0.89 0.95  2 year olds 0.48 0.55 0.59 0.66 0.81 1.00 1.12 1.20  3 year olds 0.52 0.57 0.61 0.67 0.80 0.93 1.01 1.07  4 year olds 0.49 0.55 0.59 0.65 0.80 0.97 1.08 1.16 Income-eligible nonparticipants 0.49 0.54 0.59 0.65 0.79 0.94 1.03 1.09  1 year olds 0.39 0.44 0.48 0.55 0.70 0.86 0.96 1.04  2 year olds 0.54 0.60 0.63 0.69 0.82 0.94 1.02 1.07  3 year olds 0.50 0.56 0.61 0.68 0.83 0.99 1.08 1.15  4 year olds 0.52 0.57 0.61 0.68 0.82 0.97 1.05 1.11 Higher-income nonparticipants 0.48 0.53 0.57 0.63 0.75 0.89 0.98 1.04  1 year olds 0.38 0.42 0.45 0.51 0.64 0.78 0.87 0.95  2 year olds 0.43 0.50 0.55 0.62 0.78 0.95 1.05 1.12  3 year olds 0.62 0.65 0.67 0.71 0.77 0.84 0.88 0.91  4 year olds 0.50 0.56 0.60 0.67 0.83 1.00 1.11 1.20 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data r

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and 

(.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in househbenefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adj

adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for populati

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-17. Selenium (mcg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants High

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 66 (1.1) 791 68 (1.4) 496 69 (1.7) 60 1 year olds 566 61 (1.5) 305 63 (1.6) 96 63 (4.1) 15 2 year olds 587 66 (1.9) 223 69 (2.9) 162 69 (3.1) 18 3 year olds 389 67 (2.7) 132 69 (3.0) 104 70 (2.5) 13 4 year olds 414 69 (2.5) 131 70 (3.2) 134 76 (3.7) 13

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 100.0 (0.02) 791 100.0 (0.02) 496 99.7 (0.39) 60 1 year olds 566 100.0 (0.03) 305 100.0 (0.01) 96 98.9 (1.61) 15 2 year olds 587 100.0 (0.00) 223 100.0 (0.00) 162 100.0 (0.00) 18 3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.00) 132 100.0 (0.00) 104 100.0 (0.00) 13 4 year olds 414 99.9 (0.08) 131 100.0 (0.07) 134 99.9 (0.07) 13
Table B-17. Selenium (mcg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 40 45 48 53 64 76 84 89  1 year olds 38 42 45 50 60 71 77 82  2 year olds 42 47 50 55 65 76 83 88  3 year olds 43 47 50 55 65 77 84 89  4 year olds 39 44 48 54 66 81 90 96 WIC participants 43 48 51 56 66 78 85 90  1 year olds 40 44 47 52 62 72 78 83  2 year olds 45 49 53 57 68 79 86 91  3 year olds 47 51 54 59 69 78 85 89  4 year olds 42 47 50 56 68 81 90 96 Income-eligible nonparticipants 42 47 51 57 68 81 88 94  1 year olds 26 32 37 44 61 78 89 97  2 year olds 51 54 57 61 69 77 82 85  3 year olds 48 52 55 60 70 79 85 89  4 year olds 44 50 54 61 74 89 98 104 Higher-income nonparticipants 39 43 46 51 61 72 79 84  1 year olds 40 44 46 50 58 67 72 75  2 year olds 39 44 47 52 63 74 80 84  3 year olds 42 46 48 53 63 74 81 85  4 year olds 35 40 43 49 61 75 85 91 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data r

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and 

(.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in househbenefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adj

adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for populati

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-18. Potassium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Highe

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 1,978 (25.4) 791 2,114 (41.8) 496 1,911 *** (45.3) 60 1 year olds 566 1,945 (47.1) 305 2,025 (47.2) 96 1,987 (107.8) 15 2 year olds 587 2,070 (48.1) 223 2,238 (87.9) 162 1,921 ** (79.7) 18 3 year olds 389 1,922 (56.9) 132 2,158 (103.2) 104 1,790 * (99.4) 13 4 year olds 414 1,973 (50.5) 131 2,033 (83.5) 134 1,949 (71.1) 13

Mean Usual Intake as a Percent of Adequate Intake (AI)1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 62.5 (0.81) 791 66.9 (1.33) 496 60.3 *** (1.46) 60 1 year olds 566 64.8 (1.57) 305 67.5 (1.57) 96 66.2 (3.59) 15 2 year olds 587 69.0 (1.60) 223 74.6 (2.93) 162 64.0 ** (2.66) 18 3 year olds 389 64.1 (1.90) 132 71.9 (3.44) 104 59.7 * (3.31) 13 4 year olds 414 51.9 (1.33) 131 53.5 (2.20) 134 51.3 (1.87) 13
Table B-18. Potassium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,251 1,390 1,485 1,634 1,941 2,279 2,478 2,617  1 year olds 1,306 1,431 1,517 1,649 1,919 2,212 2,377 2,496  2 year olds 1,212 1,376 1,490 1,668 2,033 2,424 2,659 2,825  3 year olds 1,201 1,336 1,429 1,575 1,881 2,224 2,424 2,564  4 year olds 1,288 1,419 1,505 1,643 1,932 2,256 2,449 2,581 WIC participants 1,294 1,447 1,551 1,716 2,068 2,449 2,684 2,851  1 year olds 1,357 1,489 1,578 1,714 1,997 2,300 2,478 2,600  2 year olds 1,302 1,485 1,602 1,790 2,187 2,625 2,881 3,066  3 year olds 1,257 1,423 1,538 1,724 2,118 2,523 2,783 2,965  4 year olds 1,264 1,393 1,485 1,636 1,966 2,342 2,586 2,763 Income-eligible nonparticipants 1,139 1,278 1,380 1,543 1,876 * 2,229 * 2,445 2,598  1 year olds 1,136 1,279 1,394 1,576 1,947 2,333 2,575 2,761  2 year olds 1,196 1,337 1,433 1,589 1,897 2,219 2,410 2,539  3 year olds 1,003 1,148 1,252 1,415 1,754 2,114 2,336 2,492  4 year olds 1,221 1,350 1,444 1,593 1,908 2,253 2,463 2,604 Higher-income nonparticipants 1,312 1,428 1,512 1,642 1,913 2,188 ** 2,354 ** 2,469 *

 1 year olds 1,372 1,467 1,533 1,640 1,849 2,057 2,180 2,271 

 2 year olds 1,232 1,391 1,501 1,669 2,027 2,393 2,607 2,753 

 3 year olds 1,330 1,427 1,495 1,608 1,839 2,084 2,233 2,337 

 4 year olds 1,313 1,429 1,520 1,653 1,935 2,216 2,392 2,509 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect 

and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Ca

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Tota

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentile

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WI

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levefor multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 Adequate Intake (AI) is the approximate intake of the nutrient that appears to be adequate for all individuals in the population group. Mean 

implies a low prevalence of inadequate intake. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-19. Dietary Fiber (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Highe

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 9.9 (0.17) 791 9.8 (0.25) 496 9.8 (0.29) 60 1 year olds 566 8.0 (0.29) 305 7.5 (0.27) 96 8.7 (0.68) 15 2 year olds 587 9.8 (0.26) 223 9.8 (0.46) 162 9.7 (0.34) 18 3 year olds 389 10.5 (0.34) 132 11.0 (0.64) 104 10.2 (0.59) 13 4 year olds 414 11.1 (0.45) 131 10.8 (0.50) 134 10.6 (0.64) 13

Mean Usual Intake as a Percent of Adequate Intake (AI)1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 48.4 (0.82) 791 48.3 (1.22) 496 48.3 (1.42) 60 1 year olds 566 42.0 (1.53) 305 39.7 (1.45) 96 45.6 (3.60) 15 2 year olds 587 51.6 (1.38) 223 51.8 (2.43) 162 51.2 (1.80) 18 3 year olds 389 55.3 (1.77) 132 57.9 (3.39) 104 53.7 (3.12) 13 4 year olds 414 44.2 (1.82) 131 43.2 (2.01) 134 42.4 (2.54) 13
Table B-19. Dietary Fiber (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 5.1 6.0 6.6 7.5 9.5 11.8 13.2 14.2  1 year olds 3.7 4.4 5.0 5.8 7.6 9.8 11.0 12.0  2 year olds 5.1 6.0 6.6 7.6 9.6 11.7 13.1 14.0  3 year olds 6.1 6.9 7.4 8.3 10.2 12.4 13.7 14.6  4 year olds 5.6 6.6 7.2 8.3 10.6 13.3 15.0 16.2 WIC participants 5.1 5.9 6.5 7.4 9.4 11.7 13.2 14.2  1 year olds 3.9 4.5 5.0 5.7 7.3 9.1 10.1 10.9  2 year olds 4.8 5.7 6.4 7.3 9.5 11.9 13.4 14.5  3 year olds 6.2 7.1 7.7 8.6 10.7 12.9 14.4 15.4  4 year olds 5.4 6.3 6.9 7.9 10.2 13.0 14.8 16.1 Income-eligible nonparticipants 4.1 5.0 5.7 6.8 9.3 12.2 14.0 15.3  1 year olds 1.8 u 2.6 u 3.3 u 4.6 u 7.7 11.5 * 14.1 16.1  2 year olds 4.9 5.7 6.4 7.4 9.5 11.8 13.1 14.0  3 year olds 4.4 5.4 6.1 7.2 9.7 12.6 14.4 15.8  4 year olds 5.4 6.3 6.9 8.0 10.3 12.8 14.3 15.4 Higher-income nonparticipants 5.9 6.6 7.0 7.8 9.6 11.4 12.6 13.5  1 year olds 4.7 5.3 5.7 6.3 7.8 9.4 10.3 11.1  2 year olds 5.7 6.4 7.0 7.7 9.5 11.4 12.5 13.3  3 year olds 6.8 7.4 7.9 8.6 10.1 11.7 12.7 13.4  4 year olds 6.3 7.0 7.6 8.6 10.8 13.3 15.0 16.2 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

1 Adequate Intake (AI) is the approximate intake of the nutrient that appears to be adequate for all individuals in the population group. Mean i

implies a low prevalence of inadequate intake. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-20. Dietary Fiber (g/1,000 kcal): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Highe

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 7.0 (0.10) 791 6.7 (0.12) 496 6.7 (0.19) 60 1 year olds 566 6.4 (0.14) 305 6.0 (0.16) 96 6.3 (0.54) 15 2 year olds 587 6.9 (0.14) 223 6.5 (0.20) 162 6.8 (0.19) 18 3 year olds 389 7.3 (0.24) 132 7.2 (0.25) 104 6.7 (0.34) 13 4 year olds 414 7.4 (0.24) 131 7.0 (0.31) 134 7.0 (0.35) 13

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Greater than 14 g/1000 kcal

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 0.21 u (0.081) 791 0.06 u (0.109) 496 1.32 * u (0.633) 60 1 year olds 566 0.12 u (0.094) 305 0.04 u (0.049) 96 3.23 u (2.407) 15 2 year olds 587 0.07 u (0.056) 223 0.02 u (0.041) 162 0.14 u (0.188) 18 3 year olds 389 0.50 u (0.287) 132 0.00 (0.129) 104 1.72 * u (0.823) 13 4 year olds 414 0.15 u (0.097) 131 0.17 u (0.413) 134 0.22 u (0.355) 13
Table B-20. Dietary Fiber (g/1,000 kcal): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 4.1 4.7 5.0 5.6 6.8 8.2 9.0 9.6  1 year olds 3.2 3.8 4.2 4.9 6.2 7.7 8.6 9.2  2 year olds 4.2 4.7 5.1 5.6 6.8 8.1 8.8 9.4 

 3 year olds 4.4 4.9 5.3 5.8 7.0 8.5 9.3 10.0 

 4 year olds 4.7 5.2 5.6 6.1 7.2 8.5 9.2 9.7 WIC participants 4.2 4.7 5.0 5.5 6.5 7.7 8.4 8.8 

 1 year olds 3.3 3.8 4.1 4.7 5.8 7.1 7.9 8.4 

 2 year olds 4.0 4.5 4.8 5.3 6.4 7.5 8.2 8.6 

 3 year olds 5.2 5.6 5.9 6.2 7.1 7.9 8.5 8.9 

 4 year olds 4.4 4.9 5.2 5.8 6.9 8.1 8.8 9.4 Income-eligible nonparticipants 3.2 * 3.8 * 4.2 4.9 6.4 8.1 9.2 10.0  1 year olds 1.3 u 2.0 u 2.6 u 3.6 5.8 8.3 9.9 11.2  2 year olds 4.1 4.6 4.9 5.5 6.7 7.9 8.7 9.2  3 year olds 3.3 * 3.8 ** 4.2 * 4.8 * 6.3 8.1 9.3 10.2  4 year olds 4.2 4.7 5.0 5.6 6.8 8.2 9.0 9.6 Higher-income nonparticipants 4.8 5.2 5.5 6.0 7.1 * 8.2 8.9 9.4 

 1 year olds 4.4 4.8 5.1 5.6 6.6 7.7 8.3 8.8 

 2 year olds 4.6 5.1 5.4 5.9 7.0 8.2 8.9 9.4 

 3 year olds 4.7 5.2 5.5 6.0 7.2 8.4 9.3 9.8 

 4 year olds 5.4 5.8 6.1 6.6 7.5 8.5 9.2 9.6 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data re

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the 

(NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and 

(.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in househbenefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adj

adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 
Table B-21. Sodium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants High

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All young children, 1–4 years old 1,956 2,032 (32.5) 791 2,062 (51.2) 496 2,097 (52.6)  1 year olds 566 1,647 (48.8) 305 1,742 (94.5) 96 1,705 (112.9)  2 year olds 587 2,040 (54.8) 223 2,094 (61.6) 162 2,113 (93.6)  3 year olds 389 2,143 (79.7) 132 2,132 (128.5) 104 2,277 (87.8)  4 year olds 414 2,288 (71.1) 131 2,273 (111.9) 134 2,281 (123.6) 

Mean Usual Intake as a Percent of Adequate Intake (AI)1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 193.7 (3.10) 791 196.7 (4.88) 496 200.2 (4.98)  1 year olds 566 164.8 (4.88) 305 174.2 (9.45) 96 170.5 (11.29)  2 year olds 587 204.0 (5.48) 223 209.4 (6.16) 162 211.3 (9.37)  3 year olds 389 214.3 (7.97) 132 213.2 (12.85) 104 227.7 (8.78)  4 year olds 414 190.7 (5.93) 131 189.4 (9.32) 134 190.1 (10.30) 

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Above the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 74.4 (1.69) 791 75.4 (2.61) 496 77.0 (3.19)  1 year olds 566 57.7 (3.87) 305 62.6 (5.14) 96 56.7 (9.21)  2 year olds 587 83.7 (3.06) 223 82.4 (2.97) 162 87.3 (4.52)  3 year olds 389 88.2 (3.13) 132 87.5 (5.51) 104 94.8 (2.54)  4 year olds 414 67.4 (3.47) 131 68.7 (6.57) 134 68.4 (7.36) 

Percent of Persons Meeting Dietary Guidelines Recommendation3

All children, 1–4 years old4 1,390 63.9 (2.60) 486 62.8 (4.09) 400 57.7 (4.38)  1 year olds - - - - - - - - - -  2 year olds 587 70.9 (3.75) 223 66.2 (4.20) 162 66.1 (7.42)  3 year olds 389 64.1 (5.71) 132 65.1 (9.31) 104 52.8 (7.63)  4 year olds 414 56.5 (3.73) 131 57.1 (6.78) 134 54.3 (7.70) 
Table B-21. Sodium (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,180 1,333 1,440 1,610 1,972 2,385 2,636 2,813  1 year olds 902 1,035 1,130 1,279 1,597 1,960 2,173 2,328  2 year olds 1,217 1,370 1,477 1,646 1,996 2,378 2,612 2,778  3 year olds 1,304 1,462 1,570 1,740 2,096 2,496 2,728 2,890  4 year olds 1,287 1,458 1,574 1,765 2,189 2,697 3,019 3,246 WIC participants 1,191 1,345 1,451 1,622 1,997 2,417 2,682 2,872  1 year olds 946 1,081 1,176 1,327 1,666 2,067 2,320 2,502  2 year olds 1,162 1,336 1,449 1,632 2,030 2,479 2,748 2,944  3 year olds 1,294 1,446 1,551 1,723 2,089 2,471 2,718 2,891  4 year olds 1,357 1,511 1,620 1,800 2,193 2,643 2,933 3,144 Income-eligible nonparticipants 1,159 1,327 1,450 1,647 2,054 2,485 2,747 2,933  1 year olds 597 u 766 u 908 1,140 1,634 2,163 2,498 2,758  2 year olds 1,286 1,441 1,548 1,723 2,077 2,454 2,681 2,836  3 year olds 1,492 1,653 1,765 1,934 2,267 2,599 2,795 2,928  4 year olds 1,246 1,429 1,562 1,776 2,226 2,716 3,011 3,208 Higher-income nonparticipants 1,235 1,366 1,462 1,616 1,950 2,308 2,535 2,696  1 year olds 1,053 1,148 1,215 1,325 1,542 1,763 1,893 1,992  2 year olds 1,251 1,392 1,489 1,639 1,964 2,304 2,506 2,644  3 year olds 1,338 1,474 1,569 1,733 2,075 2,447 2,679 2,841  4 year olds 1,292 1,444 1,568 1,760 2,206 2,706 3,048 3,289 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect nutrient 

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer Institute 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Totals are ag

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles are noted by * (.05 

(.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multi

1 Adequate Intake (AI) is the approximate intake of the nutrient that appears to be adequate for all individuals in the population group. Mean intake a

prevalence of inadequate intake. 

2 The DRI Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) is the highest usual daily intake level that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects. 

3 The Dietary Guidelines recommendation for sodium is less than 2,300 mg for 2-50 year olds. 4 Dietary Guideline recommendation is only reported for children 2 year olds and older. u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-22. Choline (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants High

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 205 (3.5) 791 222 (5.2) 496 213 (6.2) 60 1 year olds 566 202 (4.5) 305 214 (6.8) 96 205 (11.9) 15 2 year olds 587 215 (6.5) 223 232 (11.1) 162 206 (9.3) 18 3 year olds 389 196 (8.2) 132 226 (12.5) 104 202 (12.5) 13 4 year olds 414 207 (8.0) 131 214 (10.1) 134 238 (15.1) 13

Mean Usual Intake as a Percent of Adequate Intake (AI)1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 97.4 (1.64) 791 105.5 (2.49) 496 100.4 (2.87) 60 1 year olds 566 100.9 (2.23) 305 106.8 (3.41) 96 102.6 (5.97) 15 2 year olds 587 107.4 (3.24) 223 116.2 (5.56) 162 102.8 (4.63) 18 3 year olds 389 98.2 (4.09) 132 113.2 (6.27) 104 101.1 (6.23) 13 4 year olds 414 83.0 (3.19) 131 85.6 (4.05) 134 95.3 (6.03) 13
Table B-22. Choline (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 125 139 149 165 200 239 262 279  1 year olds 131 145 154 168 198 231 250 264  2 year olds 118 135 147 166 207 255 285 306  3 year olds 121 135 144 159 191 228 250 266  4 year olds 129 143 153 168 201 240 263 280 WIC participants 130 146 157 175 215 259 287 307  1 year olds 127 143 154 171 208 249 275 292  2 year olds 136 153 164 183 224 272 302 324  3 year olds 129 146 159 179 221 266 295 316  4 year olds 127 142 152 169 207 249 277 297 Income-eligible nonparticipants 136 150 160 176 209 244 266 282  1 year olds 121 135 146 164 201 239 264 283  2 year olds 143 155 164 177 203 231 248 259  3 year olds 121 135 145 161 196 236 261 279  4 year olds 159 174 184 201 235 271 293 308 Higher-income nonparticipants 122 134 143 158 189 ** 223 *** 244 ** 259 *

 1 year olds 139 149 156 167 190 212 ** 225 ** 235 *

 2 year olds 104 122 136 156 204 255 287 309 

 3 year olds 127 137 144 157 181 208 224 * 235 * 

 4 year olds 117 128 138 151 182 216 238 254 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

1 Adequate Intake (AI) is the approximate intake of the nutrient that appears to be adequate for all individuals in the population group. Mean i

implies a low prevalence of inadequate intake. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-23. Total Fat (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 32 35 38 42 50 60 65 69  1 year olds 29 32 35 38 46 54 59 63  2 year olds 31 34 37 42 51 61 67 71  3 year olds 31 35 38 42 51 61 66 70  4 year olds 36 39 42 46 53 62 67 71 WIC participants 32 36 38 43 52 62 68 73  1 year olds 27 31 34 38 47 57 63 67  2 year olds 33 37 40 44 53 63 69 74  3 year olds 35 38 41 45 53 61 67 70  4 year olds 33 37 39 44 54 66 74 79 Income-eligible nonparticipants 33 37 40 44 53 62 67 71  1 year olds 26 30 33 38 48 59 65 70  2 year olds 32 36 38 43 51 60 65 69  3 year olds 40 43 46 49 56 63 67 70  4 year olds 35 39 42 46 56 65 71 75 Higher-income nonparticipants 32 35 37 41 48 57 61 65  1 year olds 31 34 36 39 45 51 54 57  2 year olds 30 34 36 40 50 60 66 70  3 year olds 28 32 34 39 48 58 64 69  4 year olds 37 40 42 45 51 58 61 64 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data re

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the 

(NCI) method. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants High

 Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 51 (0.8) 791 53 (1.2) 496 54 (1.3) 606  1 year olds 566 47 (1.0) 305 48 (1.4) 96 49 (2.9) 153  2 year olds 587 52 (1.5) 223 55 (2.0) 162 52 (2.3) 183  3 year olds 389 52 (2.1) 132 54 (2.8) 104 56 (2.4) 134  4 year olds 414 54 (1.6) 131 56 (3.2) 134 57 (3.0) 136 
Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and 

(.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in househbenefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adj

adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-24. Total Fat (% of calories): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sampl

size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 32.2 (0.24) 791 32.0 (0.40) 496 32.8 (0.50) 606  1 year olds 566 33.8 (0.40) 305 33.4 (0.61) 96 33.3 (1.35) 153  2 year olds 587 31.9 (0.39) 223 31.9 (0.54) 162 31.6 (0.68) 183  3 year olds 389 31.2 (0.48) 132 30.9 (0.82) 104 33.4 * (0.88) 134 

4 year olds 414 32.0 (0.63) 131 31.9 (1.12) 134 33.0 (0.98) 136 

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Below the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 23.3 (1.79) 791 26.5 (2.77) 496 21.1 (2.93) 606  1 year olds 566 20.8 (3.09) 305 25.4 (4.86) 96 30.7 (5.97) 153  2 year olds 587 33.6 (3.79) 223 32.1 (5.36) 162 33.7 (7.63) 183  3 year olds 389 37.9 (5.11) 132 42.6 (6.84) 104 20.0 * u (6.54) 134 

4 year olds 414 0.5 u (0.74) 131 5.4 u (4.83) 134 0.0 (0.42) 136 

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Above the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 6.9 (1.83) 791 9.8 (2.07) 496 9.4 u (5.42) 606  1 year olds 566 9.3 u (2.88) 305 9.6 u (3.48) 96 15.7 u (8.76) 153  2 year olds 587 3.1 u (1.24) 223 2.0 u (1.21) 162 1.4 u (1.29) 183  3 year olds 389 1.6 u (0.96) 132 3.9 u (2.20) 104 4.6 u (5.22) 134 

4 year olds 414 13.9 u (6.59) 131 23.8 (7.10) 134 16.1 u (19.16) 136 

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Within the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 69.8 (2.62) 791 63.8 (3.14) 496 69.6 (5.88) 606  1 year olds 566 69.9 (4.59) 305 65.0 (6.30) 96 53.7 (6.49) 153  2 year olds 587 63.4 (3.82) 223 65.9 (5.34) 162 64.9 (7.87) 183  3 year olds 389 60.5 (5.28) 132 53.4 (7.16) 104 75.4 * (8.64) 134 

4 year olds 414 85.7 (6.80) 131 70.8 (6.16) 134 83.9 (19.34) 136 
Table B-24. Total Fat (% of calories): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 25.7 27.2 28.1 29.6 32.2 34.9 36.3 37.3  1 year olds 25.8 27.7 28.9 30.7 33.9 37.1 38.7 39.8  2 year olds 25.1 26.6 27.5 29.0 31.8 34.6 36.2 37.3  3 year olds 24.3 25.9 26.9 28.4 31.3 34.1 35.6 36.5  4 year olds 27.5 28.5 29.2 30.2 32.0 33.9 34.9 35.5 WIC participants 24.3 26.0 27.2 28.9 32.1 35.1 36.8 38.0  1 year olds 24.6 26.7 28.0 29.9 33.5 36.9 38.7 39.9  2 year olds 25.3 26.8 27.8 29.2 31.9 34.5 36.0 37.0  3 year olds 22.4 24.3 25.5 27.4 31.0 34.3 36.3 37.6  4 year olds 24.8 26.4 27.4 29.0 32.0 34.8 36.5 37.6 Income-eligible nonparticipants 26.0 27.5 28.5 30.1 32.9 35.6 37.1 38.1  1 year olds 22.3 24.6 26.3 28.9 33.5 37.8 40.1 41.9  2 year olds 25.0 26.5 27.5 29.0 31.7 34.3 35.6 36.5  3 year olds 26.8 28.3 29.3 30.7 33.4 36.0 37.5 38.5  4 year olds 29.7 30.4 30.9 31.6 33.0 34.4 35.1 35.6 Higher-income nonparticipants 26.3 27.5 28.4 29.6 32.1 34.4 35.8 36.6  1 year olds 28.3 29.7 30.6 32.1 34.6 36.9 38.2 39.1  2 year olds 25.5 26.8 27.8 29.2 32.1 35.1 36.8 38.0  3 year olds 24.1 25.5 26.4 27.8 30.5 33.0 34.4 35.3  4 year olds 27.2 28.1 28.7 29.6 31.3 32.8 33.7 34.3 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

1 Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR) are the ranges of intake for macronutrients, as a percent of total calories, associated 

chronic disease while providing intakes of essential nutrients. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 
Table B-25. Protein (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

Percentiles 

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 32.0 35.6 38.1 42.0 50.0 58.9 64.1 67.8  1 year olds 30.5 33.8 36.2 39.7 46.9 54.7 59.1 62.2  2 year olds 32.8 36.7 39.3 43.5 52.0 61.1 66.7 70.5 

 3 year olds 32.9 36.5 38.9 42.6 50.4 59.1 64.0 67.5 

 4 year olds 31.7 35.4 38.0 42.0 50.6 60.5 66.5 70.6 WIC participants 33.2 36.9 39.4 43.4 51.8 60.8 66.3 70.2 

 1 year olds 29.9 33.6 36.1 39.9 48.1 56.9 62.1 65.7 

 2 year olds 36.8 40.3 42.6 46.2 53.7 61.8 66.5 69.9 

 3 year olds 33.9 37.9 40.6 45.0 54.1 63.1 68.7 72.6 

 4 year olds 32.0 35.6 38.2 42.3 51.3 61.4 67.7 72.3 Income-eligible nonparticipants 32.2 36.0 38.7 43.1 51.9 61.1 66.6 70.5  1 year olds 26.2 30.3 33.5 38.6 48.6 58.7 64.8 69.4  2 year olds 34.1 37.6 40.0 43.9 51.7 59.9 64.9 68.2  3 year olds 34.4 37.9 40.5 44.4 52.5 61.1 66.3 70.0  4 year olds 33.9 37.9 40.8 45.4 54.8 64.7 70.6 74.5 Higher-income nonparticipants 32.3 35.4 37.6 41.1 48.6 56.4 61.2 64.5 

 1 year olds 33.4 35.8 37.6 40.4 45.8 51.2 54.4 * 56.8 

 2 year olds 31.6 35.6 38.4 42.6 51.8 61.2 66.8 70.6 

 3 year olds 34.0 36.8 38.7 41.9 48.6 55.7 60.2 63.3 

 4 year olds 30.1 33.3 35.8 39.6 48.2 57.3 63.2 67.3 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data re

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the 

(NCI) method. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants High

 Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 51.0 (0.79) 791 52.8 (1.08) 496 52.7 (1.22) 606  1 year olds 566 47.6 (1.04) 305 49.0 (1.38) 96 49.2 (2.90) 153  2 year olds 587 52.9 (1.49) 223 54.5 (2.19) 162 52.4 (2.19) 183  3 year olds 389 51.3 (1.96) 132 54.6 (2.59) 104 53.3 (2.34) 134  4 year olds 414 52.1 (1.65) 131 52.9 (2.24) 134 55.6 (2.30) 136 
Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in househbenefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjadjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-26. Protein (g/kg body weight): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Hig

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 3.92 (0.062) 791 4.07 (0.083) 496 4.03 (0.097) 60 1 year olds 566 3.97 (0.087) 305 4.08 (0.115) 96 4.10 (0.242) 15 2 year olds 587 4.41 (0.124) 223 4.54 (0.183) 162 4.37 (0.183) 18 3 year olds 389 4.28 (0.163) 132 4.55 (0.216) 104 4.44 (0.195) 13 4 year olds 414 3.01 (0.107) 131 3.10 (0.128) 134 3.22 (0.149) 13

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements 

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 100.0 (0.00) 791 100.0 (0.01) 496 100.0 (0.04) 60 1 year olds 566 100.0 (0.00) 305 100.0 (0.00) 96 99.9 (0.17) 15 2 year olds 587 100.0 (0.00) 223 100.0 (0.00) 162 100.0 (0.00) 18 3 year olds 389 100.0 (0.00) 132 100.0 (0.02) 104 100.0 (0.00) 13 4 year olds 414 100.0 (0.00) 131 100.0 (0.02) 134 100.0 (0.05) 13
Table B-26. Protein (g/kg body weight): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 2.45 2.73 2.92 3.22 3.84 4.52 4.93 5.21  1 year olds 2.54 2.82 3.01 3.31 3.91 4.56 4.93 5.19  2 year olds 2.73 3.06 3.28 3.62 4.33 5.09 5.55 5.88 

 3 year olds 2.75 3.04 3.24 3.55 4.20 4.92 5.34 5.62 

 4 year olds 1.77 1.99 2.14 2.38 2.90 3.51 3.89 4.15 WIC participants 2.54 2.83 3.03 3.34 4.00 4.70 5.12 5.42 

 1 year olds 2.49 2.80 3.01 3.33 4.01 4.74 5.18 5.48 

 2 year olds 3.06 3.36 3.55 3.85 4.48 5.15 5.54 5.82 

 3 year olds 2.82 3.16 3.39 3.75 4.50 5.25 5.72 6.05 

 4 year olds 1.80 2.01 2.17 2.43 2.99 3.63 4.04 4.34 Income-eligible nonparticipants 2.45 2.74 2.96 3.29 3.97 4.68 5.11 5.42  1 year olds 2.18 2.52 2.79 3.21 4.05 4.89 5.40 5.78  2 year olds 2.84 3.13 3.33 3.66 4.30 4.99 5.40 5.68  3 year olds 2.86 3.16 3.37 3.70 4.38 5.09 5.52 5.83  4 year olds 1.91 2.15 2.32 2.59 3.15 3.76 4.13 4.37 Higher-income nonparticipants 2.48 2.72 2.89 3.16 3.73 4.33 4.70 4.95 

 1 year olds 2.78 2.99 3.13 3.36 3.82 4.27 4.53 * 4.73 

 2 year olds 2.63 2.96 3.20 3.55 4.31 5.10 5.56 5.88 

 3 year olds 2.84 3.06 3.22 3.49 4.05 4.65 5.01 5.27 

 4 year olds 1.68 1.86 2.00 2.23 2.74 3.29 3.66 3.92 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-27. Protein (% of calories): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants High

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

si

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 14.5 (0.12) 791 14.5 (0.17) 496 14.5 (0.20) 60 1 year olds 566 15.3 (0.18) 305 15.3 (0.26) 96 14.7 (0.52) 15 2 year olds 587 14.8 (0.23) 223 14.5 (0.38) 162 14.5 (0.35) 18 3 year olds 389 14.1 (0.32) 132 14.5 (0.34) 104 14.1 (0.37) 13

4 year olds 414 13.8 (0.25) 131 13.7 (0.33) 134 14.7 * (0.31) 13

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Below the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 0.3 u (0.23) 791 0.1 u (0.30) 496 0.1 u (0.08) 60 1 year olds 566 0.0 (0.00) 305 0.0 (0.00) 96 0.0 (0.00) 15 2 year olds 587 0.0 (0.00) 223 0.0 (0.00) 162 0.0 (0.00) 18 3 year olds 389 0.0 (0.00) 132 0.0 (0.00) 104 0.0 (0.00) 13

4 year olds 414 1.2 u (0.93) 131 0.4 u (1.18) 134 0.2 u (0.32) 13

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Above the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 1.0 u (0.46) 791 0.6 u (0.46) 496 0.2 u (0.28) 60 1 year olds 566 1.8 u (1.06) 305 1.4 u (1.16) 96 0.5 u (1.05) 15 2 year olds 587 1.3 u (0.96) 223 0.4 u (0.55) 162 0.3 u (0.46) 18 3 year olds 389 0.7 u (1.18) 132 0.6 u (1.32) 104 0.0 u (0.12) 13

4 year olds 414 0.0 (0.00) 131 0.0 (0.00) 134 0.0 (0.00) 13

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Within the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 98.7 (0.52) 791 99.3 (0.55) 496 99.7 (0.29) 60 1 year olds 566 98.2 (1.06) 305 98.6 (1.16) 96 99.5 (1.05) 15 2 year olds 587 98.7 (0.96) 223 99.6 (0.55) 162 99.7 (0.46) 18 3 year olds 389 99.3 (1.18) 132 99.4 (1.32) 104 100.0 (0.12) 13

4 year olds 414 98.8 (0.93) 131 99.6 (1.18) 134 99.8 (0.32) 13
Table B-27. Protein (% of calories): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 11.2 11.9 12.4 13.1 14.4 15.8 16.7 17.2  1 year olds 11.9 12.7 13.1 13.9 15.3 16.8 17.6 18.1  2 year olds 11.4 12.1 12.5 13.2 14.7 16.1 17.0 17.6  3 year olds 10.8 11.5 11.9 12.6 14.0 15.5 16.4 17.0  4 year olds 10.9 11.5 11.9 12.5 13.8 15.0 15.7 16.2 WIC participants 11.6 12.2 12.6 13.2 14.4 15.7 16.4 16.9  1 year olds 12.2 12.9 13.3 13.9 15.2 16.6 17.3 17.9  2 year olds 11.8 12.4 12.7 13.3 14.5 15.7 16.4 16.9  3 year olds 11.2 11.9 12.4 13.0 14.4 15.8 16.6 17.1  4 year olds 11.3 11.8 12.1 12.6 13.6 14.6 15.2 15.6 Income-eligible nonparticipants 11.7 12.2 12.6 13.3 14.5 15.7 16.3 16.8  1 year olds 11.4 12.1 12.6 13.3 14.7 16.0 16.7 17.3  2 year olds 11.8 12.3 12.7 13.3 14.4 15.6 16.2 16.7  3 year olds 11.6 12.1 12.5 13.0 14.1 15.2 15.8 16.2  4 year olds 11.8 12.4 12.8 13.4 14.6 15.9 16.7 17.1 Higher-income nonparticipants 11.0 11.7 12.2 13.0 14.5 16.0 16.9 17.5  1 year olds 12.1 12.8 13.4 14.2 15.7 17.2 18.1 18.7  2 year olds 11.1 11.9 12.4 13.3 15.0 16.7 17.8 18.5  3 year olds 10.5 11.2 11.6 12.4 13.9 15.5 16.5 17.2  4 year olds 10.4 11.0 11.4 12.0 13.3 14.4 15.1 15.6 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect 

and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Ca

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Tota

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentile

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WI

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levefor multiplicity in the number of tests. 

1 Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR) are the ranges of intake for macronutrients, as a percent of total calories, associate

chronic disease while providing intakes of essential nutrients. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 
Table B-28. Carbohydrate (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 194 (2.3) 791 203 (3.4) 496 198 (4.0) 606  1 year olds 566 164 (4.6) 305 168 (4.5) 96 182 (10.1) 153  2 year olds 587 196 (4.0) 223 210 (8.0) 162 201 (6.6) 183  3 year olds 389 206 (5.2) 132 217 (7.7) 104 204 (7.3) 134  4 year olds 414 208 (4.1) 131 215 (6.6) 134 204 (7.4) 136 

Percent of Children with Usual Intake Greater than Estimated Average Requirements (EA

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 98.9 (0.41) 791 99.3 (0.32) 496 98.1 (1.30) 606  1 year olds 566 96.7 (1.56) 305 98.4 (0.88) 96 93.6 (5.21) 153  2 year olds 587 98.8 (0.58) 223 99.3 (0.45) 162 99.2 (0.67) 183  3 year olds 389 99.9 (0.11) 132 99.6 (0.84) 104 99.8 (0.55) 134  4 year olds 414 99.9 (0.11) 131 99.9 (0.09) 134 99.6 (0.32) 136 
Table B-28. Carbohydrate (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 128 140 149 162 190 221 239 252  1 year olds 106 116 124 135 160 188 205 217  2 year olds 121 135 145 161 193 227 248 263  3 year olds 142 154 163 176 203 233 250 262  4 year olds 141 154 163 176 205 236 254 267 WIC participants 129 143 152 167 198 233 254 269  1 year olds 112 123 130 141 165 191 207 218  2 year olds 127 143 153 170 204 243 267 284  3 year olds 134 149 160 177 213 251 275 292  4 year olds 143 156 165 179 210 244 266 281 Income-eligible nonparticipants 123 136 147 162 195 229 250 264  1 year olds 96 110 122 140 178 217 241 260  2 year olds 126 141 151 167 199 232 252 265  3 year olds 134 148 157 172 202 233 252 265  4 year olds 133 146 155 170 200 233 253 266 Higher-income nonparticipants 131 141 149 161 186 211 * 227 * 238 

 1 year olds 105 113 119 129 150 173 187 197 

 2 year olds 117 131 140 155 185 216 235 247 

 3 year olds 154 163 169 179 200 222 235 244 

 4 year olds 146 157 166 179 207 234 252 263 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect n

beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Cancer I

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Total

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is used to assess the adequacy of intakes for population grou

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-29. Carbohydrates (% of calories): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Samp

size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 54.8 (0.31) 791 54.9 (0.45) 496 54.0 (0.55) 606  1 year olds 566 52.3 (0.48) 305 52.6 (0.81) 96 53.3 (1.13) 153  2 year olds 587 54.9 (0.54) 223 54.9 (0.70) 162 55.4 (0.97) 183  3 year olds 389 56.3 (0.59) 132 56.0 (0.93) 104 53.8 (1.19) 134 

4 year olds 414 55.6 (0.78) 131 55.9 (1.08) 134 53.6 (1.13) 136 

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Below the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 3.3 (0.78) 791 4.1 (1.15) 496 3.5 u (1.72) 606  1 year olds 566 8.6 u (2.66) 305 11.3 u (3.52) 96 8.4 u (4.97) 153  2 year olds 587 3.4 u (1.46) 223 0.6 u (0.84) 162 1.8 u (1.65) 183  3 year olds 389 0.9 u (0.72) 132 2.9 u (2.58) 104 3.4 u (4.15) 134 

4 year olds 414 0.4 u (0.47) 131 1.7 u (1.33) 134 0.4 u (1.85) 136 

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Above the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 2.3 u (0.75) 791 3.8 u (1.48) 496 1.8 u (0.93) 606  1 year olds 566 1.3 u (0.88) 305 3.0 u (1.78) 96 3.1 u (2.00) 153  2 year olds 587 2.7 u (1.27) 223 0.6 u (0.82) 162 3.2 u (2.81) 183  3 year olds 389 4.3 u (2.39) 132 7.4 u (4.57) 104 1.1 u (1.36) 134 

4 year olds 414 1.0 u (0.85) 131 4.4 u (3.13) 134 0.0 u (0.32) 136 

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Within the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 94.4 (1.27) 791 92.1 (2.23) 496 94.7 (2.24) 606  1 year olds 566 90.2 (3.27) 305 85.6 (4.37) 96 88.5 (6.09) 153  2 year olds 587 93.9 (2.33) 223 98.9 (1.47) 162 95.1 (3.84) 183  3 year olds 389 94.8 (2.92) 132 89.7 (6.69) 104 95.6 (4.93) 134 

4 year olds 414 98.7 (1.10) 131 94.0 (3.67) 134 99.6 (2.12) 136 
Table B-29. Carbohydrates (% of calorie intake): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 46.7 48.5 49.7 51.4 54.8 58.1 59.9 61.2  1 year olds 43.6 45.5 46.7 48.5 52.1 55.9 57.9 59.4  2 year olds 46.0 48.1 49.4 51.4 55.0 58.5 60.4 61.7  3 year olds 48.2 50.0 51.1 52.8 56.2 59.6 61.5 62.7  4 year olds 49.0 50.5 51.5 52.9 55.7 58.4 59.8 60.8 WIC participants 46.1 48.0 49.3 51.1 54.8 58.4 60.5 61.9  1 year olds 42.4 44.6 46.0 48.2 52.5 56.8 59.3 60.9  2 year olds 48.4 49.9 50.9 52.3 55.0 57.6 59.0 60.0  3 year olds 46.4 48.4 49.7 51.8 55.9 59.9 62.3 64.0  4 year olds 47.2 49.1 50.3 52.2 55.9 59.4 61.4 62.7 Income-eligible nonparticipants 46.3 47.9 49.0 50.8 54.1 57.2 59.0 60.2  1 year olds 43.5 45.4 46.9 49.1 53.2 57.2 59.5 61.3  2 year olds 47.2 49.0 50.2 52.0 55.5 58.8 60.7 61.9  3 year olds 45.9 47.6 48.8 50.6 53.9 57.0 58.8 60.0  4 year olds 48.3 49.5 50.3 51.4 53.7 55.8 57.0 57.7 Higher-income nonparticipants 47.7 49.3 50.4 52.0 55.2 58.2 60.0 61.1  1 year olds 44.3 45.8 46.8 48.4 51.6 54.7 56.4 57.7  2 year olds 44.6 46.9 48.4 50.6 54.7 58.5 60.5 61.8  3 year olds 50.1 51.6 52.6 54.2 57.2 60.3 62.0 63.2  4 year olds 51.6 52.7 53.6 54.8 57.3 59.4 60.7 61.5 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data reflect 

and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the National Ca

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Tota

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentile

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WI

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levefor multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR) are the ranges of intake for macronutrients, as a percent of total calories, associate

chronic disease while providing intakes of essential nutrients. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 
 Table B-30. Saturated Fat (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 11.3 12.8 13.9 15.5 19.0 22.9 25.2 26.9  1 year olds 11.3 12.8 13.9 15.6 19.1 22.9 25.1 26.7  2 year olds 11.0 12.6 13.7 15.5 19.2 23.4 26.1 27.9  3 year olds 10.0 11.5 12.6 14.4 18.3 22.9 25.7 27.7  4 year olds 13.1 14.4 15.2 16.6 19.3 22.2 24.0 25.1 WIC participants 12.2 13.6 14.6 16.2 19.6 23.3 25.5 27.1  1 year olds 10.8 12.4 13.6 15.3 19.2 23.6 26.3 28.2  2 year olds 12.1 13.7 14.7 16.4 20.0 24.0 26.3 28.1  3 year olds 13.1 14.3 15.2 16.5 19.3 22.1 23.9 25.1  4 year olds 12.7 14.0 15.0 16.5 19.8 23.4 25.7 27.3 Income-eligible nonparticipants 11.7 13.2 14.3 16.1 19.9 23.9 26.3 28.1  1 year olds 9.9 11.5 12.8 15.0 19.4 24.0 26.9 29.2  2 year olds 10.5 12.1 13.2 15.1 18.9 23.0 25.5 27.2  3 year olds 13.6 15.0 16.0 17.6 20.7 24.1 26.2 27.6  4 year olds 12.5 14.1 15.2 16.9 20.5 24.4 26.7 28.2 Higher-income nonparticipants 11.7 12.9 13.9 15.3 18.5 21.9 24.0 25.5  1 year olds 12.1 13.5 14.5 16.0 19.0 21.9 23.6 24.8  2 year olds 11.6 13.1 14.1 15.7 19.2 23.2 25.6 27.3  3 year olds 8.6 10.0 11.1 13.0 17.2 22.2 25.5 27.9  4 year olds 14.4 15.2 15.9 16.7 18.6 20.3 21.3 22.0 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data r

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the (NCI) method. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Highe

 Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Samp

size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 19.5 (0.36) 791 20.0 (0.47) 496 20.3 (0.59) 606  1 year olds 566 19.5 (0.40) 305 19.9 (0.67) 96 19.9 (1.36) 153  2 year olds 587 19.8 (0.65) 223 20.5 (0.94) 162 19.3 (0.96) 183  3 year olds 389 19.1 (1.01) 132 19.5 (1.06) 104 21.1 (1.16) 134  4 year olds 414 19.6 (0.66) 131 20.3 (1.05) 134 20.9 (1.17) 136 
Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in househbenefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjadjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-31. Saturated Fat (% of calorie intake): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants High

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 2–4 years old 1,390 11.7 (0.15) 486 11.7 (0.20) 400 12.1 (0.24) 45 2 year olds 587 12.1 (0.19) 223 12.0 (0.33) 162 11.8 (0.35) 18 3 year olds 389 11.4 (0.31) 132 11.3 (0.30) 104 12.4 (0.45) 13 4 year olds 414 11.6 (0.28) 131 11.6 (0.38) 134 12.2 (0.45) 13

Percent of Persons Meeting Dietary Guidelines Recommendation1

All children, 2–4 years old 1,390 17.1 (2.95) 486 19.2 (4.24) 400 10.6 (2.67) 45 2 year olds 587 15.4 (2.94) 223 16.1 u (5.29) 162 21.6 (4.79) 18 3 year olds 389 26.8 (5.83) 132 21.8 u (8.78) 104 8.6 u (4.22) 13 4 year olds 414 9.0 u (5.97) 131 19.7 u (7.51) 134 1.5 * u (4.86) 13
Table B-31. Saturated Fat (% of calorie intake): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 9

Distribution of Usual Intake 

All children, 2–4 years old 8.8 9.4 9.8 10.4 11.7 12.9 13.6 14 2 year olds 8.8 9.5 10.0 10.7 12.1 13.5 14.3 14 3 year olds 7.9 8.7 9.2 9.9 11.3 12.8 13.6 14 4 year olds 9.6 10.1 10.4 10.8 11.6 12.3 12.8 13WIC participants 8.7 9.3 9.7 10.4 11.6 12.9 13.6 14 2 year olds 8.7 9.5 9.9 10.6 12.0 13.4 14.1 14 3 year olds 8.6 9.2 9.6 10.2 11.3 12.4 13.1 13 4 year olds 8.6 9.3 9.7 10.3 11.6 12.8 13.5 14Income-eligible nonparticipants 9.4 10.0 10.4 11.0 12.1 13.2 13.9 14 2 year olds 8.3 9.0 9.5 10.3 11.7 13.2 14.1 14 3 year olds 9.5 10.2 10.6 11.2 12.4 13.5 14.2 14 4 year olds 10.5 10.9 11.1 11.5 12.2 12.9 13.3 13Higher-income nonparticipants nr nr nr nr nr nr nr  2 year olds 9.5 10.1 10.5 11.1 12.4 13.6 14.4 14 3 year olds 7.2 8.0 8.5 9.4 11.0 12.7 13.7 14 4 year olds nr nr nr nr nr nr nr 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 2–4 years old. Data 

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using th(NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportnoted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as childre

WIC benefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferrto adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

1 The Dietary Guidelines recommend that persons 2 year olds and older consume less than 10 percent of total daily calories from sa

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 

nr Indicates that the NCI macro does not run correctly for this age group. The resulting data are unreliable and have been suppressed
Table B-32. Linoleic Acid (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher-

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 8.1 (0.14) 791 8.6 (0.28) 496 8.3 (0.22) 606  1 year olds 566 6.4 (0.22) 305 6.5 (0.26) 96 7.0 (0.38) 153  2 year olds 587 8.2 (0.24) 223 8.7 (0.32) 162 8.5 (0.45) 183  3 year olds 389 8.5 (0.33) 132 9.0 (0.56) 104 8.8 (0.30) 134  4 year olds 414 9.4 (0.32) 131 10.1 (0.85) 134 9.0 (0.55) 136 

Mean Usual Intake as a Percent of Adequate Intake (AI)1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 105.9 (1.85) 791 111.6 (3.29) 496 109.5 (2.73) 606  1 year olds 566 90.9 (3.08) 305 92.7 (3.78) 96 100.6 (5.48) 153  2 year olds 587 117.6 (3.37) 223 123.9 (4.61) 162 120.7 (6.40) 183  3 year olds 389 120.9 (4.78) 132 128.1 (8.01) 104 126.2 (4.26) 134  4 year olds 414 93.6 (3.23) 131 101.0 (8.50) 134 89.9 (5.53) 136 
Table B-32. Linoleic Acid (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 5.0 5.5 5.9 6.5 7.9 9.4 10.4 11.0  1 year olds 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.8 6.1 7.7 8.6 9.3  2 year olds 4.5 5.1 5.6 6.3 7.9 9.8 10.9 11.7  3 year olds 6.5 6.9 7.2 7.6 8.4 9.3 9.8 10.1  4 year olds 5.5 6.1 6.6 7.4 9.0 11.0 12.2 13.0 WIC participants 4.5 5.2 5.6 6.4 8.2 10.2 11.6 12.5  1 year olds 3.2 3.7 4.1 4.7 6.1 7.8 8.9 9.7  2 year olds 4.6 5.4 5.8 6.6 8.3 10.3 11.5 12.4  3 year olds 5.0 5.7 6.2 7.0 8.7 10.6 11.8 12.6  4 year olds 5.0 5.8 6.3 7.3 9.4 12.1 13.9 15.3 Income-eligible nonparticipants 5.6 6.1 6.4 7.0 8.2 9.5 10.2 10.8  1 year olds 3.7 4.3 4.7 5.4 6.9 8.4 9.4 10.1  2 year olds 6.3 u 6.7 7.0 7.5 8.4 9.3 9.9 10.3  3 year olds 7.2 7.5 7.8 8.1 8.8 9.5 9.9 10.2  4 year olds 5.2 5.8 6.3 7.0 8.7 10.6 11.8 12.6 Higher-income nonparticipants 5.2 5.6 5.9 6.4 7.5 8.7 * 9.5 * 10.1 

 1 year olds 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.5 5.8 7.2 8.1 8.8 

 2 year olds 4.0 4.6 5.1 5.8 7.6 9.6 10.9 11.9 

 3 year olds 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 

 4 year olds 5.5 6.1 6.5 7.2 8.7 10.2 11.2 11.8 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data r

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and 

(.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in househbenefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adj

adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

1 Adequate Intake (AI) is the approximate intake of the nutrient that appears to be adequate for all individuals in the population group. 

the AI implies a low prevalence of inadequate intake. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table B-33. Linoleic Acid (% of calorie intake): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher-in

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 5.1 (0.07) 791 5.1 (0.12) 496 5.1 (0.11) 60 1 year olds 566 4.6 (0.12) 305 4.4 (0.14) 96 4.9 (0.33) 15 2 year olds 587 5.1 (0.10) 223 5.1 (0.17) 162 5.1 (0.19) 18 3 year olds 389 5.2 (0.14) 132 5.2 (0.21) 104 5.2 (0.15) 13

4 year olds 414 5.5 (0.16) 131 5.7 (0.37) 134 5.2 (0.21) 13

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Below the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 47.1 (5.12) 791 49.0 (5.26) 496 26.7 u (21.37) 60 1 year olds 566 66.9 (4.05) 305 71.5 (5.44) 96 56.2 (11.68) 15 2 year olds 587 50.8 (4.73) 223 49.9 (11.11) 162 0.0 u (80.07) 18 3 year olds 389 40.9 u (17.58) 132 48.8 (6.30) 104 8.4 u (23.89) 13

4 year olds 414 30.1 (7.97) 131 26.1 u (15.76) 134 43.3 (8.63) 13

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Above the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 0.0 u (0.02) 791 0.1 u (0.15) 496 0.0 u (0.09) 60 1 year olds 566 0.1 u (0.07) 305 0.1 u (0.09) 96 0.1 u (0.35) 15 2 year olds 587 0.0 u (0.03) 223 0.0 (0.06) 162 0.0 (0.00) 18 3 year olds 389 0.0 (0.00) 132 0.4 u (0.46) 104 0.0 (0.00) 13

4 year olds 414 0.0 (0.06) 131 0.0 u (0.34) 134 0.0 u (0.08) 13

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Within the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 52.9 (5.12) 791 50.9 (5.26) 496 73.2 (21.36) 60 1 year olds 566 33.1 (4.01) 305 28.4 (5.38) 96 43.6 (11.52) 15 2 year olds 587 49.2 (4.73) 223 50.1 (11.12) 162 100.0 u (80.07) 18 3 year olds 389 59.1 (17.58) 132 50.8 (6.19) 104 91.6 (23.89) 13

4 year olds 414 69.9 (7.98) 131 73.9 (15.78) 134 56.7 (8.63) 13
Table B-33. Linoleic Acid (% of calorie intake): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued

Percentiles 

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake 

All children, 1–4 years old 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.4 5.0 5.7 6.1 6.3  1 year olds 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.7 4.5 5.3 5.9 6.2  2 year olds 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.3 5.0 5.7 6.1 6.4  3 year olds 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.7 5.2 5.6 5.9 6.1  4 year olds 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.9 5.4 6.0 6.4 6.6 WIC participants 3.4 3.7 3.9 4.3 5.0 5.8 6.3 6.6  1 year olds 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.6 4.3 5.1 5.7 6.0  2 year olds 3.6 3.9 4.1 4.4 5.0 5.7 6.0 6.3  3 year olds 3.1 3.4 3.7 4.1 5.0 6.0 6.7 7.1  4 year olds 4.2 4.5 4.7 5.0 5.6 6.3 6.7 7.0 Income-eligible nonparticipants 4.1 4.3 4.4 4.7 5.1 5.5 5.8 6.0  1 year olds 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.3 6.7  2 year olds 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1  3 year olds 5.0 * 5.0 * 5.1 * 5.1 * 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.5  4 year olds 3.7 3.9 4.2 4.5 5.2 5.9 6.4 6.7 Higher-income nonparticipants 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.9 5.5 5.8 6.0 

 1 year olds 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.7 4.5 5.3 5.8 6.2 

 2 year olds 3.3 3.6 3.8 4.2 5.0 5.8 6.4 6.7 

 3 year olds 5.0 * 5.0 * 5.0 * 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 

 4 year olds 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.8 5.3 5.7 6.0 6.2 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data r

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and 

(.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in househbenefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adj

adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

1 Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR) are the ranges of intake for macronutrients, as a percent of total calories, as

of chronic disease while providing intakes of essential nutrients. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 
Table B-34. Linolenic Acid (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages 

See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Higher-i

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size 

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 0.8 (0.02) 791 0.9 (0.02) 496 0.8 (0.02) 606  1 year olds 566 0.8 (0.02) 305 0.8 (0.03) 96 0.8 (0.05) 153  2 year olds 587 0.8 (0.03) 223 0.9 (0.03) 162 0.8 ** (0.05) 183  3 year olds 389 0.8 (0.04) 132 0.9 (0.06) 104 0.8 (0.04) 134  4 year olds 414 0.9 (0.05) 131 0.9 (0.06) 134 0.9 (0.06) 136 

Mean Usual Intake as a Percent of Adequate Intake (AI)1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 111.8 (2.33) 791 119.2 (3.06) 496 110.8 (3.23) 606  1 year olds 566 116.4 (2.86) 305 121.2 (4.81) 96 117.4 (7.20) 153  2 year olds 587 118.5 (4.01) 223 130.8 (4.12) 162 110.6 ** (6.36) 183  3 year olds 389 114.2 (6.08) 132 125.1 (8.46) 104 120.5 (5.62) 134  4 year olds 414 98.1 (4.96) 131 99.5 (6.08) 134 94.9 (6.63) 136 
Table B-34. Linolenic Acid (g): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles 

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 

Distribution of Usual Intake 

All children, 1–4 years old 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1  1 year olds 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.1  2 year olds 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.1  3 year olds 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0  4 year olds 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2 WIC participants 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2  1 year olds 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2  2 year olds 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.2  3 year olds 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1  4 year olds 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.2 Income-eligible nonparticipants 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1  1 year olds 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.1  2 year olds 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 * 1.0  3 year olds 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1  4 year olds 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 Higher-income nonparticipants 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0  1 year olds 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0  2 year olds 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.1  3 year olds 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9  4 year olds 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data 

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using th(NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportnoted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as childre

WIC benefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferrto adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 1 Adequate Intake (AI) is the approximate intake of the nutrient that appears to be adequate for all individuals in the population group

the AI implies a low prevalence of inadequate intake. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 
Table B-35. Linolenic Acid (% of calorie intake): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Highe

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 0.5 (0.01) 791 0.5 (0.01) 496 0.5 (0.01) 60 1 year olds 566 0.6 (0.01) 305 0.6 (0.02) 96 0.6 (0.03) 15 2 year olds 587 0.5 (0.01) 223 0.5 (0.02) 162 0.5 ** (0.02) 18 3 year olds 389 0.5 (0.02) 132 0.5 (0.02) 104 0.5 (0.02) 13

4 year olds 414 0.5 (0.02) 131 0.5 (0.03) 134 0.5 (0.02) 13

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Below the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 77.9 (2.31) 791 72.0 (2.89) 496 81.9 * (3.23) 60 1 year olds 566 54.7 (3.00) 305 55.4 (5.08) 96 59.4 (8.53) 15 2 year olds 587 80.5 (3.13) 223 70.8 (4.21) 162 94.0 *** (4.96) 18 3 year olds 389 93.7 (5.05) 132 82.1 (7.52) 104 88.2 (5.49) 13

4 year olds 414 82.0 (6.36) 131 79.2 (5.76) 134 85.3 (6.46) 13

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Above the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 0.0 u (0.01) 791 0.0 u (0.03) 496 0.0 u (0.05) 60 1 year olds 566 0.0 u (0.02) 305 0.0 u (0.11) 96 0.2 u (0.19) 15 2 year olds 587 0.0 u (0.00) 223 0.0 u (0.08) 162 0.0 (0.00) 18 3 year olds 389 0.0 (0.00) 132 0.0 (0.00) 104 0.0 (0.00) 13

4 year olds 414 0.0 (0.00) 131 0.0 (0.02) 134 0.0 (0.00) 13

Percent of Persons with Usual Intake Within the AMDR1

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 22.1 (2.31) 791 28.0 (2.89) 496 18.1 * (3.23) 60 1 year olds 566 45.3 (3.00) 305 44.6 (5.06) 96 40.4 (8.49) 15 2 year olds 587 19.5 (3.13) 223 29.2 (4.17) 162 6.0 *** (4.96) 18 3 year olds 389 6.3 u (5.05) 132 17.9 u (7.52) 104 11.8 u (5.49) 13

4 year olds 414 18.0 u (6.36) 131 20.8 (5.75) 134 14.7 u (6.46) 13
Table B-35. Linolenic Acid (% of calorie intake): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued

Percentiles 

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7  1 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8  2 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7  3 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6  4 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 WIC participants 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7  1 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8  2 year olds 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7  3 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6  4 year olds 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 Income-eligible nonparticipants 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7  1 year olds 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8  2 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 * 0.6 * 0.6  3 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6  4 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 Higher-income nonparticipants 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7  1 year olds 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8  2 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7  3 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6  4 year olds 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit Database; CNPP Addendum 

includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

estimated using a statistical method developed by the National Cancer Institute (NCI). Totals are age-adjusted to account for differ

WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.0

Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in households receiving WIC benefits at the time of 

comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adjustment was used to adjust levels of signmultiplicity in the number of tests. 

1 Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR) are the ranges of intake for macronutrients, as a percent of total calories, a

risk of chronic disease while providing intakes of ssential nutrients. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 
Table B-36. Cholesterol (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages See notes at end of table. 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Highe

Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

siz

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 2–4 years old 1,390 169 (5.6) 486 201 (9.7) 400 201 (10.6)  2 year olds 587 175 (7.7) 223 202 (14.4) 162 181 (11.1)  3 year olds 389 160 (10.7) 132 201 (18.5) 104 192 (19.0)  4 year olds 414 171 (10.3) 131 201 (17.1) 134 230 (23.1) 

Percent of Persons Meeting Dietary Guidelines Recommendation1

All children, 2–4 years old 1,390 96.0 (1.12) 486 89.2 (3.22) 400 92.4 (4.05)  2 year olds 587 94.7 (1.74) 223 91.8 (5.38) 162 99.5 (2.39)  3 year olds 389 95.9 (1.74) 132 86.9 (5.64) 104 92.7 (4.63)  4 year olds 414 97.4 (2.32) 131 88.9 (5.71) 134 85.0 (11.05) 
Table B-36. Cholesterol (mg): Usual Nutrient Intakes from Foods and Beverages–Continued 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 2–4 years old 84 97 106 122 159 203 233 254  2 year olds 86 100 110 127 164 211 242 266  3 year olds 69 83 93 110 149 198 229 252 

 4 year olds 95 108 117 131 163 202 226 244 WIC participants 99 114 125 144 188 242 279 307 

 2 year olds 112 127 137 154 192 238 268 290 

 3 year olds 87 103 115 135 184 245 289 323 

 4 year olds 98 113 124 143 188 242 279 307 Income-eligible nonparticipants 119 132 142 158 194 234 260 279  2 year olds 124 u 134 142 154 178 204 220 231  3 year olds 98 113 124 143 183 230 261 283  4 year olds 134 u 149 161 179 220 269 300 322 Higher-income nonparticipants 70 81 * 89 ** 102 *** 133 *** 170 *** 194 *** 212 **  2 year olds 72 84 93 108 * 146 193 224 248 

 3 year olds 59 70 78 93 126 164 * 189 207 

 4 year olds 80 89 95 106 128 * 153 ** 168 * 179 * 

Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. Data r

foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated using the (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on two dietary recalls per person. ’All young children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, and 

(.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children in househbenefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni adj

adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

1 The Dietary Guidelines recommend that persons 2 years and older consume less than 300 mg of cholesterol a day. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 
Appendix C. 

Detailed Tables of Analyses on Children 

   
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C‐1

Table C-1. Percent of Young Children Taking Dietary Supplements 

All children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Percent Standard 

error 

Percent Standard 

error 

Percent Standard 

error 

Percent Standard 

error 

Sample size 1,916 - 842 - 463 - 551 - 

Any dietary supplement, children 1–4 

years old1 26.6 (1.44) 14.2 (1.57) 25.9 *** (2.58) 33.8 *** (2.52)

 1 year old 11.9 (1.52) 8.1 (1.11) 13.1 u (4.45) 15.0 * (2.67) 

 2 years old 26.3 (2.39) 15.7 (2.95) 31.7 *** (3.84) 30.3 ** (3.73) 

 3 years old 27.5 (3.01) 15.5 (3.05) 20.7 (5.36) 37.2 *** (5.77) 

 4 years old 40.4 (3.99) 17.3 (4.43) 37.8 ** (6.53) 52.1 *** (6.79) 

Any dietary supplement1 by poverty level 26.6 (1.44) 14.2 (1.57) 25.9 *** (2.58) 33.8 *** (2.52) 

 < 100% 17.4 (1.81) 13.1 (2.03) 18.3 (2.52) -- -- 

 101 – 185% 25.7 (2.89) 13.9 (2.59) 32.1 *** (4.14) -- -- 

 > 185% 32.8 (2.30) 19.5 (4.96) -- -- 33.8 * (2.52) 

Source: NHANES 2007–2010 dietary recalls and demographics data. Sample includes NHANES respondents with 

complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Percentages are age-adjusted to account for 

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are 

noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC 

participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

1 Intake of dietary supplements is based on the same 24-hour period as the dietary recall. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

-- Not applicable. 

 
C‐2

Table C-2. Mean Daily Intakes of Nutrients from Foods and Dietary Supplements 

All children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Dietary supplement users: 

intake from food 

Sample size 442 - 119 - 119 - 186 - 

Vitamin C (mg) 79 (5.03) 88 (8.01) 77 (8.58) 73 (5.87) 

Vitamin D (mcg) 7.6 (0.32) 7.8 (0.46) 6.5 (0.50) 8.1 (0.44) 

Vitamin B6 (mg) 1.28 (0.03) 1.40 (0.06) 1.28 (0.07) 1.23 * (0.04) 

Vitamin B12 (mcg) 4.33 (0.17) 4.52 (0.28) 4.36 (0.30) 4.31 (0.23) 

Folate (mcg DFE) 366 (8.40) 390 (24.75) 400 (29.86) 351 (9.78) 

Calcium (mg) 1,066 (47.15) 1,074 (61.49) 995 (62.84) 1,089 (49.34) 

Iron (mg) 9.9 (0.17) 10.7 (0.41) 10.5 (0.50) 9.4 * (0.28) 

Potassium (mg) 1,996 (43.38) 2,038 (69.42) 1,955 (67.39) 1,987 (56.39) 

Magnesium (mg) 198 (4.90) 201 (6.06) 198 (7.53) 195 (5.91) 

Niacin (mg) 13.7 (0.35) 14.8 (0.64) 14.2 (0.60) 13.0 * (0.47) 

Thiamin (mg) 1.15 (0.03) 1.22 (0.04) 1.17 (0.05) 1.12 (0.04) 

Riboflavin (mg) 1.89 (0.06) 1.99 (0.08) 1.85 (0.07) 1.89 (0.08) 

Phosphorus (mg) 1,093 (35.40) 1,110 (46.58) 1,080 (49.54) 1,091 (38.75) 

Zinc (mg) 7.8 (0.16) 8.3 (0.43) 7.8 (0.33) 7.7 (0.22) 

Copper (mg) 0.81 (0.02) 0.80 (0.03) 0.85 (0.05) 0.80 (0.02) 

Selenium (mcg) 69 (2.28) 75 (3.17) 71 (3.54) 66 * (2.74) 

Choline (mg) 223 (6.63) 247 (13.10) 228 (15.45) 215 * (8.54) 

Dietary supplement users: 

intake from supplements1

Sample size 442 - 119 - 119 - 186 - 

Vitamin C (mg) 60 (7.64) 58 (11.06) 65 (14.85) 62 (13.31) 

Vitamin D (mcg) 7.7 (0.64) 8.2 (0.84) 6.9 (0.68) 7.9 (1.12) 

Vitamin B6 (mg) 1.17 (0.08) 1.22 (0.13) 1.07 (0.11) 1.22 (0.16) 

Vitamin B12 (mcg) 4.38 (0.44) 4.12 (0.35) 3.78 (0.29) 4.77 (0.76) 

Folate (mcg DFE) 366 (17.67) 412 (40.88) 389 (37.38) 352 (27.54) 

Calcium (mg) 54 (6.15) 64 (12.70) 53 (9.93) 48 (9.25) 

Iron (mg) 6.1 (0.64) 8.5 (1.39) 6.9 (1.24) 5.1 * (0.79) 

Potassium (mg) 2 u (1.41) 0 (0.00) 0 u (0.02) 4 u (2.54) 

Magnesium (mg) 8 (0.82) 8 (1.46) 9 (1.58) 8 (1.24) 

Niacin (mg) 7.3 (0.47) 8.5 (1.29) 8.1 (1.01) 6.7 (0.67) 

Thiamin (mg) 0.66 (0.04) 0.76 (0.12) 0.74 (0.10) 0.61 (0.06) 

Riboflavin (mg) 0.75 (0.05) 0.86 (0.14) 0.85 (0.11) 0.69 (0.07) 

Phosphorus (mg) 31 (3.34) 37 (7.37) 34 (8.16) 29 (4.46) 

Zinc (mg) 4.5 (0.34) 5.4 (0.85) 4.8 (0.81) 4.2 (0.51) 

Copper (mg) 0.62 (0.06) 0.77 (0.15) 0.70 (0.14) 0.54 (0.08) 

Selenium (mcg) 1 u (0.33) 0 u (0.04) 0 u (0.27) 1 u (0.52) 

Choline (mg) 13 (1.36) 14 (2.78) 14 (2.68) 12 (1.90) 

See notes at end of table. 

   
C‐3

Table C-2. Mean Daily Intakes of Nutrients from Foods and Dietary Supplements–Continued 

All children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Dietary supplement nonusers: intake from food

Sample size 1,474 - 723 - 344 - 365 - 

Vitamin C (mg) 92 (2.71) 107 (5.41) 88 * (6.92) 81 *** (4.29) 

Vitamin D (mcg) 7.2 (0.17) 7.6 (0.24) 6.7 * (0.34) 7.3 (0.28) 

Vitamin B6 (mg) 1.34 (0.02) 1.44 (0.04) 1.30 * (0.04) 1.29 * (0.04) 

Vitamin B12 (mcg) 4.40 (0.12) 4.86 (0.16) 4.07 *** (0.15) 4.25 * (0.18) 

Folate (mcg DFE) 383 (10.43) 404 (14.35) 392 (15.64) 367 (17.32) 

Calcium (mg) 1,014 (24.16) 1,035 (27.62) 967 (33.60) 1,041 (43.98) 

Iron (mg) 10.5 (0.21) 11.1 (0.42) 10.9 (0.41) 10.0 * (0.39) 

Potassium (mg) 2,002 (27.99) 2,111 (41.17) 1,902 *** (47.27) 1,978 (56.19) 

Magnesium (mg) 192 (2.92) 198 (4.21) 186 * (4.09) 192 (6.17) 

Niacin (mg) 14.2 (0.22) 14.8 (0.36) 14.8 (0.27) 13.4 ** (0.39) 

Thiamin (mg) 1.17 (0.02) 1.20 (0.03) 1.23 (0.04) 1.13 (0.04) 

Riboflavin (mg) 1.83 (0.04) 1.91 (0.05) 1.77 (0.06) 1.82 (0.06) 

Phosphorus (mg) 1,058 (19.83) 1,080 (23.03) 1,039 (25.50) 1,060 (34.44) 

Zinc (mg) 8.0 (0.14) 8.7 (0.23) 8.0 * (0.24) 7.6 *** (0.24) 

Copper (mg) 0.79 (0.02) 0.78 (0.02) 0.80 (0.02) 0.78 (0.03) 

Selenium (mcg) 67 (1.21) 67 (1.31) 71 (1.81) 64 (2.20) 

Choline (mg) 214 (4.02) 226 (5.42) 218 (7.71) 202 ** (5.74) 

Source: NHANES 2007–2010 dietary recalls and Vitamin D addendum to the FNDDS 3. Sample includes NHANES 

respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Means are age-adjusted to account for different age 

distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means are noted by * (.05 

level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as 

children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

1 Intake of dietary supplements is based on the same 24-hour period as the dietary recall. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
C‐4

Table C-3. Percent Contribution of Dietary Supplements to Total Nutrient Intakes 

All children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Percent 

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent 

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent 

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent 

contribution 

Standard 

error 

All children (dietary supplement 

users and nonusers1)

Sample size 1,916 - 842 - 463 - 551 - 

Vitamin C (mg) 10 (0.86) 5 (0.88) 11 ** (1.76) 13 *** (1.66) 

Vitamin D (mcg) 13.3 (0.94) 6.6 (1.01) 12.7 ** (1.84) 17.0 *** (1.95) 

Vitamin B6 (mg) 11.51 (0.85) 5.84 (0.90) 10.88 ** (1.70) 14.91 *** (1.84) 

Vitamin B12 (mcg) 12.29 (0.86) 6.28 (0.97) 11.41 ** (1.61) 15.80 *** (1.95) 

Folate (mcg DFE) 12 (0.88) 6 (0.99) 12 ** (1.63) 15 *** (1.96) 

Calcium (mg) 2 (0.13) 1 (0.18) 1 (0.30) 2 * (0.32) 

Iron (mg) 6.6 (0.71) 4.0 (0.80) 7.2 (1.52) 7.4 * (1.28) 

Potassium (mg) 0 u (0.02) 0 (0.00) 0 u (0.00) 0 u (0.03) 

Magnesium (mg) 1 (0.13) 1 (0.13) 1 * (0.29) 1 ** (0.23) 

Niacin (mg) 7.4 (0.63) 3.9 (0.77) 8.2 * (1.59) 8.9 *** (1.11) 

Thiamin (mg) 7.68 (0.64) 4.09 (0.81) 8.24 * (1.50) 9.25 *** (1.17) 

Riboflavin (mg) 6.51 (0.55) 3.49 (0.70) 6.97 * (1.27) 7.77 *** (1.00) 

Phosphorus (mg) 1 (0.10) 1 (0.12) 1 (0.21) 1 * (0.21) 

Zinc (mg) 7.9 (0.70) 4.3 (0.82) 7.8 * (1.37) 9.8 ** (1.56) 

Copper (mg) 6.51 (0.74) 3.70 (0.88) 7.26 (1.59) 7.54 * (1.35) 

Selenium (mcg) 0 u (0.08) 0 u (0.01) 0 u (0.12) 0 u (0.17) 

Choline (mg) 2 (0.20) 1 (0.20) 2 * (0.38) 2 ** (0.35) 

Dietary supplement users

Sample size 442 - 119 - 119 - 186 - 

Vitamin C (mg) 38 (2.02) 35 (2.95) 42 (3.20) 39 (3.19) 

Vitamin D (mcg) 47.5 (1.63) 46.2 (3.02) 47.9 (3.06) 47.3 (2.96) 

Vitamin B6 (mg) 41.57 (1.95) 40.12 (2.89) 40.20 (2.69) 42.78 (3.18) 

Vitamin B12 (mcg) 44.13 (1.66) 42.77 (2.72) 43.12 (2.55) 44.69 (2.97) 

Folate (mcg DFE) 42 (2.00) 42 (3.03) 44 (2.94) 42 (3.42) 

Calcium (mg) 5 (0.40) 6 (1.16) 5 (1.00) 4 (0.68) 

Iron (mg) 22.7 (2.19) 27.3 (4.48) 25.3 (4.36) 19.9 (3.08) 

Potassium (mg) 0 u (0.06) 0 (0.00) 0 u (0.00) 0 u (0.11) 

Magnesium (mg) 4 (0.39) 4 (0.65) 4 (0.76) 4 (0.59) 

Niacin (mg) 26.4 (1.75) 27.6 (3.65) 29.7 (3.50) 24.8 (2.27) 

Thiamin (mg) 26.99 (1.68) 28.42 (3.77) 30.17 (3.64) 25.05 (2.15) 

Riboflavin (mg) 22.47 (1.43) 23.98 (3.29) 25.48 (3.16) 20.57 (1.83) 

Phosphorus (mg) 3 (0.28) 4 (0.62) 3 (0.72) 3 (0.50) 

Zinc (mg) 27.8 (1.87) 29.0 (3.47) 28.3 (3.61) 27.4 (3.26) 

Copper (mg) 22.23 (2.12) 24.88 (4.45) 25.96 (4.83) 19.97 (2.98) 

Selenium (mcg) 1 u (0.24) 0 u (0.13) 1 u (0.40) 1 u (0.36) 

Choline (mg) 5 (0.48) 5 (0.98) 6 (1.02) 5 (0.68) 

See notes at end of table. 

   
C‐5

Table C-3. Percent Contribution of Dietary Supplements to Total Nutrient Intakes–Continued 

All children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Percent 

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent 

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent 

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent 

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Multivitamin2 users

Sample size 340 - 90 - 87 - 158 - 

Vitamin C (mg) 39 (2.15) 39 (3.33) 41 (3.65) 40 (3.23) 

Vitamin D (mcg) 50.1 (1.45) 51.8 (2.25) 53.0 (2.68) 49.0 (2.47) 

Vitamin B6 (mg) 47.31 (1.96) 49.55 (2.74) 46.99 (2.78) 47.09 (2.96) 

Vitamin B12 (mcg) 49.94 (1.77) 50.78 (2.59) 52.02 (1.74) 49.27 (2.97) 

Folate (mcg DFE) 49 (2.33) 52 (3.65) 51 (3.21) 47 (3.52) 

Calcium (mg) 6 (0.49) 6 (0.97) 6 (1.05) 5 (1.07) 

Iron (mg) 28.2 (2.83) 34.1 (5.73) 32.8 (5.25) 24.2 (3.60) 

Potassium (mg) 0 u (0.09) 0 0.00 0 u (0.00) 0 u (0.15) 

Magnesium (mg) 5 (0.54) 5 (0.84) 6 (0.76) 5 (0.71) 

Niacin (mg) 27.1 (2.07) 32.1 (4.40) 32.3 (4.49) 24.2 (2.31) 

Thiamin (mg) 27.82 (2.10) 33.16 (4.57) 32.67 (4.74) 24.82 (2.27) 

Riboflavin (mg) 23.19 (1.81) 27.70 (3.94) 28.04 (3.99) 20.34 (1.93) 

Phosphorus (mg) 4 (0.31) 5 (0.81) 4 (0.82) 3 (0.51) 

Zinc (mg) 35.7 (2.21) 39.0 (3.84) 38.3 (3.60) 33.9 (3.16) 

Copper (mg) 28.42 (2.85) 33.55 (5.45) 35.04 (5.20) 24.65 (3.40) 

Selenium (mcg) 1 u (0.29) 0 u (0.21) 1 u (0.53) 1 u (0.42) 

Choline (mg) 7 (0.58) 7 (1.22) 8 (1.14) 6 (0.75) 

Source: NHANES 2007–2010 dietary recalls and Vitamin D addendum to the FNDDS 3.. Sample includes NHANES 

respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Percentages are age-adjusted to account for 

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are 

noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC 

participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

1 Intake of dietary supplements is based on the same 24-hour period as the dietary recall. 2 A multivitamin is identified as a dietary supplement that contains three or more vitamins and at least one 

mineral. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
C‐6

Table C-4. Percent Contribution of Dietary Supplements to Recommended Intakes 

 Dietary 

Reference 

Intakes 

(EAR/AI)

All children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Ages 1–3 

years 

Age 4 

years 

Percent

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent

contribution 

Standard 

error 

All children (dietary supplement 

users and nonusers1)

Sample size 1,916 - 842 - 463 - 551 -

Vitamin C (mg) 13 22 102.5 (10.67) 54.3 (12.43) 103.7 (22.71) 137.8 ** (27.66)

Vitamin D (mcg) 10 10 21.2 (1.87) 11.7 (2.00) 17.8 (2.65) 28.3 ** (4.71)

Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.4 0.5 75.0 (4.67) 42.2 (7.53) 66.5 (10.37) 97.7 *** (12.07)

Vitamin B12 (mcg) 0.7 1 153.8 (14.28) 78.4 (12.68) 126.0 * (17.55) 212.0 *** (34.22)

Folate (mcg DFE) 120 160 78.6 (4.87) 47.3 (8.27) 78.2 * (11.64) 96.3 *** (11.50)

Calcium (mg) 500 800 2.6 (0.28) 1.5 (0.31) 2.4 (0.46) 3.1 * (0.66)

Iron (mg) 3.0 4.1 52.3 (5.21) 38.5 (7.45) 57.8 (11.11) 56.4 (9.77)

Potassium (mg) 3,000 3,800 0.0 u (0.01) 0.0 0.00 0.0 u 0.00 0.0 u (0.02)

Magnesium (mg) 65 110 2.9 (0.30) 1.5 (0.36) 3.1 * (0.68) 3.6 ** (0.58)

Niacin (mg) 5 6 38.8 (2.59) 23.3 (4.95) 40.7 * (7.10) 46.4 ** (5.72)

Thiamin (mg) 0.4 0.5 43.6 (3.15) 26.0 (5.63) 46.0 * (8.34) 52.3 ** (6.37)

Riboflavin (mg) 0.4 0.5 49.5 (3.52) 29.4 (6.37) 52.3 * (9.42) 59.4 ** (7.20)

Phosphorus (mg) 380 405 2.3 (0.27) 1.5 (0.38) 2.4 (0.65) 2.8 * (0.50)

Zinc (mg) 2.5 4.0 43.6 (3.36) 27.7 (5.95) 44.0 (8.48) 52.3 * (7.87)

Copper (mg) 0.26 0.34 62.6 (6.51) 40.3 (10.06) 67.4 (15.35) 72.0 * (12.18)

Selenium (mcg) 17 23 1.1 u (0.56) 0.0 u (0.02) 0.6 u (0.43) 2.0 u (1.15)

Choline (mg) 200 250 1.7 (0.22) 1.0 (0.24) 1.8 (0.39) 2.0 * (0.42)

Dietary supplement users 

Sample size 442 - 119 - 119 - 186 -

Vitamin C (mg) 13 22 412.7 (58.48) 375.5 (62.27) 453.9 (112.06) 434.8 (102.41)

Vitamin D (mcg) 10 10 77.0 (6.36) 82.3 (8.41) 68.8 (6.84) 79.3 (11.20)

Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.4 0.5 274.9 (20.70) 286.1 (29.75) 249.5 (26.63) 287.2 (38.17)

Vitamin B12 (mcg) 0.7 1 558.0 (48.13) 535.5 (45.10) 488.9 (41.19) 603.1 (85.11)

Folate (mcg DFE) 120 160 278.9 (14.28) 315.0 (31.05) 297.3 (30.43) 268.8 (22.49)

Calcium (mg) 500 800 9.2 (1.07) 10.8 (2.35) 9.3 (1.86) 8.0 (1.57)

Iron (mg) 3.0 4.1 185.4 (19.39) 263.5 (42.59) 207.1 (38.79) 153.9 * (24.87)

Potassium (mg) 3,000 3,800 0.1 u (0.05) 0.0 0.00 0.0 u (0.00) 0.1 u (0.08)

Magnesium (mg) 65 110 10.5 (1.19) 10.4 (1.93) 11.3 (2.18) 10.7 (1.85)

Niacin (mg) 5 6 136.6 (8.97) 160.7 (24.29) 153.2 (19.81) 125.4 (12.87)

Thiamin (mg) 0.4 0.5 153.2 (10.50) 177.5 (27.91) 173.6 (23.61) 140.7 (13.88)

Riboflavin (mg) 0.4 0.5 173.9 (11.86) 201.4 (31.67) 197.4 (26.66) 159.7 (15.76)

Phosphorus (mg) 380 405 7.9 (0.86) 9.6 (1.89) 8.8 (2.11) 7.4 (1.17)

Zinc (mg) 2.5 4.0 157.1 (12.38) 187.4 (29.08) 166.1 (29.64) 147.3 (18.76)

Copper (mg) 0.26 0.34 215.5 (22.26) 268.8 (52.13) 246.1 (52.37) 190.9 (28.71)

Selenium (mcg) 17 23 3.2 u (1.50) 0.2 u (0.22) 2.1 u (1.48) 4.7 u (2.30)

Choline (mg) 200 250 6.0 (0.62) 6.7 (1.28) 6.5 (1.28) 5.5 (0.87)

See notes at end of table. 

   
C‐7

Table C-4. Percent Contribution of Dietary Supplements to Recommended Intakes–Continued

 Dietary 

Reference 

Intakes 

(EAR/AI)

All children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Ages 1–3 

years 

Age 4 

years 

Percent

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Percent

contribution 

Standard 

error 

Multivitamin2 users 

Sample size 340 - 90 - 87 - 158 -

Vitamin C (mg) 13 22 421.7 (74.88) 396.3 (68.95) 287.6 (32.33) 483.1 (126.52)

Vitamin D (mcg) 10 10 81.5 (6.69) 95.7 (9.18) 70.2 * (5.60) 82.3 (11.16)

Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.4 0.5 327.1 (27.52) 358.6 (31.53) 298.3 (30.95) 334.5 (47.53)

Vitamin B12 (mcg) 0.7 1 653.3 (69.08) 658.4 (48.45) 569.1 (43.23) 696.9 (121.73)

Folate (mcg DFE) 120 160 325.0 (17.22) 393.8 (34.89) 351.6 (32.53) 305.2 * (24.22)

Calcium (mg) 500 800 9.9 (1.16) 9.9 (1.73) 9.9 (1.61) 9.2 (2.21)

Iron (mg) 3.0 4.1 224.2 (24.62) 309.7 (53.12) 264.0 (49.21) 184.8 * (28.54)

Potassium (mg) 3,000 3,800 0.1 u (0.07) 0.0 0.00 0.0 u (0.00) 0.2 u (0.11)

Magnesium (mg) 65 110 13.5 (1.65) 13.9 (2.34) 15.5 (2.31) 13.1 (2.39)

Niacin (mg) 5 6 146.2 (12.43) 189.4 (28.39) 167.1 (23.92) 130.2 (15.84)

Thiamin (mg) 0.4 0.5 166.2 (14.52) 213.5 (33.04) 192.7 (29.64) 148.0 (17.03)

Riboflavin (mg) 0.4 0.5 189.1 (16.55) 242.6 (37.52) 219.2 (33.43) 168.3 (19.47)

Phosphorus (mg) 380 405 9.9 (1.01) 12.9 (2.26) 11.1 (2.32) 9.0 (1.29)

Zinc (mg) 2.5 4.0 201.3 (16.16) 250.2 (33.84) 228.0 (34.96) 181.7 (20.32)

Copper (mg) 0.26 0.34 275.3 (30.35) 360.3 (62.45) 335.6 (63.43) 235.5 (34.05)

Selenium (mcg) 17 23 4.0 u (1.86) 0.4 u (0.38) 2.9 u (2.01) 5.7 u (2.83)

Choline (mg) 200 250 7.7 (0.78) 9.1 (1.53) 8.9 (1.55) 6.9 (1.02)

Source: NHANES 2007–2010 dietary recalls and Vitamin D addendum to the FNDDS 3. Sample includes NHANES 

respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Dietary Reference Intakes provided recommended 

intake levels of nutrients as EARs or AIs. AIs are shown in bold. Percents are age-adjusted to account for 

different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are 

noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC 

participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. AI = Adequate Intake; 

DFE = Dietary Folate Equivalents; EAR = Estimated Average Requirement. 

1 Intake of dietary supplements is based on the same 24-hour period as the dietary recall. Each child’s intake 

from dietary supplements was compared to appropriate Dietary Reference Intakes based on his or her age 

at the time of the recall. 2 A multivitamin is identified as a dietary supplement that contains three or more vitamins and at least one 

mineral. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 
Table C-5. Mean Daily Calorie Intakes 

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 

Distribution of Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 958 1,048 1,109 1,205 1,401 1,614 1,739 1,8 1 year olds 843 922 977 1,061 1,234 1,423 1,530 1,6 2 year olds 930 1,030 1,099 1,207 1,426 1,660 1,800 1,8 3 year olds 1,016 1,106 1,167 1,262 1,455 1,665 1,786 1,8 4 year olds 1,040 1,131 1,191 1,286 1,484 1,704 1,835 1,9WIC participants 979 1,076 1,140 1,243 1,458 1,686 1,826 1,9 1 year olds 866 948 1,003 1,089 1,269 1,464 1,580 1,6 2 year olds 976 1,086 1,156 1,267 1,501 1,756 1,905 2,0 3 year olds 1,038 1,140 1,209 1,318 1,538 1,752 1,884 1,9 4 year olds 1,034 1,125 1,190 1,294 1,518 1,767 1,926 2,0Income-eligible nonparticipants 948 1,047 1,118 1,229 1,451 1,678 1,814 1,9 1 year olds 762 867 950 1,079 1,333 1,586 1,740 1,8 2 year olds 961 1,061 1,129 1,238 1,452 1,673 1,803 1,8 3 year olds 1,063 1,155 1,219 1,316 1,509 1,703 1,817 1,8 4 year olds 1,002 1,098 1,168 1,278 1,505 1,749 1,895 1,9Higher-income nonparticipants 967 1,042 1,096 1,180 1,357 * 1,540 * 1,651 * 1,7 1 year olds 858 918 961 1,032 1,173 1,320 1,408 1,4 2 year olds 919 1,011 1,074 1,171 1,381 1,598 1,726 1,8 3 year olds 1,033 1,104 1,153 1,236 1,406 1,587 1,698 1,7 4 year olds 1,056 1,132 1,191 1,278 1,463 1,648 1,764 1,8

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Hig

 Sample 

size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sample size Mean Standard error Sam

si

Mean Usual Intake

All children, 1–4 years old 1,956 1,422 (17.2) 791 1,482 (24.3) 496 1,465 (28.0)  1 year olds 566 1,252 (28.3) 305 1,290 (26.6) 96 1,347 (70.7)  2 year olds 587 1,447 (31.7) 223 1,528 (51.9) 162 1,466 (47.6)  3 year olds 389 1,474 (44.8) 132 1,547 (57.4) 104 1,517 (47.1)  4 year olds 414 1,510 (29.5) 131 1,556 (51.1) 134 1,529 (56.6) 
Source: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 1–4 years old. D

from foods and beverages, and do not include the contribution of vitamin and mineral supplements. Usual intake was estimated 

Institute (NCI) method. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or incom

to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means, proportions, 

by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children 

WIC benefits at the time of the interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonused to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation.
Table C-6. Body Mass Index 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants 

Sample 

size Percent Standard error Sample size Percent Standard error Sample size Percent Standard error Sa

s

All children, 2–4 years old 1,307 - - 454 - - 383 - - 

Underweight 2.6 (0.52) 2.5 u (1.18) 3.4 (1.00) Healthy weight 76.5 (1.72) 74.0 (2.72) 73.8 (2.68) Overweight 12.0 (1.39) 12.4 (1.73) 13.5 (2.43) Obese 8.8 (0.93) 11.1 (1.97) 9.4 (1.34) 

Children, 2 year olds 516 - - 195 - - 147 - - 

Underweight 2.6 (0.49) 0.9 u (0.54) 4.0 u (2.06) Healthy weight 75.3 (2.34) 77.8 (3.24) 70.9 (5.37) Overweight 15.0 (2.10) 13.2 (2.37) 15.2 (4.19) Obese 7.1 (1.38) 8.0 (2.17) 9.9 u (3.50) 

Children, 3 year olds 381 - - 129 - - 104 - - 

Underweight 2.5 u (0.86) 4.9 u (2.88) 3.1 u (1.77) Healthy weight 77.8 (3.34) 74.2 (5.83) 73.0 (4.44) Overweight 11.4 (2.66) 12.6 (3.16) 15.8 u (5.03) Obese 8.3 (1.64) 8.2 u (3.25) 8.1 u (2.54) 

Children, 4 year olds 410 - - 130 - - 132 - - 

Underweight 2.8 u (1.05) 1.7 u (1.18) 3.0 u (1.68) Healthy weight 76.4 (3.44) 69.8 (5.86) 77.4 (4.53) Overweight 9.7 (2.02) 11.4 u (3.62) 9.5 u (3.87) Obese 11.1 (2.11) 17.1 (4.84) 10.1 (2.41) 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 body measures data. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data and heig

2–4 years old. 

Notes: ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. For children, weight categories are defined as: underw

the 5th percentile on the CDC BMI-for-age growth chart; healthy weight if BMI-for-age is >= 5th and < the 85th percentiles; ove

than the 85th and < the 95th percentiles; and obese if BMI-for-age is >= the 95th percentile. Percents for all children 2–4 years 

account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in percentages are noted 

level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefit

interview. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 

 - Not applicable. 
Table C-7. Consumption of Empty Calories 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants Hig

Sample 

size

Mean 

percent of 

calories 

Standard 

error 

Sample 

size 

Mean 

percent of 

calories 

Standard 

error 

Sample 

size 

Mean 

percent of 

calories 

Standard 

error 

Sam

siz

Children, 2–4 years old 1,390 32.8 (0.34) 486 32.4 (0.49) 400 34.5 * (0.65) 45 2 year olds 587 32.3 (0.39) 223 32.0 (0.64) 162 33.3 (0.86) 18 3 year olds 389 32.1 (0.83) 132 31.3 (0.93) 104 36.2 *** (0.82) 13 4 year olds 414 33.9 (0.76) 131 33.9 (1.00) 134 33.9 (1.17) 13

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit Database; CNPP Add

Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 2–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or inco

age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in means 

** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC 

interview. 

 1 Calories from solid fats and added sugars (SoFAS) are identified from the data sources listed above. 
C‐12

Table C-8. Percent of Young Children Consuming WIC Foods 

Sources: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Percentages are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC 

participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 

level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children 

receiving WIC at the time of the interview. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

- Not applicable. 

   

All young children WIC children Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error

Percent of young children consuming at least once per day 

Sample size 1,956 -- 791 -- 496 -- 606 -- 

WIC foods 

 Any WIC food 94.9 (0.94) 95.5 (0.88) 93.4 (2.05) 95.5 (1.32) 

 Milk 83.2 (1.39) 87.2 (1.55) 77.6 * (3.50) 83.0 (1.94) 

 Cheese 35.3 (1.75) 33.3 (3.05) 33.2 (3.81) 39.2 (3.72) 

 Eggs 20.0 (1.48) 25.8 (2.69) 24.5 (3.15) 14.6 *** (1.75) 

 Juice 23.5 (1.38) 30.6 (2.10) 19.0 *** (2.36) 20.1 *** (1.67) 

 Peanut butter 12.4 (1.08) 10.4 (1.87) 12.2 (2.04) 14.1 (1.90) 

 Beans 9.7 (1.03) 15.8 (1.96) 8.2 ** (1.78) 6.7 *** (1.34) 

 Cereal 21.3 (1.48) 27.7 (3.42) 15.7 * (3.40) 20.8 (2.04) 
C‐13

Table C-9. Food Choices 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard error Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error 

Sample size 1,956 - 791 - 496 - 606 - 

Grains 90.4 (1.1) 87.4 (1.6) 88.3 (2.6) 93.2 ** (1.4) 

 Types of grains, among those eating any

 Whole grains1 40.2 (2.1) 33.2 (2.6) 35.4 (3.2) 46.6 *** (3.1) 

 Refined grains 88.1 (1.2) 90.0 (2.0) 91.0 (1.8) 85.4 (1.5) 

 Bread 23.8 (1.5) 25.5 (1.9) 30.5 (3.4) 19.7 * (2.2) 

 Rolls 3.9 (0.7) 3.8 (1.1) 3.3 (1.0) 4.0 (1.2) 

 English muffin 0.4 u (0.3) 0.1 u (0.1) 0.0 (0.0) 0.8 u (0.6) 

 Bagels 2.5 (0.7) 0.7 u (0.3) 2.3 u (1.2) 3.6 * u (1.2) 

 Biscuits, scones, croissants 4.1 (0.8) 5.3 u (2.2) 7.4 (2.1) 2.8 u (0.9) 

 Muffins 2.1 (0.5) 1.7 u (0.9) 1.9 u (1.3) 2.4 u (0.8) 

 Cornbread 0.8 (0.2) 1.0 u (0.5) 0.8 u (0.4) 0.7 u (0.3) 

 Corn tortillas 4.3 (0.7) 10.2 (1.7) 5.2 * (1.2) 0.6 *** (0.3) 

 Flour tortillas 1.4 (0.4) 1.9 u (0.9) 0.9 u (0.5) 1.4 u (0.9) 

 Taco shells 0.5 u (0.2) 0.2 u (0.1) 0.4 u (0.3) 0.7 u (0.3) 

 Crackers 31.2 (1.8) 26.5 (2.5) 26.7 (2.9) 35.3 * (3.0) 

 Breakfast/granola bar 5.1 (0.7) 1.6 u (0.6) 1.8 u (0.7) 8.5 *** (1.2) 

 Pancakes, waffles, French toast 17.5 (1.3) 10.2 (1.6) 15.7 * (2.0) 23.0 *** (2.4) 

 Cold cereal 55.2 (1.9) 63.9 (2.7) 53.7 * (4.0) 52.2 ** (2.5) 

 Hot cereal 11.5 (0.8) 11.7 (1.7) 11.4 (2.0) 11.2 (1.5) 

 Rice 12.3 (1.7) 13.3 (2.1) 11.1 (2.4) 12.1 (2.5) 

 Pasta 3.8 (0.8) 2.0 (0.5) 1.8 (0.5) 4.8 * (1.2) 

Vegetables 64.4 (1.82) 58.9 (2.51) 62.5 (3.31) 68.2 * (3.32)

Types of vegetables, among those eating any

 Raw vegetables 21.2 (1.97) 14.4 (2.43) 15.7 (2.30) 24.7 ** (3.03)

 Raw lettuce/greens 1.5 u (0.74) 1.2 u (0.50) 1.7 u (1.05) 1.1 u (1.00)

 Raw carrots 7.1 (1.45) 2.0 u (0.65) 5.5 * (1.63) 9.4 ** (2.31)

 Raw tomatoes 2.4 (0.52) 1.4 u (0.51) 2.3 u (0.95) 2.7 u (0.94)

 Raw cabbage/coleslaw 0.6 u (0.26) 0.6 u (0.34) 0.5 u (0.39) 0.7 u (0.45)

 Other raw (higher in vitamins A or C)2 1.3 u (0.48) 0.4 u (0.28) 0.1 u (0.08) 2.1 u (0.93)

 Other raw (lower in vitamins A or C) 2 3.7 (0.75) 2.2 (0.63) 4.5 (1.19) 4.4 (1.27)

 Salads (w/greens) 8.0 (1.17) 8.9 (2.08) 4.8 (0.82) 8.2 (1.57)

 Cooked vegetables, excl. potatoes 63.3 (2.50) 63.3 (3.09) 61.4 (4.65) 64.7 (3.51)

 Cooked green beans 14.8 (1.38) 17.6 (1.74) 15.1 (3.91) 13.3 (2.14)

 Cooked corn 11.8 (1.23) 12.1 (2.47) 15.5 (3.41) 10.3 (1.60)

 Cooked peas 4.3 (0.81) 3.1 u (1.01) 4.4 u (1.76) 4.5 (1.01)

 Cooked carrots 8.9 (1.89) 4.8 u (1.60) 7.6 u (2.85) 10.3 (2.79)

 Cooked broccoli 7.5 (1.75) 3.4 u (1.15) 3.7 u (1.45) 11.2 * u (3.42)

 Cooked tomatoes 22.9 (1.31) 24.6 (2.98) 23.0 (3.02) 23.1 (1.96)

 Cooked mixed 4.3 (0.74) 3.8 u (1.46) 4.2 u (1.93) 4.5 (1.27)

 Cooked starchy 1.1 u (0.67) 1.0 u (0.50) 0.3 u (0.29) 1.7 u (1.32)

 Other cooked deep yellow 1.5 u (0.46) 2.3 u (1.13) 0.9 u (0.58) 1.2 u (0.88)

 Other cooked dark green 2.2 u (0.74) 3.1 u (1.13) 3.2 u (1.71) 1.5 u (1.11)

 Other cooked (higher in vitamins A or C) 2 4.3 (1.09) 4.0 u (1.45) 2.7 u (1.11) 4.5 u (1.71)

 Other cooked (lower in vitamins A or C) 2 4.4 u (1.47) 1.6 u (0.79) 0.4 u (0.27) 7.2 * u (2.40)

 Other fried 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 

 Cooked potatoes 53.5 (2.61) 63.4 (4.79) 57.1 (3.59) 47.7 ** (3.05)

 Cooked potatoes-not fried 20.3 (2.41) 28.6 (4.40) 27.5 (4.01) 13.7 ** (2.21)

 Cooked potatoes-fried 35.7 (2.12) 36.7 (3.85) 36.4 (3.90) 35.6 (2.95)

 Vegetable juice 0.7 u (0.27) 0.6 u (0.44) 0.5 u (0.41) 0.9 u (0.40)

See notes at end of table. 
C‐14

Table C-9. Food Choices–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard error Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error 

Fruit and 100% fruit juice 81.3 (1.5) 82.9 (2.0) 75.8 (3.4) 83.0 (2.1) 

Types of fruit, among those eating any 

 Any whole fruit 77.1 (1.7) 70.5 (2.3) 80.4 ** (2.6) 79.5 * (2.7)

Fresh fruit 64.0 (2.1) 64.2 (2.6) 60.9 (3.2) 64.4 (3.7)

Fresh orange 9.6 (1.0) 12.3 (2.3) 8.4 (1.9) 9.2 (1.8)

Fresh other citrus 0.2 u (0.10) 0.3 u (0.24) 0.1 u (0.05) 0.1 u (0.14)

Fresh apple 23.1 (2.0) 22.0 (3.2) 26.1 (3.1) 21.0 (3.1)

Fresh banana 26.1 (1.6) 29.6 (2.8) 20.0 * (3.3) 26.5 (2.7)

Fresh melon 3.0 u (1.0) 1.3 u (0.7) 2.2 u (0.9) 4.4 u (1.9)

Fresh watermelon 4.9 (1.2) 2.7 u (0.9) 3.1 u (1.1) 7.4 * (2.0)

Fresh grapes 13.5 (1.4) 11.4 (1.8) 9.9 (1.8) 15.8 (2.4)

Fresh peach/nectarine 3.1 (0.7) 2.1 u (0.8) 5.6 ** (1.1) 2.4 u (1.1)

Fresh pear 4.1 u (1.3) 1.9 u (0.9) 3.2 u (1.8) 5.8 u (2.3)

Fresh berries 7.3 (1.3) 6.1 (1.2) 4.0 (1.2) 9.6 (2.5)

Fresh pineapple 0.9 u (0.3) 0.2 u (0.2) 2.4 u (1.2) 0.5 u (0.4)

Other fresh fruit 4.1 (0.7) 4.1 (0.8) 3.6 u (1.2) 3.8 (1.1)

Avocado/guacamole 0.2 u (0.1) 0.3 u (0.3) 0.5 u (0.4) 0.1 u (0.1)

Lemon/lime - any form 0.1 u (0.06) 0.0 u (0.04) 0.2 u (0.23) 0.1 u (0.07)

 Canned or frozen fruit, total 21.9 (1.8) 12.1 (1.6) 26.5 *** (3.3) 25.1 *** (2.7)

Canned or frozen in syrup 2.5 (0.7) 1.2 u (0.4) 4.5 * u (1.5) 2.8 u (1.3)

Canned or frozen, no syrup 19.5 (1.4) 11.1 (1.6) 22.6 ** (3.6) 22.4 *** (2.3)

Applesauce, canned/ frozen apples 8.0 (1.0) 5.8 (1.3) 9.5 (2.5) 8.7 (1.6) 

Canned/frozen peaches 5.8 (1.5) 2.6 u (0.8) 8.3 ** (2.1) 6.4 u (2.2)

Canned/frozen pineapple 1.3 (0.4) 0.3 u (0.1) 2.5 u (1.4) 1.2 u (0.5)

Other canned/frozen 10.6 (1.5) 4.5 (1.0) 13.9 * (3.7) 13.5 *** (2.4)

100% Fruit juice 68.3 (2.1) 80.1 (2.3) 61.7 *** (3.9) 63.7 *** (2.8)

Non-citrus juice 54.0 (2.0) 64.2 (2.1) 48.1 *** (3.6) 49.9 *** (3.5)

Citrus juice 19.2 (1.5) 21.1 (1.8) 18.4 (3.0) 17.8 (2.2)

Dried fruit 4.4 (0.7) 0.7 u (0.2) 4.0 ** (1.2) 6.3 *** (1.1)

Milk and milk products 90.0 (1.1) 90.9 (1.4) 86.2 (3.4) 91.6 (1.6)

Types of milk, among those eating any

Cow’s milk, total 92.2 (1.0) 95.9 (1.0) 89.4 ** (2.0) 90.5 ** (1.8)

Unflavored white milk, total 89.4 (1.0) 94.5 (0.9) 86.5 ** (2.4) 87.0 *** (1.9)

Unflavored whole milk 44.9 (2.1) 56.1 (3.6) 41.2 ** (4.3) 40.7 *** (2.9)

Unflavored non-whole, total 46.5 (1.7) 39.2 (3.2) 45.8 (3.5) 49.9 ** (2.4)

2% milk, unflavored 35.5 (2.0) 33.5 (2.8) 37.9 (3.5) 36.6 (3.0)

1% milk, unflavored 7.0 (1.0) 5.3 (1.5) 5.7 (1.5) 7.2 (1.4)

Skim milk, unflavored 5.2 (1.2) 1.2 u (0.5) 2.4 u (0.8) 8.3 ** (2.2)

 Unflavored, fat not specified 2.3 (0.6) 2.5 u (1.2) 3.4 u (1.4) 1.7 u (0.7)

 Flavored milk, total 8.0 (1.1) 4.6 (1.0) 8.7 (2.4) 9.5 * (2.3)

 Flavored, whole milk 1.8 (0.4) 1.0 u (0.5) 3.1 u (1.3) 1.7 u (0.7)

 Flavored non-whole, total 4.9 (0.9) 3.5 (0.8) 3.2 u (1.3) 6.4 (1.9)

 2% milk, flavored 3.4 (0.9) 1.8 u (0.9) 2.2 u (1.1) 4.9 u (1.7)

 1% milk, flavored 1.5 u (0.5) 1.4 u (0.8) 0.8 u (0.4) 2.1 u (1.0)

 Skim milk, flavored 0.2 u (0.1) 0.2 u (0.2) 0.3 u (0.3) 0.0 (0.0)

 Flavored, fat not specified 1.4 (0.6) 0.1 u (0.1) 2.3 * u (1.1) 1.7 u (1.1)

Soymilk 2.8 (0.5) 0.8 u (0.3) 1.9 u (0.9) 4.6 *** (1.0)

Dry or evaporated milk 0.3 u (0.1) 0.0 u (0.0) 0.7 u (0.4) 0.2 u (0.1)

Yogurt 16.6 (1.5) 12.2 (1.8) 9.2 (2.2) 20.2 ** (1.9)

Cheese 29.7 (1.4) 26.3 (2.9) 21.7 (2.7) 35.9 * (2.8)

See notes at end of table. 

 
C‐15

Table C-9. Food Choices–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard error Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error 

Meat and meat alternates 66.4 (1.7) 70.5 (2.5) 64.1 (3.8) 65.9 (2.6)

Types of meat, among those eating any

Beef 12.5 (1.5) 8.9 (1.5) 15.3 (3.8) 13.5 (2.1)

Ground beef 3.4 (0.7) 2.4 u (0.8) 3.3 u (1.1) 4.2 u (1.4)

Pork 6.5 (0.9) 8.9 (1.7) 4.1 * u (1.7) 6.1 u (2.0)

Ham 2.5 (0.7) 3.5 u (2.0) 2.6 u (1.4) 1.9 u (0.8)

Lamb and misc. meats 0.2 u (0.1) 0.6 u (0.4) -0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0)

Chicken 43.3 (2.6) 40.8 (2.4) 41.4 (4.5) 46.7 (3.9)

Turkey 1.7 (0.5) 2.6 u (1.3) 2.9 u (1.3) 0.7 u (0.4)

Organ meats 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 u (0.0) -0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0)

Hot dogs 8.5 (1.1) 7.9 (1.8) 4.2 u (1.3) 10.8 (2.1)

Cold cuts 9.3 (1.4) 8.2 (2.0) 8.1 u (2.7) 11.2 (2.7)

Fish 5.8 (1.1) 3.5 (1.1) 5.2 (1.2) 7.0 u (2.2)

Shellfish 1.6 (0.4) 1.4 u (0.5) 3.3 u (1.5) 0.9 u (0.4)

Bacon/sausage 14.1 (1.5) 14.3 (2.3) 15.5 (2.5) 13.9 (1.9)

Eggs 26.5 (2.2) 31.6 (3.2) 34.3 (4.0) 19.1 ** (3.0)

Beans 5.5 (0.8) 10.9 (1.7) 4.2 ** u (1.4) 3.2 *** (0.9)

Baked/refried beans 2.1 (0.5) 2.2 u (0.7) 0.4 * u (0.4) 2.8 u (1.0)

Soy products 1.8 u (0.6) 0.5 u (0.5) 1.6 u (1.5) 2.2 * (0.6)

Protein/meal enhancement 1.1 u (0.5) 0.8 u (0.6) 0.3 u (0.3) 1.7 u (0.8)

Nuts 4.3 (0.7) 4.3 u (1.4) 2.3 u (1.0) 4.8 (1.3)

Peanut/almond butter 2.8 (0.6) 3.1 u (1.6) 3.1 u (1.1) 2.6 u (1.0)

Seeds 0.9 u (0.4) 0.7 u (0.5) 0.1 u (0.1) 1.2 u (0.8)

Mixed dishes 84.8 (1.2) 89.6 (1.5) 85.1 (2.2) 82.3 ** (2.3)

Types of mixed dishes, among those eating any

Tomato sauce and meat (no pasta) 0.2 u (0.1) 0.1 u (0.1) 0.5 u (0.3) 0.1 (0.0)

Chili con carne 1.1 u (0.5) 0.6 u (0.3) 0.8 u (0.5) 1.6 u (0.9)

Meat mixtures w/ red meat 8.8 (1.1) 9.0 (1.7) 10.5 (2.5) 8.4 (2.2)

Meat mixtures w/ chicken/turkey 12.2 (1.2) 11.6 (2.0) 14.2 (2.6) 12.0 (2.1)

Meat mixtures w/ fish 1.1 (0.3) 1.3 u (1.0) 1.7 u (0.6) 0.8 u (0.4)

Hamburgers/cheeseburgers 8.1 (1.2) 6.2 (1.6) 9.9 (1.9) 8.5 (2.4)

Other sandwiches 40.6 (1.5) 35.0 (2.7) 43.5 (3.6) 43.9 * (3.1)

Hot dogs 8.3 (1.0) 6.2 (1.2) 9.9 (2.0) 9.6 (1.6)

Luncheon meat 9.9 (1.1) 9.9 (1.6) 13.9 (2.3) 8.1 (1.5)

Beef, pork, ham 3.2 (0.8) 2.9 u (1.1) 1.3 u (0.7) 4.1 u (1.7)

Chicken, turkey 1.5 (0.4) 1.9 u (0.6) 0.8 u (0.5) 1.2 u (0.5)

Cheese (no meat) 5.9 (1.0) 4.0 (1.0) 6.1 (1.8) 7.5 (1.7)

Fish 1.1 u (0.5) 1.2 u (0.5) 1.2 u (0.7) 1.1 u (0.6)

Peanut butter 12.8 (1.3) 9.1 (1.9) 12.6 (2.4) 15.3 * (2.3)

Breakfast sandwiches 1.8 u (0.6) 2.4 u (1.5) 2.2 u (1.6) 1.3 u (0.5)

 Pizza (no meat) 7.3 (1.3) 4.1 (0.9) 7.1 (2.1) 7.9 (2.0)

 Pizza w/ meat 8.7 (1.1) 6.9 (1.1) 13.9 * (2.6) 8.3 (1.6)

 Mexican entrees 11.3 (1.5) 13.8 (2.2) 10.2 (2.5) 9.8 (1.8)

 Macaroni and cheese 15.5 (1.5) 12.9 (2.5) 17.6 (3.1) 16.2 (2.2)

 Pasta dishes 21.1 (1.4) 19.6 (2.5) 14.8 (2.7) 24.4 (3.1)

 Rice dishes 8.4 (1.1) 12.2 (2.2) 5.4 * u (1.7) 7.9 (2.0)

 Other grain mixtures 2.4 (0.4) 3.7 u (1.2) 2.5 u (1.4) 1.8 (0.4)

 Meat soup 8.8 (1.2) 11.2 (1.9) 12.4 (2.1) 4.4 ** (1.1)

 Bean soup 0.6 u (0.2) 0.4 u (0.2) 1.1 u (0.8) 0.8 u (0.4)

 Grain soups 5.8 (0.7) 9.2 (1.3) 8.8 (2.1) 2.0 *** (0.7)

 Vegetables mixtures (incl. soup) 7.6 (1.7) 4.3 (0.8) 5.9 u (2.3) 11.0 * (2.9)

Entrée salads 0.6 u (0.2) 0.3 u (0.2) 0.3 u (0.2) 1.0 u (0.4)

See notes at end of table.
C‐16

Table C-9. Food Choices–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard error Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error 

Beverages excluding milk and 92.0 (0.9) 92.1 (0.7) 92.4 (1.9) 91.6 (1.6) 

100% fruit juice 

Types of beverages, among those drinking any 

Coffee 0.9 (0.2) 2.1 (0.6) 1.0 u (0.4) 0.3 ** u (0.2)

Tea 8.7 (1.2) 10.2 (1.7) 10.2 (2.7) 5.5 * (1.2)

Beer 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0)

Wine 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0)

Liquor 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0)

Water (plain) 79.3 (1.2) 72.2 (2.8) 78.3 (2.4) 83.9 *** (2.1)

Noncarbonated, sweetened drinks 44.3 (1.8) 49.9 (2.5) 53.1 (2.9) 37.3 ** (2.9) 

Noncarbonated, low-calorie/sugar-free 

drinks 6.8 (1.0) 7.7 (2.0) 7.1 u (2.2) 6.0 (1.3) 

Energy drinks 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0) 0.0 (0.0)

Any soda 25.9 (1.7) 31.6 (2.8) 25.6 (2.3) 22.8 * (2.7)

Soda, regular 22.8 (1.8) 29.0 (2.6) 22.7 (1.9) 19.3 * (2.7)

Soda, sugar-free 3.5 (0.5) 3.5 (1.0) 2.9 u (1.6) 4.0 (0.8)

Sweets and desserts 81.5 (1.3) 80.8 (2.0) 80.8 (3.2) 81.7 (2.0)

Types of sweets and desserts, among those eating any

Sugar and sugar substitutes 6.8 (0.8) 10.2 (1.7) 8.2 (1.6) 4.2 ** (1.0)

Syrups/sweet toppings 18.4 (1.6) 12.6 (2.0) 20.0 ** (2.0) 21.5 ** (2.6)

Jelly 3.5 (0.7) 3.2 (0.7) 4.3 u (1.6) 3.3 (0.9)

Jello 3.4 (0.8) 1.5 (0.5) 5.3 u (2.1) 4.3 * u (1.3)

Candy 41.2 (1.7) 38.0 (3.1) 39.6 (3.6) 44.3 (3.1)

Ice cream 22.1 (1.6) 19.7 (2.3) 23.7 (2.3) 21.2 (2.8)

Pudding 3.4 (0.5) 2.5 u (0.9) 3.2 u (1.4) 3.9 (0.9)

Ice/popsicles 11.0 (1.3) 13.0 (2.3) 9.2 (1.4) 11.6 (2.5)

 Sweet rolls 3.2 (0.5) 4.5 (1.2) 3.9 (1.1) 2.1 u (0.7)

 Cake/cupcakes 9.5 (0.9) 10.5 (2.0) 9.3 (1.4) 8.3 (1.4)

Cookies 46.1 (2.1) 46.7 (1.8) 47.4 (3.6) 46.5 (3.5)

Pies/cobblers 1.0 (0.3) 0.6 u (0.4) 1.2 u (0.5) 1.1 u (0.5)

Pastries 5.5 (1.3) 4.4 u (1.8) 4.0 u (1.3) 6.7 u (2.2)

Doughnuts 3.4 (0.7) 3.4 (0.8) 2.8 u (1.0) 3.9 (1.0)

Salty Snacks 41.9 (1.9) 44.2 (3.0) 37.7 (2.7) 42.4 (3.0)

Types of salty snacks, among those eating any

Corn-based salty snacks 39.0 (2.7) 41.3 (3.7) 40.8 (5.2) 38.7 (4.6)

 Pretzels/party mix 17.7 (2.3) 10.7 (2.4) 15.9 (2.7) 23.2 ** (4.1)

 Popcorn 21.6 (2.2) 22.4 (3.6) 18.4 (3.7) 21.0 (3.9)

 Potato chips 36.2 (2.7) 38.8 (4.0) 41.7 (4.5) 29.1 (4.6)

Added Fats and Oils 24.5 (1.7) 18.9 (2.2) 26.1 * (2.6) 26.3 (3.4)

Types of added fats/oils among those eating any

Butter 36.4 (3.5) 38.6 (4.7) 40.0 (5.9) 36.7 (5.0)

Margarine 31.4 (3.9) 25.8 (4.5) 34.1 (6.0) 31.5 (6.0)

Other added fats 2.5 u (0.8) 2.8 u (1.6) 6.7 u (2.9) 1.0 u (1.0)

 Other added oils 0.5 u (0.3) 0.7 u (0.7) 0.0 (0.0) 0.7 u (0.6)

 Salad dressing 15.4 (2.8) 7.5 u (2.9) 10.2 (2.4) 19.1 * (3.6)

 Mayonnaise 2.0 u (0.6) 4.5 u (2.3) 1.7 u (1.3) 0.7 u (0.7)

 Gravy 12.1 (2.5) 18.3 (3.8) 10.7 u (3.6) 8.6 u (3.4)

 Cream cheese 6.1 (1.6) 1.4 u (1.0) 2.3 u (1.5) 10.4 ** (2.9)

 Cream/sour cream 8.5 (1.7) 13.6 u (4.4) 5.3 u (2.5) 8.4 (2.0)

Other 5.4 (0.80) 3.6 (0.97) 3.2 u (1.03) 7.7 * (1.65)

Sources: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 1–4 years old. 
C‐17

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Foods consumed from the vegetables, fruits, 

grains, and meat/meat alternate food groups reflect foods consumed as discrete items and do not include 

foods consumed as part of mixed dishes. Food choices reflect individual foods consumed except when 

foods were reported to be eaten in ‘combination’ as sandwiches, Mexican entrees, green salads, and 

soups. In these cases, the foods reported in combination are counted as one food choice (for example, a 

sandwich reported as a beef, cheese, and roll was counted in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” group as one 

food choice). ‘All children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Percentages are 

age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant 

differences in proportions are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested 

in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

1 Grains are classified as whole grains if at least 50 percent of the total grains are whole grain. The 

MyPyramid data sources listed above were used to classify grains. 2 "Other raw" and "Other cooked" vegetables include all vegetables not categorized separately. Within 

these two groups, vegetables in the top quartile of the distribution of Vitamins A or C per 100 grams were 

categorized as "higher in nutrients"; all others are "lower in nutrients." Raw vegetables higher in nutrients 

include broccoli, peppers (sweet and hot), snow peas, seaweed, and leeks. Raw vegetables that are low 

in nutrients include onions, cucumbers, celery, radishes, mushrooms, asparagus, squash, and green 

peas. Cooked vegetables higher in nutrients include cabbage, peppers, asparagus, cauliflower, Brussels 

sprouts, and snow peas. Cooked vegetables that are lower in nutrients include squash, artichokes, 

onions, mushrooms, eggplant, beets, and yellow string beans. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

- Not applicable. 

   
C‐18

Table C-10. Average Amounts Consumed in Food Pattern Units among All Young Children, by 

Food Group and Subgroup 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Sample size 1,956 - 791 - 496 - 606 - 

Grains (ounce eq.) 1.669 (0.0637) 1.635 (0.0664) 1.771 (0.1066) 1.645 (0.0952) 

 Whole grains1 0.365 (0.0280) 0.301 (0.0330) 0.342 (0.0485) 0.402 * (0.0351) 

 Refined grains 1.305 (0.0554) 1.335 (0.0653) 1.429 (0.0882) 1.243 (0.0832) 

 Bread 0.271 (0.0219) 0.290 (0.0334) 0.383 (0.0652) 0.212 (0.0342) 

 Rolls 0.037 (0.0075) 0.043 u (0.0147) 0.041 (0.0118) 0.031 u (0.0107) 

 English muffin 0.003 u (0.0018) 0.001 u (0.0015) 0.000 0.0000 0.005 u (0.0035) 

 Bagels 0.052 (0.0157) 0.012 u (0.0057) 0.048 u (0.0266) 0.081 * u (0.0289) 

 Biscuits, scones, croissants 0.047 (0.0117) 0.072 u (0.0297) 0.076 u (0.0231) 0.024 u (0.0089) 

 Muffins 0.027 u (0.0091) 0.030 u (0.0168) 0.030 u (0.0240) 0.025 u (0.0121) 

 Cornbread 0.012 u (0.0050) 0.025 u (0.0193) 0.004 u (0.0027) 0.009 u (0.0053) 

 Corn tortillas 0.047 (0.0091) 0.117 (0.0274) 0.051 * (0.0150) 0.006 *** u (0.0036) 

 Flour tortillas 0.020 u (0.0105) 0.019 u (0.0098) 0.009 u (0.0058) 0.026 u (0.0239) 

 Taco shells 0.004 u (0.0016) 0.002 u (0.0011) 0.006 u (0.0055) 0.005 u (0.0019) 

 Crackers 0.262 (0.0235) 0.213 (0.0264) 0.217 (0.0358) 0.294 (0.0410) 

 Breakfast/granola bar 0.028 (0.0047) 0.007 u (0.0033) 0.014 u (0.0060) 0.045 *** (0.0081) 

 Pancakes, waffles, French toast 0.202 (0.0172) 0.116 (0.0195) 0.211 * (0.0352) 0.249 ** (0.0371) 

 Cold cereal 0.311 (0.0166) 0.372 (0.0276) 0.336 (0.0331) 0.272 ** (0.0213) 

 Hot cereal 0.178 (0.0200) 0.173 (0.0246) 0.188 (0.0432) 0.177 (0.0322) 

 Rice 0.131 (0.0230) 0.123 (0.0231) 0.128 u (0.0385) 0.138 (0.0382) 

 Pasta 0.039 (0.0075) 0.020 u (0.0061) 0.031 u (0.0104) 0.044 * (0.0103) 

Vegetables (cup eq.) 0.408 (0.0197) 0.368 (0.0230) 0.367 (0.0402) 0.435 (0.0335) 

 Raw vegetables 0.073 (0.0129) 0.043 (0.0093) 0.052 (0.0083) 0.096 (0.0263) 

 Raw lettuce/greens 0.002 u (0.0009) 0.002 u (0.0009) 0.001 u (0.0010) 0.001 u (0.0010) 

 Raw carrots 0.016 (0.0043) 0.004 u (0.0020) 0.011 u (0.0040) 0.023 * u (0.0082) 

 Raw tomatoes 0.004 u (0.0013) 0.003 u (0.0019) 0.005 u (0.0023) 0.004 u (0.0021) 

 Raw cabbage/coleslaw 0.003 u (0.0012) 0.002 u (0.0010) 0.005 u (0.0034) 0.002 u (0.0016) 

 Other raw (higher in vitamins A or C) 2 0.002 u (0.0009) 0.002 u (0.0017) 0.000 u (0.0003) 0.003 u (0.0017) 

 Other raw (lower in vitamins A or C) 2 0.009 (0.0022) 0.005 u (0.0024) 0.011 u (0.0042) 0.011 u (0.0035) 

 Salads (w/greens) 0.037 u (0.0112) 0.024 (0.0060) 0.019 (0.0042) 0.052 u (0.0227) 

 Cooked vegetables, excl. potatoes 0.185 (0.0161) 0.155 (0.0129) 0.162 (0.0259) 0.202 (0.0235) 

 Cooked green beans 0.039 (0.0039) 0.048 (0.0060) 0.037 (0.0093) 0.033 (0.0052) 

 Cooked corn 0.032 (0.0042) 0.035 (0.0077) 0.030 u (0.0099) 0.029 (0.0064) 

 Cooked peas 0.007 (0.0016) 0.006 u (0.0021) 0.008 u (0.0034) 0.006 u (0.0021) 

 Cooked carrots 0.021 (0.0050) 0.007 u (0.0024) 0.028 u (0.0120) 0.021 * (0.0057) 

 Cooked broccoli 0.022 (0.0054) 0.006 u (0.0027) 0.011 u (0.0054) 0.035 * u (0.0110) 

 Cooked tomatoes 0.016 (0.0016) 0.017 (0.0039) 0.013 (0.0022) 0.016 (0.0026) 

 Cooked mixed 0.010 (0.0022) 0.008 u (0.0037) 0.012 u (0.0055) 0.011 u (0.0037) 

 Cooked starchy 0.004 u (0.0031) 0.002 u (0.0012) 0.000 0.0000 0.007 u (0.0063) 

 Other cooked deep yellow 0.004 u (0.0014) 0.005 u (0.0028) 0.001 u (0.0009) 0.003 u (0.0025) 

 Other cooked dark green 0.005 u (0.0019) 0.008 u (0.0038) 0.011 u (0.0074) 0.001 u (0.0005) 

 Other cooked (higher in vitamins A or C) 2 0.014 u (0.0066) 0.006 u (0.0023) 0.009 u (0.0042) 0.018 u (0.0131) 

 Other cooked (lower in vitamins A or C) 2 0.013 u (0.0052) 0.005 u (0.0033) 0.000 u (0.0002) 0.022 u (0.0090) 

 Other fried 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 

 Cooked potatoes 0.147 (0.0126) 0.168 (0.0196) 0.151 (0.0220) 0.134 (0.0171) 

 Cooked potatoes-not fried 0.074 (0.0129) 0.091 (0.0177) 0.088 (0.0210) 0.059 (0.0148) 

 Cooked potatoes-fried 0.073 (0.0070) 0.078 (0.0116) 0.064 (0.0093) 0.075 (0.0121) 

 Vegetable juice 0.003 u (0.0011) 0.002 u (0.0018) 0.003 u (0.0026) 0.003 u (0.0014) 

See notes at end of table. 

 
C‐19

Table C-10. Average Amounts Consumed in Food Pattern Units among All Young Children, by 

Food Group and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Fruit and 100% fruit juice (cup eq.) 1.466 (0.0433) 1.632 (0.0915) 1.292 * (0.0976) 1.456 (0.0689) 

 Any whole fruit 0.754 (0.0433) 0.686 (0.0530) 0.744 (0.0739) 0.796 (0.0757) 

Fresh fruit 0.642 (0.0417) 0.618 (0.0560) 0.616 (0.0650) 0.670 (0.0754) 

Fresh orange 0.048 (0.0047) 0.071 (0.0165) 0.050 u (0.0190) 0.034 * (0.0076) 

Fresh other citrus 0.000 u (0.0001) 0.000 u (0.0003) 0.000 u (0.0001) 0.000 u (0.0001) 

Fresh apple 0.211 (0.0233) 0.198 (0.0340) 0.247 (0.0380) 0.202 (0.0419) 

Fresh banana 0.162 (0.0140) 0.191 (0.0267) 0.123 * (0.0202) 0.162 (0.0226) 

Fresh melon 0.015 u (0.0051) 0.008 u (0.0068) 0.008 u (0.0035) 0.024 u (0.0096) 

Fresh watermelon 0.059 u (0.0190) 0.027 (0.0065) 0.045 u (0.0208) 0.088 u (0.0306) 

Fresh grapes 0.050 (0.0054) 0.042 (0.0065) 0.041 (0.0077) 0.059 (0.0105) 

Fresh peach/nectarine 0.018 (0.0048) 0.015 u (0.0057) 0.028 (0.0083) 0.014 u (0.0079) 

Fresh pear 0.025 u (0.0076) 0.013 u (0.0073) 0.035 u (0.0213) 0.030 u (0.0119) 

Fresh berries 0.027 (0.0056) 0.026 u (0.0081) 0.011 u (0.0037) 0.036 (0.0105) 

Fresh pineapple 0.003 u (0.0010) 0.001 u (0.0010) 0.007 u (0.0039) 0.001 u (0.0006) 

Other fresh fruit 0.022 (0.0046) 0.023 (0.0059) 0.021 u (0.0077) 0.021 u (0.0079) 

Avocado/guacamole 0.001 u (0.0004) 0.000 u (0.0001) 0.002 u (0.0014) 0.000 u (0.0004) 

Lemon/lime - any form 0.000 u (0.0000) 0.000 u (0.0000) 0.000 u (0.0001) 0.000 u (0.0001) 

 Canned or frozen fruit, total 0.093 (0.0088) 0.067 (0.0103) 0.110 (0.0227) 0.097 * (0.0104) 

Canned or frozen in syrup 0.009 (0.0025) 0.005 u (0.0022) 0.012 u (0.0047) 0.010 u (0.0046) 

Canned or frozen, no syrup 0.084 (0.0078) 0.062 (0.0103) 0.098 (0.0230) 0.087 (0.0090) 

Applesauce, canned/ frozen apples 0.029 (0.0044) 0.031 (0.0089) 0.029 u (0.0090) 0.029 (0.0061) 

Canned/frozen peaches 0.019 (0.0053) 0.009 u (0.0026) 0.027 ** (0.0065) 0.015 u (0.0045) 

Canned/frozen pineapple 0.004 u (0.0016) 0.001 u (0.0007) 0.004 u (0.0033) 0.006 u (0.0026) 

Other canned/frozen 0.041 (0.0050) 0.026 (0.0058) 0.050 u (0.0151) 0.047 * (0.0079) 

100% Fruit juice 0.712 (0.0401) 0.946 (0.0697) 0.548 *** (0.0545) 0.660 ** (0.0545) 

Non-citrus juice 0.582 (0.0345) 0.784 (0.0704) 0.429 *** (0.0456) 0.546 ** (0.0438) 

Citrus juice 0.130 (0.0130) 0.162 (0.0183) 0.119 (0.0251) 0.114 (0.0171) 

Dried fruit 0.019 (0.0033) 0.002 u (0.0006) 0.018 * u (0.0073) 0.029 *** (0.0057) 

Milk and milk products (cup eq.) 1.916 (0.0656) 2.082 (0.0898) 1.538 *** (0.1087) 2.022 (0.0779) 

Cow’s milk, total 1.606 (0.0584) 1.826 (0.0881) 1.344 *** (0.0998) 1.630 (0.0725) 

Unflavored white milk, total 1.516 (0.0542) 1.768 (0.0864) 1.245 *** (0.0838) 1.521 * (0.0686) 

Unflavored whole milk 0.819 (0.0410) 1.143 (0.0756) 0.573 *** (0.0752) 0.761 *** (0.0683) 

Unflavored non-whole, total 0.673 (0.0499) 0.594 (0.0559) 0.643 (0.0860) 0.743 (0.0793) 

2% milk, unflavored 0.473 (0.0403) 0.477 (0.0513) 0.519 (0.0738) 0.474 (0.0547) 

1% milk, unflavored 0.107 (0.0190) 0.089 u (0.0322) 0.073 u (0.0224) 0.115 u (0.0345) 

Skim milk, unflavored 0.093 u (0.0325) 0.028 u (0.0148) 0.051 u (0.0259) 0.154 u (0.0643) 

 Unflavored, fat not specified 0.023 (0.0067) 0.031 u (0.0176) 0.029 u (0.0117) 0.017 u (0.0069) 

 Flavored milk, total 0.090 (0.0148) 0.058 u (0.0185) 0.099 u (0.0322) 0.109 (0.0273) 

 Flavored, whole milk 0.021 u (0.0065) 0.007 u (0.0035) 0.038 u (0.0166) 0.023 u (0.0117) 

 Flavored non-whole, total 0.054 (0.0117) 0.050 u (0.0183) 0.045 u (0.0211) 0.062 u (0.0191) 

 2% milk, flavored 0.033 (0.0086) 0.029 u (0.0181) 0.026 u (0.0147) 0.039 u (0.0129) 

 1% milk, flavored 0.020 u (0.0070) 0.020 u (0.0126) 0.017 u (0.0128) 0.023 u (0.0120) 

 Skim milk, flavored 0.001 u (0.0008) 0.001 u (0.0011) 0.002 u (0.0015) 0.000 (0.0000) 

 Flavored, fat not specified 0.015 u (0.0087) 0.000 u (0.0003) 0.017 u (0.0086) 0.024 u (0.0175) 

Soymilk 0.033 (0.0073) 0.014 u (0.0087) 0.016 u (0.0092) 0.055 * (0.0138) 

Dry or evaporated milk 0.004 u (0.0019) 0.004 u (0.0040) 0.011 u (0.0072) 0.001 u (0.0010) 

Yogurt 0.085 (0.0072) 0.076 (0.0098) 0.043 * (0.0108) 0.097 (0.0097) 

Cheese 0.188 (0.0158) 0.162 (0.0243) 0.124 (0.0258) 0.239 * (0.0282) 

See notes at end of table. 

 
C‐20

Table C-10. Average Amounts Consumed in Food Pattern Units among All Young Children, by 

Food Group and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standar

d error 

Meat and meat alternates (oz. eq.) 1.477 (0.0629) 1.602 (0.0873) 1.658 (0.1334) 1.339 * (0.0895)

Beef 0.136 (0.0201) 0.092 (0.0171) 0.214 u (0.0705) 0.128 (0.0276)

Ground beef 0.042 (0.0118) 0.037 u (0.0140) 0.023 u (0.0092) 0.056 u (0.0231)

Pork 0.059 (0.0112) 0.089 (0.0180) 0.032 * u (0.0170) 0.053 u (0.0211)

Ham 0.025 u (0.0135) 0.053 u (0.0458) 0.024 u (0.0136) 0.013 u (0.0076)

Lamb and misc. meats 0.003 u (0.0025) 0.011 u (0.0095) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 

Chicken 0.448 (0.0353) 0.462 (0.0372) 0.501 (0.0732) 0.417 (0.0483)

Turkey 0.024 u (0.0080) 0.026 u (0.0149) 0.056 u (0.0310) 0.011 u (0.0063)

Organ meats 0.000 u (0.0001) 0.000 u (0.0004) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 

Hot dogs 0.099 (0.0133) 0.134 (0.0356) 0.045 * u (0.0144) 0.107 (0.0237)

Cold cuts 0.081 (0.0171) 0.080 u (0.0333) 0.072 u (0.0262) 0.091 (0.0226)

Fish 0.082 (0.0227) 0.037 u (0.0114) 0.082 u (0.0287) 0.109 u (0.0456)

Shellfish 0.016 (0.0048) 0.013 u (0.0068) 0.044 u (0.0209) 0.006 u (0.0025)

Bacon/sausage 0.095 (0.0126) 0.104 (0.0218) 0.124 u (0.0402) 0.081 (0.0129)

Eggs 0.240 (0.0198) 0.326 (0.0336) 0.346 (0.0560) 0.157 *** (0.0240)

Beans 0.016 (0.0037) 0.030 (0.0057) 0.022 u (0.0115) 0.006 *** u (0.0022)

Baked/refried beans 0.004 (0.0008) 0.005 u (0.0018) 0.000 ** u (0.0002) 0.004 u (0.0013)

Soy products 0.019 (0.0055) 0.004 u (0.0044) 0.016 u (0.0161) 0.025 * u (0.0076)

Protein/meal enhancement 0.000 u (0.0001) 0.000 u (0.0001) 0.000 u (0.0003) 0.000 u (0.0002)

Nuts 0.063 (0.0162) 0.070 u (0.0219) 0.041 u (0.0196) 0.053 u (0.0235)

Peanut/almond butter 0.018 u (0.0058) 0.022 u (0.0151) 0.017 u (0.0082) 0.017 u (0.0085)

Seeds 0.008 u (0.0043) 0.006 u (0.0043) 0.000 u (0.0005) 0.004 u (0.0035)

Mixed dishes (grams) 184.049 (6.0727) 196.859 (9.9602) 220.966 (13.5392) 160.456 ** (6.4439)

Tomato sauce and meat (no pasta) 0.153 u (0.0666) 0.033 u (0.0335) 0.390 u (0.2965) 0.131 u (0.0520)

Chili con carne 1.166 u (0.5095) 0.800 u (0.4866) 2.158 u (1.8194) 1.043 u (0.6706)

Meat mixtures w/ red meat 8.792 (1.2180) 11.461 (1.9446) 9.391 (2.5639) 6.771 u (2.0437)

Meat mixtures w/ chicken/turkey 13.398 (1.5965) 12.494 (1.9648) 16.294 (3.5720) 12.006 (2.7416)

Meat mixtures w/ fish 0.995 u (0.3855) 1.929 u (1.2849) 1.366 u (0.5714) 0.389 u (0.2482)

Hamburgers/cheeseburgers 6.470 (1.0257) 6.542 (1.7263) 7.718 (1.5952) 6.180 (1.7713)

Other sandwiches 33.024 (1.7741) 29.615 (3.2464) 38.039 (3.4268) 33.663 (3.7527)

Hot dogs 7.112 (0.7458) 6.083 (1.3402) 10.289 (1.7898) 6.914 (1.3314)

Luncheon meat 8.759 (1.2225) 8.851 (1.7918) 12.603 (2.4299) 7.695 (2.2162)

Beef, pork, ham 3.202 u (1.0451) 3.650 u (1.4519) 0.987 u (0.4923) 3.942 u (2.0515)

Chicken, turkey 1.227 (0.3476) 1.397 u (0.4955) 0.670 u (0.4248) 0.945 u (0.4679)

Cheese (no meat) 3.945 (0.7586) 2.641 u (0.7954) 2.872 u (0.8725) 5.128 (1.3137)

Fish 0.734 u (0.2825) 0.765 u (0.3971) 1.093 u (0.7392) 0.623 u (0.3745)

Peanut butter 6.867 (0.7651) 4.517 (1.1195) 7.825 (1.3766) 7.842 (1.4632)

Breakfast sandwiches 1.176 u (0.4016) 1.710 u (0.9592) 1.702 u (1.0303) 0.574 u (0.2317)

 Pizza (no meat) 4.893 (0.8674) 2.813 (0.6158) 5.546 u (1.7343) 4.972 (1.4574)

 Pizza w/ meat 6.869 (1.0391) 5.065 (0.8868) 10.837 ** (1.7696) 6.627 (1.8194)

 Mexican entrees 12.055 (2.1943) 15.547 (3.5895) 13.129 u (4.6062) 8.186 (1.7327)

 Macaroni and cheese 16.564 (1.8376) 15.312 (3.4739) 21.759 (4.3862) 15.316 (2.7560)

 Pasta dishes 31.638 (2.2973) 30.639 (4.0687) 28.195 (5.4831) 32.553 (4.3607)

 Rice dishes 6.917 (0.9313) 12.226 (2.3313) 7.781 u (2.8459) 3.965 ** (1.1208)

 Other grain mixtures 2.116 (0.5845) 3.725 u (1.5989) 2.842 u (2.2522) 1.069 (0.2609)

 Meat soup 18.877 (2.7585) 26.310 (6.0852) 31.552 (7.7579) 9.326 * u (3.5176)

 Bean soup 0.632 u (0.2806) 0.315 u (0.1951) 0.308 u (0.2401) 1.003 u (0.5595)

 Grain soups 9.987 (1.5309) 16.304 (2.3270) 17.465 (5.0330) 3.607 *** u (1.0842)

 Vegetables mixtures (incl. soup) 8.905 (2.5153) 5.465 (1.1604) 5.762 u (1.9463) 12.744 u (4.6272)

Entrée salads 0.599 u (0.1954) 0.265 u (0.1352) 0.436 u (0.3098) 0.907 u (0.3753)

See notes at end of table.

 
C‐21

Table C-10. Average Amounts Consumed in Food Pattern Units among All Young Children, by 

Food Group and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standar

d error Mean Standard 

error 

Beverages excluding milk and 524.072 (16.3607) 519.030 (21.3545) 648.866 ** (36.3808) 469.577 (24.4829) 100% fruit juice (grams)

Coffee 0.754 u (0.2292) 2.192 u (0.7632) 0.432 * u (0.1985) 0.140 ** u (0.1320) 

Tea 15.361 (2.8459) 18.844 (4.1035) 15.138 (4.3961) 11.629 u (4.1777) 

Beer 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 

Wine 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 

Liquor 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 

Water (plain) 310.270 (13.1721) 265.371 (11.8049) 362.506 ** (31.1670) 306.848 (20.9627) 

Noncarbonated, sweetened drinks 133.354 (7.9019) 152.158 (13.3585) 194.023 * (15.7047) 99.077 ** (10.6126) 

Noncarbonated, low-calorie/sugar-free 

drinks 16.065 (2.5267) 16.503 (4.0951) 19.254 (5.0073) 14.624 (3.7703) 

Energy drinks 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 0.000 (0.0000) 

Any soda 48.269 (4.3891) 63.962 (9.9190) 57.513 (6.9385) 37.260 * (5.5606) 

Soda, regular 43.929 (4.2825) 59.572 (9.6337) 50.930 (6.1588) 33.600 * (5.5324) 

Soda, sugar-free 4.340 (1.0560) 4.390 u (1.3679) 6.583 u (4.0910) 3.660 (0.8822) 

Sweets and desserts (grams) 62.235 (2.9250) 55.982 (3.2180) 66.820 * (4.4395) 63.882 (5.6681) 

Sugar and sugar substitutes 0.346 (0.0693) 0.666 (0.1873) 0.337 u (0.1013) 0.192 * u (0.0722) 

Syrups/sweet toppings 3.101 (0.3345) 2.025 (0.3635) 3.480 * (0.5483) 3.553 * (0.6681) 

Jelly 0.374 (0.0869) 0.480 u (0.1878) 0.540 u (0.1884) 0.274 u (0.0977) 

Jello 2.953 u (1.2404) 1.608 u (0.5447) 3.484 u (1.1106) 3.682 u (2.1415) 

Candy 8.142 (0.6012) 6.946 (0.6939) 7.505 (0.7174) 9.267 (1.1415) 

Ice cream 15.324 (1.2590) 10.623 (1.5191) 18.054 ** (2.1721) 16.567 * (2.5230) 

Pudding 3.119 (0.4975) 2.248 u (0.9949) 2.869 u (1.2764) 3.733 (0.7709) 

Ice/popsicles 7.856 (1.0204) 7.528 (1.4744) 8.417 (2.3268) 7.937 (1.9049) 

 Sweet rolls 1.312 (0.2931) 1.853 (0.4982) 1.710 u (0.5525) 0.892 u (0.4255) 

 Cake/cupcakes 4.744 (0.5220) 5.938 (1.5974) 5.621 (1.2253) 3.236 (0.7627) 

Cookies 10.348 (0.7770) 12.175 (1.3263) 10.665 (1.2179) 9.466 (1.0367) 

Pies/cobblers 0.875 u (0.3497) 0.944 u (0.7679) 0.722 u (0.2682) 0.954 u (0.6070) 

Pastries 2.353 (0.6360) 1.414 u (0.5217) 2.257 u (0.8526) 2.674 u (1.0176) 

Doughnuts 1.388 (0.2679) 1.532 u (0.4639) 1.158 u (0.4477) 1.453 (0.3868) 

Salty Snacks (grams) 10.126 (0.5733) 10.140 (0.7990) 11.397 (1.2247) 9.681 (0.9982) 

Corn-based salty snacks 3.892 (0.3658) 3.972 (0.6909) 5.252 (0.8725) 3.527 (0.5691) 

 Pretzels/party mix 1.640 (0.3137) 0.852 (0.1958) 1.474 u (0.4556) 2.212 * (0.6046) 

 Popcorn 1.358 (0.1644) 1.473 (0.2839) 1.068 (0.2166) 1.399 (0.2903) 

 Potato chips 3.236 (0.3298) 3.842 (0.6319) 3.602 (0.6602) 2.542 (0.5646) 

Added Fats and Oils (grams) 3.468 (0.4182) 2.842 (0.7805) 4.443 (0.7922) 3.125 (0.5347) 

Butter 0.541 (0.0861) 0.344 (0.0594) 0.812 * (0.1983) 0.498 (0.1105) 

Margarine 0.436 (0.0812) 0.336 u (0.1329) 0.571 (0.1587) 0.427 (0.1089) 

Other added fats 0.179 u (0.0599) 0.097 u (0.0764) 0.534 u (0.2393) 0.088 u (0.0867) 

 Other added oils 0.024 u (0.0162) 0.022 u (0.0219) 0.000 0.0000 0.037 u (0.0309) 

 Salad dressing 0.603 (0.1512) 0.297 u (0.1500) 0.549 (0.1628) 0.630 u (0.2427) 

 Mayonnaise 0.038 u (0.0139) 0.093 u (0.0482) 0.030 u (0.0270) 0.008 u (0.0059) 

 Gravy 0.759 u (0.2562) 0.680 u (0.2827) 1.502 u (0.7172) 0.387 u (0.2504) 

 Cream cheese 0.337 u (0.1082) 0.030 u (0.0227) 0.228 u (0.2147) 0.585 ** u (0.1995) 

 Cream/sour cream 0.551 u (0.1945) 0.943 u (0.6127) 0.219 u (0.1240) 0.465 u (0.1717) 

Other (grams) 2.206 (0.5313) 2.169 u (1.2221) 0.921 u (0.4144) 2.949 (0.8131) 

Sources: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Foods consumed from the vegetables, fruits, 

grains, and meat/meat alternate food groups reflect foods consumed as discrete items and do not include 

foods consumed as part of mixed dishes. Food choices reflect individual foods consumed except when 
C‐22

foods were reported to be eaten in ‘combination’ as sandwiches, Mexican entrees, green salads, and 

soups. In these cases, the foods reported in combination are counted as one food choice (for example, a 

sandwich reported as a beef, cheese, and roll was counted in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” group as one 

food choice). ‘All children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Means are not ageadjusted. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). 

Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at 

the time of the interview. Numbers are displayed to three decimal points to provide additional detail for 

estimates with low values. oz. = ounces eq. = equivalent. 

1 Grains are classified as whole grains if at least 50 percent of the total grains are whole grain. The 

MyPyramid data sources listed above were used to classify grains. 2 "Other raw" and "Other cooked" vegetables include all vegetables not categorized separately. Within 

these two groups, vegetables in the top quartile of the distribution of Vitamins A or C per 100 grams were 

categorized as "higher in nutrients"; all others are "lower in nutrients." Raw vegetables higher in nutrients 

include broccoli, peppers (sweet and hot), snow peas, seaweed, and leeks. Raw vegetables that are 

lower in nutrients include onions, cucumbers, celery, radishes, mushrooms, asparagus, squash, and 

green peas. Cooked vegetables higher in nutrients include cabbage, peppers, asparagus, cauliflower, 

Brussels sprouts, and snow peas. Cooked vegetables that are lower in nutrients include squash, 

artichokes, onions, mushrooms, eggplant, beets, and yellow string beans. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

- Not applicable. 

   
C‐23

Table C-11. Average Amounts Consumed in Food Pattern Units among Young Children 

Consuming, by Food Group and Subgroup 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Sample size 1,956 - 791 - 496 - 606 - 

Grains (ounce eq.) 1.8 (0.07) 1.8 (0.07) 1.9 (0.11) 1.8 (0.10) 

 Whole grains1 1.0 (0.04) 0.9 (0.08) 1.1 (0.10) 0.9 (0.05) 

 Refined grains 1.6 (0.06) 1.6 (0.07) 1.7 (0.09) 1.5 (0.10) 

 Bread 1.1 (0.06) 1.2 (0.10) 1.3 (0.15) 1.1 (0.08) 

 Rolls 1.1 (0.14) 1.2 (0.22) 1.2 (0.22) 0.9 (0.20) 

 English muffin 0.6 (0.07) 2.0 (0.00) . (.) 0.5 (0.00) 

 Bagels 2.2 (0.25) 1.9 (0.14) 2.1 (0.41) 2.2 (0.29) 

 Biscuits, scones, croissants 1.2 (0.16) 1.4 (0.12) 1.1 (0.31) 0.9 * (0.20) 

 Muffins 1.2 (0.24) 1.7 (0.39) 1.5 (0.02) 0.9 u (0.32) 

 Cornbread 1.6 (0.43) 2.0 u (0.63) 0.7 * (0.15) 1.5 u (0.53) 

 Corn tortillas 1.2 (0.08) 1.2 (0.11) 1.2 (0.21) 0.8 * (0.11) 

 Flour tortillas 1.7 (0.51) 1.1 (0.32) 1.0 (0.25) 2.5 u (0.78) 

 Taco shells 0.8 (0.19) 0.6 (0.14) 1.5 u (0.51) 0.7 (0.15) 

 Crackers 0.9 (0.05) 0.8 (0.06) 0.9 (0.07) 0.9 (0.08) 

 Breakfast/granola bar 0.6 (0.04) 0.5 (0.10) 0.8 (0.11) 0.6 (0.04) 

 Pancakes, waffles, French toast 1.2 (0.06) 1.2 (0.18) 1.4 (0.09) 1.2 (0.10) 

 Cold cereal 0.6 (0.02) 0.7 (0.03) 0.7 (0.04) 0.5 * (0.03) 

 Hot cereal 1.6 (0.12) 1.3 (0.12) 1.8 (0.24) 1.7 (0.16) 

 Rice 1.1 (0.08) 0.9 (0.09) 1.1 (0.20) 1.1 (0.17) 

 Pasta 0.9 (0.11) 0.9 u (0.30) 1.7 (0.34) 0.9 (0.11) 

Vegetables (cup eq.) 0.6 (0.03) 0.6 (0.03) 0.6 (0.05) 0.6 (0.04) 

 Raw vegetables 0.4 (0.06) 0.4 (0.07) 0.4 (0.06) 0.5 (0.09) 

 Raw lettuce/greens 0.2 (0.05) 0.2 u (0.07) 0.2 (0.03) 0.1 (0.02) 

 Raw carrots 0.3 (0.03) 0.3 u (0.08) 0.3 (0.05) 0.3 (0.05) 

 Raw tomatoes 0.2 (0.05) 0.3 u (0.08) 0.2 (0.04) 0.2 u (0.10) 

 Raw cabbage/coleslaw 0.6 (0.09) 0.5 (0.04) 0.9 *** (0.13) 0.4 (0.05) 

 Other raw (higher in vitamins A or C) 2 0.2 (0.06) 0.5 (0.04) 0.5 (0.00) 0.2 *** u (0.06) 

 Other raw (lower in vitamins A or C) 2 0.3 (0.04) 0.3 u (0.10) 0.3 (0.09) 0.3 (0.05) 

 Salads (w/greens) 0.6 (0.13) 0.4 (0.06) 0.4 (0.05) 0.8 (0.19) 

 Cooked vegetables, excl. potatoes 0.4 (0.03) 0.4 (0.03) 0.4 (0.04) 0.4 (0.05) 

 Cooked green beans 0.4 (0.02) 0.4 (0.03) 0.4 (0.04) 0.4 (0.03) 

 Cooked corn 0.4 (0.03) 0.4 (0.04) 0.3 (0.06) 0.4 (0.06) 

 Cooked peas 0.2 (0.02) 0.3 (0.05) 0.3 (0.04) 0.2 * (0.04) 

 Cooked carrots 0.3 (0.02) 0.2 (0.03) 0.5 ** (0.07) 0.3 (0.02) 

 Cooked broccoli 0.4 (0.05) 0.3 (0.07) 0.5 * (0.08) 0.4 (0.05) 

 Cooked tomatoes 0.1 (0.01) 0.1 (0.02) 0.1 (0.01) 0.1 (0.01) 

 Cooked mixed 0.3 (0.04) 0.3 (0.04) 0.5 (0.11) 0.3 (0.06) 

 Cooked starchy 0.4 (0.05) 0.3 (0.07) . (.) 0.5 (0.04) 

 Other cooked deep yellow 0.4 (0.03) 0.4 (0.05) 0.2 ** (0.04) 0.4 (0.04) 

 Other cooked dark green 0.3 (0.07) 0.3 u (0.11) 0.4 (0.07) 0.1 u (0.07) 

 Other cooked (higher in vitamins A or C) 2 0.5 u (0.14) 0.3 (0.04) 0.5 ** (0.08) 0.5 u (0.24) 

 Other cooked (lower in vitamins A or C) 2 0.4 (0.05) 0.4 u (0.27) 0.1 (0.01) 0.4 (0.04) 

 Other fried . (.) . (.) . (.) . (.) 

 Cooked potatoes 0.4 (0.02) 0.4 (0.02) 0.4 (0.04) 0.4 (0.03) 

 Cooked potatoes-not fried 0.5 (0.04) 0.5 (0.04) 0.5 (0.06) 0.6 (0.08) 

 Cooked potatoes-fried 0.3 (0.02) 0.4 (0.03) 0.3 (0.03) 0.3 (0.03) 

 Vegetable juice 0.5 (0.09) 0.7 (0.08) 0.9 u (0.44) 0.4 * (0.09) 

See notes at end of table. 

 
C‐24

Table C-11. Average Amounts Consumed in Food Pattern Units among Young Children 

Consuming, by Food Group and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Fruit and 100% fruit juice (cup eq.) 1.7 (0.04) 1.9 (0.10) 1.6 (0.10) 1.7 (0.07) 

 Any whole fruit 1.1 (0.05) 1.1 (0.07) 1.1 (0.09) 1.2 (0.08) 

Fresh fruit 1.1 (0.04) 1.1 (0.07) 1.2 (0.09) 1.2 (0.08) 

Fresh orange 0.5 (0.06) 0.7 (0.09) 0.7 (0.12) 0.4 ** (0.06) 

Fresh other citrus 0.1 u (0.05) 0.2 (0.01) 0.2 (0.00) 0.0 *** (0.00) 

Fresh apple 1.0 (0.04) 1.0 (0.08) 1.1 (0.09) 1.0 (0.07) 

Fresh banana 0.7 (0.03) 0.7 (0.06) 0.7 (0.05) 0.7 (0.04) 

Fresh melon 0.6 (0.06) 0.6 (0.16) 0.4 (0.07) 0.7 (0.08) 

Fresh watermelon 1.3 (0.21) 1.0 (0.20) 1.7 u (0.68) 1.2 (0.19) 

Fresh grapes 0.4 (0.02) 0.4 (0.03) 0.5 (0.05) 0.4 (0.04) 

Fresh peach/nectarine 0.7 (0.07) 0.7 (0.09) 0.6 (0.14) 0.7 (0.12) 

Fresh pear 0.7 (0.11) 0.9 (0.15) 1.1 (0.09) 0.6 (0.11) 

Fresh berries 0.4 (0.06) 0.4 (0.08) 0.3 (0.04) 0.4 (0.09) 

Fresh pineapple 0.3 (0.03) 0.3 (0.06) 0.3 (0.04) 0.3 (0.02) 

Other fresh fruit 0.6 (0.05) 0.6 (0.09) 0.6 (0.09) 0.7 (0.09) 

Avocado/guacamole 0.3 u (0.18) 0.0 (0.00) 0.5 u (0.27) 0.5 (0.00) 

Lemon/lime - any form 0.1 u (0.03) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.1 (0.00) 

 Canned or frozen fruit, total 0.5 (0.03) 0.5 (0.04) 0.5 (0.08) 0.5 (0.03) 

Canned or frozen in syrup 0.4 (0.04) 0.5 (0.08) 0.4 (0.09) 0.5 (0.03) 

Canned or frozen, no syrup 0.5 (0.03) 0.5 (0.05) 0.5 (0.08) 0.4 (0.03) 

Applesauce, canned/ frozen apples 0.4 (0.04) 0.5 (0.05) 0.4 (0.07) 0.4 (0.06) 

Canned/frozen peaches 0.4 (0.02) 0.3 (0.06) 0.5 (0.04) 0.3 (0.02) 

Canned/frozen pineapple 0.3 (0.05) 0.4 u (0.17) 0.2 u (0.12) 0.4 (0.03) 

Other canned/frozen 0.4 (0.03) 0.5 (0.07) 0.5 (0.06) 0.4 (0.04) 

100% Fruit juice 1.2 (0.05) 1.3 (0.09) 1.1 * (0.05) 1.2 (0.07) 

Non-citrus juice 1.3 (0.04) 1.4 (0.11) 1.1 (0.07) 1.3 (0.05) 

Citrus juice 0.8 (0.06) 0.9 (0.06) 0.8 (0.05) 0.8 (0.12) 

Dried fruit 0.5 (0.04) 0.2 (0.04) 0.5 ** (0.07) 0.5 *** (0.06) 

Milk and milk products (cup eq.) 2.1 (0.07) 2.2 (0.09) 1.8 *** (0.09) 2.2 (0.09) 

Cow’s milk, total 1.9 (0.06) 2.0 (0.09) 1.7 * (0.09) 1.9 (0.08) 

Unflavored white milk, total 1.9 (0.06) 2.0 (0.09) 1.6 ** (0.09) 1.9 (0.08) 

Unflavored whole milk 2.0 (0.08) 2.1 (0.12) 1.6 ** (0.11) 2.0 (0.12) 

Unflavored non-whole, total 1.6 (0.08) 1.7 (0.10) 1.6 (0.12) 1.6 (0.13) 

2% milk, unflavored 1.5 (0.08) 1.6 (0.12) 1.6 (0.14) 1.4 (0.09) 

1% milk, unflavored 1.5 (0.17) 1.8 (0.30) 1.3 (0.18) 1.5 (0.33) 

Skim milk, unflavored 2.0 (0.28) 2.2 (0.61) 1.9 u (0.57) 2.0 (0.35) 

 Unflavored, fat not specified 1.1 (0.16) 1.5 u (0.48) 0.9 (0.15) 0.9 (0.14) 

 Flavored milk, total 1.3 (0.10) 1.4 (0.24) 1.2 (0.12) 1.3 (0.12) 

 Flavored, whole milk 1.3 (0.23) 0.9 (0.09) 1.1 (0.10) 1.7 (0.48) 

 Flavored non-whole, total 1.2 (0.15) 1.5 (0.28) 1.3 (0.25) 1.1 (0.14) 

 2% milk, flavored 1.0 (0.11) 1.5 (0.43) 1.2 (0.26) 0.9 (0.07) 

 1% milk, flavored 1.4 (0.23) 1.5 (0.25) 1.8 (0.50) 1.2 (0.32) 

 Skim milk, flavored 0.9 (0.07) 1.1 (0.00) 0.7 (0.00) . (.) 

 Flavored, fat not specified 1.1 (0.12) 0.3 u (0.13) 0.9 *** (0.11) 1.3 *** (0.10) 

Soymilk 1.7 (0.31) 2.1 (0.59) 2.0 (0.28) 1.6 (0.35) 

Dry or evaporated milk 1.6 (0.46) 5.5 (0.00) 1.9 *** u (0.73) 0.7 *** u (0.31) 

Yogurt 0.5 (0.02) 0.6 (0.04) 0.6 (0.06) 0.5 (0.03) 

Cheese 0.6 (0.04) 0.6 (0.06) 0.6 (0.08) 0.7 (0.06) 

See notes at end of table. 

 
C‐25

Table C-11. Average Amounts Consumed in Food Pattern Units among Young Children 

Consuming, by Food Group and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Meat and meat alternates (oz. eq.) 2.2 (0.08) 2.2 (0.09) 2.5 (0.17) 2.0 (0.12) 

Beef 1.5 (0.13) 1.4 (0.17) 1.9 (0.47) 1.4 (0.13) 

Ground beef 1.6 (0.27) 1.7 (0.26) 1.0 * (0.19) 1.8 (0.48) 

Pork 1.3 (0.19) 1.3 (0.25) 0.8 u (0.28) 1.4 (0.23) 

Ham 1.5 u (0.51) 2.1 u (0.93) 1.3 u (0.48) 1.0 (0.25) 

Lamb and misc. meats 3.2 u (1.44) 3.2 u (1.44) . (.) . (.) 

Chicken 1.6 (0.07) 1.6 (0.08) 2.0 * (0.14) 1.4 * (0.08) 

Turkey 2.3 (0.34) 1.9 u (0.58) 3.1 (0.65) 2.0 (0.52) 

Organ meats 1.6 (0.00) 1.6 (0.00) . (.) . (.) 

Hot dogs 1.7 (0.15) 2.4 (0.21) 1.3 * u (0.44) 1.5 *** (0.15) 

Cold cuts 1.2 (0.15) 1.3 (0.32) 1.3 (0.22) 1.2 (0.17) 

Fish 2.0 (0.30) 1.2 (0.25) 1.8 (0.53) 2.3 * (0.46) 

Shellfish 1.3 (0.26) 1.1 (0.17) 1.5 u (0.56) 0.8 (0.20) 

Bacon/sausage 0.9 (0.09) 1.0 (0.14) 1.1 (0.26) 0.8 (0.10) 

Eggs 1.3 (0.05) 1.3 (0.07) 1.4 (0.13) 1.1 * (0.07) 

Beans 0.4 (0.06) 0.4 (0.04) 0.9 * (0.27) 0.3 (0.08) 

Baked/refried beans 0.2 (0.03) 0.3 (0.05) 0.1 *** u (0.04) 0.2 (0.03) 

Soy products 1.3 (0.19) 1.0 (0.00) 1.0 (0.00) 1.5 (0.29) 

Protein/meal enhancement 0.0 (0.01) 0.0 u (0.01) 0.2 *** (0.00) 0.0 u (0.01) 

Nuts 1.8 (0.31) 2.0 (0.41) 2.6 (0.62) 1.5 u (0.49) 

Peanut/almond butter 0.8 (0.13) 0.9 (0.25) 0.6 (0.08) 0.9 (0.19) 

Seeds 0.9 u (0.52) 1.3 u (0.60) 0.6 (0.00) 0.4 u (0.34) 

Mixed dishes (grams) 215.0 (8.03) 219.0 (11.00) 253.0 (14.73) 193.0 (9.51) 

Tomato sauce and meat (no pasta) 77.7 (11.49) 62.3 (0.00) 69.6 (3.87) 95.1 u (31.03) 

Chili con carne 125.0 (35.03) 156.0 (43.87) 296.0 u (99.64) 78.3 (9.82) 

Meat mixtures w/ red meat 111.0 (8.76) 129.0 (9.72) 111.0 (18.66) 94.5 * (11.53) 

Meat mixtures w/ chicken/turkey 127.0 (9.25) 116.0 (9.82) 142.0 (20.98) 127.0 (17.84) 

Meat mixtures w/ fish 93.2 (19.66) 150.0 (29.21) 72.7 u (28.42) 56.8 ** u (21.37) 

Hamburgers/cheeseburgers 90.6 (5.07) 101.0 (9.56) 84.8 (7.97) 87.9 (6.53) 

Other sandwiches 87.9 (2.94) 89.9 (6.53) 93.2 (4.94) 85.1 (4.94) 

Hot dogs 92.0 (7.02) 95.9 (9.06) 116.0 (11.80) 80.0 (9.87) 

Luncheon meat 91.8 (7.89) 89.7 (12.76) 85.9 (7.30) 97.9 (19.57) 

Beef, pork, ham 113.0 (13.26) 131.0 (15.14) 92.1 (24.57) 108.0 (21.23) 

Chicken, turkey 85.2 (7.53) 85.4 (11.39) 89.0 (6.96) 74.8 (9.80) 

Cheese (no meat) 69.7 (7.38) 65.1 (6.94) 68.2 (7.23) 73.3 (11.32) 

Fish 65.4 (8.27) 57.0 (14.78) 101.0 * (12.75) 56.2 (12.14) 

Peanut butter 59.1 (1.74) 56.9 (3.52) 61.6 (3.64) 59.5 (3.05) 

Breakfast sandwiches 80.0 (9.77) 97.1 (13.76) 74.2 (17.71) 60.4 * (7.67) 

 Pizza (no meat) 85.6 (6.56) 73.4 (11.18) 94.4 (11.56) 84.6 (12.44) 

 Pizza w/ meat 98.3 (9.53) 85.8 (9.32) 102.0 (8.93) 103.0 (20.15) 

 Mexican entrees 119.0 (10.96) 118.0 (15.64) 133.0 (21.82) 98.4 (13.77) 

 Macaroni and cheese 128.0 (8.10) 131.0 (7.66) 130.0 (17.63) 121.0 (8.23) 

 Pasta dishes 178.0 (8.01) 174.0 (9.64) 239.0 *** (13.38) 160.0 (11.47) 

 Rice dishes 96.3 (8.11) 112.0 (9.71) 152.0 (23.19) 61.7 *** (7.10) 

 Other grain mixtures 96.4 (15.20) 117.0 (23.92) 109.0 (30.66) 65.0 * (8.36) 

 Meat soup 256.0 (19.35) 272.0 (39.39) 279.0 (24.60) 228.0 (46.02) 

 Bean soup 125.0 (23.41) 92.1 (19.07) 60.8 u (32.17) 156.0 (27.24) 

 Grain soups 220.0 (17.35) 206.0 (13.29) 214.0 (28.66) 274.0 (64.65) 

 Vegetables mixtures (incl. soup) 127.0 (21.26) 125.0 (23.13) 116.0 (23.25) 130.0 (29.28) 

Entrée salads 81.4 (18.54) 50.8 u (20.55) 193.0 *** (10.30) 79.9 (20.16) 

See notes at end of table.

 
C‐26

Table C-11. Average Amounts Consumed in Food Pattern Units among Young Children 

Consuming, by Food Group and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Beverages excluding milk and 563.0 (16.02) 563.0 (22.40) 680.0 ** (32.23) 509.0 (24.49) 100% fruit juice (grams)

Coffee 74.1 (9.17) 95.4 (11.00) 34.2 *** (6.55) 51.5 u (39.02) 

Tea 186.0 (23.89) 195.0 (19.67) 132.0 ** (12.54) 236.0 (62.28) 

Beer . (.) . (.) . (.) . (.) 

Wine . (.) . (.) . (.) . (.) 

Liquor . (.) . (.) . (.) . (.) 

Water (plain) 409.0 (12.94) 377.0 (16.85) 474.0 ** (33.07) 390.0 (20.18) 

Noncarbonated, sweetened drinks 318.0 (15.63) 338.0 (23.49) 379.0 (26.38) 281.0 (19.70) 

Noncarbonated, low-calorie/sugarfree drinks 246.0 (20.56) 228.0 (24.87) 296.0 (49.15) 243.0 (24.90) 

Energy drinks . (.) . (.) . (.) . (.) 

Any soda 193.0 (10.31) 212.0 (21.77) 218.0 (20.43) 170.0 (12.95) 

Soda, regular 201.0 (11.69) 216.0 (23.20) 220.0 (23.47) 183.0 (15.30) 

Soda, sugar-free 118.0 (15.96) 127.0 (18.76) 198.0 *** (8.55) 86.7 (10.29) 

Sweets and desserts (grams) 74.3 (3.23) 67.8 (3.31) 79.2 (5.11) 76.4 (5.82) 

Sugar and sugar substitutes 5.6 (0.72) 6.6 (1.15) 4.8 (0.95) 4.7 (1.30) 

Syrups/sweet toppings 18.7 (1.59) 17.6 (1.83) 18.1 (2.58) 19.7 (2.60) 

Jelly 11.2 (1.64) 16.3 (4.60) 11.7 (2.64) 8.4 (1.70) 

Jello 99.9 (21.42) 103.0 (11.20) 85.2 (23.39) 110.0 u (34.13) 

Candy 22.3 (1.27) 21.6 (1.74) 21.5 (1.24) 23.4 (2.02) 

Ice cream 78.9 (6.03) 60.2 (5.45) 81.2 ** (5.36) 88.7 * (10.60) 

Pudding 110.0 (10.81) 93.1 (16.27) 103.0 (21.59) 119.0 (17.37) 

Ice/popsicles 77.8 (6.79) 70.7 (5.64) 105.0 (18.18) 71.1 (7.81) 

 Sweet rolls 51.9 (5.54) 52.1 (4.82) 50.5 (7.43) 52.5 (14.99) 

 Cake/cupcakes 57.4 (4.70) 66.4 (12.49) 64.6 (6.51) 46.3 (4.82) 

Cookies 26.5 (1.48) 29.7 (2.51) 26.2 (1.55) 24.7 (2.03) 

Pies/cobblers 103.0 (19.73) 145.0 (21.82) 56.5 *** (9.85) 115.0 (23.24) 

Pastries 50.8 (5.24) 45.5 (12.33) 66.1 (8.71) 49.7 (7.85) 

Doughnuts 48.7 (3.61) 58.6 (9.96) 60.3 (10.39) 42.6 (3.51) 

Salty Snacks (grams) 23.0 (1.07) 22.5 (1.13) 27.2 * (2.09) 21.8 (1.86) 

Corn-based salty snacks 23.5 (1.18) 22.9 (2.44) 29.4 (3.01) 21.3 (1.78) 

 Pretzels/party mix 20.0 (2.35) 14.6 (2.54) 23.7 (5.67) 21.7 (3.16) 

 Popcorn 13.8 (0.98) 14.5 (1.55) 13.3 (1.88) 14.0 (2.03) 

 Potato chips 19.6 (0.82) 21.0 (1.37) 20.4 (2.23) 18.1 (1.78) 

Added Fats and Oils (grams) 12.7 (1.18) 13.4 (2.68) 14.8 (2.24) 10.9 (1.14) 

Butter 5.2 (0.42) 4.4 (0.67) 6.9 (1.41) 4.4 (0.41) 

Margarine 5.3 (0.44) 5.4 (0.91) 5.8 (0.91) 5.2 (0.67) 

Other added fats 22.6 (3.33) 10.4 u (3.36) 30.1 *** (3.93) 24.5 *** (0.00) 

 Other added oils 10.8 (1.69) 8.8 (0.00) . (.) 11.7 (1.89) 

 Salad dressing 15.5 (2.34) 15.7 u (5.23) 16.6 (3.38) 12.4 (2.58) 

 Mayonnaise 6.3 u (2.16) 9.8 (2.63) 4.2 * (0.41) 3.1 u (2.32) 

 Gravy 21.9 (3.82) 23.1 u (9.29) 34.7 (7.58) 15.0 (4.27) 

 Cream cheese 17.9 (3.22) 7.4 (1.83) 21.5 u (9.50) 18.2 ** (3.76) 

 Cream/sour cream 21.7 (4.10) 30.2 (6.83) 15.3 (4.35) 18.2 (4.97) 

Other (grams) 34.5 (7.78) 50.2 u (27.37) 27.7 u (11.81) 31.7 (7.85) 

Sources: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Foods consumed from the vegetables, fruits, 

grains, and meat/meat alternate food groups reflect foods consumed as discrete items and do not include 

foods consumed as part of mixed dishes. Food choices reflect individual foods consumed except when 
C‐27

foods were reported to be eaten in ‘combination’ as sandwiches, Mexican entrees, green salads, and 

soups. In these cases, the foods reported in combination are counted as one food choice (for example, a 

sandwich reported as a beef, cheese, and roll was counted in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” group as one 

food choice). ‘All children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Means are not ageadjusted. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). 

Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at 

the time of the interview. oz. = ounces eq. = equivalent. 

1 Grains are classified as whole grains if at least 50 percent of the total grains are whole grain. The 

MyPyramid data sources listed above were used to classify grains. 2 "Other raw" and "Other cooked" vegetables include all vegetables not categorized separately. Within 

these two groups, vegetables in the top quartile of the distribution of Vitamins A or C per 100 grams were 

categorized as "higher in nutrients"; all others are "lower in nutrients." Raw vegetables higher in nutrients 

include broccoli, peppers (sweet and hot), snow peas, seaweed, and leeks. Raw vegetables that are 

lower in nutrients include onions, cucumbers, celery, radishes, mushrooms, asparagus, squash, and 

green peas. Cooked vegetables higher in nutrients include cabbage, peppers, asparagus, cauliflower, 

Brussels sprouts, and snow peas. Cooked vegetables that are lower in nutrients include squash, 

artichokes, onions, mushrooms, eggplant, beets, and yellow string beans. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

- Not applicable. 

   
C‐28

Table C-12. Average Amounts Consumed in Grams among All Young Children, by Food Group 

and Subgroup 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Sample size 1,956 - 791 - 496 - 606 - 

Grains 71.7 (3.74) 67.8 (4.12) 76.1 (5.10) 71.6 (4.65) 

 Whole grains1 21.4 (2.39) 17.2 (2.66) 21.0 (3.91) 23.2 (2.96) 

 Refined grains 50.2 (2.64) 50.6 (3.30) 55.1 (3.67) 48.4 (3.63) 

 Bread 7.1 (0.56) 7.8 (0.90) 9.9 (1.74) 5.4 (0.89) 

 Rolls 1.0 (0.20) 1.1 u (0.36) 1.1 u (0.34) 0.9 u (0.30) 

 English muffin 0.1 u (0.05) 0.0 u (0.04) 0.0 (0.00) 0.1 u (0.10) 

 Bagels 1.4 (0.41) 0.3 u (0.15) 1.2 u (0.69) 2.1 * u (0.75) 

 Biscuits, scones, croissants 1.5 (0.38) 2.3 u (0.95) 2.3 u (0.71) 0.8 u (0.30) 

 Muffins 1.2 u (0.41) 1.4 u (0.76) 1.4 u (1.08) 1.1 u (0.55) 

 Cornbread 0.5 u (0.23) 1.1 u (0.87) 0.2 u (0.12) 0.4 u (0.24) 

 Corn tortillas 1.1 (0.22) 2.8 (0.66) 1.2 * (0.36) 0.2 *** u (0.09) 

 Flour tortillas 0.5 u (0.22) 0.5 u (0.24) 0.3 u (0.17) 0.6 u (0.49) 

 Taco shells 0.1 u (0.04) 0.0 u (0.02) 0.2 u (0.15) 0.1 u (0.04) 

 Crackers 5.9 (0.52) 4.6 (0.61) 4.9 (0.80) 6.7 (0.92) 

 Breakfast/granola bar 1.6 (0.27) 0.5 u (0.18) 0.7 u (0.34) 2.7 *** (0.45) 

 Pancakes, waffles, French toast 8.6 (0.81) 5.0 (0.91) 8.5 * (1.36) 10.7 ** (1.68) 

 Cold cereal 13.1 (0.59) 14.9 (0.96) 14.6 (1.24) 11.7 * (0.80) 

 Hot cereal 14.5 (2.04) 14.0 (2.70) 16.9 (4.21) 13.8 (2.81) 

 Rice 10.6 (1.84) 10.0 (1.87) 10.3 (3.06) 11.1 (3.04) 

 Pasta 2.8 (0.54) 1.5 (0.42) 2.4 u (0.71) 3.2 * (0.77) 

Vegetables 66.2 (3.51) 61.2 (4.18) 60.6 (6.86) 69.6 (6.02) 

 Raw vegetables 11.4 (2.21) 6.9 (1.57) 7.3 (1.20) 15.6 (4.55) 

 Raw lettuce/greens 0.2 u (0.09) 0.2 u (0.10) 0.2 u (0.11) 0.1 u (0.10) 

 Raw carrots 2.0 (0.55) 0.5 u (0.26) 1.4 u (0.51) 2.9 * u (1.05) 

 Raw tomatoes 0.7 u (0.23) 0.6 u (0.34) 0.9 u (0.42) 0.7 u (0.37) 

 Raw cabbage/coleslaw 0.3 u (0.12) 0.2 u (0.11) 0.6 u (0.40) 0.2 u (0.15) 

 Other raw (higher in vitamins A or C) 2 0.2 u (0.10) 0.3 u (0.25) 0.0 u (0.02) 0.3 u (0.16) 

 Other raw (lower in vitamins A or C) 2 1.1 (0.29) 0.7 u (0.32) 1.3 u (0.53) 1.4 u (0.46) 

 Salads (w/greens) 6.8 u (2.06) 4.4 (1.04) 3.0 (0.69) 9.9 u (4.22) 

 Cooked vegetables, excl. potatoes 30.4 (2.69) 24.7 (2.10) 26.8 (4.29) 33.5 (3.98) 

 Cooked green beans 5.3 (0.54) 6.6 (0.84) 5.1 (1.28) 4.5 (0.73) 

 Cooked corn 5.4 (0.73) 5.9 (1.29) 5.2 u (1.66) 5.1 (1.07) 

 Cooked peas 1.2 (0.27) 1.1 u (0.37) 1.4 u (0.56) 1.0 u (0.34) 

 Cooked carrots 3.3 (0.82) 1.1 u (0.38) 4.5 u (1.93) 3.2 * (0.87) 

 Cooked broccoli 3.8 (0.94) 1.0 u (0.43) 2.5 u (1.37) 5.9 ** u (1.84) 

 Cooked tomatoes 2.8 (0.27) 3.1 (0.70) 2.3 (0.39) 2.9 (0.46) 

 Cooked mixed 1.9 (0.38) 1.5 u (0.67) 1.9 u (0.91) 2.1 u (0.67) 

 Cooked starchy 0.9 u (0.58) 0.3 u (0.22) 0.5 u (0.55) 1.4 u (1.16) 

 Other cooked deep yellow 0.8 u (0.30) 1.1 u (0.58) 0.2 u (0.18) 0.6 u (0.51) 

 Other cooked dark green 0.7 u (0.28) 1.2 u (0.56) 1.6 u (1.04) 0.2 u (0.08) 

 Other cooked (higher in vitamins A or C) 2 2.2 u (1.11) 0.9 u (0.35) 1.5 u (0.74) 3.1 u (2.23) 

 Other cooked (lower in vitamins A or C) 2 2.1 u (0.87) 0.8 u (0.60) 0.0 u (0.03) 3.5 u (1.50) 

 Other fried 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 

 Cooked potatoes 23.7 (1.91) 29.0 (3.44) 25.7 (3.64) 20.0 * (2.37) 

 Cooked potatoes-not fried 12.5 (1.95) 16.8 (3.19) 15.5 (3.52) 8.9 * (1.96) 

 Cooked potatoes-fried 11.2 (1.01) 12.2 (1.87) 10.2 (1.48) 11.1 (1.68) 

 Vegetable juice 0.7 u (0.26) 0.6 u (0.45) 0.7 u (0.62) 0.6 u (0.34) 

See notes at end of table. 

 
C‐29

Table C-12. Average Amounts Consumed in Grams among All Young Children, by Food Group 

and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Fruit and 100% fruit juice 288.0 (9.02) 337.0 (19.51) 247.0 *** (18.36) 281.0 * (12.52) 

 Any whole fruit 111.0 (5.71) 101.0 (6.50) 110.0 (11.08) 117.0 (9.91) 

Fresh fruit 87.9 (5.49) 85.2 (7.16) 83.0 (8.96) 92.2 (9.87) 

Fresh orange 8.9 (0.86) 13.1 (3.04) 9.2 u (3.49) 6.3 * (1.42) 

Fresh other citrus 0.0 u (0.03) 0.1 u (0.08) 0.0 u (0.02) 0.0 u (0.02) 

Fresh apple 22.4 (2.47) 21.0 (3.61) 26.2 (4.03) 21.4 (4.44) 

Fresh banana 22.0 (1.91) 26.0 (3.63) 16.7 * (2.75) 22.0 (3.08) 

Fresh melon 2.4 u (0.79) 1.3 u (1.07) 1.2 u (0.54) 3.8 u (1.50) 

Fresh watermelon 9.0 u (2.88) 4.1 (0.99) 6.8 u (3.16) 13.4 u (4.65) 

Fresh grapes 8.1 (0.87) 6.7 (1.04) 6.5 (1.23) 9.4 (1.69) 

Fresh peach/nectarine 2.9 (0.75) 2.3 u (0.86) 4.3 (1.30) 2.2 u (1.24) 

Fresh pear 4.2 u (1.26) 2.2 u (1.21) 5.8 u (3.51) 4.9 u (1.96) 

Fresh berries 4.3 (0.89) 4.3 u (1.35) 1.7 u (0.60) 5.6 (1.63) 

Fresh pineapple 0.4 u (0.15) 0.2 u (0.15) 1.1 u (0.60) 0.1 u (0.10) 

Other fresh fruit 3.3 (0.69) 3.8 (0.98) 3.2 u (1.19) 3.0 u (1.14) 

Avocado/guacamole 0.1 u (0.05) 0.0 u (0.02) 0.2 u (0.22) 0.1 u (0.06) 

Lemon/lime - any form 0.0 u (0.01) 0.0 u (0.00) 0.0 u (0.02) 0.0 u (0.02) 

 Canned or frozen fruit, total 21.6 (2.09) 15.8 (2.50) 26.0 (5.30) 22.5 (2.45) 

Canned or frozen in syrup 2.1 (0.62) 1.2 u (0.53) 3.0 u (1.16) 2.4 u (1.14) 

Canned or frozen, no syrup 19.5 (1.86) 14.6 (2.51) 23.0 (5.39) 20.1 (2.10) 

Applesauce, canned/ frozen apples 7.2 (1.10) 7.7 (2.23) 7.1 u (2.28) 7.3 (1.54) 

Canned/frozen peaches 4.4 (1.19) 2.1 u (0.66) 6.6 ** (1.59) 3.4 (1.01) 

Canned/frozen pineapple 0.9 u (0.33) 0.3 u (0.17) 1.0 u (0.82) 1.2 u (0.50) 

Other canned/frozen 9.1 (1.11) 5.8 (1.21) 11.2 u (3.40) 10.5 * (1.73) 

100% Fruit juice 177.0 (9.97) 235.0 (17.37) 136.0 *** (13.56) 164.0 ** (13.55) 

Non-citrus juice 145.0 (8.59) 195.0 (17.55) 107.0 *** (11.35) 136.0 ** (10.89) 

Citrus juice 32.4 (3.23) 40.4 (4.55) 29.5 (6.25) 28.3 (4.24) 

Dried fruit 1.4 (0.24) 0.1 u (0.04) 1.3 * u (0.53) 2.1 *** (0.41) 

Milk and milk products 436.0 (15.11) 477.0 (21.53) 358.0 *** (24.96) 455.0 (19.10) 

Cow’s milk, total 392.0 (14.29) 446.0 (21.56) 328.0 *** (24.47) 399.0 (17.76) 

Unflavored white milk, total 370.0 (13.23) 431.0 (21.09) 304.0 *** (20.45) 371.0 * (16.76) 

Unflavored whole milk 200.0 (10.00) 279.0 (18.43) 140.0 *** (18.34) 186.0 *** (16.65) 

Unflavored non-whole, total 164.0 (12.18) 145.0 (13.64) 157.0 (20.98) 181.0 (19.38) 

2% milk, unflavored 115.0 (9.82) 116.0 (12.51) 127.0 (18.00) 116.0 (13.34) 

1% milk, unflavored 26.0 (4.62) 21.7 u (7.85) 17.8 u (5.46) 28.0 u (8.42) 

Skim milk, unflavored 22.9 u (7.97) 6.8 u (3.64) 12.4 u (6.36) 37.8 u (15.77) 

 Unflavored, fat not specified 5.6 (1.63) 7.5 u (4.30) 7.1 u (2.85) 4.2 u (1.67) 

 Flavored milk, total 22.6 (3.75) 14.9 u (4.84) 24.8 u (8.06) 27.3 (6.82) 

 Flavored, whole milk 5.2 u (1.62) 1.9 u (0.88) 9.4 u (4.15) 5.8 u (2.92) 

 Flavored non-whole, total 13.6 (2.97) 13.0 u (4.79) 11.2 u (5.27) 15.5 u (4.78) 

 2% milk, flavored 8.2 (2.20) 7.6 u (4.81) 6.5 u (3.67) 9.8 u (3.22) 

 1% milk, flavored 5.0 u (1.75) 5.1 u (3.14) 4.3 u (3.21) 5.7 u (3.01) 

 Skim milk, flavored 0.3 u (0.19) 0.3 u (0.28) 0.4 u (0.38) 0.0 (0.00) 

 Flavored, fat not specified 3.8 u (2.17) 0.1 u (0.06) 4.2 u (2.15) 6.1 u (4.38) 

Soymilk 12.1 (2.39) 3.5 u (2.14) 8.3 u (4.04) 19.6 ** (4.59) 

Dry or evaporated milk 0.8 u (0.38) 1.0 u (0.97) 2.0 u (1.19) 0.3 u (0.24) 

Yogurt 20.8 (1.76) 18.7 (2.40) 10.6 * (2.64) 23.7 (2.37) 

Cheese 10.1 (1.02) 7.8 (1.16) 8.2 (2.29) 12.7 * (1.68) 

See notes at end of table. 

 
C‐30

Table C-12. Average Amounts Consumed in Grams among All Young Children, by Food Group 

and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard error Mean Standard error Mean Standard error 

Meat and meat alternates 60.3 (2.36) 67.6 (3.57) 68.9 (5.39) 53.7 ** (3.18) 

Beef 4.3 (0.66) 2.8 (0.52) 6.9 u (2.17) 4.1 (0.95) 

Ground beef 1.3 (0.36) 1.1 u (0.43) 0.7 u (0.28) 1.7 u (0.71) 

Pork 1.8 (0.34) 2.8 (0.54) 1.0 * u (0.52) 1.6 u (0.66) 

Ham 0.7 u (0.38) 1.5 u (1.30) 0.7 u (0.39) 0.4 u (0.22) 

Lamb and misc. meats 0.1 u (0.07) 0.3 u (0.27) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 

Chicken 17.6 (1.42) 17.7 (1.39) 19.4 (2.82) 16.7 (1.87) 

Turkey 0.7 u (0.23) 0.7 u (0.42) 1.6 u (0.89) 0.3 u (0.18) 

Organ meats 0.0 u (0.00) 0.0 u (0.01) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 

Hot dogs 3.4 (0.47) 4.6 (1.21) 1.6 * u (0.51) 3.8 (0.84) 

Cold cuts 2.4 (0.50) 2.3 u (0.94) 2.2 u (0.80) 2.7 (0.67) 

Fish 3.0 (0.79) 1.4 u (0.46) 3.1 u (0.98) 3.8 u (1.56) 

Shellfish 0.5 (0.16) 0.5 u (0.26) 1.4 u (0.64) 0.2 u (0.09) 

Bacon/sausage 3.4 (0.44) 3.8 (0.78) 4.5 u (1.42) 2.9 (0.44) 

Eggs 14.1 (1.15) 19.0 (1.95) 20.2 (3.39) 9.3 *** (1.36) 

Beans 2.9 (0.61) 5.5 (1.04) 3.6 u (1.96) 1.3 *** u (0.42) 

Baked/refried beans 1.2 (0.26) 1.5 u (0.52) 0.1 ** u (0.08) 1.6 u (0.51) 

Soy products 1.1 u (0.36) 0.4 u (0.38) 1.0 u (1.00) 1.5 u (0.56) 

Protein/meal enhancement 0.4 u (0.15) 0.2 u (0.16) 0.1 u (0.06) 0.7 u (0.28) 

Nuts 1.0 (0.27) 1.0 u (0.31) 0.6 u (0.28) 0.8 u (0.34) 

Peanut/almond butter 0.3 u (0.09) 0.4 u (0.24) 0.3 u (0.13) 0.3 u (0.14) 

Seeds 0.1 u (0.06) 0.1 u (0.06) 0.0 u (0.01) 0.1 u (0.05) 

Mixed dishes 184.0 (6.07) 197.0 (9.96) 221.0 (13.54) 160.0 ** (6.44) 

Tomato sauce and meat (no pasta) 0.2 u (0.07) 0.0 u (0.03) 0.4 u (0.30) 0.1 u (0.05) 

Chili con carne 1.2 u (0.51) 0.8 u (0.49) 2.2 u (1.82) 1.0 u (0.67) 

Meat mixtures w/ red meat 8.8 (1.22) 11.5 (1.94) 9.4 (2.56) 6.8 u (2.04) 

Meat mixtures w/ chicken/turkey 13.4 (1.60) 12.5 (1.96) 16.3 (3.57) 12.0 (2.74) 

Meat mixtures w/ fish 1.0 u (0.39) 1.9 u (1.28) 1.4 u (0.57) 0.4 u (0.25) 

Hamburgers/cheeseburgers 6.5 (1.03) 6.5 (1.73) 7.7 (1.60) 6.2 (1.77) 

Other sandwiches 33.0 (1.77) 29.6 (3.25) 38.0 (3.43) 33.7 (3.75) 

Hot dogs 7.1 (0.75) 6.1 (1.34) 10.3 (1.79) 6.9 (1.33) 

Luncheon meat 8.8 (1.22) 8.9 (1.79) 12.6 (2.43) 7.7 (2.22) 

Beef, pork, ham 3.2 u (1.05) 3.7 u (1.45) 1.0 u (0.49) 3.9 u (2.05) 

Chicken, turkey 1.2 (0.35) 1.4 u (0.50) 0.7 u (0.42) 0.9 u (0.47) 

Cheese (no meat) 3.9 (0.76) 2.6 u (0.80) 2.9 u (0.87) 5.1 (1.31) 

Fish 0.7 u (0.28) 0.8 u (0.40) 1.1 u (0.74) 0.6 u (0.37) 

Peanut butter 6.9 (0.77) 4.5 (1.12) 7.8 (1.38) 7.8 (1.46) 

Breakfast sandwiches 1.2 u (0.40) 1.7 u (0.96) 1.7 u (1.03) 0.6 u (0.23) 

 Pizza (no meat) 4.9 (0.87) 2.8 (0.62) 5.5 u (1.73) 5.0 (1.46) 

 Pizza w/ meat 6.9 (1.04) 5.1 (0.89) 10.8 ** (1.77) 6.6 (1.82) 

 Mexican entrees 12.1 (2.19) 15.5 (3.59) 13.1 u (4.61) 8.2 (1.73) 

 Macaroni and cheese 16.6 (1.84) 15.3 (3.47) 21.8 (4.39) 15.3 (2.76) 

 Pasta dishes 31.6 (2.30) 30.6 (4.07) 28.2 (5.48) 32.6 (4.36) 

 Rice dishes 6.9 (0.93) 12.2 (2.33) 7.8 u (2.85) 4.0 ** (1.12) 

 Other grain mixtures 2.1 (0.58) 3.7 u (1.60) 2.8 u (2.25) 1.1 (0.26) 

 Meat soup 18.9 (2.76) 26.3 (6.09) 31.6 (7.76) 9.3 * u (3.52) 

 Bean soup 0.6 u (0.28) 0.3 u (0.20) 0.3 u (0.24) 1.0 u (0.56) 

 Grain soups 10.0 (1.53) 16.3 (2.33) 17.5 (5.03) 3.6 *** u (1.08) 

 Vegetables mixtures (incl. soup) 8.9 (2.52) 5.5 (1.16) 5.8 u (1.95) 12.7 u (4.63) 

Entrée salads 0.6 u (0.20) 0.3 u (0.14) 0.4 u (0.31) 0.9 u (0.38) 

See notes at end of table.

 
C‐31

Table C-12. Average Amounts Consumed in Grams among All Young Children, by Food Group 

and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Beverages excluding milk and 524.0 (16.36) 519.0 (21.35) 649.0 ** (36.38) 470.0 (24.48) 100% fruit juice 

Coffee 0.8 u (0.23) 2.2 u (0.76) 0.4 * u (0.20) 0.1 ** u (0.13) 

Tea 15.4 (2.85) 18.8 (4.10) 15.1 (4.40) 11.6 u (4.18) 

Beer 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 

Wine 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 

Liquor 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 

Water (plain) 310.0 (13.17) 265.0 (11.80) 363.0 ** (31.17) 307.0 (20.96) 

Noncarbonated, sweetened drinks 133.0 (7.90) 152.0 (13.36) 194.0 * (15.70) 99.1 ** (10.61) 

Noncarbonated, low-calorie/sugar-free 

drinks 16.1 (2.53) 16.5 (4.10) 19.3 (5.01) 14.6 (3.77) 

Energy drinks 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 

Any soda 48.3 (4.39) 64.0 (9.92) 57.5 (6.94) 37.3 * (5.56) 

Soda, regular 43.9 (4.28) 59.6 (9.63) 50.9 (6.16) 33.6 * (5.53) 

Soda, sugar-free 4.3 (1.06) 4.4 u (1.37) 6.6 u (4.09) 3.7 (0.88) 

Sweets and desserts 62.2 (2.92) 56.0 (3.22) 66.8 * (4.44) 63.9 (5.67) 

Sugar and sugar substitutes 0.3 (0.07) 0.7 (0.19) 0.3 u (0.10) 0.2 * u (0.07) 

Syrups/sweet toppings 3.1 (0.33) 2.0 (0.36) 3.5 * (0.55) 3.6 * (0.67) 

Jelly 0.4 (0.09) 0.5 u (0.19) 0.5 u (0.19) 0.3 u (0.10) 

Jello 3.0 u (1.24) 1.6 u (0.54) 3.5 u (1.11) 3.7 u (2.14) 

Candy 8.1 (0.60) 6.9 (0.69) 7.5 (0.72) 9.3 (1.14) 

Ice cream 15.3 (1.26) 10.6 (1.52) 18.1 ** (2.17) 16.6 * (2.52) 

Pudding 3.1 (0.50) 2.2 u (0.99) 2.9 u (1.28) 3.7 (0.77) 

Ice/popsicles 7.9 (1.02) 7.5 (1.47) 8.4 (2.33) 7.9 (1.90) 

 Sweet rolls 1.3 (0.29) 1.9 (0.50) 1.7 u (0.55) 0.9 u (0.43) 

 Cake/cupcakes 4.7 (0.52) 5.9 (1.60) 5.6 (1.23) 3.2 (0.76) 

Cookies 10.3 (0.78) 12.2 (1.33) 10.7 (1.22) 9.5 (1.04) 

Pies/cobblers 0.9 u (0.35) 0.9 u (0.77) 0.7 u (0.27) 1.0 u (0.61) 

Pastries 2.4 (0.64) 1.4 u (0.52) 2.3 u (0.85) 2.7 u (1.02) 

Doughnuts 1.4 (0.27) 1.5 u (0.46) 1.2 u (0.45) 1.5 (0.39) 

Salty Snacks 10.1 (0.57) 10.1 (0.80) 11.4 (1.22) 9.7 (1.00) 

Corn-based salty snacks 3.9 (0.37) 4.0 (0.69) 5.3 (0.87) 3.5 (0.57) 

 Pretzels/party mix 1.6 (0.31) 0.9 (0.20) 1.5 u (0.46) 2.2 * (0.60) 

 Popcorn 1.4 (0.16) 1.5 (0.28) 1.1 (0.22) 1.4 (0.29) 

 Potato chips 3.2 (0.33) 3.8 (0.63) 3.6 (0.66) 2.5 (0.56) 

Added Fats and Oils 3.5 (0.42) 2.8 (0.78) 4.4 (0.79) 3.1 (0.53) 

Butter 0.5 (0.09) 0.3 (0.06) 0.8 * (0.20) 0.5 (0.11) 

Margarine 0.4 (0.08) 0.3 u (0.13) 0.6 (0.16) 0.4 (0.11) 

Other added fats 0.2 u (0.06) 0.1 u (0.08) 0.5 u (0.24) 0.1 u (0.09) 

 Other added oils 0.0 u (0.02) 0.0 u (0.02) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 u (0.03) 

 Salad dressing 0.6 (0.15) 0.3 u (0.15) 0.5 (0.16) 0.6 u (0.24) 

 Mayonnaise 0.0 u (0.01) 0.1 u (0.05) 0.0 u (0.03) 0.0 u (0.01) 

 Gravy 0.8 u (0.26) 0.7 u (0.28) 1.5 u (0.72) 0.4 u (0.25) 

 Cream cheese 0.3 u (0.11) 0.0 u (0.02) 0.2 u (0.21) 0.6 ** u (0.20) 

 Cream/sour cream 0.6 u (0.19) 0.9 u (0.61) 0.2 u (0.12) 0.5 u (0.17) 

Other 2.2 (0.53) 2.2 u (1.22) 0.9 u (0.41) 2.9 (0.81) 

Sources: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Foods consumed from the vegetables, fruits, 

grains, and meat/meat alternate food groups reflect foods consumed as discrete items and do not include 

foods consumed as part of mixed dishes. Food choices reflect individual foods consumed except when 
C‐32

foods were reported to be eaten in ‘combination’ as sandwiches, Mexican entrees, green salads, and 

soups. In these cases, the foods reported in combination are counted as one food choice (for example, a 

sandwich reported as a beef, cheese, and roll was counted in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” group as one 

food choice). ‘All children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Means are not ageadjusted. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). 

Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at 

the time of the interview. 

1 Grains are classified as whole grains if at least 50 percent of the total grains are whole grain. The 

MyPyramid data sources listed above were used to classify grains. 2 "Other raw" and "Other cooked" vegetables include all vegetables not categorized separately. Within 

these two groups, vegetables in the top quartile of the distribution of Vitamins A or C per 100 grams were 

categorized as "higher in nutrients"; all others are "lower in nutrients." Raw vegetables higher in nutrients 

include broccoli, peppers (sweet and hot), snow peas, seaweed, and leeks. Raw vegetables that are 

lower in nutrients include onions, cucumbers, celery, radishes, mushrooms, asparagus, squash, and 

green peas. Cooked vegetables higher in nutrients include cabbage, peppers, asparagus, cauliflower, 

Brussels sprouts, and snow peas. Cooked vegetables that are lower in nutrients include squash, 

artichokes, onions, mushrooms, eggplant, beets, and yellow string beans. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

- Not applicable. 

   
C‐33

Table C-13. Average Amounts Consumed in Grams among Young Children Consuming, by Food 

Group and Subgroup 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Sample size 1,956 - 791 - 496 - 606 - 

Grains 77.7 (3.89) 75.4 (4.46) 83.6 (5.37) 76.4 (4.84) 

 Whole grains1 56.1 (4.52) 53.9 (7.07) 65.2 (10.08) 52.0 (4.90) 

 Refined grains 61.5 (2.80) 61.9 (3.52) 66.5 (4.12) 60.3 (4.13) 

 Bread 29.8 (1.60) 31.1 (2.70) 33.1 (3.92) 27.4 (2.17) 

 Rolls 28.8 (3.60) 30.7 (4.85) 32.5 (6.45) 24.2 (5.54) 

 English muffin 16.3 (2.16) 58.0 (0.00) . (.) 14.5 (0.00) 

 Bagels 56.4 (6.41) 48.2 (3.71) 53.6 (10.60) 58.0 (7.55) 

 Biscuits, scones, croissants 37.3 (5.01) 46.7 (3.63) 34.0 (9.79) 30.9 * (7.16) 

 Muffins 52.8 (10.76) 75.3 (17.45) 65.3 (0.83) 40.4 u (14.47) 

 Cornbread 70.2 (19.78) 88.4 u (28.50) 30.1 * (6.80) 67.5 u (24.19) 

 Corn tortillas 28.0 (1.82) 28.6 (2.52) 29.2 (5.08) 19.7 * (2.54) 

 Flour tortillas 39.5 (9.80) 29.4 (6.75) 29.3 (7.42) 52.4 (15.17) 

 Taco shells 18.7 (5.25) 13.5 (2.85) 42.2 * u (14.19) 14.7 (3.25) 

 Crackers 19.8 (1.11) 17.1 (1.42) 20.6 (1.60) 20.4 (1.73) 

 Breakfast/granola bar 33.3 (2.27) 29.2 (2.81) 41.5 (6.49) 33.2 (2.64) 

 Pancakes, waffles, French toast 51.8 (3.15) 50.7 (8.08) 54.9 (3.74) 50.7 (4.64) 

 Cold cereal 25.8 (0.72) 26.4 (1.13) 29.9 (1.56) 23.6 (1.16) 

 Hot cereal 130.0 (13.76) 109.0 (11.20) 164.0 (26.98) 132.0 (17.08) 

 Rice 87.5 (5.93) 76.5 (6.86) 91.7 (15.43) 89.8 (13.75) 

 Pasta 66.5 (7.61) 67.1 u (20.94) 131.0 * (21.52) 63.5 (8.48) 

Vegetables 97.7 (4.88) 97.6 (5.36) 90.6 (8.87) 98.6 (8.09) 

 Raw vegetables 69.2 (11.31) 65.0 (11.06) 58.8 (8.67) 77.6 (18.24) 

 Raw lettuce/greens 21.8 (5.57) 24.0 u (7.99) 22.3 (3.21) 13.5 (2.05) 

 Raw carrots 38.3 (3.99) 33.0 u (10.74) 33.2 (5.98) 39.9 (5.86) 

 Raw tomatoes 42.1 (9.41) 48.7 u (14.82) 37.1 (7.13) 44.3 u (18.12) 

 Raw cabbage/coleslaw 59.3 (12.41) 48.7 (6.84) 110.0 *** (15.37) 44.1 (8.94) 

 Other raw (higher in vitamins A or C) 2 21.6 u (6.55) 73.4 (10.01) 44.0 ** (0.00) 16.7 *** u (5.19) 

 Other raw (lower in vitamins A or C) 2 38.3 (5.16) 36.6 u (13.11) 39.2 u (12.13) 38.4 (6.22) 

 Salads (w/greens) 98.9 (23.54) 68.0 (7.83) 67.8 (10.70) 135.0 (35.88) 

 Cooked vegetables, excl. potatoes 68.5 (5.18) 60.8 (4.43) 63.4 (6.54) 71.5 (7.86) 

 Cooked green beans 52.6 (3.08) 56.8 (4.22) 49.3 (6.09) 49.8 (3.72) 

 Cooked corn 66.1 (4.99) 71.1 (7.18) 50.2 (9.19) 73.0 (9.17) 

 Cooked peas 40.9 (4.15) 59.4 (9.65) 48.3 (7.39) 31.8 * (6.78) 

 Cooked carrots 50.2 (4.30) 34.0 (4.16) 73.4 *** (10.23) 41.8 (2.13) 

 Cooked broccoli 67.7 (9.37) 44.4 (11.55) 109.0 * (24.94) 67.5 (9.39) 

 Cooked tomatoes 17.1 (1.17) 19.9 (3.10) 14.3 (1.80) 16.7 (1.66) 

 Cooked mixed 62.3 (6.62) 50.1 (5.53) 77.1 (16.62) 62.4 (9.29) 

 Cooked starchy 93.6 (10.71) 59.1 (12.45) 236.0 *** (0.00) 92.1 * (9.01) 

 Other cooked deep yellow 84.9 (6.15) 89.1 (11.84) 48.6 ** (8.75) 91.6 (6.56) 

 Other cooked dark green 44.7 (10.36) 51.4 u (16.97) 53.9 (10.40) 18.9 u (9.26) 

 Other cooked (higher in vitamins A or C) 2 74.4 u (25.16) 42.0 (6.50) 89.3 ** (13.83) 91.5 u (40.18) 

 Other cooked (lower in vitamins A or C) 2 58.9 (8.40) 66.3 u (48.28) 11.8 (0.70) 59.2 (7.27) 

 Other fried . (.) . (.) . (.) . (.) 

 Cooked potatoes 66.5 (2.64) 73.5 (4.23) 67.8 (7.66) 60.4 * (4.38) 

 Cooked potatoes-not fried 86.9 (5.10) 88.7 (7.82) 81.6 (10.76) 88.7 (9.18) 

 Cooked potatoes-fried 48.7 (2.59) 55.3 (4.88) 44.0 (4.85) 46.2 (3.78) 

 Vegetable juice 137.0 (22.85) 162.0 (20.87) 226.0 u (106.44 99.8 * (20.62) 

See notes at end of table. 

 
C‐34

Table C-13. Average Amounts Consumed in Grams among Young Children Consuming, by Food 

Group and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Fruit and 100% fruit juice 343.0 (9.73) 391.0 (21.71) 312.0 ** (18.72) 329.0 * (13.42) 

 Any whole fruit 167.0 (6.25) 160.0 (7.33) 170.0 (13.63) 170.0 (10.23) 

Fresh fruit 157.0 (6.00) 149.0 (8.42) 163.0 (11.96) 161.0 (9.91) 

Fresh orange 99.3 (10.29) 125.0 (15.77) 126.0 (22.55) 70.3 ** (11.08) 

Fresh other citrus 29.3 u (11.26) 48.2 (1.65) 45.0 (0.00) 11.3 *** (0.00) 

Fresh apple 108.0 (3.82) 105.0 (8.81) 119.0 (9.52) 109.0 (7.63) 

Fresh banana 93.6 (4.16) 93.1 (8.08) 102.0 (6.89) 91.9 (4.84) 

Fresh melon 99.7 (9.13) 98.8 (24.60) 67.9 (10.83) 107.0 (12.89) 

Fresh watermelon 192.0 (32.09) 152.0 (30.83) 258.0 u (102.95 189.0 (28.69) 

Fresh grapes 65.4 (3.29) 59.7 (5.30) 74.3 (8.24) 67.2 (6.34) 

Fresh peach/nectarine 104.0 (11.39) 106.0 (12.52) 93.3 (21.78) 105.0 (19.06) 

Fresh pear 118.0 (17.97) 152.0 (25.46) 182.0 (15.14) 95.8 (17.73) 

Fresh berries 63.6 (9.85) 68.4 (14.01) 47.1 (6.11) 66.0 (15.49) 

Fresh pineapple 50.8 (3.88) 50.0 (8.72) 53.0 (6.53) 44.3 (2.39) 

Other fresh fruit 91.2 (8.16) 93.4 (15.81) 86.5 (16.13) 94.4 (12.92) 

Avocado/guacamole 46.0 u (26.79) 4.8 (0.00) 76.6 u (41.02) 77.7 (0.00) 

Lemon/lime - any form 13.7 u (6.22) 7.0 (0.00) 7.0 (0.00) 29.0 (0.00) 

 Canned or frozen fruit, total 113.0 (7.31) 124.0 (10.43) 124.0 (18.92) 105.0 (7.53) 

Canned or frozen in syrup 106.0 (9.04) 118.0 (19.83) 88.8 (20.40) 114.0 (8.51) 

Canned or frozen, no syrup 113.0 (7.75) 123.0 (11.06) 127.0 (19.07) 103.0 (8.50) 

Applesauce, canned/ frozen apples 104.0 (10.00) 129.0 (12.95) 91.8 (18.51) 98.4 (14.02) 

Canned/frozen peaches 83.9 (6.09) 78.4 (15.40) 113.0 (11.66) 63.4 (5.70) 

Canned/frozen pineapple 74.4 (12.02) 96.2 u (41.69) 54.6 u (29.19) 83.4 (8.66) 

Other canned/frozen 99.7 (8.43) 115.0 (14.09) 104.0 (17.14) 93.5 (9.24) 

100% Fruit juice 306.0 (11.73) 334.0 (22.12) 281.0 * (12.84) 299.0 (17.33) 

Non-citrus juice 314.0 (10.76) 340.0 (28.17) 284.0 (16.75) 313.0 (13.43) 

Citrus juice 199.0 (15.20) 221.0 (15.24) 193.0 (12.03) 186.0 (28.55) 

Dried fruit 34.8 (2.81) 15.7 (2.97) 33.8 ** (4.96) 37.9 *** (4.53) 

Milk and milk products 481.0 (15.66) 511.0 (22.37) 420.0 ** (19.55) 495.0 (20.74) 

Cow’s milk, total 466.0 (14.58) 495.0 (20.86) 420.0 * (21.80) 476.0 (18.72) 

Unflavored white milk, total 451.0 (14.74) 485.0 (21.24) 401.0 ** (20.80) 460.0 (19.31) 

Unflavored whole milk 480.0 (19.56) 509.0 (30.04) 402.0 ** (27.73) 487.0 (29.85) 

Unflavored non-whole, total 386.0 (20.50) 407.0 (24.88) 380.0 (29.10) 390.0 (31.87) 

2% milk, unflavored 359.0 (19.56) 385.0 (29.74) 383.0 (33.36) 343.0 (22.04) 

1% milk, unflavored 363.0 (42.27) 444.0 (73.32) 306.0 (43.67) 376.0 (81.32) 

Skim milk, unflavored 481.0 (69.84) 534.0 (148.72 462.0 u (139.36 486.0 (86.47) 

 Unflavored, fat not specified 264.0 (39.64) 373.0 u (116.56 223.0 (36.74) 231.0 (34.00) 

 Flavored milk, total 317.0 (26.21) 357.0 (64.04) 292.0 (29.45) 319.0 (30.46) 

 Flavored, whole milk 335.0 (56.55) 240.0 (22.01) 284.0 (25.80) 430.0 (121.01 

 Flavored non-whole, total 309.0 (37.60) 393.0 (75.08) 336.0 (63.11) 276.0 (35.73) 

 2% milk, flavored 265.0 (30.16) 406.0 (115.61 299.0 (64.91) 224.0 (17.28) 

 1% milk, flavored 347.0 (58.62) 386.0 (61.49) 450.0 (124.78 309.0 (79.84) 

 Skim milk, flavored 233.0 (18.05) 264.0 (0.00) 187.0 (0.00) . (.) 

 Flavored, fat not specified 285.0 (29.59) 73.6 u (32.84) 227.0 *** (27.34) 316.0 *** (24.82) 

Soymilk 468.0 (79.24) 476.0 (139.41 503.0 (80.45) 461.0 (96.68) 

Dry or evaporated milk 321.0 u (98.14) 1342.0 (0.00) 340.0 *** u (114.15 155.0 *** u (82.46) 

Yogurt 126.0 (4.98) 138.0 (9.01) 141.0 (13.77) 119.0 (7.71) 

Cheese 34.0 (2.59) 30.1 (2.78) 42.5 (8.49) 35.3 (3.74) 

See notes at end of table. 

 
C‐35

Table C-13. Average Amounts Consumed in Grams among Young Children Consuming, by Food 

Group and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard error Mean Standard error Mean Standard error 

Meat and meat alternates 88.7 (3.01) 93.6 (4.37) 102.0 (6.41) 80.2 * (4.21) 

Beef 47.9 (4.00) 41.2 (5.44) 61.4 (12.73) 43.7 (4.81) 

Ground beef 49.6 (8.30) 53.6 (8.10) 29.7 * (5.99) 54.3 (14.79) 

Pork 39.7 (5.68) 40.8 (7.30) 26.6 u (9.01) 43.1 (6.59) 

Ham 43.3 u (14.38) 58.7 u (26.37) 35.9 u (13.60) 29.9 (7.14) 

Lamb and misc. meats 93.4 u (41.98) 93.4 u (41.98) . (.) . (.) 

Chicken 61.7 (2.82) 61.6 (3.14) 77.4 ** (5.26) 54.7 (3.39) 

Turkey 67.1 (9.72) 52.9 u (16.41) 89.8 (17.80) 58.9 (15.69) 

Organ meats 46.7 (0.00) 46.7 (0.00) . (.) . (.) 

Hot dogs 59.3 (5.13) 84.2 (6.87) 44.4 * u (15.69) 51.8 *** (5.47) 

Cold cuts 36.9 (4.40) 37.7 (8.90) 38.9 (7.75) 36.0 (4.98) 

Fish 71.5 (10.91) 46.1 (10.69) 70.8 (16.98) 80.9 (17.20) 

Shellfish 42.3 (7.23) 40.5 (7.00) 48.1 u (14.66) 29.4 (7.52) 

Bacon/sausage 33.5 (3.02) 34.5 (4.80) 38.9 (9.09) 29.2 (3.15) 

Eggs 75.0 (3.03) 78.5 (4.11) 81.6 (7.34) 67.3 (4.43) 

Beans 74.7 (9.99) 66.1 (6.14) 150.0 u (45.53) 58.9 (14.01) 

Baked/refried beans 69.7 (7.48) 83.4 (15.12) 20.9 *** u (6.38) 68.0 (8.01) 

Soy products 80.3 (11.78) 91.0 (0.00) 62.0 (0.00) 89.9 (18.52) 

Protein/meal enhancement 63.3 (14.52) 43.8 u (28.46) 34.0 (0.00) 69.9 u (22.04) 

Nuts 28.1 (5.07) 28.1 (5.88) 37.4 (8.29) 21.4 u (6.85) 

Peanut/almond butter 13.5 (2.12) 15.2 (3.95) 10.3 (1.24) 14.5 (3.11) 

Seeds 12.9 u (7.32) 18.5 u (8.44) 8.4 (0.00) 5.1 u (4.85) 

Mixed dishes 215.0 (8.03) 219.0 (11.00) 253.0 (14.73) 193.0 (9.51) 

Tomato sauce and meat (no pasta) 77.7 (11.49) 62.3 (0.00) 69.6 (3.87) 95.1 u (31.03) 

Chili con carne 125.0 (35.03) 156.0 (43.87) 296.0 u (99.64) 78.3 (9.82) 

Meat mixtures w/ red meat 111.0 (8.76) 129.0 (9.72) 111.0 (18.66) 94.5 * (11.53) 

Meat mixtures w/ chicken/turkey 127.0 (9.25) 116.0 (9.82) 142.0 (20.98) 127.0 (17.84) 

Meat mixtures w/ fish 93.2 (19.66) 150.0 (29.21) 72.7 u (28.42) 56.8 ** u (21.37) 

Hamburgers/cheeseburgers 90.6 (5.07) 101.0 (9.56) 84.8 (7.97) 87.9 (6.53) 

Other sandwiches 87.9 (2.94) 89.9 (6.53) 93.2 (4.94) 85.1 (4.94) 

Hot dogs 92.0 (7.02) 95.9 (9.06) 116.0 (11.80) 80.0 (9.87) 

Luncheon meat 91.8 (7.89) 89.7 (12.76) 85.9 (7.30) 97.9 (19.57) 

Beef, pork, ham 113.0 (13.26) 131.0 (15.14) 92.1 (24.57) 108.0 (21.23) 

Chicken, turkey 85.2 (7.53) 85.4 (11.39) 89.0 (6.96) 74.8 (9.80) 

Cheese (no meat) 69.7 (7.38) 65.1 (6.94) 68.2 (7.23) 73.3 (11.32) 

Fish 65.4 (8.27) 57.0 (14.78) 101.0 * (12.75) 56.2 (12.14) 

Peanut butter 59.1 (1.74) 56.9 (3.52) 61.6 (3.64) 59.5 (3.05) 

Breakfast sandwiches 80.0 (9.77) 97.1 (13.76) 74.2 (17.71) 60.4 * (7.67) 

 Pizza (no meat) 85.6 (6.56) 73.4 (11.18) 94.4 (11.56) 84.6 (12.44) 

 Pizza w/ meat 98.3 (9.53) 85.8 (9.32) 102.0 (8.93) 103.0 (20.15) 

 Mexican entrees 119.0 (10.96) 118.0 (15.64) 133.0 (21.82) 98.4 (13.77) 

 Macaroni and cheese 128.0 (8.10) 131.0 (7.66) 130.0 (17.63) 121.0 (8.23) 

 Pasta dishes 178.0 (8.01) 174.0 (9.64) 239.0 *** (13.38) 160.0 (11.47) 

 Rice dishes 96.3 (8.11) 112.0 (9.71) 152.0 (23.19) 61.7 *** (7.10) 

 Other grain mixtures 96.4 (15.20) 117.0 (23.92) 109.0 (30.66) 65.0 * (8.36) 

 Meat soup 256.0 (19.35) 272.0 (39.39) 279.0 (24.60) 228.0 (46.02) 

 Bean soup 125.0 (23.41) 92.1 (19.07) 60.8 u (32.17) 156.0 (27.24) 

 Grain soups 220.0 (17.35) 206.0 (13.29) 214.0 (28.66) 274.0 (64.65) 

 Vegetables mixtures (incl. soup) 127.0 (21.26) 125.0 (23.13) 116.0 (23.25) 130.0 (29.28) 

Entrée salads 81.4 (18.54) 50.8 u (20.55) 193.0 *** (10.30) 79.9 (20.16) 

See notes at end of table.

 
C‐36

Table C-13. Average Amounts Consumed in Grams among Young Children Consuming, by Food 

Group and Subgroup–Continued 

Children, 1–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error Mean Standard 

error 

Beverages excluding milk and 563.0 (16.02) 563.0 (22.40) 680.0 ** (32.23) 509.0 (24.49) 100% fruit juice 

Coffee 74.1 (9.17) 95.4 (11.00) 34.2 *** (6.55) 51.5 u (39.02) 

Tea 186.0 (23.89) 195.0 (19.67) 132.0 ** (12.54) 236.0 (62.28) 

Beer . (.) . (.) . (.) . (.) 

Wine . (.) . (.) . (.) . (.) 

Liquor . (.) . (.) . (.) . (.) 

Water (plain) 409.0 (12.94) 377.0 (16.85) 474.0 ** (33.07) 390.0 (20.18) 

Noncarbonated, sweetened drinks 318.0 (15.63) 338.0 (23.49) 379.0 (26.38) 281.0 (19.70) 

Noncarbonated, low-calorie/sugarfree drinks 246.0 (20.56) 228.0 (24.87) 296.0 (49.15) 243.0 (24.90) 

Energy drinks . (.) . (.) . (.) . (.) 

Any soda 193.0 (10.31) 212.0 (21.77) 218.0 (20.43) 170.0 (12.95) 

Soda, regular 201.0 (11.69) 216.0 (23.20) 220.0 (23.47) 183.0 (15.30) 

Soda, sugar-free 118.0 (15.96) 127.0 (18.76) 198.0 *** (8.55) 86.7 (10.29) 

Sweets and desserts 74.3 (3.23) 67.8 (3.31) 79.2 (5.11) 76.4 (5.82) 

Sugar and sugar substitutes 5.6 (0.72) 6.6 (1.15) 4.8 (0.95) 4.7 (1.30) 

Syrups/sweet toppings 18.7 (1.59) 17.6 (1.83) 18.1 (2.58) 19.7 (2.60) 

Jelly 11.2 (1.64) 16.3 (4.60) 11.7 (2.64) 8.4 (1.70) 

Jello 99.9 (21.42) 103.0 (11.20) 85.2 (23.39) 110.0 u (34.13) 

Candy 22.3 (1.27) 21.6 (1.74) 21.5 (1.24) 23.4 (2.02) 

Ice cream 78.9 (6.03) 60.2 (5.45) 81.2 ** (5.36) 88.7 * (10.60) 

Pudding 110.0 (10.81) 93.1 (16.27) 103.0 (21.59) 119.0 (17.37) 

Ice/popsicles 77.8 (6.79) 70.7 (5.64) 105.0 (18.18) 71.1 (7.81) 

 Sweet rolls 51.9 (5.54) 52.1 (4.82) 50.5 (7.43) 52.5 (14.99) 

 Cake/cupcakes 57.4 (4.70) 66.4 (12.49) 64.6 (6.51) 46.3 (4.82) 

Cookies 26.5 (1.48) 29.7 (2.51) 26.2 (1.55) 24.7 (2.03) 

Pies/cobblers 103.0 (19.73) 145.0 (21.82) 56.5 *** (9.85) 115.0 (23.24) 

Pastries 50.8 (5.24) 45.5 (12.33) 66.1 (8.71) 49.7 (7.85) 

Doughnuts 48.7 (3.61) 58.6 (9.96) 60.3 (10.39) 42.6 (3.51) 

Salty Snacks 23.0 (1.07) 22.5 (1.13) 27.2 * (2.09) 21.8 (1.86) 

Corn-based salty snacks 23.5 (1.18) 22.9 (2.44) 29.4 (3.01) 21.3 (1.78) 

 Pretzels/party mix 20.0 (2.35) 14.6 (2.54) 23.7 (5.67) 21.7 (3.16) 

 Popcorn 13.8 (0.98) 14.5 (1.55) 13.3 (1.88) 14.0 (2.03) 

 Potato chips 19.6 (0.82) 21.0 (1.37) 20.4 (2.23) 18.1 (1.78) 

Added Fats and Oils 12.7 (1.18) 13.4 (2.68) 14.8 (2.24) 10.9 (1.14) 

Butter 5.2 (0.42) 4.4 (0.67) 6.9 (1.41) 4.4 (0.41) 

Margarine 5.3 (0.44) 5.4 (0.91) 5.8 (0.91) 5.2 (0.67) 

Other added fats 22.6 (3.33) 10.4 u (3.36) 30.1 *** (3.93) 24.5 *** (0.00) 

 Other added oils 10.8 (1.69) 8.8 (0.00) . (.) 11.7 (1.89) 

 Salad dressing 15.5 (2.34) 15.7 u (5.23) 16.6 (3.38) 12.4 (2.58) 

 Mayonnaise 6.3 u (2.16) 9.8 (2.63) 4.2 * (0.41) 3.1 u (2.32) 

 Gravy 21.9 (3.82) 23.1 u (9.29) 34.7 (7.58) 15.0 (4.27) 

 Cream cheese 17.9 (3.22) 7.4 (1.83) 21.5 u (9.50) 18.2 ** (3.76) 

 Cream/sour cream 21.7 (4.10) 30.2 (6.83) 15.3 (4.35) 18.2 (4.97) 

Other 34.5 (7.78) 50.2 u (27.37) 27.7 u (11.81) 31.7 (7.85) 

Sources: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data, 1–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per child. Foods consumed from the vegetables, fruits, 

grains, and meat/meat alternate food groups reflect foods consumed as discrete items and do not include 

foods consumed as part of mixed dishes. Food choices reflect individual foods consumed except when 
C‐37

foods were reported to be eaten in ‘combination’ as sandwiches, Mexican entrees, green salads, and 

soups. In these cases, the foods reported in combination are counted as one food choice (for example, a 

sandwich reported as a beef, cheese, and roll was counted in the “cheeseburger/hamburger” group as one 

food choice). ‘All children’ includes children with missing WIC participation or income. Means are not ageadjusted. Significant differences in proportions are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). 

Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as children receiving WIC benefits at 

the time of the interview. 

1 Grains are classified as whole grains if at least 50 percent of the total grains are whole grain. The 

MyPyramid data sources listed above were used to classify grains. 2 "Other raw" and "Other cooked" vegetables include all vegetables not categorized separately. Within 

these two groups, vegetables in the top quartile of the distribution of Vitamins A or C per 100 grams were 

categorized as "higher in nutrients"; all others are "lower in nutrients." Raw vegetables higher in nutrients 

include broccoli, peppers (sweet and hot), snow peas, seaweed, and leeks. Raw vegetables that are 

lower in nutrients include onions, cucumbers, celery, radishes, mushrooms, asparagus, squash, and 

green peas. Cooked vegetables higher in nutrients include cabbage, peppers, asparagus, cauliflower, 

Brussels sprouts, and snow peas. Cooked vegetables that are lower in nutrients include squash, 

artichokes, onions, mushrooms, eggplant, beets, and yellow string beans. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

- Not applicable. 

   
C‐38

Table C-14. Healthy Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005) Scores: Children, 2–4 Years Old 

Children, 2–4 years 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 1,390 - 486 - 400 - 453 - 

Total Fruit 5.0 (0.02) 5.0 (0.03) 4.8 (0.18) 5.0 (0.03) 

Whole Fruit 5.0 (0.03) 4.9 (0.13) 4.9 (0.16) 5.0 (0.10) 

Total Vegetables 2.3 (0.08) 2.3 (0.10) 2.2 (0.11) 2.3 (0.14) 

Dark Green and Orange 

Vegetables, and Legumes 0.8 (0.09) 0.4 (0.07) 0.8 (0.18) 1.0 *** (0.15) 

Total Grains 4.9 (0.03) 4.8 (0.08) 5.0 (0.04) 4.9 (0.05) 

Whole Grains 1.1 (0.06) 0.9 (0.08) 1.0 (0.09) 1.2 * (0.09) 

Milk 9.9 (0.08) 9.9 (0.12) 9.7 (0.21) 10.0 (0.08) 

Meat and Beans 7.5 (0.18) 8.0 (0.23) 8.4 (0.33) 6.8 ** (0.29) 

Oils 5.8 (0.20) 5.8 (0.37) 5.8 (0.32) 5.6 (0.31) 

Saturated Fat 5.0 (0.25) 5.2 (0.32) 4.4 (0.37) 5.1 (0.39) 

Sodium 4.8 (0.12) 5.3 (0.20) 4.6 * (0.22) 4.6 * (0.23) 

Empty Calories 11.1 (0.24) 11.3 (0.35) 10.2 * (0.38) 11.3 (0.44) 

Total HEI-2005 Score 63.2 (0.62) 63.7 (0.65) 61.8 (1.18) 62.8 (1.02) 

Children, 2 year olds 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 587 - 223 - 162 - 183 - 

Total Fruit 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.02) 5.0 (0.00) 

Whole Fruit 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.15) 5.0 (0.07) 5.0 (0.01) 

Total Vegetables 2.2 (0.10) 2.3 (0.16) 2.1 (0.15) 2.1 (0.22) 

Dark Green and Orange 

Vegetables, and Legumes 0.8 (0.11) 0.4 (0.11) 0.7 (0.15) 1.0 * (0.23) 

Total Grains 4.7 (0.09) 4.6 (0.20) 4.9 (0.10) 4.6 (0.15) 

Whole Grains 1.2 (0.12) 0.8 (0.11) 1.1 (0.13) 1.4 ** (0.18) 

Milk 10.0 (0.00) 10.0 (0.02) 10.0 (0.02) 10.0 (0.00) 

Meat and Beans 7.5 (0.22) 7.7 (0.37) 7.8 (0.48) 7.2 (0.34) 

Oils 5.3 (0.23) 5.4 (0.36) 5.5 (0.38) 5.4 (0.42) 

Saturated Fat 4.2 (0.35) 4.6 (0.57) 4.9 (0.55) 3.7 (0.49) 

Sodium 5.2 (0.19) 5.6 (0.28) 5.0 (0.30) 5.1 (0.34) 

Empty Calories 11.4 (0.25) 11.5 (0.43) 11.0 (0.56) 11.7 (0.50) 

Total HEI-2005 Score 62.6 (0.70) 63.0 (0.96) 63.0 (1.28) 62.2 (1.30) 

See notes at end of table. 
C‐39

Table C-14. Healthy Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005) Scores: Children, 2–4 Years–Continued 

Sources: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Health Eating Index-2005, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Center 

for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 1, December 2006. Sample includes NHANES 

respondents with complete dietary recall data, 2–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Only scores for the age group 2–4 years are age-adjusted to account for different age 

distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in mean scores are noted by * (.05 

level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as 

children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 - Not applicable. 

Children, 3 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 389 - 132 - 104 - 134 - 

Total Fruit 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.01) 4.8 *** (0.02) 5.0 (0.00) 

Whole Fruit 5.0 (0.08) 4.9 (0.29) 4.9 (0.07) 4.9 (0.27) 

Total Vegetables 2.2 (0.12) 2.1 (0.12) 2.0 (0.15) 2.2 (0.22) 

Dark Green and Orange 

Vegetables, and Legumes 0.7 (0.13) 0.3 (0.05) 0.3 u (0.15) 1.1 ** (0.25) 

Total Grains 5.0 (0.00) 4.9 (0.11) 5.0 (0.10) 5.0 (0.00) 

Whole Grains 1.1 (0.09) 1.0 (0.15) 0.8 (0.13) 1.3 (0.18) 

Milk 10.0 (0.05) 10.0 (0.06) 9.7 *** (0.02) 10.0 (0.05) 

Meat and Beans 7.2 (0.30) 8.2 (0.38) 8.1 (0.48) 6.3 ** (0.53) 

Oils 5.5 (0.29) 5.3 (0.42) 5.4 (0.38) 5.4 (0.55) 

Saturated Fat 5.4 (0.49) 5.8 (0.44) 4.1 * (0.55) 5.6 (0.89) 

Sodium 4.8 (0.23) 5.4 (0.38) 4.4 * (0.30) 4.6 (0.40) 

Empty Calories 11.4 (0.50) 12.1 (0.70) 9.3 ** (0.56) 11.8 (0.96) 

Total HEI-2005 Score 63.2 (1.21) 65.0 (1.09) 58.8 *** (1.28) 63.2 (2.16) 

Children, 4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 414 - 131 - 134 - 136 - 

Total Fruit 5.0 (0.06) 5.0 (0.08) 4.7 (0.42) 5.0 (0.09) 

Whole Fruit 5.0 (0.07) 4.9 (0.21) 4.8 (0.38) 5.0 (0.15) 

Total Vegetables 2.6 (0.19) 2.5 (0.22) 2.4 (0.27) 2.7 (0.28) 

Dark Green and Orange 

Vegetables, and Legumes 0.9 (0.21) 0.5 u (0.18) 1.3 u (0.49) 0.9 u (0.31) 

Total Grains 5.0 (0.02) 4.9 (0.11) 5.0 (0.04) 5.0 (0.05) 

Whole Grains 1.0 (0.08) 0.9 (0.16) 0.9 (0.19) 1.0 (0.11) 

Milk 9.8 (0.24) 9.6 (0.37) 9.5 (0.41) 9.9 (0.23) 

Meat and Beans 8.0 (0.38) 8.0 (0.46) 9.2 (0.55) 7.0 (0.59) 

Oils 6.5 (0.47) 6.5 (0.97) 6.4 (0.76) 6.1 (0.61) 

Saturated Fat 5.3 (0.42) 5.1 (0.62) 4.2 (0.71) 5.9 (0.60) 

Sodium 4.4 (0.23) 4.8 (0.38) 4.5 (0.49) 4.1 (0.45) 

Empty Calories 10.5 (0.47) 10.4 (0.64) 10.5 (0.76) 10.4 (0.75) 

Total HEI-2005 Score 63.9 (1.20) 63.3 (1.32) 63.5 (2.65) 62.9 (1.74) 
This page left blank intentionally. 

 
Appendix D. 

The Healthy Eating Index-2010 

   
This page left blank intentionally. 
D‐1

The Healthy Eating Index-2010 

In this Appendix, we examine the overall quality of the diets consumed by WIC children and 

nonparticipating children using the Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010). As described in 

Chapter 6, the HEI is a measure of diet quality that assesses conformance to key 

recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines (USDA and DHHS 2010). It has been adopted by 

the USDA as a tool to monitor the quality of foods consumed by the U.S. population overall, as 

well as progress toward healthier eating habits among food assistance program participants 

(Guenther et al. 2008). The HEI was first created in 1995 by the USDA’s Center for Nutrition 

Policy and Promotion (CNPP). It was revised in 2006 to reflect the 2005 Dietary Guidelines

(HEI-2005) and updated in 2012 to reflect the 2010 Dietary Guidelines (HEI-2010). In this 

Appendix, we present findings based on the HEI-2010. 

All HEI analyses in this appendix are limited to children 2–4 years old because the Dietary 

Guidelines do not apply to children under the age of 2 years. HEI scores were estimated at the 

population level, using the population ratio method.1 The HEI-2010 analyses assess the quality 

of diets consumed by WIC participants and nonparticipants relative to the most recent dietary 

guidance. The analysis is based on data from the NHANES 2005-2008, and estimates are based 

on a single day of intake. In this Appendix, we discuss only statistically significant comparisons 

between WIC participants and either income-eligible or higher-income nonparticipants. 

Healthy Eating Index-2010 

The HEI-2010 is a scoring metric that is made up of 12 components, each reflecting a key aspect 

of diet quality. The standards used to assign HEI-2010 component scores are expressed on a 

density basis (that is, amounts per 1,000 calories or a percentage of calories) rather than absolute 

amounts of foods consumed. The use of such standards in assessing diet quality reflects the 

recommendation that individuals should strive to meet food group and nutrient guidelines while 

maintaining energy balance, rather than meeting these guidelines simply by consuming large 

quantities of food. 

The HEI-2010 consists of nine adequacy components, which are dietary components individuals 

are recommended to consume to ensure adequate nutrient intakes, and include the following: 

total fruit, including juice; whole fruit; total vegetables; greens and beans; whole grains; refined 

grains; dairy; total protein foods; and seafood and plant proteins. The remaining three 

components, referred to as moderation components that individuals are recommended to limit, 

assess intakes of fatty acids, sodium, and empty calories, which are commonly consumed in 

excess. 

The HEI-2010 components and standards for scoring are shown in Figure D-1. The figure also 

shows the intake criteria corresponding to minimum and maximum scores for each component. 

Maximum scores range from 5 to 20 points. Scores for intakes between the minimum and 

                                                            

1 In this method, the ratio between the population’s total intake of a food group or nutrient of interest and their total 

calorie intake is computed, rather than using means of individual scores or means of individual ratios. This 

convention is usually suggested largely because of two factors: (1) it reduces possible bias resulting from 

correlations between an individual’s one-day food or nutrient to energy ratio and his or her energy intake, and (2) 

there is usually less score truncation in the HEI scoring system for the group-level HEI measure than in the mean of 

the individual-level HEI scores (Freedman et al. 2008).
D‐2

maximum standards are scored proportionately. For example, an intake that is halfway between 

the criteria for the maximum and minimum scores yields a score that is half the maximum score. 

Higher scores for each of the adequacy components reflect greater consumption, while higher 

scores for each of the moderation components reflect lower consumption. Scores for each of the 

12 components are summed to create a total HEI-2010 score, with a range from 0 to 100. 

Figure D-1. Healthy Eating Index-2010 Components and Standards for Scoring 

Componenta Maximum 

Score 

Standard for Minimum Score 

of Zero 

Standard for Maximum 

Score 

Adequacy Components (higher score indicates higher consumption) 

1. Total Fruit 5 No intake ≥ 0.8 cup equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

2. Whole Fruit 5 No intake ≥ 0.4 cup equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

3. Total Vegetables 5 No intake ≥ 1.1 cup equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

4. Greens and Beans 5 No intake ≥ 0.2 cup equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

5. Whole Grains 10 No intake ≥ 1.5 oz equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

6. Dairy 10 No intake ≥ 1.3 cup equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

7. Total Protein Foods 5 No intake ≥ 2.5 oz equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

8. Seafood and Plant Proteins 5 No intake ≥ 0.8 oz. equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

9. Fatty Acidsb 10 (PUFAs + MUFAs)/SFAs ≤ 1.2 (PUFAs + MUFAs)/SFAs ≥ 2.5 

Moderation Components (higher score indicates lower consumption) 

10. Refined Grains 10 ≥ 4.3 oz. equiv. per 1,000 calories ≤ 1.8 oz equiv. per 1,000 kcal 

11. Sodium 10 ≥ 2.0 grams per 1,000 calories ≤ 1.1 grams per 1,000 kcal 

12. Empty Caloriesc 20 ≥ 50% of energy ≤ 19% of energy 

Total Score 100 

Source: Healthy Eating Index-2010, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion 

(CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 2, February 2013. 

Notes: In the HEI-2010, calories from alcohol are considered to be empty calories only when alcohol is consumed 

beyond moderate amounts. Equiv. = equivalent; kcal = calories; oz equiv. = ounce equivalent. 

a Intakes between the minimum and maximum standards are scored proportionately. b Ratio of poly- and monounsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs and MUFAs) to saturated fatty acids (SFAs). c Calories from solid fats, alcohol, and added sugars; threshold for counting alcohol is > 13 grams/1,000 kcal. 

 
D‐3

Differences between the HEI-2010 and HEI-2005 

The HEI-2010 maintains several of the components of its predecessor (the HEI-2005), including 

Total Fruit, Whole Fruit, Total Vegetables, Whole Grains, Sodium, and Empty Calories. In 

addition, the Milk and Meat and Beans components were carried forward but are renamed Dairy 

and Total Protein Foods. However, a number of components were changed from the 2005 

version: (1) Greens and Beans replaced the Dark Green and Orange Vegetables and Legumes 

component; (2) Seafood and Plant Proteins was introduced as a new component; (3) Refined 

Grains replaced Total Grains; and (3) Fatty Acids replaced Oils and Saturated Fat. The HEI-2010 

also incorporates the following changes to the maximum point values of the components and 

scoring standards: 

 Whole Grains has a maximum score of 10 in the HEI-2010 versus 5 in the HEI-2005. 

 Total Protein Foods has a maximum score of 5 in the HEI-2010 versus 10 in the HEI2005 (named Meat and Beans). 

 The standard for the maximum score for sodium in the HEI-2010 is no more than 1.1 

grams per 1,000 calories versus no more than 0.7 grams per 1,000 calories in the HEI2005. 

 The standard for the maximum score for Empty Calories in the HEI-2010 is no more than 

19 percent of calories versus 20 percent of calories in the HEI-2005. 

 In the HEI-2010, calories from alcohol are included in the Empty Calories component 

only when consumed beyond moderate amounts (more than 13 grams per 1,000 calories). 

In the HEI-2005, all calories from alcohol are included in the Empty Calories component. 

 Intakes between the minimum and maximum standards are scored proportionately for all 

HEI-2010 components and for all HEI-2005 components, except for Saturated Fat and 

Sodium. In the HEI-2005, Saturated Fat and Sodium get a score of 8 for intake levels that 

reflect the 2005 Dietary Guidelines recommendations—less than 7 percent of calories 

from saturated fat and less than 1.0 grams of sodium per 1,000 calories, respectively. 

Intakes between the standard for scores of 0 and 8 and between 8 and 10 are scored 

proportionately. 

Total HEI-2010 Scores 

The total HEI-2010 score for all young children was 56.2 out of a possible 100 points (Table D1). These low total HEI-2010 scores suggest that the diets of children in all three comparison 

groups fell considerably short of meeting the recommendations in the 2010 Dietary Guidelines. 

However, caution should be taken when comparing the HEI-2005 scores in Chapter 6 with the 

relatively lower HEI-2010 scores in this appendix. The HEI-2010 scores are provided simply for 

comparison purposes, as the analyses in this appendix have been performed by comparing data 

from 2005-2008 to the Dietary Guidelines in place in 2010. 

HEI-2010 Component Scores 

Young children in all three groups achieved or came close to achieving the maximum scores for 

Total Fruit, Whole Fruit, and Dairy (Table D-1). For children in all three groups, scores for the 

following components were substantially below the maximum possible scores: Greens and Beans 

(ranging from 0.3 to 1.0 out of 5), Whole Grains (ranging from 1.8 to 2.4 out of 10), and Fatty 
D‐4

Table D-1. Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) Scores: Children, 2–4 Years Old 

See notes at end of table. 

   

Children, 2–4 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 1,390 - 486 - 400 - 453 - 

Total Fruit 5.0 (0.02) 5.0 (0.03) 4.8 (0.18) 5.0 (0.03) 

Whole Fruit 5.0 (0.03) 4.9 (0.13) 4.9 (0.16) 5.0 (0.10) 

Total Vegetables 2.3 (0.08) 2.3 (0.10) 2.2 (0.11) 2.3 (0.14) 

Greens and Beans 0.7 (0.11) 0.3 (0.10) 0.5 u (0.17) 1.0 ** (0.20) 

Whole Grains 2.2 (0.11) 1.8 (0.16) 1.9 (0.18) 2.4 * (0.19) 

Dairy 9.9 (0.08) 9.9 (0.12) 9.7 (0.21) 10.0 (0.08) 

Total Protein Foods 3.8 (0.09) 4.0 (0.12) 4.2 (0.16) 3.4 ** (0.14) 

Seafood and Plant 

Proteins 2.3 (0.17) 2.2 (0.21) 2.6 (0.35) 2.1 (0.24) 

Fatty Acids 2.1 (0.16) 2.1 (0.18) 1.9 (0.19) 2.0 (0.28) 

Refined Grains 6.2 (0.16) 6.6 (0.26) 5.6 ** (0.30) 6.3 (0.25) 

Sodium 6.0 (0.16) 6.6 (0.25) 5.8 * (0.28) 5.8 * (0.29) 

Empty Calories 10.8 (0.23) 11.0 (0.33) 9.9 * (0.36) 11.0 (0.43) 

Total HEI-2010 Score 56.2 (0.62) 56.7 (0.74) 54.0 (1.20) 56.2 (0.98) 

Children, 2 years old 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 587 - 223 - 162 - 183 - 

Total Fruit 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.02) 5.0 (0.00) 

Whole Fruit 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.14) 5.0 (0.06) 5.0 (0.01) 

Total Vegetables 2.2 (0.10) 2.3 (0.16) 2.1 (0.15) 2.1 (0.22) 

Greens and Beans 0.7 (0.15) 0.3 u (0.11) 0.3 u (0.15) 1.1 ** (0.31) 

Whole Grains 2.4 (0.23) 1.6 (0.22) 2.3 (0.26) 2.8 ** (0.37) 

Dairy 10.0 (0.00) 10.0 (0.02) 10.0 (0.02) 10.0 (0.00) 

Total Protein Foods 3.7 (0.11) 3.9 (0.18) 3.9 (0.24) 3.6 (0.17) 

Seafood and Plant 

Proteins 2.5 (0.28) 1.7 (0.28) 3.2 (0.76) 2.6 (0.42) 

Fatty Acids2 1.5 (0.18) 1.6 (0.33) 1.9 (0.31) 1.2 (0.29) 

Refined Grains 7.3 (0.21) 7.2 (0.45) 6.5 (0.43) 7.8 (0.40) 

Sodium 6.6 (0.23) 7.0 (0.35) 6.2 (0.37) 6.4 (0.43) 

Empty Calories3 11.0 (0.24) 11.2 (0.42) 10.6 (0.54) 11.4 (0.48) 

Total HEI-2010 Score 57.9 (0.78) 56.7 (0.78) 57.0 (1.42) 59.0 (1.44) 
D‐5

Table D-1. Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) Scores: Children, 2–4 Years Old–Continued 

Sources: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Healthy Eating Index-2010, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 2, February 2013. Sample includes 

NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data, 2–4 years old. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. ’All children’ includes children with missing WIC 

participation or income. Only scores for the age group 2–4 years are age-adjusted to account for different 

age distributions of WIC participants and nonparticipants. Significant differences in mean scores are noted 

by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, 

identified as children receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

- Not applicable. 

Children, 3 year olds 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 389 - 132 - 104 - 134 - 

Total Fruit 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.02) 4.8 (0.33) 5.0 (0.00) 

Whole Fruit 5.0 (0.07) 4.9 (0.29) 4.9 (0.30) 4.9 (0.25) 

Total Vegetables 2.2 (0.12) 2.1 (0.12) 2.0 (0.15) 2.2 (0.22) 

Greens and Beans 0.5 (0.12) 0.3 (0.06) 0.2 u (0.11) 0.8 * u (0.24) 

Whole Grains 2.2 (0.19) 1.9 (0.30) 1.7 (0.30) 2.5 (0.36) 

Dairy 10.0 (0.04) 10.0 (0.06) 9.7 (0.46) 10.0 (0.05) 

Total Protein Foods 3.6 (0.15) 4.1 (0.19) 4.1 (0.33) 3.1 ** (0.26) 

Seafood and Plant 

Proteins 2.2 (0.26) 2.7 (0.42) 2.1 (0.39) 2.0 (0.45) 

Fatty Acids 2.2 (0.34) 2.3 (0.31) 1.9 (0.34) 2.0 u (0.62) 

Refined Grains 5.4 (0.33) 6.4 (0.33) 4.7 * (0.63) 5.2 * (0.43) 

Sodium 6.0 (0.29) 6.8 (0.47) 5.5 * (0.43) 5.8 (0.49) 

Empty Calories 11.0 (0.48) 11.7 (0.66) 9.0 ** (0.59) 11.5 (0.94) 

Total HEI-2010 Score 55.2 (1.19) 58.1 (1.38) 50.5 ** (1.99) 55.0 (1.93) 

Children, 4 year olds 

All young children WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 414 - 131 - 134 - 136 - 

Total Fruit 5.0 (0.06) 5.0 (0.09) 4.7 (0.43) 5.0 (0.10) 

Whole Fruit 5.0 (0.05) 4.9 (0.21) 4.8 (0.38) 5.0 (0.14) 

Total Vegetables 2.6 (0.19) 2.5 (0.22) 2.4 (0.27) 2.7 (0.28) 

Greens and Beans 0.9 (0.25) 0.5 u (0.26) 1.1 u (0.49) 1.0 u (0.47) 

Whole Grains 1.9 (0.15) 1.8 (0.32) 1.8 (0.37) 2.0 (0.22) 

Dairy 9.8 (0.24) 9.6 (0.36) 9.5 (0.42) 9.9 (0.23) 

Total Protein Foods 4.0 (0.19) 4.0 (0.23) 4.6 (0.27) 3.5 (0.29) 

Seafood and Plant 

Proteins 2.2 (0.35) 2.1 (0.39) 2.3 (0.61) 1.8 (0.39) 

Fatty Acids 2.6 (0.30) 2.3 (0.28) 2.0 (0.36) 2.7 (0.47) 

Refined Grains 5.9 (0.30) 6.2 (0.56) 5.6 (0.47) 5.8 (0.47) 

Sodium 5.5 (0.28) 6.0 (0.47) 5.6 (0.62) 5.1 (0.57) 

Empty Calories 10.2 (0.45) 10.1 (0.62) 10.1 (0.73) 10.1 (0.73) 

Total HEI-2010 Score 55.5 (1.18) 55.1 (1.57) 54.5 (2.65) 54.6 (1.68) 
D‐6

Acids (ranging from 1.9 to 2.1 out of 10). These low component scores indicate that 

children’s intakes of Dark Green Vegetables, Legumes, and Whole Grain foods in 2005–

2008 were inadequate relative to 2010 Dietary Guidelines recommendations. 

On average, scores for Refined Grains and Sodium were roughly 60 percent of their 

maximums for children in all three groups (Table D-1). For Empty Calories, scores were 

between 50 and 55 percent of the maximum. For each of these components, lower scores 

indicate that children’s diets in 2005–2008 included more Refined Grains, Sodium, and 

Empty Calories than recommended in the 2010 Dietary Guidelines. 

There were several differences in individual component scores between WIC children and 

income-eligible or higher-income nonparticipants. WIC children had a higher score for 

Sodium than either group of nonparticipants (6.6 versus 5.8 for both nonparticipant groups). 

Compared with income-eligible nonparticipant children, WIC children also received higher 

scores for Refined Grains (6.6 versus 5.6) and Empty Calories (11.0 versus 9.9). WIC 

children had lower scores than higher-income nonparticipants for Greens and Beans (0.3 

versus 1.0) and Whole Grains (1.8 versus 2.4) and a higher score for Total Protein Foods (4.0 

versus 3.4) 
Appendix E. 

Infants and Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and Postpartum Women 

 
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E‐1

Infants and Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and Postpartum Women 

In addition to children 1–4 years old, the population on which the main body of this report is 

focused, WIC serves four other groups of low-income individuals who are at nutritional risk: (1) 

infants (0-11 months), (2) pregnant women, (3) breastfeeding women up to one year postpartum, 

and (4) non-breastfeeding postpartum women up to six months after birth. Because sample 

numbers of infants and pregnant, postpartum, and breastfeeding women in NHANES were small, 

the primarily analysis in this report focuses on only children, ages 1–4 years old who are ageeligible for WIC. In this appendix, we summarize findings for selected outcomes for infants and 

pregnant, postpartum, and breastfeeding women using NHANES 2005–2008 data. Supporting 

data tables are provided at the end of this appendix. 

Major changes in the content of the WIC food packages were implemented nationwide in 2009. 

The NHANES 2005–2008 data used in this analysis were collected prior to the changes in the 

WIC food packages. Changes focused on providing additional amounts of nutrients and foods 

that are typically under-consumed by the WIC population and less of the nutrients that are 

typically over-consumed. They were also designed to strengthen breastfeeding promotion efforts 

and provide additional incentives to encourage women to initiate and continue breastfeeding. 

New food packages are based on recommendations of the Institute of Medicine, and align with 

the recommendations of the U.S. Dietary Guidelines for Americans and infant feeding practice 

guidelines of the American Academy of Pediatrics and provide participants with a wider variety 

of foods, including fruits and vegetables and whole grains. 

Infants 

The sample for infants available in the NHANES 2005–2008 data is shown in Figure E-1. The 

sample include infants up to 12 months (0-11 months) that had a complete Day-1 Dietary Recall 

and those that had an incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk. The latter group 

of infants has complete information about the types of foods consumed, but incomplete 

information about total calorie and nutrient intakes. The NHANES data do not include nutrient 

values for breast milk because amounts of breast milk consumed are not quantified by 

respondents during the dietary recall interview. 

Because of this limitation, our analysis of infants focused primarily on outcomes related to food 

consumption patterns. We examined the following outcomes: (1) weight status and (2) nutrient 

intakes from complementary foods.2

 Outcomes were estimated for all infants combined and 

separately for younger infants 0–5 months and for older infants 6–11 months because food 

consumption patterns vary considerably based on an infant’s age (Siega-Riz et al., 2010). 

However, due to the small sample sizes of infants in the NHANES data, many point estimates 

are statistically unreliable when data are examined by age group. Because of small sample sizes, 

particularly for some groups of nonparticipants (Figure E-1), findings should be interpreted with 

caution. 

                                                            

2

 Data on mean nutrient intakes from complementary foods are not discussed in this appendix, but full tabulations 

are provided in Tables E-2–E-31. Estimates are based on one day of intake and exclude nutrients from infant 

formula and breast milk. 
E‐2

Figure E–1. NHANES Respondents with Complete Dietary Recalls, 2005–2008: Sample Sizes and 

Weighted Population Counts 

All persons WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Sample sizes 

All infants 880 555 102 209 

 0–5 months old 407 257 56 86 

 6–11 months old 473 298 46 123 

 

All pregnant, breastfeeding, and 

postpartum women 604 244 83 211 

 Pregnant women 373 144 54 136 

 Breastfeeding women 71 31 12 24 

 Postpartum women 226 114 25 63 

Weighted population counts 

All infants 4,138,750 2,009,278 419,409 1,640,053 

 0–5 months old 1,800,213 942,377 208,503 620,732 

 6–11 months old 2,338,537 1,066,901 210,906 1,019,321 

 

All pregnant, breastfeeding, and 

postpartum women 8,194,749 2,718,480 966,693 3,602,926 

 Pregnant women 3,256,326 946,489 494,289 1,446,124 

 Breastfeeding women 1,454,227 403,415 226,842 722,892 

 Postpartum women 3,975,402 1,658,298 329,831 1,549,811 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 demographics data. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data. Sample includes infants, 0–11 months old, and pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum 

women, 20–44 years old. Postpartum women are non-breastfeeding women up to 12 months postpartum 

and include an unknown number of non-breastfeeding women who are more than 6-months postpartum. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. ’All persons’ includes respondents with missing 

WIC participation or income. Weighted population counts are based on NHANES dietary day-1 sample 

weights. 

Figure E-2 presents demographic data for WIC infants, income-eligible nonparticipant infants, 

and higher-income nonparticipant infants. There were no differences in race/ethnicity between 

WIC infants and income-eligible nonparticipant infants. Relative to higher-income 

nonparticipant infants, WIC infants were more likely to be Mexican-American (27% versus 6%) 

and less likely to be non-Hispanic white (42% versus 76%). 

 
E‐3

Figure E-2. Demographic Characteristics of WIC Participants and Nonparticipants 

All persons WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error Percent Standard 

error 

Race/ethnicity

All persons 

 Mexican American 16.8 (1.81) 29.0 (3.18) 19.2 * (2.26) 7.0 *** (1.03) 

 Other Hispanic 6.7 (1.34) 10.4 (2.65) 6.7 (1.60) 3.3 * (0.84) 

 Non-Hispanic White 55.8 (3.47) 35.9 (5.39) 47.3 (3.73) 74.5 *** (3.01) 

 Non-Hispanic Black 14.1 (2.04) 20.1 (3.38) 18.5 (3.27) 7.2 *** (1.47) 

 Other race, multi-racial 6.7 (1.15) 4.6 (0.96) 8.4 (1.81) 8.0 (1.78) 

 

Infants, 0–11 months old 

 Mexican American 17.8 (2.33) 27.1 (3.84) 21.1 (4.89) 6.1 *** (1.41) 

 Other Hispanic 5.3 (1.28) 7.9 (2.23) 6.3 u (2.36) 1.7 ** u (0.76) 

 Non-Hispanic White 56.4 (4.07) 41.6 (6.36) 51.0 (8.06) 75.5 *** (3.93) 

 Non-Hispanic Black 13.2 (2.39) 17.4 (4.04) 13.7 u (5.17) 7.5 * u (2.34) 

 Other race, multi-racial 7.4 (1.69) 6.0 (1.69) 7.9 u (4.23) 9.2 (2.58) 

 

Pregnant, breastfeeding, 

postpartum women 

 Mexican American 18.1 (2.17) 29.4 (4.45) 26.3 (6.58) 6.7 *** (1.70) 

 Other Hispanic 6.5 (1.93) 9.4 u (3.89) 9.7 u (4.31) 1.6 u * (0.65) 

 Non-Hispanic White 57.0 (4.58) 42.0 (7.32) 42.4 (10.72) 77.7 *** (4.65) 

 Non-Hispanic Black 14.0 (3.06) 17.9 (4.42) 17.2 u (6.00) 6.9 u * (2.53) 

 Other race, multi-racial 4.4 u (1.36) 1.3 u (1.13) 4.4 u (3.16) 7.1 u (3.00) 

Education

Pregnant, breastfeeding, 

postpartum women 

 Less than HS 22.4 (2.76) 36.9 (4.78) 35.4 (5.57) 7.2 *** u (3.13) 

 HS diploma or GED 28.3 (2.99) 35.0 (4.25) 24.4 (6.93) 22.1 * (4.96) 

 More than HS 49.4 (3.54) 28.1 (5.08) 40.3 (8.25) 70.8 *** (6.45) 

Marital status

Pregnant, breastfeeding, 

postpartum women 

 Married 63.7 (3.04) 44.6 (4.90) 46.7 (5.25) 86.0 *** (3.98) 

 Widowed, divorced, separated 5.0 (1.43) 4.4 u (1.46) 10.9 u (5.64) 3.2 u (2.97) 

 Never married 18.2 (2.63) 25.9 (4.77) 27.4 (7.59) 7.3 *** u (2.88) 

 Cohabitating 13.2 (2.17) 25.1 (4.63) 15.0 u (5.44) 3.5 *** (1.00) 

Sample sizes 

Infants, 0–11 months old

 Unweighted 880 555 102 209 

 Weighted 4,138,750 2,009,278 419,409 1,640,053 

 

Pregnant, breastfeeding, 

postpartum women 

 Unweighted 604 244 83 211 

 Weighted 8,194,749 2,718,480 966,693 3,602,926 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 demographics data. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary 

recall data. Sample includes infants, 0–11 months old, and pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum 

women, 20–44 years old. Postpartum women are non-breastfeeding women up to 12 months postpartum 

and include an unknown number of non-breastfeeding women who are more than 6-months postpartum. 

Notes: ’All persons’ includes respondents with missing WIC participation or income. Significant differences in 

proportions are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are tested in comparison 

to WIC participants, identified as persons receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation.
E‐4

Weight Status 

To monitor the growth of infants, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 

recommends the use of the World Health Organization (WHO) weight-for-length growth charts. 

In 2012, the WIC program updated their nutrition risk criteria to incorporate the new WHO 

growth charts (USDA, WIC 2012). Infant weight status can be determined using the genderspecific percentiles for weight-for-length in the WHO growth charts. The CDC defines weightfor-length categories based on percentiles in these growth charts (Figure E-3). Low weight-forlength is defined as at or above the 2nd percentile, and high weight-for-length is defined as at or 

above the 98th percentile. The 2nd and 98th percentiles are recommended for identification of 

children whose growth might be indicative of adverse health conditions (CDC 2010). 

Figure E-3. Weight-for-Length Categories for Infantsa

Weight-for-length category Percentile standard 

Low weight-for-length Weight-for-length ≤ 2nd percentile 

Healthy weight-for-length 2nd percentile < weight-for-length < 98th percentile 

High weight-for-length Weight-for-length ≥ 98th percentile 

a The Center for Disease Control and Prevention recommends using the Word Health Organization growth chart 

standards for infants and children 0–2 years old. 

The distribution of weight status for infants is shown in Table E-1. Overall, 91 percent of infants 

had a healthy weight-for length and 6 percent had a high weight-for-length. When data were 

examined by age group, the above pattern in the distribution of weight status was observed for 

infants 0–5 months old and 6–11 months old. Among infants 0–5 months old, WIC infants were 

less likely than income-eligible nonparticipant infants to have a healthy weight-for-length (90% 

versus 97%). 

Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and Postpartum Women 

Available samples for pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women in the NHANES 2005-

2008 data are shown in Figure E-1.3 The sample includes women 20–44 years old who were 

pregnant and women 20–59 years old who were breastfeeding or postpartum. Pregnant, 

breastfeeding, and postpartum women outside of these age ranges could not be identified in the 

NHANES data.4

 Postpartum women are non-breastfeeding women up to 12 months postpartum. 

The NHANES data did not allow for the distinction between non-breastfeeding women who 

were 0–6 months postpartum (and potentially WIC-eligible) from non-breastfeeding women who 

were 7–12 months postpartum (and ineligible for WIC). Thus, an unknown number of nonbreastfeeding women who were 6–12 months postpartum were included in the analysis. 

We estimated scores for both the 2005 and 2010 Healthy Eating Indices (HEI-2005 and HEI2010) for pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women. The components included in each 

index and the scoring algorithms used are described in Chapter 6 and Appendix D. The HEI2005 provides a measure of diet quality relative to the dietary recommendations that were in 

                                                            

3 There were four women in NHANES 2005–2008 who responded that they were both pregnant and breastfeeding 

and 62 women who responded that they were both pregnant and postpartum. 

4

 NHANES 2005–2008 data indicate that there are 123 pregnant, breastfeeding, or postpartum women 12–19 years 

old that could not be identified in the data. 
E‐5

place when the NHANES 2005-2008 data were collected. The HEI-2010 assesses diet quality 

relative to the most recent dietary guidance available. 

Due to the small sample sizes of women in the various subgroups (see Figure E-1) and the 

limitations with identifying all pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women in the data, we 

focus on findings for all women combined (pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum). Because of 

small sample sizes and differences between WIC participants and nonparticipants in the 

distribution of pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women, all findings should be interpreted 

with caution.5

 

Figure E-2 presents demographic data for pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women by 

participation status. There were no differences in race/ethnicity, education level, or marital status 

between WIC women and income-eligible nonparticipant women. Relative to higher-income 

nonparticipant women, WIC women were more likely to be Mexican American (29% versus 7%) 

and less likely to be non-Hispanic white (42% versus 78%). WIC women were also more likely 

than higher-income nonparticipant women to have no more than a high school diploma or GED 

(35% versus 22%) and less likely to have education beyond high school (28% versus 71%). WIC 

women were less likely than higher-income women to be married (45% versus 86%) and more 

likely to be cohabitating (25% versus 4%). 

HEI-2005 Scores for Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and Postpartum Women 

The total HEI-2005 score for all pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women was 61.5 out of 

the maximum possible score of 100 (Table E-32). This low total HEI-2005 score suggests that 

the diets of pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women fell considerably short of meeting 

the recommendations in the 2005 Dietary Guidelines. Total HEI-2005 scores were comparable 

for WIC women and both groups of nonparticipant women. It is important to note that the 

distribution of pregnant women and postpartum women within each of the 

participation/eligibility groups varied (Figure E-1) and may be influencing HEI-2005 scores for 

women overall. Postpartum women had the lowest total HEI-2005 score (56.3) compared with 

pregnant women (64.5) and breastfeeding women (65.3). 

Preganant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women achieved or came close to achieving the 

maximum score for Total Grains (5.0 out of 5) and Meat and Beans (10.0 out of 10). Scores for 

Whole Grains and Dark Green and Orange Vegetables and Legumes were very low for all 

women (1.3 out of 5 for both components). In addition, scores for Sodium (3.6 out of 10) and 

Empty Calories (9.6 out of 20) were more than 50 percent below the maximum possible scores. 

Scores for Saturated Fat averaged 5.6 out of 10 for all women. These low scores indicate that 

pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women are not consuming recommended amounts of 

foods that contain vegetables—specifically dark green vegetables, orange vegetables, and 

legumes—and whole grains. In addition, intakes of sodium, saturated fat, and empty calories 

among these women are exceeding levels recommended in the 2005 Dietary Guidelines. 

                                                            

5 The formula for computing HEI scores is the same for all individuals, including pregnant, breastfeeding, and 

postpartum women.   
E‐6

There was only one difference observed in component scores between WIC women and 

nonparticipant women. WIC participants scored lower than higher-income nonparticipants on 

Total Vegetables (2.8 versus 3.8). 

HEI-2010 Scores for Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and Postpartum Women 

The total HEI-2010 score for all pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women was 53.3 out of 

the maximum possible score of 100 (Table E-33). WIC women had a lower total HEI-2010 score 

than higher-income nonparticipant women (49.9 versus 56.8). Given that the group of WIC 

participants included a larger share of postpartum women than higher-income nonparticipants 

(47% versus 30%) (Figure E-1) and that postpartum women had the lowest total HEI-2010 score 

(45.6 versus 57.7 and 61.3 for pregnant and breastfeeding women, respectively), the lower scores 

for WIC participants relative to higher-income nonparticipants might reflect compositional 

differences between the groups. 

These low total HEI-2010 scores suggest that the diets of women in all three comparison groups 

fell considerably short of meeting the recommendations in the 2010 Dietary Guidelines. 

However, caution should be taken when comparing the HEI-2005 scores presented earlier in this 

appendix with the relatively lower HEI-2010 scores. The HEI-2010 scores are provided simply 

for comparison purposes, as this analysis has been performed by comparing data from 2005–

2008 to the Dietary Guidelines in place in 2010. 

Women achieved or came close to achieving the maximum score for Total Protein Foods only. 

Scores for the following components were more than 50 percent below the maximum possible 

scores for all women: Greens and Beans (1.8 out of 5), Whole Grains (2.5 out of 10), Fatty Acids 

(4.1 out of 10), Sodium (4.5 out of 10), and Empty Calories (9.7 out of 20). Similar to the 

findings for the HEI-2005, there was only one difference in component scores between WIC 

women and nonparticipating women. WIC women scored lower than higher-income 

nonparticipant women on Total Vegetables (2.8 versus 3.8). 
Table E-1. Weight Status: Infants

All infants WIC participants Income-eligible nonparticipants 

Sample 

size Percent Standard error Sample size Percent Standard error Sample size Percent Standard error Sa

All infants, 0–11 months old 875 - - 552 - - 101 - - 

 Low weight-for-length 2.4 u (0.80) 2.1 u (0.66) 3.4 u (2.60)  Healthy weight-for-length 91.3 (1.30) 90.8 (1.93) 92.5 (3.11)  High weight-for-length 6.3 (1.13) 7.1 (1.95) 4.0 u (2.27) 

Infants, 0–5 months old 405 - - 257 - - 55 - - 

 Low weight-for-length 4.1 u (1.71) 3.2 u (1.20) 1.7 u (1.17)  Healthy weight-for-length 90.1 (2.05) 90.3 (1.97) 96.7 * (1.91)  High weight-for-length 5.8 (1.34) 6.5 (1.81) 1.6 * u (1.51) 

Infants, 6–11 months old 470 - - 295 - - 46 - - 

 Low weight-for-length 1.1 u (0.58) 1.1 u (0.69) 5.1 u (4.76)  Healthy weight-for-length 92.2 (1.50) 91.2 (2.28) 88.6 (5.90)  High weight-for-length 6.7 (1.40) 7.7 (2.26) 6.3 u (4.26) 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 body measures data. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete length and weight data, and 

complete dietary recall data or incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. For infants, weight categories are defined based on weig

percentiles on the World Health Organization (WHO) growth charts for infants 0 to 2 years old: low weight-for-length is <= to thhealthy weight-for-length is > the 2nd and < the 98th percentiles; and high weight-for-length is >= the 98th percentile. Total pe

age-adjusted. Significant differences in percentages are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of variation. 

 - Not applicable. 
E‐8

Table E-2. Mean Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods: Infants 

Infants, 0–11 months old 

All infants WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Sample size 880 - 555 - 102 - 209 - 

Calories (kcal) 232.73 (13.282) 246.93 (22.500) 210.12 (27.543) 220.31 (17.560) 

Total fat (g) 6 (0.6) 6 (1.1) 5 (0.7) 5 (0.5) 

Saturated fat (g) 2.0 (0.24) 2.3 (0.42) 2.1 (0.28) 1.6 (0.24) 

Linoleic acid (g) 1.0 (0.09) 1.1 (0.16) 0.8 (0.12) 0.8 (0.08) 

Linolenic acid (g) 0.1 (0.01) 0.1 (0.02) 0.1 (0.02) 0.1 (0.01) 

Carbohydrate (g) 40 (1.8) 41 (2.6) 35 (4.8) 40 (3.0) 

Protein (g) 6.82 (0.521) 7.09 (0.837) 6.61 (0.887) 6.51 (0.670) 

Dietary fiber (g) 3.0 (0.17) 2.8 (0.25) 2.5 (0.34) 3.5 (0.28) 

Cholesterol (mg) 20 (2.9) 26 (5.6) 18 (2.5) 12 * (1.5) 

Sodium (mg) 220 (27.5) 257 (50.9) 182 (23.0) 187 (23.5) 

Vitamin C (mg) 31 (1.9) 35 (2.8) 30 (4.9) 25 * (2.8) 

Vitamin A (mcg RAE) 150 (7.9) 134 (13.4) 199 (34.3) 158 (19.5) 

Vitamin D (mcg) 0.6 (0.11) 0.6 (0.15) 1.0 (0.17) 0.5 (0.15) 

Vitamin E (mg AT) 1.2 (0.05) 1.2 (0.08) 1.1 (0.16) 1.1 (0.08) 

Vitamin B-6 (mg) 0.28 (0.015) 0.29 (0.022) 0.23 (0.027) 0.28 (0.027) 

Vitamin B-12 (mcg) 0.40 (0.055) 0.41 (0.085) 0.50 (0.084) 0.35 (0.073) 

Folate (mcg DFE) 55 (4.7) 53 (7.7) 45 (7.3) 60 (7.1) 

Niacin (mg) 4.6 (0.20) 4.8 (0.30) 3.7 (0.61) 4.6 (0.34) 

Riboflavin (mg) 0.47 (0.025) 0.48 (0.035) 0.45 (0.072) 0.47 (0.038) 

Thiamin (mg) 0.39 (0.017) 0.40 (0.028) 0.32 (0.056) 0.39 (0.028) 

Iron (mg) 5.9 (0.27) 6.1 (0.36) 4.7 (0.86) 6.0 (0.48) 

Potassium (mg) 403 (23.2) 407 (36.2) 381 (51.7) 401 (38.0) 

Magnesium (mg) 46 (2.2) 45 (3.0) 38 (5.5) 48 (3.9) 

Zinc (mg) 1.4 (0.13) 1.5 (0.28) 1.3 (0.18) 1.4 (0.15) 

Calcium (mg) 171 (10.8) 171 (14.4) 175 (28.4) 169 (18.5) 

Phosphorus (mg) 168 (10.7) 168 (16.7) 165 (24.6) 167 (16.1) 

Copper (mg) 0.18 (0.011) 0.18 (0.018) 0.14 (0.018) 0.18 (0.014) 

Selenium (mcg) 10 (0.7) 10 (1.2) 9 (1.0) 9 (0.9) 

Choline (mg) 32 (2.7) 34 (4.6) 31 (4.5) 29 (3.1) 

See notes at end of table. 

 
E‐9

Table E-2. Mean Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods: Infants–Continued 

Infants, 0–5 months old 

All infants WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Sample size 407 - 257 - 56 - 86 - 

Calories (kcal) 34.69 (3.985) 45.74 (6.504) 21.29 *** (2.937) 17.74 *** (3.201) 

Total fat (g) 0 (0.1) 1 (0.1) 0 ** (0.0) 0 ** (0.0) 

Saturated fat (g) 0.1 (0.02) 0.1 (0.03) 0.0 ** (0.01) 0.0 ** (0.01) 

Linoleic acid (g) 0.1 (0.02) 0.2 (0.03) 0.1 *** (0.01) 0.1 ** (0.01) 

Linolenic acid (g) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 *** (0.00) 0.0 ** (0.00) 

Carbohydrate (g) 7 (0.8) 9 (1.3) 4 *** (0.6) 4 *** (0.6) 

Protein (g) 0.73 (0.123) 0.90 (0.148) 0.41 ** (0.039) 0.33 *** (0.070) 

Dietary fiber (g) 0.4 (0.06) 0.6 (0.10) 0.3 ** (0.03) 0.1 *** (0.06) 

Cholesterol (mg) 1 u (0.3) 0 u (0.2) 0 (0.0) 0 * (0.0) 

Sodium (mg) 8 (1.9) 13 (3.8) 5 * (0.5) 2 ** (0.6) 

Vitamin C (mg) 6 (0.7) 7 (1.2) 8 (0.9) 1 *** (0.2) 

Vitamin A (mcg RAE) 22 (4.9) 30 (7.4) 5 *** (1.1) 13 u (7.3) 

Vitamin D (mcg) 0.0 u (0.00) 0.0 u (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 

Vitamin E (mg AT) 0.3 (0.04) 0.4 (0.05) 0.2 *** (0.03) 0.2 ** (0.04) 

Vitamin B-6 (mg) 0.04 (0.005) 0.06 (0.008) 0.03 ** (0.004) 0.02 *** (0.004) 

Vitamin B-12 (mcg) 0.01 u (0.003) 0.01 u (0.004) 0.00 (0.000) 0.00 (0.000) 

Folate (mcg DFE) 4 (0.5) 5 (0.9) 2 ** (0.2) 2 ** (0.4) 

Niacin (mg) 1.7 (0.21) 2.1 (0.32) 0.9 *** (0.14) 1.2 ** (0.22) 

Riboflavin (mg) 0.14 (0.019) 0.18 (0.028) 0.09 ** (0.010) 0.09 ** (0.018) 

Thiamin (mg) 0.15 (0.019) 0.19 (0.028) 0.08 *** (0.012) 0.10 ** (0.019) 

Iron (mg) 2.6 (0.34) 3.3 (0.50) 1.5 ** (0.21) 1.7 * (0.34) 

Potassium (mg) 59 (7.0) 78 (11.8) 31 *** (5.1) 30 *** (5.8) 

Magnesium (mg) 12 (1.4) 16 (2.1) 6 *** (1.1) 8 ** (1.5) 

Zinc (mg) 0.2 (0.03) 0.2 (0.04) 0.1 ** (0.01) 0.1 ** (0.02) 

Calcium (mg) 48 (5.6) 62 (8.2) 22 *** (3.8) 32 ** (5.9) 

Phosphorus (mg) 35 (4.5) 45 (6.4) 18 *** (2.8) 23 ** (4.3) 

Copper (mg) 0.03 (0.004) 0.04 (0.006) 0.02 *** (0.003) 0.02 *** (0.003) 

Selenium (mcg) 1 (0.2) 1 (0.3) 1 * (0.1) 1 *** (0.1) 

Choline (mg) 3 (0.5) 4 (0.6) 2 ** (0.2) 1 *** (0.3) 

See notes at end of table. 
E‐10

Table E-2. Mean Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods: Infants–Continued 

Infants, 6–11 months old 

All infants WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Mean Standard 

error 

Sample size 473 - 298 - 46 - 123 - 

Calories (kcal) 385.19 (26.266) 424.63 (46.761) 396.79 (24.224) 343.66 (24.696) 

Total fat (g) 9 (1.2) 12 (2.3) 10 (0.7) 7 (0.7) 

Saturated fat (g) 3.4 (0.46) 4.2 (0.84) 4.1 (0.25) 2.5 (0.36) 

Linoleic acid (g) 1.6 (0.16) 1.9 (0.32) 1.5 (0.16) 1.3 * (0.09) 

Linolenic acid (g) 0.2 (0.02) 0.2 (0.03) 0.2 (0.02) 0.2 (0.01) 

Carbohydrate (g) 65 (3.4) 69 (5.5) 65 (4.3) 62 (4.2) 

Protein (g) 11.51 (1.013) 12.56 (1.673) 12.74 (0.941) 10.28 (1.010) 

Dietary fiber (g) 5.1 (0.30) 4.8 (0.50) 4.6 (0.49) 5.5 (0.35) 

Cholesterol (mg) 35 (5.2) 49 (10.2) 36 (2.4) 19 ** (2.2) 

Sodium (mg) 382 (53.9) 473 (102.4) 357 (26.1) 300 (39.6) 

Vitamin C (mg) 50 (3.2) 60 (4.7) 52 (6.6) 40 ** (4.2) 

Vitamin A (mcg RAE) 248 (14.0) 227 (25.2) 392 ** (55.3) 246 (25.6) 

Vitamin D (mcg) 1.1 (0.20) 1.1 (0.29) 1.9 * (0.20) 0.9 (0.24) 

Vitamin E (mg AT) 1.8 (0.08) 2.0 (0.15) 2.0 (0.19) 1.6 * (0.09) 

Vitamin B-6 (mg) 0.46 (0.029) 0.49 (0.045) 0.43 (0.028) 0.43 (0.038) 

Vitamin B-12 (mcg) 0.70 (0.101) 0.77 (0.167) 0.99 (0.107) 0.57 (0.103) 

Folate (mcg DFE) 94 (9.3) 96 (15.8) 87 (11.5) 95 (10.7) 

Niacin (mg) 6.9 (0.38) 7.1 (0.62) 6.5 (0.82) 6.8 (0.47) 

Riboflavin (mg) 0.73 (0.047) 0.74 (0.077) 0.81 (0.086) 0.70 (0.052) 

Thiamin (mg) 0.57 (0.036) 0.58 (0.064) 0.56 (0.072) 0.57 (0.037) 

Iron (mg) 8.5 (0.50) 8.5 (0.79) 7.9 (1.13) 8.6 (0.62) 

Potassium (mg) 667 (44.8) 697 (72.2) 727 (54.1) 626 (53.7) 

Magnesium (mg) 71 (4.2) 70 (6.6) 70 (6.7) 73 (5.3) 

Zinc (mg) 2.4 (0.26) 2.6 (0.56) 2.4 (0.24) 2.2 (0.20) 

Calcium (mg) 266 (19.6) 267 (29.2) 327 (37.1) 252 (26.8) 

Phosphorus (mg) 270 (20.9) 277 (34.8) 311 (29.5) 255 (23.5) 

Copper (mg) 0.29 (0.020) 0.30 (0.039) 0.27 (0.020) 0.27 (0.015) 

Selenium (mcg) 16 (1.4) 18 (2.3) 17 (0.8) 14 (1.3) 

Choline (mg) 54 (5.2) 60 (8.9) 60 (4.7) 47 (4.5) 

Source: NHANES 2007–2010 dietary recalls and Vitamin D addendum to the FNDDS 3. Sample includes NHANES 

respondents with complete dietary recall data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 

0–11 months old. Complementary foods exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in means are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences are 

tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 
E‐11

Table E-3. Vitamin A (mcg RAE): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 29 217 342 477 666

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 u 15 u 199

 6–11 months old 1 u 8 u 17 u 48 149 342 522 657 836

 

WIC participants 

All infants 0 0 0 0 17 u 204 302 407 621

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 u 50 u 228 u 

 6–11 months old 0 5 u 16 u 50 149 301 417 547 789

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 6 u 224 u 447 719 * 1,013 * 

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ** u 

 6–11 months old 7 *** 15 ** 33 * 79 u 221 614 *** 833 * 1,012 ** 1,139

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 42 u 231 391 524 662

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 u 73 u 

 6–11 months old 2 7 u 14 u 43 u 134 370 526 656 699

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐12

Table E-4. Vitamin B6 (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.41 0.55 0.70 0.98

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.09 0.14 0.25

 6–11 months old 0.03 u 0.07 0.10 0.21 0.37 0.57 0.76 0.92 1.23

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.41 0.55 0.73 1.01

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 u 0.13 0.18 0.27

 6–11 months old 0.03 u 0.08 0.10 0.19 0.38 0.63 0.84 1.01 1.28

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 u 0.41 0.54 0.69 0.84

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 * u 0.25 u 

 6–11 months old 0.05 0.08 u 0.12 0.19 0.38 0.58 0.79 0.84 ** 0.89

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.40 0.57 0.64 0.98

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 u 0.06 * u 0.08 ** 0.12 **

 6–11 months old 0.03 0.04 u 0.09 u 0.23 0.35 0.56 0.70 0.84 1.15

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

   
E‐13

Table E-5. Vitamin B12 (mcg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.57 1.05 2.14 u 

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 6–11 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 u 0.17 u 0.60 1.36 1.95 3.48

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.60 1.18 2.07 u 

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 u 

 6–11 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 u 0.26 0.69 1.39 2.01 u 3.38 u 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 u 0.94 1.13 1.67 u 

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 6–11 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 u 0.20 u 1.01 1.27 1.66 u 6.16

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 u 0.49 0.77 u 2.24 u 

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

 6–11 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 u 0.47 0.93 u 1.75 u 2.89

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐14

Table E-6. Vitamin C (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 12 45 67 87 126

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 u 13 u 43

 6–11 months old 0 u 2 u 7 15 32 67 94 118 159

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 14 50 77 98 139

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 1 u 14 u 30 46

 6–11 months old 0 u 5 u 8 17 45 85 111 137 178

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 1 ** u 24 ** u 54 u 88 u 177

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 *** 4 u 

 6–11 months old 0 u 3 u 9 13 22 *** 54 u 100 155 210 ** 

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 11 u 34 58 76 99

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 u 0 * u 1 *** 3

 6–11 months old 0 u 2 u 4 u 13 28 *** 58 * 76 * 84 ** 124

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐15

Table E-7. Vitamin D (mcg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.9 u 

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 6–11 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.6 1.2 u 2.5 u 8.2

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 u 0.6 1.0 u 2.7 u 

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 6–11 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 u 0.7 1.2 u 2.6 u 8.0 u 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 u 0.8 u 1.4 u 4.4 u 

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 6–11 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 u 1.0 u 2.2 u 4.4 u 12.4

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.7 u 2.9 u 

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

 6–11 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 u 0.3 * 0.7 u 1.6 u 7.5

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls and Vitamin D addendum to the FNDDS 3. Sample includes NHANES 

respondents with complete dietary recall data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 

0–11 months old. Complementary foods exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐16

Table E-8. Vitamin E (mg AT): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 1.8 2.3 3.0 3.8

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.8

 6–11 months old 0.1 u 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.5 2.3 3.1 3.5 4.6

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 2.0 2.6 3.1 4.0

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 u 0.9 1.4 1.9

 6–11 months old 0.1 u 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.7 2.6 3.2 3.8 5.5

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 u 1.7 2.4 2.7 4.7

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 * 0.1 ** u 0.3 * u 

 6–11 months old 0.2 0.3 u 0.4 0.8 1.5 2.5 2.9 u 4.1 6.0

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 1.7 2.1 * 2.7 3.5

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 u 0.6 0.8 * 1.1 ** 

 6–11 months old 0.1 0.2 u 0.3 0.6 1.4 2.0 ** 2.8 3.4 4.1

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐17

Table E-9. Folate (mcg DFE): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 15 66 104 147 263

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 2 7 11 22

 6–11 months old 4 u 9 13 24 57 114 181 255 322

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 14 59 91 138 257

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 4 10 18 26

 6–11 months old 1 u 8 u 13 24 56 100 158 u 254 352

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 7 u 80 112 154 198

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ** 0 *** 16

 6–11 months old 5 8 10 15 * 74 121 177 198 206

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 21 u 69 123 u 216 285

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 1 * u 4 * u 7 ** 10 ** 

 6–11 months old 4 9 15 27 59 118 u 235 263 312

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐18

Table E-10. Niacin (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 7.1 10.0 12.2 16.9

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 u 3.6 5.6 10.1

 6–11 months old 0.3 u 0.9 1.3 2.5 5.8 9.6 12.3 14.5 18.9

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.4 7.4 10.8 13.0 18.7

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.3 4.4 u 8.0 10.9

 6–11 months old 0.2 u 0.8 1.3 2.0 5.5 9.8 13.1 15.6 20.2

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 * u 5.2 10.1 12.0 12.3

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 * 0.3 *** 6.3 u 

 6–11 months old 0.8 0.8 1.7 2.2 4.1 10.4 12.2 12.3 17.0

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.6 7.1 9.6 10.8 15.1

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 u 3.2 3.7 * u 4.9 * 

 6–11 months old 0.4 0.8 1.1 u 3.0 6.1 8.1 11.4 13.1 17.6

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐19

Table E-11. Riboflavin (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.67 1.03 1.26 1.68

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.26 0.50 0.81

 6–11 months old 0.04 u 0.09 0.16 0.25 0.54 0.97 1.30 1.51 2.16

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.69 1.05 1.23 1.74

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.41 0.70 1.05

 6–11 months old 0.02 u 0.09 0.13 0.24 0.56 1.02 1.26 1.54 2.30

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 u 0.57 0.91 1.35 2.32

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 ** u 0.02 ** u 0.57 * 

 6–11 months old 0.08 0.11 0.19 0.28 0.38 1.19 1.53 2.24 2.63

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.66 0.97 1.23 1.51

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 u 0.22 0.28 * u 0.38 *** 

 6–11 months old 0.05 0.07 u 0.18 0.30 0.57 0.95 1.28 1.48 1.68

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐20

Table E-12. Thiamin (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.59 0.84 1.03 1.32

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 u 0.30 0.50 0.84

 6–11 months old 0.02 u 0.07 0.12 0.21 0.46 0.80 1.03 1.16 1.47

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.61 0.87 1.03 1.40

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 u 0.45 0.76 0.98

 6–11 months old 0.02 u 0.07 0.12 0.17 0.43 0.84 1.03 1.29 1.66

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 * u 0.39 u 0.82 1.00 1.30

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 * 0.00 ** u 0.02 *** 0.46 * u 

 6–11 months old 0.03 0.08 u 0.14 0.21 0.35 0.91 1.09 1.17 1.39

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.57 0.77 1.03 1.14

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 u 0.24 0.33 * u 0.41 **

 6–11 months old 0.02 0.05 u 0.12 0.28 0.48 0.76 1.03 1.13 1.31

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐21

Table E-13. Calcium (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 75 231 324 441 653

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 47 98 153 272

 6–11 months old 15 u 30 41 73 173 313 466 577 964

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 3 u 66 241 335 481 618

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 3 u 65 144 226 302

 6–11 months old 9 u 27 36 59 201 328 483 582 838 u 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 39 u 186 325 428 u 1,059

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 *** 7 *** 14 *** 61 *** 

 6–11 months old 33 46 59 * 72 131 * 361 439 u 1,057 1,368

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 93 223 289 375 639

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 45 u 91 102 * u 137 * 

 6–11 months old 16 u 28 42 88 171 283 408 532 839

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐22

Table E-14. Iron (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.9 9.1 12.7 16.4 20.7

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.3 u 5.4 9.0 15.2

 6–11 months old 0.4 u 0.9 1.3 2.5 6.7 11.5 16.4 17.9 22.8

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.3 9.3 14.2 16.4 23.1

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.3 u 7.9 12.2 17.4

 6–11 months old 0.2 u 0.9 1.2 1.9 u 6.3 12.0 16.3 18.0 25.8

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 u 6.0 u 11.8 15.8 19.0 u 

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 ** u 0.4 *** 10.4

 6–11 months old 0.5 * 1.0 1.5 2.3 4.9 11.9 18.0 18.8 20.5

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.4 * 9.2 11.6 16.4 17.9

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.4 u 4.0 6.0 * u 7.4 ** 

 6–11 months old 0.5 u 0.8 1.4 u 3.6 7.9 11.0 16.5 17.5 21.7

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐23

Table E-15. Magnesium (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 29 69 98 115 153

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 14 26 37 66

 6–11 months old 8 14 18 32 59 97 120 130 182

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 u 25 67 91 115 160

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 u 17 35 49 78

 6–11 months old 6 u 12 17 32 57 90 121 147 182

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 13 u 58 92 104 151

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 *** 1 *** 5 *** 22 * u 

 6–11 months old 11 16 23 27 49 97 109 151 181

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 34 71 102 116 135

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 11 u 21 31 * 36 * 

 6–11 months old 8 15 17 37 63 101 119 126 178

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐24

Table E-16. Phosphorus (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 79 232 314 408 653

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 35 70 110 199

 6–11 months old 20 u 32 50 97 190 312 427 593 851

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 74 225 340 422 666

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 45 107 138 230

 6–11 months old 12 u 31 46 87 195 340 470 618 850

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 47 u 187 320 423 765

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 *** 6 *** 53 *** 

 6–11 months old 42 48 * 59 96 168 366 474 749 1254

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 98 240 304 377 630

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 32 u 67 73 u 96 ** 

 6–11 months old 23 31 49 107 196 303 393 524 679

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐25

Table E-17. Zinc (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.7 2.9 3.9 5.8

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.9 u 

 6–11 months old 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.7 1.4 3.1 4.1 4.9 7.4

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.6 2.6 3.9 5.8

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.2

 6–11 months old 0.1 u 0.2 u 0.3 0.6 1.3 2.7 4.4 5.8 8.1 u 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 u 1.3 u 3.2 4.0 6.0

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 *** 0.0 *** 0.1 *** 0.3 ** u 

 6–11 months old 0.3 *** 0.3 0.4 * 0.6 1.3 3.5 4.6 5.9 7.0

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 2.1 3.2 3.9 4.8

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 u 0.3 u 0.3 * 0.5 * 

 6–11 months old 0.1 0.2 0.3 u 0.7 1.6 3.2 3.9 4.7 6.9

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐26

Table E-18. Copper (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.26 0.36 0.44 0.58

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.06 0.10 0.18

 6–11 months old 0.03 0.07 0.09 0.13 0.22 0.37 0.46 0.54 0.66

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 u 0.10 0.25 0.36 0.44 0.60

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 u 0.05 0.10 0.14 0.21

 6–11 months old 0.02 u 0.06 0.08 0.13 0.22 0.37 0.50 0.59 0.78 u 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 u 0.25 0.36 0.42 0.50

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 *** 0.00 *** 0.01 ** u 0.17

 6–11 months old 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.24 0.37 0.45 0.49 0.57

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.28 0.38 0.43 0.51

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 u 0.04 * 0.05 *** 0.09 **

 6–11 months old 0.03 0.07 0.09 0.13 0.23 0.37 0.44 0.49 0.59

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐27

Table E-19. Selenium (mcg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 3 12 20 25 44

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 6

 6–11 months old 0 u 1 u 2 4 9 20 29 38 59

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 3 12 24 28 49

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 5 u 8

 6–11 months old 0 u 1 u 1 u 4 10 24 33 48 62

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 1 u 11 18 25 36

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 * u 4 u 

 6–11 months old 1 *** 2 * 2 4 10 21 27 36 61

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 4 12 16 * 21 35

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 1 u 1 * 2 u 2 ** 

 6–11 months old 0 1 u 2 u 4 9 16 ** 23 34 47

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐28

Table E-20. Potassium (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 240 575 814 982 1,417

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 41 120 198 350

 6–11 months old 68 146 200 304 513 839 1,076 1,320 1,904

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 224 550 804 1,000 1,433

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 89 165 263 433

 6–11 months old 33 u 160 199 295 496 854 1,162 1,409 1,991

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 146 u 559 871 1,087 1,558

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 * u 5 *** 327

 6–11 months old 54 184 228 272 538 1,049 * 1,260 1,553 2,157

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 268 594 809 920 1,279

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 27 ** u 59 * u 87 ** u 153 ** 

 6–11 months old 74 142 185 307 520 801 937 1,173 1,555

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐29

Table E-21. Dietary Fiber (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 4.7 6.8 8.3 10.2

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 u 1.2 2.6

 6–11 months old 0.3 u 1.0 1.5 2.2 4.2 7.1 9.0 9.9 11.9

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 4.0 5.9 7.6 9.9

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 u 1.2 2.0 u 3.7

 6–11 months old 0.1 u 0.7 u 1.4 2.1 3.6 6.5 8.4 9.7 11.5

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 u 3.9 5.6 7.0 9.3

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 * 0.0 ** 1.9 * 

 6–11 months old 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.3 u 3.6 5.9 7.2 9.3 13.8

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.3 5.4 * 8.0 * 9.4 * 10.6

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 ** u 0.3 * u 0.9 * u 

 6–11 months old 0.5 u 1.4 1.6 2.8 4.8 ** 7.9 9.4 10.2 11.7

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐30

Table E-22. Sodium (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 25 216 428 641 1,127

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 3 8 15 37

 6–11 months old 4 u 12 21 42 160 459 718 1,013 1,431

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 u 25 244 494 712 1,242

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 u 5 u 15 u 26 u 50 u 

 6–11 months old 5 u 14 25 48 201 573 909 1,150 1,669 u 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 17 u 232 375 516 925

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 * u 3 ** u 15 u 

 6–11 months old 16 21 25 33 u 165 u 489 813 924 1,223

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 28 u 200 396 556 862

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 2 u 4 6 * u 10

 6–11 months old 3 7 u 16 u 39 142 374 * 626 759 1,285

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐31

Table E-23. Choline (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 12 40 61 82 138

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 9 16

 6–11 months old 3 u 8 9 15 34 61 98 134 193

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 10 37 65 105 159

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 3 9 12 23

 6–11 months old 1 u 7 9 14 32 69 120 150 194

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 9 u 30 u 64 90 145

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ** u 0 *** 10 * u 

 6–11 months old 4 8 12 15 29 74 107 145 223

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 15 41 56 67 110

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 1 u 3 ** u 5 * u 8 *** 

 6–11 months old 4 u 8 12 16 37 55 72 * 98 137

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

   
E‐32

Table E-24. Total Fat (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 1 5 11 15 25

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2

 6–11 months old 0 u 0 u 1 2 5 11 17 24 35

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 1 6 13 16 32

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3

 6–11 months old 0 u 0 1 u 2 5 14 20 32 40 u 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 1 u 5 10 15 22

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ** 0 ** u 1 *** 

 6–11 months old 1 *** 1 1 2 5 13 18 22 46

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 1 5 7 * 13 20

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 u 1 1 * u 1 *** 

 6–11 months old 0 0 u 1 2 4 7 ** 14 18 24

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐33

Table E-25. Protein (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.15 8.35 12.74 17.57 30.88

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.54 1.35 2.04 3.92

 6–11 months old 0.55 u 1.06 1.71 3.45 7.00 12.93 20.56 27.61 43.77

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.12 8.47 14.03 18.45 33.51

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.81 1.93 2.95 4.63

 6–11 months old 0.23 u 0.91 1.52 3.30 7.95 14.76 23.38 32.43 43.91

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.09 u 7.61 10.10 u 19.78 25.57

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 ** 0.07 ** u 2.49 * 

 6–11 months old 1.06 *** 1.55 1.84 3.35 7.06 14.77 24.01 25.35 54.85

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.71 8.33 12.42 15.39 27.37

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.46 u 0.90 * 1.21 * 1.67 *** 

 6–11 months old 0.64 1.11 1.93 3.55 6.96 11.81 16.38 24.65 35.69

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐34

Table E-26. Carbohydrate (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 25 63 83 102 134

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 6 15 24 44

 6–11 months old 6 u 14 22 33 56 85 107 126 167

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 24 62 85 103 142

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 10 23 32 48

 6–11 months old 5 u 12 22 32 56 88 115 142 183

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 11 u 63 80 93 116

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 *** 1 *** 42 u 

 6–11 months old 8 13 18 30 58 89 103 116 156

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 25 66 80 90 117

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 5 u 10 ** 12 ** 15 *** 

 6–11 months old 6 15 20 32 55 80 94 111 148

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐35

Table E-27. Saturated Fat (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.6 3.2 5.6 10.0

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5

 6–11 months old 0.0 u 0.1 u 0.2 0.4 1.4 3.6 6.4 8.9 15.2

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 1.8 3.8 6.3 11.5

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5

 6–11 months old 0.0 u 0.1 u 0.1 u 0.5 1.7 4.2 7.1 11.3 u 19.6 u 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 u 1.5 3.3 u 5.2 9.2

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 ** u 0.0 ** u 0.2 ** 

 6–11 months old 0.1 *** 0.1 0.3 0.5 1.5 4.0 u 8.2 9.2 18.7

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 u 1.5 2.1 u 4.8 u 8.7

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 u 0.1 0.1 * u 0.2 *** 

 6–11 months old 0.0 u 0.1 u 0.2 0.4 1.0 * 2.1 * 5.3 7.9 10.0

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐36

Table E-28. Linoleic Acid (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.2 1.8 2.6 3.9

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.7

 6–11 months old 0.0 u 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.0 1.8 2.8 3.7 5.2

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.2 2.2 3.2 4.3

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8

 6–11 months old 0.0 u 0.1 0.2 u 0.5 1.0 2.4 3.7 4.2 6.9

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 * u 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 *** 0.0 *** 0.2 *** 

 6–11 months old 0.1 * 0.2 0.3 * 0.3 1.0 2.0 2.8 3.0 3.3

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.2 1.5 1.8 ** 2.8

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 u 0.2 * 0.2 * u 0.3 *** 

 6–11 months old 0.1 0.2 u 0.2 0.4 0.9 1.5 1.8 *** 2.6 3.9

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐37

Table E-29. Linolenic Acid (g): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1

 6–11 months old 0.0 u 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 u 0.0 0.1 0.1

 6–11 months old 0.0 u 0.0 u 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 u 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 u 

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 ** 0.0 ** u 0.0 u 

 6–11 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.3 u 0.5 0.7

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 * 0.4

 0–5 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 u 0.0 * 0.0 u 0.0 * 

 6–11 months old 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 ** 0.2 0.3 0.5 u 

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐38

Table E-30. Cholesterol (mg): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0 0 0 0 0 11 26 51 102

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 6–11 months old 0 0 0 0 9 27 61 96 181

 

WIC participants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 0 13 34 u 84 u 177

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 6–11 months old 0 0 0 0 10 45 u 103 u 172 223 u 

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 0 10 u 24 39 143

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 6–11 months old 0 0 0 1 u 10 37 69 143 175

 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0 0 0 0 0 11 24 36 60 *** 

 0–5 months old 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

 6–11 months old 0 0 0 0 8 22 37 56 *** 71

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

 
E‐39

Table E-31. Calories (kcal): Distribution of Nutrient Intakes from Complementary Foods

Percentiles

5th 10th 15th 25th 50th 75th 85th 90th 95th 

All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 128.30 346.89 467.85 589.13 853.40

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 29.76 64.80 109.90 202.22

 6–11 months old 28.44 u 74.15 98.63 171.62 309.58 471.98 650.19 771.42 1,105.92

WIC participants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 117.20 346.96 495.35 613.45 950.68

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 46.37 103.41 151.69 219.99

 6–11 months old 21.66 u 64.40 95.04 179.59 312.85 534.70 696.78 930.17 1,219.23

Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 63.61 u 348.86 471.67 551.31 787.85

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.21 *** 4.98 *** 191.35 u 

 6–11 months old 47.30 69.32 90.00 160.00 336.12 483.49 672.24 787.08 1,103.91

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

 All infants 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 146.33 342.96 408.25 523.89 723.39

 0–5 months old 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 23.76 u 46.88 ** 60.17 ** 77.71 *** 

 6–11 months old 29.81 75.10 98.72 160.08 305.21 404.89 * 567.34 661.04 932.33

Source: NHANES 2005–2008 dietary recalls. Sample includes NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall 

data and incomplete recall due to the consumption of breast milk, 0–11 months old. Complementary foods 

exclude breast milk and formula. 

Notes: ’All infants’ includes infants with missing WIC participation or income. Totals for infants are not age-adjusted. 

Significant differences in percentiles are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). Differences 

are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as infants receiving WIC benefits at the time of the 

interview. In the comparison of percentiles across WIC participation and eligibility groups, a Bonferroni 

adjustment was used to adjust levels of significance and control for multiplicity in the number of tests. 

u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 
E‐40

Table E-32. Healthy Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005) Scores: Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and Postpartum 

Women 

See notes at end of table. 

 

Pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women 

All women WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean score Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 604 - 244 - 83 - 211 - 

Total Fruit 3.6 (0.31) 3.5 (0.37) 3.3 (0.38) 3.7 (0.55) 

Whole Fruit 4.0 (0.39) 3.5 (0.55) 3.5 (0.53) 4.3 (0.59) 

Total Vegetables 3.2 (0.16) 2.8 (0.28) 2.9 (0.26) 3.8 * (0.33) 

Dark Green and Orange 

Vegetables, and Legumes 1.3 (0.24) 0.7 u (0.30) 1.2 (0.24) 1.8 * (0.34) 

Total Grains 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.01) 5.0 (0.02) 

Whole Grains 1.3 (0.16) 1.1 (0.16) 1.0 u (0.35) 1.6 (0.29) 

Milk 6.8 (0.38) 6.7 (0.37) 6.0 (0.89) 7.5 (0.58) 

Meat and Beans 10.0 (0.09) 9.8 (0.33) 10.0 (0.02) 9.7 (0.32) 

Oils 7.5 (0.35) 7.5 (0.69) 6.4 (0.74) 7.9 (0.57) 

Saturated Fat 5.6 (0.44) 5.9 (0.54) 6.2 (0.80) 4.7 (0.59) 

Sodium 3.6 (0.28) 4.0 (0.43) 4.5 (0.51) 2.8 (0.51) 

Empty Calories 9.6 (0.55) 8.9 (0.97) 9.7 (0.76) 10.5 (0.58) 

Total HEI-2005 Score 61.5 (1.67) 59.5 (2.43) 59.8 (2.14) 63.3 (2.08) 

Pregnant women 

All women WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean score Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 373 - 144 - 54 - 136 - 

Total Fruit 4.8 (0.24) 4.8 (0.30) 4.1 (0.54) 4.7 (0.49) 

Whole Fruit 4.9 (0.16) 4.5 (0.56) 3.9 (0.73) 5.0 (0.17) 

Total Vegetables 3.4 (0.31) 2.7 (0.52) 3.2 (0.30) 4.0 (0.46) 

Dark Green and Orange 

Vegetables, and Legumes 1.2 (0.36) 0.8 u (0.50) 1.7 u (0.53) 1.4 (0.28) 

Total Grains 5.0 (0.02) 5.0 (0.09) 5.0 (0.00) 4.9 (0.12) 

Whole Grains 1.1 (0.17) 1.1 (0.23) 1.1 u (0.73) 1.3 (0.26) 

Milk 6.8 (0.49) 6.7 (0.42) 5.2 * (0.47) 7.5 (0.76) 

Meat and Beans 9.8 (0.26) 9.6 (0.57) 10.0 (0.02) 9.3 (0.60) 

Oils 7.0 (0.46) 7.1 (0.69) 7.2 (0.93) 7.4 (0.87) 

Saturated Fat 5.8 (0.58) 5.7 (0.75) 6.4 (1.02) 5.5 (1.03) 

Sodium 3.9 (0.42) 4.6 (0.66) 4.6 (0.68) 3.1 (0.80) 

Empty Calories 10.6 (0.87) 9.8 (1.92) 11.4 (0.71) 11.0 (1.01) 

Total HEI-2005 Score 64.5 (2.04) 62.4 (4.05) 63.8 (2.73) 65.2 (2.41) 
E‐41

Table E-32. Healthy Eating Index-2005 (HEI-2005) Scores: Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and Postpartum 

Women–Continued 

Sources: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Health Eating Index-2005, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Center 

for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 1, December 2006. Sample includes NHANES 

respondents with complete dietary recall data. Sample includes pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum 

women, 20–44 years old. Postpartum women are non-breastfeeding women up to 12 months postpartum and 

include an unknown number of non-breastfeeding women who are more than 6-months postpartum. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. ’All Women’ includes women with missing WIC 

participation or income. Scores are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants and 

nonparticipants. Significant differences in mean scores are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 level). 

Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as women receiving WIC benefits at the time 

of the interview. 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

- Not applicable. 

Breastfeeding women 

All women WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Sample size 71 - 31 - 12 - 24 - 

Total Fruit 4.0 (0.45) 4.7 (0.55) 4.1 (0.54) 3.5 (0.67) 

Whole Fruit 4.9 (0.26) 4.9 (0.43) 3.9 (0.73) 4.3 (0.88) 

Total Vegetables 3.7 (0.65) 3.8 (0.67) 3.2 (0.30) 4.1 (0.84) 

Dark Green and Orange 

Vegetables, and Legumes 2.8 u (0.92) 2.0 u (1.13) 1.7 u (0.53) 3.7 u (1.21) 

Total Grains 5.0 (0.09) 4.9 (0.19) 5.0 (0.00) 4.8 (0.27) 

Whole Grains 2.0 (0.35) 2.0 (0.59) 1.1 u (0.73) 1.9 (0.47) 

Milk 7.7 (0.65) 8.1 (1.07) 5.2 * (0.47) 8.2 (0.93) 

Meat and Beans 10.0 (0.15) 9.8 (0.42) 10.0 (0.02) 9.9 (0.37) 

Oils 5.8 (0.57) 4.7 (0.86) 7.2 (0.93) 6.2 (1.05) 

Saturated Fat 5.6 (0.61) 6.9 (0.95) 6.4 (1.02) 4.4 (1.02) 

Sodium 3.9 (0.78) 4.9 (0.42) 4.6 (0.68) 2.8 u (1.37) 

Empty Calories 10.0 (1.30) 10.5 (2.03) 11.4 (0.71) 10.9 (1.82) 

Total HEI-2005 Score 65.3 (2.59) 67.4 (4.01) 63.8 (2.73) 64.6 (3.38) 

Postpartum women 

All women WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income

nonparticipants 

 Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean score Standard 

error 

Sample size 226 - 114 - 25 - 63 - 

Total Fruit 2.4 (0.37) 2.3 (0.46) 1.7 u (0.92) 2.6 (0.71) 

Whole Fruit 2.0 (0.30) 1.9 (0.45) 1.4 u (0.62) 2.0 (0.47) 

Total Vegetables 2.9 (0.21) 2.6 (0.30) 2.8 (0.41) 3.4 (0.33) 

Dark Green and Orange 

Vegetables, and Legumes 0.9 (0.25) 0.5 u (0.23) 0.6 u (0.50) 1.3 u (0.39) 

Total Grains 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.00) 5.0 (0.14) 5.0 (0.05) 

Whole Grains 1.1 (0.26) 1.0 (0.20) 0.4 * u (0.17) 1.6 u (0.55) 

Milk 6.5 (0.54) 6.4 (0.53) 6.4 u (1.97) 7.2 (0.99) 

Meat and Beans 9.8 (0.24) 9.6 (0.50) 9.8 (0.53) 9.3 (0.48) 

Oils 8.5 (0.63) 8.2 (1.01) 6.4 (0.94) 9.1 (0.83) 

Saturated Fat 5.4 (0.69) 5.9 (0.82) 6.7 (1.63) 4.2 (0.96) 

Sodium 3.2 (0.38) 3.5 (0.63) 3.7 (0.78) 2.4 (0.61) 

Empty Calories 8.7 (0.78) 8.2 (1.16) 9.4 (1.33) 9.9 (0.91) 

Total HEI-2005 Score 56.3 (1.62) 55.1 (2.40) 54.5 (4.00) 58.1 (2.38) 
E‐42

Table E-33. Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) Scores: Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and Postpartum 

Women 

See notes at end of table. 

 

Pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women 

All women WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean score Standard 

error 

Mean score Standard 

error 

Sample size 604 - 244 - 83 - 211 - 

Total Fruit 3.6 (0.32) 3.5 (0.37) 3.3 (0.38) 3.7 (0.55) 

Whole Fruit 4.0 (0.39) 3.5 (0.54) 3.5 (0.52) 4.4 (0.58) 

Total Vegetables 3.2 (0.16) 2.8 (0.27) 2.9 (0.26) 3.8 * (0.32) 

Greens and Beans 1.8 (0.41) 0.9 u (0.49) 2.1 (0.51) 2.4 * (0.52) 

Whole Grains 2.5 (0.31) 2.2 (0.33) 2.1 u (0.70) 3.1 (0.58) 

Dairy 6.8 (0.38) 6.7 (0.37) 6.0 (0.90) 7.5 (0.58) 

Total Protein Foods 5.0 (0.05) 4.9 (0.16) 5.0 (0.01) 4.8 (0.16) 

Seafood and Plant Proteins 2.9 (0.35) 2.6 (0.42) 3.3 u (1.06) 3.0 (0.39) 

Fatty Acids 4.1 (0.34) 4.3 (0.39) 3.5 (0.62) 4.0 (0.56) 

Refined Grains 5.2 (0.35) 4.7 (0.51) 4.3 (0.82) 6.0 (0.65) 

Sodium 4.5 (0.35) 5.0 (0.53) 5.6 (0.63) 3.4 (0.63) 

Empty Calories 9.7 (0.54) 8.7 (0.94) 9.7 (0.72) 10.7 (0.56) 

Total HEI-2010 Score 53.3 (1.68) 49.9 (2.38) 51.3 (2.34) 56.8 * (2.51) 

Pregnant women 

All women WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean score Standard 

error 

Sample size 373 - 144 - 54 - 136 - 

Total Fruit 4.8 (0.25) 4.8 (0.31) 4.1 (0.54) 4.7 (0.50) 

Whole Fruit 5.0 (0.16) 4.5 (0.56) 3.9 (0.73) 5.0 (0.17) 

Total Vegetables 3.4 (0.31) 2.7 (0.51) 3.2 (0.30) 4.0 * (0.47) 

Greens and Beans 1.8 u (0.66) 1.3 u (0.89) 2.9 u (1.04) 2.0 (0.44) 

Whole Grains 2.3 (0.34) 2.1 (0.45) 2.1 u (1.47) 2.7 (0.52) 

Dairy 6.8 (0.50) 6.7 (0.41) 5.2 * (0.47) 7.5 (0.76) 

Total Protein Foods 4.9 (0.13) 4.8 (0.29) 5.0 (0.01) 4.7 (0.30) 

Seafood and Plant Proteins 3.8 (0.57) 4.4 (0.68) 2.2 * u (0.84) 3.4 (0.70) 

Fatty Acids 4.1 (0.39) 4.2 (0.64) 4.3 (0.83) 4.3 (0.61) 

Refined Grains 5.6 (0.45) 5.8 (0.59) 4.6 (0.81) 6.3 (0.85) 

Sodium 4.9 (0.52) 5.8 (0.83) 5.8 (0.85) 3.9 (1.00) 

Empty Calories 10.3 (0.84) 9.5 (1.87) 11.0 (0.68) 10.7 (0.96) 

Total HEI-2010 Score 57.7 (1.96) 56.6 (3.36) 54.3 (3.16) 59.1 (2.81) 
E‐43

Table E-33. Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) Scores: Pregnant, Breastfeeding, and Postpartum 

Women–Continued 

Sources: NHANES 2005-2008 dietary recalls. MyPyramid Equivalents Database (MPED 2.0); CNPP 03-04 Fruit 

Database; CNPP Addendum to MPED 2.0B. Healthy Eating Index-2010, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion (CNPP) Fact Sheet No. 2, February 2013. Sample includes 

NHANES respondents with complete dietary recall data. Sample includes pregnant, breastfeeding, and 

postpartum women, 20–44 years old. Postpartum women are non-breastfeeding women up to 12 months 

postpartum and include an unknown number of non-breastfeeding women who are more than 6-months 

postpartum. 

Notes: Estimates are based on a single dietary recall per person. ’All Women’ includes women with missing WIC 

participation or income. Scores are age-adjusted to account for different age distributions of WIC participants 

and nonparticipants. Significant differences in mean scores are noted by * (.05 level), ** (.01 level), or *** (.001 

level). Differences are tested in comparison to WIC participants, identified as pregnant, breastfeeding, and 

postpartum women receiving WIC benefits at the time of the interview. 

 

 u Denotes individual estimates not meeting the standards of reliability or precision due to large coefficient of 

variation. 

- Not applicable.

Breastfeeding women 

All women WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean score Standard 

error 

Sample size 71 - 31 - 12 - 24 - 

Total Fruit 4.0 (0.45) 4.7 (0.56) 4.1 (0.54) 3.5 (0.68) 

Whole Fruit 4.9 (0.26) 4.9 (0.44) 3.9 (0.73) 4.3 (0.87) 

Total Vegetables 3.7 (0.65) 3.8 (0.68) 3.2 (0.30) 4.1 (0.85) 

Greens and Beans 3.2 u (1.15) 2.0 u (1.17) 2.9 u (1.04) 3.9 u (1.34) 

Whole Grains 3.9 (0.70) 3.9 u (1.18) 2.1 u (1.47) 3.7 (0.92) 

Dairy 7.7 (0.64) 8.1 (1.06) 5.2 * (0.47) 8.2 (0.93) 

Total Protein Foods 5.0 (0.07) 4.9 (0.21) 5.0 (0.01) 4.9 (0.18) 

Seafood and Plant Proteins 3.3 (0.91) 2.0 u (0.80) 2.2 u (0.84) 2.7 u (0.94) 

Fatty Acids 3.1 (0.49) 2.8 (0.55) 4.3 (0.83) 3.2 (0.72) 

Refined Grains 7.0 (0.77) 6.2 (1.84) 4.6 (0.81) 7.8 (1.08) 

Sodium 4.9 (0.97) 6.2 (0.53) 5.8 (0.85) 3.4 u (1.70) 

Empty Calories 10.6 (1.25) 10.5 (1.70) 11.0 (0.68) 11.7 (1.73) 

Total HEI-2010 Score 61.3 (2.88) 60.0 (4.29) 54.3 (3.16) 61.6 (3.69) 

Postpartum women 

All women WIC participants Income-eligible 

nonparticipants 

Higher-income 

nonparticipants 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean 

score 

Standard 

error 

Mean score Standard 

error 

Sample Size 226 - 114 - 25 - 63 - 

Total Fruit 2.4 (0.37) 2.3 (0.46) 1.7 u (0.92) 2.6 (0.72) 

Whole Fruit 2.0 (0.30) 1.9 (0.45) 1.4 u (0.61) 2.0 (0.47) 

Total Vegetables 2.9 (0.21) 2.6 (0.30) 2.8 (0.41) 3.4 (0.33) 

Greens and Beans 1.2 u (0.38) 0.6 u (0.38) 1.1 u (0.99) 2.1 * u (0.66) 

Whole Grains 2.2 (0.51) 2.0 (0.41) 0.9 * u (0.33) 3.3 u (1.11) 

Dairy 6.5 (0.53) 6.4 (0.52) 6.4 u (1.96) 7.2 (0.97) 

Total Protein Foods 4.9 (0.12) 4.8 (0.25) 4.9 (0.27) 4.7 (0.24) 

Seafood and Plant Proteins 2.1 (0.36) 1.6 (0.45) 2.8 u (1.10) 2.3 (0.58) 

Fatty Acids 4.4 (0.47) 4.7 (0.52) 3.6 (0.97) 4.2 (0.99) 

Refined Grains 4.2 (0.65) 3.8 (0.72) 2.6 u (1.96) 4.8 (1.25) 

Sodium 4.0 (0.47) 4.3 (0.78) 4.7 (0.98) 3.0 (0.75) 

Empty Calories 8.9 (0.76) 8.0 (1.16) 9.1 (1.26) 10.2 (0.89) 

Total HEI-2010 Score 45.6 (1.47) 43.1 (2.19) 41.9 (4.03) 49.7 (2.86) 
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