Informational Technology and Its Impact on

American Education

November 1982

NTIS order #PB83-174664
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 82-600608

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents,

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
Foreword

Over the last decade, American education has come to face a number of new

demands that must be met with limited resources. Many of these new demands

arise from the rising dependence of our society on technology as a basis for domestic

economic growth, international competitiveness, and national security. In October

1980, the House Committee on Education and Labor, its Subcommittee on Special

Education, and the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology of the

House Committee on Science and Technology asked OTA to examine the extent

to which information technology could serve American needs for education and

training.

This report documents two basic sets of conclusions:

1. The so-called information revolution, driven by rapid advances in communication and computer technology, is profoundly affecting American education.

It is changing the nature of what needs to be learned, who needs to learn it,

who will provide it, and how it will be provided and paid for.

2. Information technology can potentially improve and enrich the educational

services that traditional educational institutions provide, distribute education and training into new environments such as the home and office, reach

new clients such as handicapped or homebound persons, and teach job-related

skills in the use of technology.

The OTA report provides an overview of the issues relating to the educational

applications of the new information technologies. It examines both the demands

that the information revolution will make on education and the opportunities afforded by the new information technologies to meet those demands. Rather than

focusing on a single technology, it examines a wide variety of new information

products and services such as those based on the combined capabilities of computers, telecommunications systems, and video technologies. Similarly, the report

surveys a broad range of educational providers, and examines how the application of information technologies may affect their abilities to provide education

and their respective educational roles.

OTA acknowledges with thanks and appreciation the advice and counsel of

the panel members, contractors, other agencies of Government, and individual

participants who helped bring the study to completion.

. .

///
Informational Technology and Its Impact on

American Education Advisory Panel

Willis Adcock

Assistant Vice President

Texas Instruments Inc.

Joel N. Bloom

Director

Franklin Institute

Science Museum and Planetarium

Colleen Cayton

Maxima Corp.

Robert L. Chartrand

Congressional Research Service

Mark Curtis

President

Association of American Colleges

L. Linton Deck

Fairfax County Schools (Virginia)

Sam Gibbon

Bank Street College

Harold Howe, 11

Harvard Graduate School of Education

Robert Hoye

Director, Instructional Technology

University of Louisville

Judith Lozano

Superintendent of Southside School District

San Antonio, Tex.

Maurice Mitchell

Chairman of the Board

National Public Radio

Sarah Resnick

President

Media Systems Corp.

Vic Walling

Stanford Research Institute

Nellouise Watkins

Director, Computer Center

Bennett College

Joe Wyatt

Vice President for Administration

Harvard University
Informational Technology and Its Impact on

American Education Project Staff

John Andelin, Assistant Director, OTA

Science, Information, and Natural Resources Division

Stephen E. Doyle* and Sam Hale,** Interim Program Manager

Communication and Information Technologies Program

Fred W. Weingarten, Project Director

Prudence S. Adler, Assistant Project Director***

Dorothy Linda Garcia, Analyst

Beth A. Brown, In-House Consultant

Susan F. Cohen, Congressional Fellow

Linda G. Roberts, Consultant (Senior Associate, Department of Education on detail)

Elizabeth Emanuel, Administrative Assistant

Shirley Gayheart, Secretary

Teresa Richroath, Secretary

Jeanette Contee, Wordprocessor

Contractors

Christopher Dede, University of Houston

Beverly Hunter, Brian K. Waters, and Janice H. Laurence,

Human Resources Research Organization

Sharon Lansing, Consultant

Kathryn M. White, Editor, Writer

Renee G. Ford, Tifford Producers, Ltd., Editor, Writer

Deeana Nash, Collingwood Associates

OTA Publishing Staff

John C. Holmes,

John Bergling Kathie S. Boss

Doreen Cullen

Publishing Officer

Debra M. Datcher Joe Henson

Donna Young

v
Acknowledgments

The following individuals contributed as contractors or reviewers during the course of this study.

Richard Ballard, TALMIS Corp.

Charles Benton, Films Inc.

George Blank, Creative Computing

Robert C. Bowen, McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Dee Brock, Public Broadcasting Service

John Cameron, Department of Commerce

Sylvania Charp, School District of Philadelphia

Richard Diem, University of Texas at

San Antonio

Seymour Eskow, Rockland Community College

Albert Goldberg, WCISD

Jim Johnson, University of Iowa

Valerie Klansek, Upper Midwest Region

Resource Center

Paul Larkin, Prince Georges Community College

Joe Lipson, WICAT

Tom Loftis, Office of Personnel Management

Arthur Melmed, Department of Education

Andy Molnar, National Science Foundation

Richard B. Otte, National Institute of Education

Richard Robinson, Scholastic, Inc.

Worth Scanland, U.S. Navy

Patsy Vyner, Close Up Foundation

Fred Wood, Department of Agriculture

Andy Zucker, Department of Education

Photo Credits

All photographs by Ted Spiegel, @1982, except for the following:

Pages 17 and 31–IBM Corp.

Page 36 (unnumbered) —National Science Foundation

Page 150 (unnumbered) –U.S. Department of Agriculture
Contents

Chapter Page

I. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

The Information Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Role of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Information Technologies . . . . . . . . . . 6

Impacts on Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . 7

New Needs for Education and

Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Case Studies on Information

Technology, ..,...,. . . . . . . . . . . 8

Potential Technological Solutions . . . 9

Policy Issues and Options . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Issues. ...,..,...,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Options for Federal Action . . . . . . . . . 11

2. The United States as an Information

Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Economic and Societal Impacts of

Information Technology. . . . . . . . . 16

Changing Economic Base of the Nation 19

3. Implications for Economic Growth

and Human Capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Knowledge and Growth . . . . . . . . . 25

Education and Growth . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Human Capital Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Need for Technical Education . . . . . . . . 29

Information Literacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Information Professionals . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Information Scientists . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4. Trends in Information Technology . . . . . 37

Findings ..., . . . . . . . . . .

Communications. . . . . . . . . . .

Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Satellite Communication . . . .

Digital Telephone Network. .

Local Distribution Networks

New Broadcast Technologies

Direct Broadcast Satellite.

Low-Power Broadcast . . . .

Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Desktop Computers . . . .

Hand-Held Computers . . . .

Human Interface . . . . . . . . .

Storage Technology . . . . . . .

Video Technology . . . . . . . .

Video Cassette Recorders

Improved Quality . . . . . . . .

Filmless Camera . . . . . . . . .

Video Disk. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Information Services . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . 37

. . . . . . . . . 37

. . . . . . . . . 38

.,.. . . . . . 38

. . . . . . . . . 39

. . . . . . . . 40

. . . . . . . . . 41

. . . . . . . . . 41

. . . . . . . . . 41

. . . . . . . . . 42

. . . . . . . . . 43

. . . . . . . . . 44

. . . . . . . . . 45

. . . . . . . . . 46

. . . . . . . . . 47

. . . . . . . . . 47

. . . . . . . . . 47

.,.. . . . . 47

. . . . . . . . 47

. . . . . . . . 48

Chapter Page

Videotex and Teletext . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Information Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Electronic Conferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Advanced Business Services . . . . . . . . . 52

5. Educational Uses of Information

Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Functions of Educational Technology, . 55

Passive Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Interactive Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Information Resource . . . . . . . . . . 59

Administration and Instruction

Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Distribute Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Testing and Diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Capabilities of Educational Technology 62

Cost and Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

6. The Provision of Education in the

United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Social Change and Education in

America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Elementary and Secondary Education . 70

Public Schools. ..,... . . . . . . . . . 70

Status of the American Public

School System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Future of the American Public

School System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Private Alternatives to Public

Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

University and the Four-Year Colleges, 78

Public Role of Higher Education, . . . 78

Status of American Colleges and

Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Two-Year and Community Colleges. . . . 83

Proprietary Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Status of Proprietary Schools . . . . 85

Characteristics of Proprietary

Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Markets Served by Proprietary

Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Applications of Information

Technology in Proprietary

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Future Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Future Uses by Other Industry

Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Education in the Home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Status of Education in the Home . . 92

Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Education in the Library . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Status of Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

vii
Contents—Continued

Chapter Page

7.

Museums. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Museum Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Status of Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Business and Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Role of Education in the Workplace .

Industry-Based Training and

Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trend Toward Decentralized

Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Training: Investment. Expense. . . .

Relationship With Local Educational

Institutions and IndustrySponsoredEducational Institutions

Information Technology in Corporate

Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Factors That May Affect

Instructional Use of Technology . . .

Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Union-Sponsored Training and

Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Education Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other Types of Instructional

Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Information Technology inUnionSponsoredInstruction . . . . . . . . . . .

State of Research and Development in

Educational Technology . :. . . . . . . . .

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction and Background . . . . . . . .

Changing R&D Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Federal Funding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Private Funding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Federal Commitment to Educational

Technology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982

Discontinued and Consolidated

Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Continuing Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

New Grants for Fiscal Year 1982 . . . . .

Federal Support for Educational

Research Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . .

Educational Technology R&D Support

by Other Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

European Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . .

United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Implications of the Present Federal

Role in Educational Technology

R&D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Present and Future Support for

Educational Technology R&D . . . . .

Case Studies of Landmark R&D

Dissemination Efforts in

Educational Technology . . . . . . . . . .

97

97

98

99

100

100

101

102

102

102

103

105

105

105

106

107

111

111

111

113

114

114

116

118

119

121

122

122

123

123

123

124

125

126

Chapter Page

Case Study 1: Children’s Television

Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Case Study 2: Development,

Production, and Marketing of

PLATO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Case Study 3: Computer Curriculum

Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Case Study 4: CONDUIT . . . . . . . . . . 135

8. Conditions That May Affect the

Further Application of Information

Technology in Education . . . . . . . . . .

Available Data on Educational

Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Microcomputers and Terminals Disk .

Videocassette Recorders and Video

Cassette Recorders and Videodisk

Climate for Use of Information

Technology in the Schools. . . . . . . .

Hardware and Educational Software

Vendors: Views of the Education

Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conditions Affecting Commercial

Courseware Development . . . . . . . . .

Summary of Current Conditions . . . . . .

141

141

141

143

143

145

146

147

9. Federal Role in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Education Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

The Early Years: 1642-1860 . . . . . . . . 151

The Years 1860-1930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

The Expanding Federal Role:

1950-1970’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

The Courts and Education . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Federal Role in Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Federal Role in Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Effect of Federal Telecommunication

Regulation and Legislation on

Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Governmental Control of

Telecommunication. . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Governmental Control of Education . 161

The Federal Communication

Commission and Educational

Telecommunication Services . . . . . . 162

Instructional Television Fixed

Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

The Public Broadcasting Service . . . . 164

Low Power Television and Direct

Broadcast Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Cable Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Telecommunication Legislation and

Educational Services . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

. . . Vlll
Contents—Continued

Chapter Page

The Protection of Information

Software: An Overview . . . . . . . . . 166

Types of Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Legal Protection for Software . . . . . 167

Legal Protection: Issues and

Educational Options. . . . . . . . . . . 172

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

10. Implications for Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Arguments for Federal Action. ..., . . . 177

Arguments Against Federal Action . . . 178

Congressional Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Option 1: Subsidize Hardware . . . . . 179

Option 2: Subsidize Software . . 180

Option 3: Assume a Leadership Role. 180

Option 4: Incorporate Technology

Initiatives in General Education

Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Appendix A—Case Studies: Applications

of Information Technologies. . . . . . . . . . 187

Computers in Education: Lexington

Public Schools, Lexington, Mass. 187

Computer-Using Educators and

Computer Literacy Programs In

Novato and Cupertino . . . . . . . . . . 194

Novato Unified School District,

Novato, Calif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Cupertino Union School District,

Cupertino, Calif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Technology Education and Training,

Oxford Public Schools,

Oxford, Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Computer Literacy Program: Lyons

Township Secondary School

District, LaGrange, Ill, . . . . . . . . . 209

Minnesota Schools and the Minnesota

Educational Computing

Consortium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

MECC: A State Computing Agency . . . 214

Instructional Computing, Houston

Independent School District,

Houston, Tex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Information Technology and

Education in the State of Alaska . 227

EDUCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Industry-Based Training and

Education Programs. . . . . . . . . . . 235

Information Technology and Libraries . 237

Museums. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Military Uses of Information

Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Direct to the Home . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Information Technology and Special

Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Table No. Page

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

TABLES

Table No. Page

l. Percentage Share of the U.S.

2.

3.

27

4,

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16,

17.

18.

Economy-by Sector ..., ., . . . . . . . . . .

Some Representative Growth Figures

for the Information Industry. . . . . . . . .

Percentage Employment in the

Business Sector by Sex and Years

of Education Completed . . . . . . . . .

Unemployment Rates by Sex and

Number of Years of Education

Completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Achievement Test Score Averages,

1972-79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Requirements for Computer Specialists

Percentages of Engineering Graduates

and Trends in Shares of World Trade

The Growth of Cable Television in the

United States.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Projected Demand for Satellite

Communications in Number of

Transponders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chief Characteristics of Voice v. Data

Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

U.S. Installed Base of Personnel

Computers by Market Sector

Micros in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of Public Elementary/

Secondary Schools and Estimated

Percentage Distribution, By Level of

Instruction and Grade Span Served:

School Year 1978-79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

21

28

31

32

34

38

38

40

44

44

71

Revenue and Nonrevenue Receipts

Public Elementary and Secondary

Schools, By Source, 1977-78 . . . .

Number of Postsecondary Schools

With Occupational Programs, By

Control and By Type of School

Aggregate United States, 1980...

Number of Postsecondary Schools

With Occupational Programs, By

Control and By Type of School

Aggregate United States, 1980..,

Percent Distribution of Men and

Women by Control of School . . . . .

of

. . . . 72

. . . . 86

. . . . 87

. . 89

Department of Defense Training and

Personnel Systems Technology R&D

Program Elements and Funding

Levels–Fiscal Year 1981-82 . . . . . . . . . 116

ix
Contents—Continued

Table No.

19. Training and Personnel Systems

Technology R&D Program: Selected

Project Topics—Fiscal Year 1981 -82...

20. National Science Foundation R&D

Budget, Fiscal Year 1982 for Selected

Program Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21. Department of Education R&D

Budget, Fiscal Year 1982 for Selected

Program Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22. Department of Defense R&D Budget,

Fiscal Year 1982 for Selected Divisions

23. Projected Federal Expenditures for

Educational Technology R&D, Fiscal

Year 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24. Continuation Grants for Educational

Technology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982 . . .

25. New Grants for Educational

Technology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982 . . .

26. Federal R&D Funding for Educational

Technology Fiscal Year 1982 By Type

of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . .

27. Public School Districts Providing

Page

117

117

118

118

118

120

121

122

Students Access to at Least One

Computer for Educational Purposes:

United States, 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

28. Availability of Computers Within

Districts: United States, Fall 1980 . . . . 142

29. Total Shipments of Microcomputers in

Public and Private Schools Operating

on the Elementary, Secondary, and

Postsecondary Levels and Forecasts

of Courseware Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

30. The Educational Courseware Industry . 144

31. What Are the Industries Competing

for Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

A-1. Sources of Funds for Computer

Hardware and Software, 1980-81 . . . . 207

Table No. Page

A-2. Five-Year Breakdown of Computer

Hardware Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

A-3. Advantages of On-Line Services . . . . . 240

A-4. Number of Students and Cost of

Various Types of Individual Training

Fiscal Year 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

A-5. Cost of R&D in Training and

Personnel Systems Technology, in

Thousands of Dollars, Fiscal Year

1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

A-6. Number of Ongoing Instructional

Technology R&D Work Units By

Service and Department of Defense

Total, April 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

A-7. Summary of Military Video Disk

Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

FIGURES

Figure No. Page

1. Shifts in Employment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2. Installed Base Micros Total Universe

and School Installed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3. Quality of the Public Schools: Opinions

of Parents With Public School

Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4. Secondary Schools Providing Special

Programs . . . . . . . . ., ... , . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5. Private Elementary/Secondary School

Tuition and Fees by Family Income

Racial/Ethnic Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

A-1. Software Development Model . . . . . . . 212

A-2. MECC Timesharing System Port

Distribution by User System, 1975-81 217

A-3. Sample “Fail Safe” Parent Letter. . . . 224

A-4. Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, Mean

Composite Scores, HISD, 1971-81 . . . 225
Chapter 1

Summary
Information technology Is proving to be invaluable to people of all ages
Chapter 1

Summary

Modern society is undergoing profound

technological and social changes brought

about by what has been called the information

revolution. This revolution is characterized by

explosive developments in electronic information technologies and by their integration into

complex information systems that span the

globe. The impacts of this revolution affect individuals, institutions, and governments–altering what they do, how they do it, and how

they relate to one another.

large degree, by these technological developments, they must adapt through education

and training. Already there is evidence of

demands for new types of education and training, and of new institutions emerging to fill

these demands. The historical relationship between education and Government will be affected by the role that Government plays in

enabling educational institutions to respond

to the changes created by these technologies.

If individuals are to thrive economically and

socially in a world that will be shaped, to a

Background

Historically, the Federal Government’s interest in educational technology has been sporadic—rising as some promising new technology appeared and falling as that technology

failed to achieve its promise. Attention was

focused, moreover, on the technology itself

and not on the broader educational environment in which it was to be used. In the late

1960’s, for example, the Federal Government

funded a number of research and development

(R&D) projects in the use of computer-assisted

instruction (CAI). Interest in the projects

waned, however, given the high costs of hardware and curricula and the failure to integrate

computer-based teaching methods into the institutional structure of the school.

Over the last decade, Federal funding for

R&D in educational information technology

has dropped precipitously. At the same time,

development and applications of information

technology have advanced rapidly in many

sectors. Public schools, beset by problems that

such technology might mitigate, have lagged

behind in adapting to technological changes.

In view of this situation, OTA was asked in

October 1980 to reexamine the potential role

of new information technology in education.

3
4 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

—

The assessment was initiated at the request

of: 1) the Subcommittee on Select Education

of the House Committee on Education and

Labor; and 2) the House Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology of the Committee on Science and Technology.

This report examines both the demands the

information revolution will make on education

and the opportunities afforded to respond to

those demands. Included in its scope are a

survey of the major providers of education and

training, both traditional and new, and an examination of their changing roles. The full

range of new information products and services rather than any single technology is examined, since the major impact on education will

most likely stem from the integration of these

technologies into instructional systems.

For this report OTA has defined education

to include programs provided through a variety of institutions and in a variety of settings,

including public schools; private, nonprofit institutions that operate on the elementary, secondary, and postsecondary levels; proprietary

schools; training and education by industry

and labor unions; instruction through the military; and services provided through libraries

and museums or delivered directly to the

home. Information technology is defined to include communication systems such as direct

broadcast satellite, two-way interactive cable,

low-power broadcasting, computers (including

personal computers and the new hand-held

computers), and television (including video

disks and video tape cassettes).

The assessment was premised on three initial observations and assumptions:

The United States is undergoing an information revolution, as documented in an

OTA assessment, Computer-Based National Information Systems.

There is a public perception that the public schools are “in trouble,” and are not

responding well to the normal educational

demands being placed on them. Public

schools in many parts of the country are

faced with severe economic problems in

the form of rapidly rising costs and reduced taxpayer support. These pressures

are forcing a new search for ways to improve the productivity and effectiveness

of schooling.

A host of new information technology

products and services that appeared capable of fulfilling the educational promises

anticipated earlier are entering the marketplace with affordably low cost and

easy accessibility.

Findings

OTA found that the real situation is far ●

more complex than assumed above. In summary, the assessment’s findings are:

The growing use of information technology throughout society is creating major ●

new demands for education and training

in the United States and is increasing the

potential economic and social penalty for

not responding to those demands.

The information revolution is creating

new stresses on many societal institu- ●

tions, particularly those such as public

schools and libraries that traditionally

have borne the major responsibility for

providing education and other public information services.

Information technology is already beginning to play an important role in providing education and training in some sectors.

Information technology holds significant

promise as a mechanism for responding

to the education and training needs of society, and it will likely become a major

vehicle for doing so in the next few decades.

Much remains to be learned about the

educational and psychological effects of

technological approaches to instruction.

Not enough experience has been gained

with the new information technology to

determine completely how that technol-
Ch. l—Summary ● 5

.— —

ogy can most benefit learners or to predict major national effort, whether federally

possible negative effects of its use. Given inspired or not, to introduce these new

this insufficient experience, caution technologies into education.

should be exercised in undertaking any

The Information Society

Role of Information

For the foreseeable future, information technology will continue to undergo revolutionary

changes. The microprocessor-an inexpensive,

mass-produced computer on a chip-will become ubiquitous in the home and office—not

only in the easily identifiable form of the personal computer or word processor, but also as

a component of numerous other products,

from automobiles to washing machines and

thermostats. High-speed, low-cost communication links will be available in such forms as

two-way interactive cable, direct broadcast

from satellites, and computer-enhanced telephone networks. New video technologies such

as video disks and high-resolution television

will be available. These technologies will be integrated to form new and unexpected types

of information products and services, such as

videotex and on-line information retrieval systems that can be provided over telephone or

air waves directly to the home.

It is impossible to predict which of these

technologies and services will succeed in the

competition for consumer dollars, or which will

appeal to particular markets. It is, however,

reasonable to conclude that they will radically affect many aspects of the way society generates, obtains, uses, and disseminates information in work and leisure.

The growing importance of information itself drives and is driven by these rapid technological changes. Until a few decades ago, the

information industry—that industry directly

involved with producing and selling information and information technology-was relatively small in economic terms. It is now becoming a major component of the U.S. economy. While most economists still talk about

the traditional economic sectors—extractive,

manufacturing, and service—some now have

begun to define and explore a fourth, the information sector. One analysis has shown that

this new sector, if defined broadly, already accounts for over 60 percent of the economic activity of the United States.

Many firms involved directly with information are large and growing. Two of the largest

corporations in the world, AT&T and IBM,

principally manufacture information products

Personal-type computers are used for instruction in many

classrooms throughout the Nation
6 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

and provide information services. Moreover,

business in general is beginning to treat information as a factor of production that takes its

place beside the conventional factors of land,

labor, and capital. In addition, the Government is beginning to treat information as an

important element of national security. While

defense officials have always been concerned

about the disclosure of military information—

such as troop movements or weapons design

—they are now also concerned about the international leakage of more general U.S. scientific and technical information that other countries could conceivably use to pursue economic

or military goals that are in contrast to our

own.

In addition to serving as an economic good,

access to information is becoming increasingly

important for individuals to function in society effectively as citizens, consumers, and participants in political processes. Relations with

government at all levels are becoming more

complex—whether they involve dealing with

the Internal Revenue Service, applying for

social benefits and services, or seeking protection from real or perceived bureaucratic abuse.

Individuals are confronted with the need to

evaluate more sophisticated choices and to

understand their rights and responsibilities

under the laws and regulations intended to

protect them in the marketplace.

Information Technologies

The rapid evolution of the following technologies in the last few decades has shaped the

information revolution:

Cable.–Cable systems–wherein data and

programs are transmitted over a wire rather

than through airwaves-are growing rapidly.

The newer systems offer more channels, and

some offer two-way communication.

Satellite Communication.—Satellites have

stimulated development of new types of television networks to serve cable subscribers and

earth station owners with specialized programing.

Digital Telephone Network.—The shift to

digital transmission will allow telephone lines

to carry more information at higher speed and

with greater accuracy, providing better linkage of information between computer terminals.

Broadcast Technologies.—Some distribution technologies in the entertainment market

may also have important potential educational

uses. For one, the direct broadcast satellite can

transmit a program directly to a home or office, bypassing a cable system. For another,

low-power stations, which restrict transmission to a limited geographical range, provide

a low entry cost to licensees and are subject

to less regulation than are traditional broadcast stations.

Computers. —The design and uses of computers have advanced to the point where there

is now a mass consumer market for computers

and computer software. Moreover, networks

that link privately owned computers have expanded access to information. Desktop computers are becoming more common in the

home, the small business, and formal educational settings. The use of hand-held computers, cheaper and more portable than desktop computers, has also increased. Along with

computer development have come advances in

the interface between humans and computers

—input/output technology. Input technology

is the process of putting information into the

computer—either by typing it, speaking to the

computer, or showing the computer pictures.

Developments in output technology are occurring in the areas of low-cost printers, graphics

(particularly color graphics), and voice.

Storage Technology.—Data programs are

stored on a variety of media for use in the computer: silicon chips, floppy disks, and hard

disks. Improvements are being made in such

technology for both large and small computers.

Video Technology.–Significant developments in several areas of video technology are
Ch. l—Summary ● 7

likely in this decade. Video cassette recorders

are already important consumer devices. The

filmless camera, which combines video and

computer technology to “write” a picture on

a very small, reusable floppy disk, may soon

be available.

Video Disks.— Resembling a phonograph

record, a disk that stores television programing is of considerable interest to educators. It

is durable, inexpensive to produce, and capable

of storing a large amount of data and programs.

Information Services. -Several of the aforementioned information technologies are now

being integrated to provide new types of services. For example, several countries now use

the existing television broadcast medium to

bring information services to homes and offices. Using a teletext system, the user can

select a page for special viewing as it is transmitted in segments over the air. In a videotex

system the user can preselect a page from the

central system for immediate viewing. Closely related to videotex are the information networks that provide owners of desktop computers and terminals with access to computer

and data services and to one another over communication networks. Through electronic conferencing, geographically separated individuals can participate in meetings. Variations include audio conferencing, which uses telephone

lines; video conferencing, which supplements

the voice connection with television images;

and computer conferencing, which involves

transmitting messages through a central computer that then distributes them as requested.

Impacts on Institutions

Impacts from the information revolution are

being felt by government at all levels and by

the military, industry, labor unions, and nonprofit service institutions. Traditional services

provided by these institutions now overlap in

new ways and offer a wide variety of new services based on information technology. For example, firms as diverse as investment houses

and retail stores now compete with banks by

providing a variety of financial services.

Banks, on the other hand, are beginning to

compete with computer service bureaus in providing more general on-line information services to businesses and homes.

The U.S. Postal Service, along with Congress and a variety of Federal executive and

regulatory agencies, is considering the degree

to which it should compete with private telecommunications firms in the provision of electronic mail services. Large computer firms

such as IBM are moving toward direct competition with traditional telecommunication

common carriers such as AT&T for the provision of information. Telephone companies may

offer “electronic yellow pages” that could rival

the classified advertising business of newspapers.

Those institutions principally concerned

with the collection, storage, or transfer of information will feel the greatest effects. They

include both private sector firms—in fields

such as publishing, entertainment, and communications—and public or nonprofit organizations such as libraries, museums, and

schools. How they handle their product—information–may differ from the handling of

tangible goods by other institutions because

information has characteristics that differentiate it from tangible goods. For example, information can be reproduced easily and relatively inexpensively. It can be transported instantly worldwide and presumably can be

transferred without affecting its original ownership. Thus, copyright or other forms of protection for intellectual property—data bases,

programs, or chip designs-is important to the

growth of the information industry.

While the business of selling information

has always existed in some form–e.g., book

publishing, newspapers, or broadcasting–the

growth of this sector and its movement into

electronic forms of publishing will create conflicts with traditional societal attitudes about

information. The concept of information as a

public good whose free exchange is basic to

the functioning of society is inherent in the

first amendment to the Constitution and underlies the establishment of public libraries

l–
8 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

and schools. This concept conflicts with the

market view of information, which recognizes

that there are inherent costs in the provision

of information. Adopting new information

technologies will entail extra costs that must

be borne somehow by the users of those technologies.

The conflict between the view of information

as a market good and the view of it as a “public good” affects public institutions in a number of ways. Public nonprofit institutions find

themselves increasingly in competition with

private profitmaking firms that offer the same

or similar services. Institutions such as libraries, schools, and museums are beginning to feel

pressure to incorporate both nonprofit and income-generating offerings in their own mix of

services. To the extent that previously free or

very low-cost and widely available information

services such as education move into the private marketplace, access to them may become

limited, either because of their cost or because

of their restricted technological availability.

Periodicals previously available at newsstands, for example, may be available in the

future only via computer or video disk.

New Needs for Education

and Training

The information revolution places new demands on individuals, changing what they

must know and what skills they must have to

participate fully in modem society. It may also

be increasing the social and economic prices

that will be paid by those who do not adapt

to technological changes. For instance,

spurred by increasing domestic and international economic competition, U.S. industry is

expected to adopt computer-based automation

in a major way. Computer-aided design, robotics, and other new computer-based manufacturing technologies will, within the next

decade, transform the way goods are manufactured. Automation will not be restricted to

the factory, however. Office automation will,

according to some, have an even more revolutionary effect on management and on clerical

work in business. Over the longer term, even

the service professions, such as law and medicine, will be transformed.

While some sociologists suggest that the effect will be to “deskill” labor by lowering the

skill requirements for workers, more anticipate

that a greater premium will be placed on literacy, particularly technological and information literacy. The latter argue that an increasing number of jobs will be in the information

sector or will require the use of information

systems. Moreover, new forms of production

and information handling will create new jobs

requiring new skills. Vocational education and

industrial training programs will be needed to

teach the skills for jobs such as robot maintenance or word processing.

An advanced information society will place

a premium on skills oriented toward the creation of new knowledge and the design of new

technologies. Thus, while there is some current

debate about a possible surplus of college

graduates, generally speaking many experts

see a growing gap between the demand and

supply of graduates in engineering and science, and particularly in computer engineering and science.

A key element in all of these educational

needs is that they will constantly change. In

a rapidly advancing technological society, it

is unlikely that the skills and information base

needed for initial employment will be those

needed for the same job a few years later. Lifelong retraining is expected to become the norm

for many people.

Case Studies on Information

Technology

In addition to using existing information for

this assessment, OTA undertook case studies

designed to gain insights into the successful

application of information technology in education. Accordingly, OTA examined wellestablished programs in public school systems, industries, libraries, museums, the military, special education, and direct to the home

markets nationwide. These case studies are

presented in the appendix. Many of the find-
——.

Ch. l—Summary ● 9

ings presented in this assessment reflect observations made in these studies. The most

important of these observations is that information technologies can be most effectively

applied to tasks when they are well integrated

in their institutional environments.

Potential Technological Solutions

OTA found little evidence of current hardware limitations that would limit the applicability of technology to education and, hence,

call for major research efforts. Continuing

research in the general fields of computer

science and engineering, coupled with innovative private sector development will provide

the necessary hardware base. The only exception is the area of technology for the handicapped, where it is not clear that the opportunities for developing specialized technology

could be met without some Federal support

for R&D. There does appear to be a need, however, for R&D focused on developing new techniques and tools for software development,

human/machine interface, and improving the

understanding of cognitive learning processes.

If properly employed, information technology has certain characteristics that suggest

it will be invaluable for education. For one, information technology may be the only feasible way to supplement teaching capability in

schools faced with reduced teaching staffs and

larger class sizes. For another, information

technology is capable of distributing education

and training, both geographically and over

time. Services can be provided in the home,

at work, in a hospital, or in any other location

where and when they may be needed.

Many of the electronic media, such as video

disks or microcomputers, allow learners to use

them at their convenience, instead of being

locked into specifically scheduled times. Computer-based analysis, combined with a flexible, adaptive instructional system could diagnose and immediately respond to differences

in learning strategies among students and,

hence, could be more educationally effective.

Finally, much work has been done on using information technology to improve the ability

of foreign students and the physically and

mentally handicapped to communicate.

Some experts suggest that the use of computers by students teaches them new ways of

thinking and new ways of solving problems

that may be more appropriate in an information age. They suggest that a generation that

grows up with computers will have a significant intellectual advantage over one that does

not. Many educators criticize such a view as

being too technology-centered. At the very

least one can predict, however, that computer

and computer-based information services will

be ubiquitous by the next century, and that

learning how to use them effectively is a basic

skill that will be required for many and perhaps most jobs. (In response to this view of

future skill requirements, many schools have

placed a high priority on computer literacy as

the first instructional use of the computer.)

Although experience with educational technologies has demonstrated that they offer a

variety of potential benefits, it has also demonstrated that technology cannot, by itself,

provide solutions to all educational problems,

nor should it be imposed on an educational

system without sensitivity to institutional and

societal barriers that could prevent the realization of educational benefits. These barriers include:

Institutional Barriers.--New educational

technology must be designed for ease of integration into the schools and other educational

institutions that will use it. Some adaptations

of curricula, schedules, and classroom organization will be needed, but the changes are not

likely to be extreme.

Teacher Training.–Widespread use of technology in the classroom will require that teachers be trained both in its use and in the production of good curriculum materials. Too few

teachers are so qualified today. Schools maintain that they are already faced with a shortage of qualified science and mathematics

teachers (those most likely to lead the way in

computer-based education). Furthermore,
10 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

there is little evidence that most of the teacher

training colleges in the United States are providing adequate instruction to new teachers

in the use of information technology.

Lack of Adequate Software.--OTA found

general widespread agreement that, with few

exceptions, the quality of educational software-curriculum material designed for educational technology-now available was, in general, not very good. Curriculum providers do

not yet use the new media to full advantage

for several reasons. In the first place, many

of the technologies are still new. It takes time

to learn how to use them, and the early attempts suffer from this learning process. Second, production of high-quality educational

software is expensive. Some large firms that

have the necessary capital to produce educational software hesitate to risk developmental money in a relatively new and uncertain

market.

Third, the programmers and curriculum experts qualified to produce educational software are in short supply. Finally, some firms

cite the lack of adequate property protection

—e.g., copyright, patents—for their information products as a barrier to investment in

development.

Skepticism About Long-Term Effects.–

Some educators are seriously concerned that

the long-term effects on learning of substituting technology for traditional teaching methods are not sufficiently understood. While

acknowledging that computers or other technologies may have some limited utility in the

classroom for drill and practice, or for instruction in computer literacy, they fear that any

widespread adoption of technology for education could have deleterious effects on the overall quality of learning.

Cost.–Even though the cost of computer

hardware and communication services is dropping, investment in educational technology

still represents a substantial commitment by

financially pressed schools. Costs of software

are likely to remain high until a large market

develops over which providers can write off

developmental costs. In some cases the cost

of information products and services may be

passed on to users for the first time.

Policy Issues and Options

Issues

The impact of information technology on ●

education will confront Congress with a number of important policy decisions in several

areas:

● Education and training for economic

growth: OTA found that trends in automation and the growth of the information

sector of the economy will probably present the United States with severe manpower training problems over the next

decade. These will include a persistent

shortage of highly trained computer scientists, engineers, and other specialists; a

need for retraining workers displaced by

factory and office automation; and a need

for a more technologically literate work ●

force. Congress must decide what Federal

response to these national needs would be

both appropriate and effective.

Redressing inequities: In both the OTA

study on national information systems

and in this assessment, OTA found concern that a significant social, economic,

and political gap could develop between

those who do and those who do not have

access to, and the ability to use, information systems. People who cannot make effective use of information technology may

find themselves unable to deal effectively with their government and to obtain

and hold a job. Both social and economic

concerns may motivate Congress to take

action to improve literacy in American society.

New institutional roles: OTA found that

many public educational institutions are
Ch. l—Summary ● 1 1

under severe strain, to the extent that

many question their survival-at least in

their current form. Actions directly related to the use of information technology

could also have important impacts on

these public educational institutions, both

by enhancing their productivity and by

helping them offer a modern, computerand communication-based curriculum. Although the States have primary responsibility for control of the public schools,

decisions and policies set at the Federal

level have influenced the nature of public education and will continue to do so.

Options for Federal Action

Assuming that Congress decides there is a

significant need for Federal action to address

these issues, there are a number of possible actions it could take.

● Direct Intervention.—Congress could take

action to increase and improve the use of

information technology in education. Most

of the following options would principally

affect the schools. A few would have a

broader effect on the provision of education

and training in other institutions.

–Provide tax incentives for donations of

computers and other information technology: H.R. 5573 and S. 2281 are examples

of such initiatives. They are intended to

accelerate the rate at which schools install

computer hardware and to respond to possible inequities in the abilities of school

districts to direct funds to equipment acquisition. However, some experts have

noted that the personal computer industry is on the verge of moving to a new generation of more powerful machines that

may have much greater potential for educational application on a more sophisticated level. Donations of older equipment

could freeze the schools into dependency

on obsolescent systems. Moreover, such

incentives do not address problems such

as the need for software, teacher training,

or institutional barriers to effective use.

–Subsidize software development: OTA

found that the most-often cited barrier to

current educational use of technology was

the lack of adequate educational software.

There may be a role for the Government

in reducing the risks software producers

currently see that inhibit major investment in quality courseware (educational

software). Many of the existing successful

packages, such as the Sesame Street programs for television and the PLATO computer-aided instruction system, were developed with partial Federal support. On

the other hand, good software may be

forthcoming if the producers see a sufficient quantity of hardware in the schools

to provide them with a viable market.

–Directly fund technology acquisition by

the schools: The Federal Government

could directly underwrite the acquisition

of hardware and software by the schools.

Such a program would create a market for

educational products that would attract

producers, and it would accelerate the introduction of technology into the schools.

On the other hand, such an approach may

promote premature and unwise purchases

of technology by schools that are unprepared to use the technology effectively.

It is also counter to some current trends

and attitudes in Congress concerning the

proper Federal role in education.

–Provide support activities: The Federal

Government could assume a leadership

role in encouraging the educational system to make more effective use of information technology by funding demonstration projects, teacher-training programs,

and the development of institutions for

exchanging information about successful

implementations. OTA found evidence of

a high degree of interest and motivation

by both schools and parents that could be

more effectively channeled with appropriate Federal leadership. Such a program

would not address the financial limitations that currently prevent many institutions from acquiring technology and software.

Adapt a General Education Policy.—Congress is considering various forms of education-related legislation that may affect, and
12 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

●

in turn maybe affected by, the new informational needs of society. Examples are bills

concerning vocational education, veterans’

education, education for the handicapped,

and foreign language instruction. Such legislation, if drafted with the intent to do so,

could encourage the development of more

effective and economical technological alternatives to current programs.

Support R&D.–Federal civilian agency

support of R&D in educational technology

has decreased substantially over the last

decade. OTA found that, to make the most

effective use of technology, there was a need

for R&D in learning strategies and cognitive

development, methods for the production of

effective and economical curricular software, and the long-term psychological and

cognitive impacts of technology-based education. Congress could consider policies to:

1) directly support R&D in these areas, 2)

encourage private sector investment from

both foundations and industry, or 3) encour-

●

age a combination of both by using Federal

funding to leverage private investment.

Elimination of Unintended Regulatory Barriers.--Some legislation and regulation not

specifically directed at education may create

barriers to the effective application of educational technology. Telecommunication

regulation, for example, can affect the cost

of technology, access to communication

channels, and the institutional structure of

education providers.

Moreover, protection of intellectual property, principally copyright law, was identified as a major determinant of the willingness of industry to invest in educational

software. The current state of the law was

seen by many industry experts as inadequate and, hence, as creating a barrier to the

development of novel and innovative software. However, to the extent that such a

barrier does exist, it is not clear whether its

removal lies in new legislation or in the

gradual development of legal precedent in

the courts.
Chapter 2

The United States as an

Information Society
To facilitate the storage and accessibility of an increased amount of information, the main

card catalog at the Library of Congress is being converted to computer records. Thousands

of entries are stored on the correctable magnetic disks. Twenty of these disk packs are entered

into one optical disk (seen atop the magnetic packs for permanent record). These optical

disks can be randomly accessed and are connected to a printer. They contain

an amount of information that was formerly held in 144 card drawers
Chapter 2

The United States as an

Information Society

●

●

●

●

All societies depend to some extent on information—to conduct trade, to govern their society, and to transmit culture and social mores. Because of this, past

inventions such as writing, arithmetic, and the printing press have stimulated

profound changes. Similarly, development of new information technologies will

also deeply effect present-day society. Many of these effects will be in the realm

of education.

Findings

l

The United States has become an information society, dependent on the creation, use,

and communication of information for its

economic and social well-being.

Computer, data communication, and video

technologies have become a large and essential element of U.S. society, central to the

handling of information by individuals and

organizations.

In the past, information technology inventions such as the telephone have fundamentally altered social institutions and individual behavior; thus, it is reasonable to expect

that current and future innovative developments will have corresponding effects, particularly on activities such as education that

depend on information.

Trends in the use of information technology

are creating new demands on education in

terms of who is to be educated, when education occurs, what is to be taught, how it is

to be taught, and what it is to cost.

In a complex, highly technological society,

demands grow for quick access to and use of

large amounts of information in order to control economic, social, and political processes.

‘Much of the information presented in this chapter is based

on OTA’S previous study, Chnputer-lked National hforrnation Systems: Technology and Pubfic Policy Issues, OTA-CIT-146

(Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, September 1981).

It has been suggested that the creation, use,

and communication of information are essential components of the infrastructure of a

“postindustrial society” such as that of the

United States.’ As a consequence, many societal functions are completely dependent on information technology. For example:

●

●

●

Airlines use computer networks to control

passenger reservations, schedule equipment usage and maintenance, and prepare

flight plans; and the Federal Government

uses a large computer-based system to

control the resulting air traffic.3

Banks and other financial institutions

rely completely on computers and worldwide communication networks for managing accounts, clearing checks, exchanging

funds, and providing a wide variety of

new financial services.4

Major Government agencies, such as the

Internal Revenue Service and the Social

Security Administration, require large,

automated information systems to handle the accounts of hundreds of millions

of clients.

‘D. Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society (New York:

Basic Books, 1973).

‘Airport and Air Traffic Control System, OTA-STI-175

(Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, January 1982).

‘Selected Electronic Fbnds Zhnsfer Issues: Privacy, Security,

and Equity—Background Paper, OTA-BP-CIT-12 (Washington,

D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, March

1982).

15
16 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

●

●

The operation of national defense depends

on complex computer-communication systems, both for day-to-day management of

the military establishment and for command and control of modem sophisticated

weaponry.

Multinational corporations depend on international networks of computers for

such applications as production control,

management, and financial administra-

. -

of our social institutions. Furthermore, institutions and social processes such as education,

which are so dependent on the communication

and use of information, will be most affected.

The basic goals of education are the communication of knowledge and skills, the transmission of culture, and the instilling of basic literacy. * Since all of these require that education

be closely linked to information processes, education will be deeply affected, both in content tion. and form, by the technological revolution.

Since these and other users of information

in the United States are relying increasingly

on sophisticated computer and communication

systems, it is reasonable to anticipate that in- *Definitions of literacy vary among experts. For purposes

formation technology will have significant ef- of this report, a simple definition will be used. Literacy means

fects on the structure and operation of most

the ability of an individual to engage in the normal modes of

information exchange in a society.

Economic and Societal Impacts of

Information Technology

The uses of information and the institutional

structures established to collect and communicate it have long historical traditions. For

thousands of years, recordkeeping systems

have been a basic tool for government, commerce, and finance. They have allowed the formation and management of large organizations. Libraries and museums have existed as

archival and reference resources from earliest

times–perhaps even earlier than the fourth

century B. C., when Alexander the Great built

his library. Education also has always served

basic societal functions. While the definitions

of education and the institutional structures

selected to provide it have differed over time

and for each particular society, education has

always entailed transmitting the values, cultural background, and basic communication

techniques (literacy) necessary to function as

a member of society.

Technologies such as writing, mathematics,

paper, the printing press, and the camera were

developed to improve the handling of information. Over the last 100 years there has been

a rush of new information technologies that

has included the telegraph and telephone,

broadcast communication, photocopiers and

facsimile transmission, the computer and its

related software-considered, in itself, to be

an important technology. These inventions

have directly affected the collection and use

of information. For example:

●

●

●

The speed with which information can be

communicated has been increased. Communications that less than a century ago

took days, weeks, and even months, now

occur within fractions of seconds.

The quantity of information that can be

collected, stored, manipulated, and transmitted has been increased. Data storage

systems can hold trillions of characters

of information that are instantly accessible through a computer. (One trillion characters of storage contains information

equivalent to over 1 million books.)

Information can be more widely distributed and has become more accessible.

Data communication systems provide instant access to information and to the

technology to analyze and use it.
Ch. 2— The United States as an Information Society ● 17

Scanning electron micrograph of a portion of a programmable logic array with locations for up to 4,000 logic elements.

The array was fabricated with the one-micrometer FET technology. Reducing the minimum device dimensions to one

micrometer resulted in an increase in speed Of a factor of 3 or 4, and a reduction in power dissipation by a factor

of 10, as compared with previous FET circuits

c The ability to use information to account

for past actions and to predict future

events has been improved. The invention

of writing made possible the keeping of

historical records. Computers analyze

complex statistical models to support

management decisionmaking.

These improvements in the quantitative and

qualitative aspects of information handling

will profoundly affect individuals and organizations that communicate and use information

in some of the following ways:

. The need for mass literacy: The availability of printed material to the general public has not only made mass literacy possible; in the long run, it has also made it

necessary. It has created a world in which

it is necessary to be literate in order to

fully participate in economic, political,

and social activities. In fact, mass literacy

has become a basic necessity for economic

growth.’ Now, with electronic media, defi-
18 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

●

●

●

nitions of literacy must incorporate the

ability to communicate and use information technology.

An altered relationship between individuals and organizations: The challenge of

the Reformation to traditional church authority, the demise of the feudal system,

the great intellectual spurt of the Renaissance, and the birth during the 18th century of political democracy were all due,

in part, to the fact that most individuals

in society could obtain access to information and could communicate their ideas.

If access to information is further enhanced by new technologies, individuals

and groups may seek to increase their participation in governmental and organizational processes. If access, on the other

hand, is not enhanced, communications

technology might provide a new means by

which organizations mold social thought

and cultural mores and exert their authority.6

Altered structures in organizational decisionmaking processes: Technological

changes can affect the nature of decisions,

the way they are made, and who in an

organization makes them. New patterns

of decisionmaking can, in turn, affect relationships between organizations and between organizations and their clients and

employees.7

Trends toward centralization or decentralization: Overall, the trend in communications during this century has been toward

centralization. For example, more and

more large cities are now served by single

newspapers, and a few large networks

dominate the distribution of broadcast

television programs. However, access to

low-cost computers and data communications capabilities can potentially provide

organizations and individuals with the

ability to tailor applications to their own

needs and goals.

‘A. Moshowitz, The Cbnquest of Will: Information Processingin Human Affairs (Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley, 1976).

‘H. Lucas, Why Information Systems Fail (New York: Colombia Press, 1975).

●

●

●

Thus, the recent provision via cable television of several new networks to serve

the interests of more specialized audiences and the appearance of small specialized newspapers serving individual neighborhoods may be harbingers of greater diversity in services and decentralization of

control.

Changes in the political process: Instant

domestic and worldwide communications

change political behavior and serve to

shape public opinion in new ways and in

new time frames. Computers allow largescale and rapid polling of public attitudes

and, through sophisticated mailing systems, the formation and coordination of

geographically distributed special interest

groups. Because they allow for instant

public reaction to political decisions, some

experts anticipate that new information

technologies may bring about a return to

a form of political participation that,

although involving much larger numbers

of people, is reminiscent of the “town

meeting.

Effects on culture: Although the new information technologies will undoubtedly

affect culture, it is unclear exactly what

their effect will be. More people have access to creative products than ever before.

And yet the media have, as their critics

have pointed out, often served the lowest

common denominator of taste. It is also

unclear whether information technology

will serve to increase uniformity or to promote the diversity of the culture and values of society.

Intellectual effects: The technology that

society uses to codify and transmit ideas

may affect how people conceptualize and

try to solve problems. Some experts have

suggested that information technology

may break a limiting mental mold forced

by writing upon Western thought, and

that it may provide new ways to deal with

the very complex and difficult problems

facing society.8

8S. PaDert. Windstorms (New York: Basic Books. 1980). .
Ch. 2— The United States as an Information Society . 19

Extrapolating the general historical impacts

that information technology has had in the

past suggests that modern technological

trends may have a number of effects on education:

● The nature of Literacy for society is changing, as it did when the printing press was

invented. While the goal of mass literacy,

defined as skill in reading and writing, has

been met–at least in the developed world

—new goals as to who should be literate

and what skills literacy should include

may now appear:

1. Who should be literate: Universal literacy—defined as skill in reading and

writing for all people—will have to

become a societal goal. The growing

complexity of society, coupled with the

automation of unskilled jobs, will make

it increasingly difficult for semiliterate

individuals to lead useful and productive lives. International economic competition and a predicted tighter labor

market in the next few decades will

place a greater premium on skilled, productive labor. Illiteracy is costly to society not only because it is expensive

to support the unemployable but also

because society must forego the social

and economic contributions that the illiterate, had they been educated, might

otherwise have made.

2. What skills literacy includes: The term

literacy may come to include media literacy—the ability not only to receive

critically information presented via radio, television, and film, but also to

communicate using these media. While

programing in these forms has previously been done by large organizations

of experts, developments such as the

video cassette, the video disk, and the

Changing Economic

The U.S. economy has undergone fundamental changes during this century. A hundred

years ago, the economy was principally agraripublic access cable will place a greater

premium on the ability of individuals

to use these technologies in their work,

at home, for their social organizations,

and for political participation. Media

literacy will include computer literacy

—the ability of individuals to use an information system to help them at home

and at work. While individuals will not

need to be experts in computer science,

they will need to know how to use computer programs and information banks

and how to evaluate critically the results they get.

The rate at which new information is generated is accelerating. The dominant emphasis will be on lifelong learning, retraining, and updating knowledge, rather than

on schooling that is terminated at an early

age on completion of a standard curriculum.9 Educational curricula will increasingly focus on learning how to learn rather

than on learning facts.

The organizational structure and behavior

of educational institutions will change.

Schools, particularly public schools, are

often large bureaucracies specifically designed to collect and transfer information

in an organized fashion. Some experts

have questioned whether they can ever

adapt organizationally to a new technological environment and to new social

needs. They foresee as possible either the

emergence of completely new types of

educational institutions based on information technology, or the radical transformation of existing schools. ’”

‘Stanley M. Grabowski, Preparing Educators of Adults (San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1981); Charles A. Wedemeyer, Learning at the Back Door (Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin

Press, 1981).

‘“M. Frobe, et al., Telecommunications and Higher Education, Occasional Paper #3 (Pittsburgh, Pa.: Institute for Higher

Education of Pittsburgh, 1981).

Base of the Nation

an. Then, for several decades, manufacturing

dominated. Now, the service sector predominates, measured both in terms of its contribu-
20 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

tion to the gross national product and in terms

of the size of its labor force. (See table 1.) The

service sector, as usually defined by economists, includes economic activity that does not

result in a tangible, storable output or necessitate a large base of capital equipment. Given

this latter categorization, transportation and

communications are usually classified as

industries rather than services. Education is

classified as a service.

Productivity growth in the service sector

compared with that in other sectors has been

particularly low. This relative lag in productivity is more significant as the size and importance of the sector grows. Some experts suggest that because of the use of economies of

scale, new management techniques, and information technology, the service industry is on

the brink of a major improvement in productivity.” They argue that, to the extent that

services are more resistant to such improvements than are other sectors of the economy,

their costs will become too high. Thus, those

areas of the economy, such as manufacturing,

that show growth in productivity will also

show wage increases reflecting, to some extent, that growth. If similar wage increases

take place in a sector that has not experienced

a corresponding improvement in productivity,

the real labor costs will grow relative to those

in other sectors.

This analysis suggests that if education

does not improve its productivity at a rate consistent with the overall improvement of the

“T. Stanbock, Understanding the S&vice Economy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979).

Table 1 .—Percentage Share of the

U.S. Economy by Sector

1948 1961 1976

Employment

Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 6.9 4.2

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.2 38.6 35.1

Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.0 54.5 60.7

GNP

Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . 9.84 4.2 3.1

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.8 45.0 41.2

Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.9 50.8 55.7

SOURCE: T. Stan bock, Urrderstarrdhg the S&vice Economy (Baltimore: Johns

Hopkins IJ,liversity Press, 1979); V. Fuchs, Service krdusfries and ECO.

nom/c Growth, NBER working paper 211, Stanford,

economy, it will face even more severe financial problems than plague it now. In fact, if

other portions of the service sector are about

to undergo significant increases in productivity, as some observers expect, the pressures

on education to improve its productivity may

be intensified.

The appearance and growth of what some

economists refer to as the information sector

has paralleled the growth of the service sector. This portion of the economy, comprised

of both service and traditional industries, includes those enterprises that make the machines that handle information, run the communications networks, and use technology to

provide information products and services.

An overall analysis of the input/output

structure of this sector, which was made for

1966,12 determined that the information sector accounted at that time for over 60 percent

of the economy. This study defined the information sector very broadly and analyzed it at

the national level. It has not been repeated for

subsequent years. Analytical efforts have, instead, been directed at refining the analysis

and at looking at smaller segments of the economy.

Nevertheless, the original calculations are

still useful in illustrating the importance of information and information technology in the

U.S. economy. They also document the growth

in the number of U.S. jobs requiring the handling of information and information machinery. Because information workers are generally assumed to require literacy skills more than

workers in other types of jobs, these trends

suggest that the country is experiencing a rise

in the level of literacy needed to find and hold

jobs.13 The definition of functional literacy

may need to be altered to include the ability

to use computer-based knowledge.14

l~M. porat, The Information Economy, Ph. D. Dissertation

(Stanford Calif.: Stanford University, 1976).

1gE. Gi.nzberg and G, J. Vojta, “The Service Sector of the U.S.

Economy, ” vol. 244/3, March 1981, pp.

48-55.

14R. J. Seidel, R. E. Anderson, and B. Hunter (eds.), &mputer

Literacy (New York: Academic Press, 1982).
Ch. 2— The United States as an /formation Society ● 21

Another economic trend is the growing information marketplace. The publishing industry has existed since the invention of the printing press as a relatively small sector of the

economy. Now, stimulated by social pressures

and new technological possibilities, it is growing into a large and important sector of the

U.S. economy. 15 (Some illustrative growth figures for sectors of the information industry are

shown in table 2.)

There are several indicators of this trend.

First, even in the current economy, the information industry is growing at a rate of over

20 percent per year. The computer-based data

retrieval market alone is projected to grow

from $1 billion in 1980 to over $6 billion in

1985. Second, very large international corporations such as Westinghouse are buying into

the information business, and large traditional

publishing houses such as McGraw-Hill are acquiring high-technology operations in anticipation of their competing in a very different type

of information marketplace in the next decade.

The plan announced by AT&T for entry into

the information business is viewed with concern not only by potential equipment manufacturers and providers of communication lines,

but also by newspapers and other traditional

information publishers who see AT&T’s new

“H. S. Dordick, et al., The Emerging Network Marketplace

(LOS Angeles: Center for Futures Research, Graduate School

of Business Administration, University of Southern California,

December 1978).

Table 2.—Some Representative Growth Figures

for the Information Industry

Mainframe computers 1965 1975 1985

Number installed . . . . . . . . . . 23,200 62,800 77,600

Value in billions of dollars . . $7.65 $33.6 $89.1

Desktop computers 1975 1980 1985

Number installed . . . . . . . . . . 4,000 326,000 10,579,000

Value in billions of dollars . $0.05 $2,4 $36.7

Newspapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... .. .$17.79

Magazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.43

On-line data bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0

Time sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.455

Broadcasting/cable/special communications . . . . 28.5

Computer software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ..$58.675

NOTE: Figures have been compiled from best available information Estimated

probable error runs – 150/0 to + 50/0

SOURCE LINK

activities as creating potential competition for

their businesses. Others see the potential for

new information services made available by

a restructured, competitive communication industry.

Another indicator of the increased importance of information in the economy is the

changed nature of international economic competition. The attention of policymakers concerned with U.S. industrial strength is now

focused on competition in innovation. Competitive strength is seen as dependent on the

development of new technology, of new products and services based on that technology,

and of new manufacturing techniques to make

those products.
Chapter 3

Implications for Economic

Growth and Human Capital
---

I

This Ph. D candidate is using a console connected with Columbia University’s Computing Center. A small modem

connects the computer console and graphic plotter with the mainframe computer at the computer campus facility.

The graphics plotter is displaying the composition of a six-element super alloy used in the space shuttle turbines

and a preliminary predictive phase diagram relating to the six-element alloy’s performance under stress
Chapter 3

Implications for Economic

Growth and Human Capital

The principal goals underlying Federal involvement in education have historically been: 1) to contribute toward national economic well-being, 2) to assure

national security, and 3) to provide an equitable distribution of economic opportunities to U.S. citizens. Because future Federal education policy will presumably

continue to be predicated on one or more of these or related goals, OTA examined

the links between education, technological trends, and these goals.

. .

Findings

●

●

●

●

Strong evidence exists for linking economic

growth with the creation of new knowledge

and the transfer of technology into the production of goods and services. Knowledge

creates new goods and services, improved

production techniques, and better management and organizational strategies.

Many experts believe that there is a close

link between the level of education and the

productivity of workers—even though such

a relation is complex and difficult to establish analytically.

The link between education, training, and

economic growth is becoming more critical

because of structural shifts in the economy

toward the service and information sectors.

While greater access to education and training cannot directly create new jobs and may

not increase overall wage levels, there are

strong positive correlations between workers’ educational levels and their employability.

Knowledge

A number of studies have postulated links

between information, technological innovation, and economic growth. The relationship

between knowledge and economic development has been studied both in the context of

●

●

●

u

The rate at which automation can be introduced and the contribution it makes to the

growth of productivity will partly depend

on the ability to retrain workers for new

jobs, either within the same industry or in

a new industry. Their ability to be retrained

will in turn be determined, at least in part,

by their levels of literacy and their familiarity with information technology.

There is a severe shortage of engineers, computer experts, information specialists, and

other trained workers needed to support the

growth both of the information industry itself and of the use of information technology

in other sectors of society.

The failure of the U.S. education system to

respond to the changing needs of the information society at a rate comparable to that

of foreign competitors may impose serious

economic costs in the form of low growth

rates and reduced competitiveness in world

markets.

and Growth

the U.S. economy1 and in that of developing

‘E. F. Denisen, Accounting for Slower Economic Growth

(Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution, 1979): (Kendricks

article).

95
26 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

countries.2 In one analysis, nearly two-thirds

of the economic growth that occurred in the

United States between 1948 and 1973 was attributed to increases in the size and quality

of the work force and to the development of

new knowledge. Other studies have examined

the direct contribution of research and development (R&D) to economic growth.3

There are several ways in which the links between knowledge and economic growth may

operate:

●

●

●

Better and more timely information can

lead to better organizational structures

and to improved management decisions,

which can lower costs by more efficient

allocation of resources, to better scheduling of production, and to better economic

planning.

Technical innovation leads to new or improved products and services and in some

cases to the emergence of new industries

that are more competitive in the marketplace. Most of the firms in the Fortune

500 deal in products and services that did

not exist a century ago.

New technology can lead to more efficient

production methods that improve manufacturing productivity. Some anticipate

that the new computer-based flexible

manufacturing systems will provide the

critical technological underpinning for

U.S. reindustrialization.

OTA has found strong support not only

among economists but also in the business

community for the view that the availability

of literate, well-educated workers is an important determiner of productivity and economic

growth.4 The interest that business has shown

in the performance of public education, and the

growing investment that industry has made

‘T. W. Schultz, Investment in Human Capital (New York:

Free Press, 1971).

‘E. Mansfield, “Research and Development, Productivity, and

Inflation, ” Science, vol. 209, Sept. 5, 1980, pp. 1091-1093;

J. Walsh, “Is R&D the Key to the Productivity Problem?”

Science, vol. 211, 13, Feb. 13, 1981, pp. 685-688.

4A. W. Clausen, “The Quality of Public Education, ” Vital

Speeches, 1981.

High school students in Oxford, Mass., work with a

learning aid that familiarizes them with electrical and

electronic wiring patterns. This helps them prepare for

entry-level work in the burgeoning electronics industry

in Massachusetts. The school board of this old mill town

in southeast Massachusetts hopes that their creation of

a young labor pool skilled in electronics will help draw

new industry into the town

in specialized education and training programs

are strong indicators of such concern.

Education and training may affect the contribution that workers make to productivity

in at least three ways. First, education and

training improves the productivity of the work

force if it allows workers to use current production techniques more effectively and to

adapt more readily to new techniques. Second,

the growth rate of new industry is determined,

in part, by the availability of individuals

trained to fill the new types of jobs created by
—

Ch. 3—implications for Economic Growth and Human Capital “ 27

innovation. Finally, the process of innovation

requires individuals trained to do R&D at all

levels from basic research to product development.

A number of labor economists have suggested that the link between education and

economic growth is becoming more important

because of structural shifts toward the service

and information sectors. Eli Ginzberg and

George Vojta state, “Human capital, defined

as the ‘skill, dexterity, and knowledge’ of the

population, has become the critical input that

determines the rate of growth of the economy

and the well-being of the population. We contend that the competence of management and

the skills of the work force . . . determine the

ability of enterprises to obtain and utilize effectively other essential resources . . . "5

.

‘E. Ginzberg and G, J. Vojta, “The Service Sector of the U.S.

Economy,” Scientific American, vol. 299, March 1981, pp. 48-55.

The suggestion that U.S. economic growth

and competitiveness are dependent, in part,

on the production of new information and on

the literacy of the work force has serious implications for Federal and local education

policy. A decline in the performance of the

educational system could be costly to U.S.

society in terms of lower productivity of the

work force; less flexibility for industry to

adopt new production methods and management techniques; higher unemployment rates,

particularly among the disadvantaged; and decreased R&D, particularly in the basic sciences

and engineering.

Education and Growth

In this century, particularly since World

War II, there has been a steady increase in the

number of years of education completed by

American workers. This trend is illustrated in

table 3. The degree to which this growth in

education level is accompanied by an increase

in the skill levels of jobs held, however, is a

matter of some debate. While some see the extension of education as evidence of the expansion of skills, others see it as a devaluation of

the high school and college degree, or, in other

words, as an inflation of the certification required to obtain work that is no more—and

may even be less –demanding than before.’

An increase in job skill requirements could

take place in three ways: 1) industrial growth

and sectoral shifts in the economy could create

more jobs demanding higher skill levels; 2) the

availability of a more highly trained labor pool

could encourage employers to raise their performance expectations, even if the basic job

‘Randall Collins, “The Credentials, ” Society: A Histur-icd

Sociology of Education and %ratifi”cation (New York: Academic

Press, 1979).

Table 3.—Percentage Employment in the Business

Sector by Sex and Years of Education Completed

1948 1959 1969 1976

school years completed . . . . 44.4 1.0 0.5 0.3

Elementary, 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 32.0 21.2 12.7

High school, 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.3 48.7 54.7 54.5

College, 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 14.7 19.0 25.7

College, 5 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 3.6 4.7 6.9

school years completed . . . . 32.4 0.5 0.2 0.3

Elementary, 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . — 22.5 14.5 8.4

High school, 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56.1 63.8 68.6 65.9

College, 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 12.2 15.2 22.7

College, 5 or more . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 1.0 1.5 2.8

SOURCE E. F Denisen, Accounting for Slower Economic Growth (Washington,

D. C.: Brookings Institution, 1979),

classifications remain the same; and 3) rapidly changing job requirements could place a

premium on employees’ flexibility and on their

ability to be retrained in new skills.

Justifiably or not, education is, generally

speaking, a major factor in the competition for

jobs, and those lacking the requisite educational level are less employable. Unemployment rates by education level are shown in
28 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

table 4. Two conclusions are suggested by the Table 4.—Unemployment Rates by Sex and

data: Number of Years of Education Completed

●

●

1970 1979

Education is an important selection criterion for employers. High school, 1-3 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 8.3

High school, 4 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 5.5

More sensitive to fluctuations in overall College, 1-3 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 4,2

College, 4 years or more . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 . . . . . . . . . 1.8

employment rates than their more skilled

counterparts, less educated workers are High school, 1-3 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 10.4

more likely to lose their jobs when unemployment rises, and less likely to get them

back when it drops.

High school, 4 years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 6.0

College, 1-3 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 4.3

College, 4 years or more . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 3.0

SOURCE Chronicle of Higher Education, citing BLS data

Human Capital Theory

Human capital theory regards expenditure

on education as an investment in improving

the quality of labor input to production, hence

as a factor of production. Because of the investment focus, worker income is regarded as

the measure of return. Researchers have demonstrated correlations between both current

and lifetime education levels and incomes. In

the 1960’s, human capital theory formed a rationale for much of the Federal education

policy that aimed at improving educational opportunity as a means of fighting poverty.7

Most experts agree with the concept that,

in many cases, education and training can

create a more productive worker. However,

many raise objections to human capital

theory, both with respect to the analytical

basis of the field and to the policies’ implications that have been drawn from them. Chief

among these objections are the following:

●

●

The assumption that individuals make

their decisions about education and career

opportunities based on their reading of

the labor market is questioned.

Improvements in the quality of labor and

the resulting increases in productivity are

not necessarily directly reflected in a concomitant rise in salaries and wages.

Hence, the societal payback from further

education may be underestimated.

‘Chronicle Mar. 16, 1981, p. 2; G. S.

Becker, Human Chpitd (New York: Columbia University Press,

1975).

●

●

●

Particularly at higher levels of education,

individuals may decide to continue their

education for another year not because it

would increase their lifetime income return, but rather because they want to develop special talents and to pursue other

personal goals.8

According to screening theory, education

does not “add value” to labor as such, but

merely serves to prescreen the most able

workers.9 There is a difference of opinion

between those who advocate screening

theory and the proponents of human capital theory with respect to how much significance should be attributed to screening when calculating the return on investment in education.

An increase in the social investment for

improving the quality of the labor pool

does not necessarily serve to increase

overall levels of employment or to raise

wage levels. Hence, by itself, investment

in education is not an effective strategy,

either to raise the income of the disadvantaged or to increase employment.10

8S. Rosen, “Human Capital: A Survey of Empirical

Reaearch,” in Research in Labor Economcs (Greenwich, Corm.:

JAI Press, 1977), vol. 1, pp. 2-39.

‘K. J. Arrow, “Higher Education aa a Filter, ” Journal

Economics vol. 2, 1973, pp. 173-216.

‘“?’he Productivity R-oMem: Alternatives for Action (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Congressional Budget Office, January 1981); L. C. Thurow, The 2%ro Sum Society (New York:

Baaic Books, 1980).
Ch. 3—implications for Economic Growth and Human Capital ● 2 9

. .

Need for Technical Education

The labor market is too complex to be described in simple terms of oversupply or undersupply. It can be generally said, however, that

while the American work force does not appear

to be undereducated in terms of the years of

schooling or in terms of the number of high

school and college graduates needed to meet

overall employment requirements, there do

seem to be deficiencies in what students have

learned in school and severe shortages of graduates trained in certain job areas. And while

the demand for traditional full-time, degreeoriented education may be leveling off or even

slackening, the demand for specific or continuing job-related education is growing. In particular, the trend in the U.S. economy toward

a growing service and information sector is

creating an increased demand for education in

engineering and science, especially the computer sciences, at all levels. If these needs are

not met, U.S. economic growth and international competitive position may decline.

The clients for technical education can be

loosely categorized into three groups, according to their respective needs:

1.

2.

3.

The general work force–workers in all occupational categories, from blue collar to

the professional, who increasingly need to

gain literacy in information technology.

Information professionals-specialists

who program, operate, repair, and in other

ways directly support information products and services.

Information scientists and engineers—

technical experts who conduct research,

develop new products and applications, or

teach at the college level.

Information Literacy

Economists, educational experts, and busi- ematics, and, in particular, information techness leaders assert that there is a growing nology. 11

need in U.S. society for at least a minimum

level of literacy in science, engineering, math-

“Schultz, op. cit.; R. J. Seidel, R. E. Anderson, and B. Hunter

(eds.), Cbmputer Literacy (New York: Academic Press, 1982);
30 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

As stated by the president of the Bank of

America:

. . . increasingly, business is looking for and

the better jobs are going to, individuals with

some modicum of computer literacy. Basic

communication and data-processing skills are

among the hottest commodities in the employment sector today.12

The shift in the United States from a manufacturing and agricultural economy to an information and service economy is creating

more jobs with information handling requirements. The occupational mix in the service sector is compared with that in other sectors in

figure 1. Furthermore, traditional jobs will increasingly require the handling of automated

equipment, a trend that is already visible in

the office. With the advent of automated information systems, the skills required of a clerical staff are changing. Moreover, the job skills

of a secretary in the wired office of the future

will be substantially different from what they

are today. In fact, the concept of “secretary”

may disappear altogether.

A similar trend may also occur in the factory, where robotics and other forms of computer-aided manufacturing are beginning to

transform the way that goods are produced.

There, automation will require that the worker

learn new skills oriented toward operation and

control of computerized equipment. (Some experts maintain that few of the current 20 million jobs in the manufacturing sector will remain two decades from now.)

Faced with these pressures for a more technically literate work force, the schools are apparently falling short of supplying those

needs.

● Overall achievement levels of high school

and college graduates, as measured by the

National Assessment of Educational Progress, are steadily falling. In particular, de-

(continued from p. 29)

R. J. Marano, “Educational Disenfranchisement in a Technological Age, ” Vital Speeches, 1982, p. 222.

12Clausen, op. cit.

Figure 1 .—Shifts in Employment

1929

Total goods

Agriculture

Mining and

construct ion

Manufacturing

Services

1948

Total goods

Agriculture

Mining and

construction

Manufacturing

Services

1969

Total goods

Agriculture

Mining and

construct ion

Manufacturing

Services

1977

Total goods

Agriculture

Mining and

construction

Manufacturing

Services

I I 1 1 1 1 I 1 I

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Percent of labor force

Shifts in employment since 1929 are charted for the goodsproducing industries and the service sector. The service sector includes distributive services such as communications, utilities and

wholesale trade; retail trade; consumer services such as

restaurants, dry cleaning and recreation; producer services such as

accounting, banking and legal work, and nonprofit and government

services including health, education, and national defense.

SOURCE E Glnzberg and G J. Vojta, “The Serv[ce Sector of the U S

Economy, ” Sclent(flc American, March 1981

clines in achievement have been noted in science and mathematics.13

Historical trends over the last decade in the

achievement levels of students for selected

subject areas are shown in table 5. The welldocumented decline in the science literacy

“National Assessment of Educational Progress, Three National Assessments of science, report 08-5-00 (Denver, Colo.:

Educational Ccnn.mission of the States, 1978); National Assessment of Educational Progress, Changes in Mathematical

Achievement report 09-MA-01 (Denver, Colo.: Educational

Commission of the States, 1979); Science Education Databook

1980 report, SE 80-3 (Washington, D. C.: National Science Foundation, 1980).
Ch. 3—implications for Economic Growth and Human Capital “ 31

Office design model for information gathering and communications is in use in many modern offices and has changed

the design concept of many offices throughout the business community

Table 5.—Achievement Test Score Averages, 1972-79 (numbers in thousands)

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

English composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mathematics Level I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

American history and social studies . . . . .

Biology ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .

Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mathematics Level II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

European history and world cultures . . . .

Latin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Average SAT scores for takers of

achievement tests*

Verbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

526

516

541

492

535

568

527

517

537

498

532

572

544

539

—

—

—

—

—

533

517

545

498

545

581

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

538

532

546

493

543

567

665

553

547

525

592

555

531

524

501

553

533 531 529

516 512 514

547 541 537

492 496 480

543 544 547

574 577 575

666 665 657

553 552 554

535 554 542

526 521 522

593 591 580

551 553 550

526 507 516

517 508 524

504 507 508

553 554 554

“Data not computed prior to 1976. Data for 1976 are estimated from scores of individual achievement tests for that year

SOURCE Science Educatton Databook, Nattonal Science Foundation, derived from the Admissions Testing Program of the

College Board, Nat(onal Report, College Bound Sen(ors, 1977, p 8, 1978, pp 13.14, 1979, pp 13-14

rates of students does not necessarily imply disadvantaged backgrounds, it may be that

a failure of the schools themselves. Declines literacy rates have declined because more

in student performance might stem from social selectivity factors are operating now than in

factors that are independent of the classroom. the past.

Moreover, because the schools have had to ex- ● There has been an insufficient response by

pand to accommodate an increasing number schools to the need for increased matheof students, some of whom have come from matical, technical, and computer literacy.
A sociologist studying how schools in a district heavily populated by high-technology industry responded to the increased needs for

technological literacy concluded that these

schools have in fact ‘moved away from a science and technology curriculum.14 The National Science Foundation (NSF) and Department

of Education, in their report to the President

on science and technology- education, concluded

that the secondary schools were not carrying

out their responsibilities effectively.15 The

report notes that the divergence is widening

between the amounts of science and mathematics education made available to the few

who wish to become professionals and to those

who do not, a divergence further increased by

a general lowering of performance standards

and expectations. A shortage of mathematics

and physical science teachers and the erosion

of the teacher support system weaken the capacity of the schools to provide quality instruction to all students, majors and nonmajors alike.

‘Elizabeth Useem, “Education and High Technology Industry: The Case of Silicon Valley,” unpublished August 1981,

Institute for the Interdisciplinary Study of Education, Northeastern University, Boston, Mass.

‘b&ience and Engineering Education for the 1980b and

Beyond (Washinton, D. C.: National Science Foundation and De

partment of Education, October 1980).

Information

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) has

prepared a study of the growing demand for

professionals trained specifically in computer

skills. 17 Its estimates, shown in table 6, indicate that 685,000 new jobs will be created and

250,000 replacement openings will occur over

the next decade, creating a need for nearly 1

million new professionals trained in computer

skills.

The estimates of BLS are probably conservative, since only traditional computer job categories were examined. Other types of jobs likely to become important over the next decade

17 Employment ~ndg h Cbmputer @cupations, Bulletin

2101 (Washington, D. C.: Department of Labr, Bureau of Labor

Statistics, October 1981).

The NSF report to the President also examined the status of technical literacy in other

countries. To the extent that there is a connection between technical literacy, economic productivity and growth, and national security,

the comparisons should be worrisome. Examining the state of science and engineering education in West Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union, the report observes:

. . . these countries are educating a substantial majority of their secondary school population to a point of considerable scientific and

technological literacy, in part because they

apparently believe that such literacy is important to their relative international positions.

In addition, the report states that the Soviet

Union has elementary and secondary level curricula in science and mathematics that “surpass that of any other country. ” (A British

study of engineering education noted that in

Japan, even high school students majoring in

the fields of humanities and liberal arts obtain

enough knowledge in science and mathematics

to attend engineering school and compete successfully.) 16

16Engineer& Our FWzuw report of the Committee of Inquiry

into the Engineering Profession. Her Majesty’s Statement Office, London, January 1980.

Professionals

Table 6.—Requirements for Computer Specialists

(data in thousands)

Occupation 1980 Projected 1990

Systems analysts . . . . . . . . . . . 243 400

Programmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 500

Equipment operators . . . . . . . . 522 850

Data entry technicians . . . . . . 266 230

Service technicians . . . . . . . . . 83 160

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,455 2,140

SOURCE: Employment Trends h Computer Occupations, Bulletin 2101

(Washington, D. C.: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statlstlcs,

October 1981).

include design engineers to create new types

of microelectronic chips, industrial engineers

trained in computer technology to support

what some experts see as a necessary surge

in industrial automation, information special-
.

Ch. 3—implications for Economic Growth and Human Capital ● 3 3

ists to help the average user make effective

use of automated data systems, marketing

and management personnel for the emerging

information industry, and content producers

for entertainment and information services.

OTA was unable to find any reliable estimates of the projected growth of these types

of jobs. However, these jobs will no doubt add

to the total demand projected by BLS of

2,140,000 specialists by 1990. These numbers

are significant because all of these jobs require

individuals with similar types of knowledge

and work skills. Thus, employers will be competing to fill such jobs from the same limited

pool of information specialists.

Against the requirement of nearly 1 million

new jobs, NSF projects that there will be a

total of 157,000 baccalaureates and masters

level graduates in the computer professions.

Projections of community college and public

and private vocational education graduates

over the next decade have not been made. In

the academic year 1977 to 1978, these schools

produced about 67,000 graduates trained in

the computer field.

Several observations can be made:

● The enhancement of productivity in the

computer field will likely affect jobs at the

lowest levels first. For instance, advances

in programing languages may decrease

the need for entry-level program coders.

However, neither BLS nor NSF examined

the structure of these jobs in any detail;

furthermore, they did not look at trends

in skill requirements.

● Some of the jobs included in the BLS estimates do not require college degrees.

While no estimates have been made of the

number of jobs requiring lesser skills in

proportion to the total number of jobs,

they are probably concentrated in the

categories of data entry, equipment operation, and repair. Some low-level programing jobs may also be available.

s The production of entry-level computer

science and engineering graduates will

need to be sustained during a period when

●

●

●

●

the number of people of traditional college

age will be growing more slowly and may

consist of an increasing proportion of educationally disadvantaged students.

It is possible that, assuming no decrease

in levels of support for vocational education, the community college and vocational programs may be able to meet

many of these needs. It is noteworthy,

however, that some concern has been expressed by business about the mismatch

between current vocational programs and

the needs of industry. (See ch. 6 for a discussion of vocational education and industrial training.)

Since computers are a relatively new technology, the industry has had to live with

personnel shortages from the start. One

response has been to hire graduates from

other fields and train them in computer

science and engineering. All the major

computer firms have extensive training

programs, an approach that is less feasible for smaller sized companies.

The rate at which computer science and

engineering training programs can grow

may be limited not only by the existing

shortage of experts but also by the fact

that, with salary scales that are uncompetitive in comparison with private

industry, educational institutions may be

unable to hire qualified faculty.

The generally inadequate educational

preparation at the secondary level could

reduce the pool of potentially qualified

college entrants, an eventuality which

could compel colleges and universities to

lower admission standards for computer

science majors and to require extensive

remedial programs at the undergraduate

level.

The U.S. position in relationship to other

countries is also unfavorable. As shown in

table 7, of the four Western industrialized

countries examined, the United States produces the fewest number of engineers measured as a percentage of the relevant age group.

The percentages of engineers produced in each
34 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table 7.—Percentages of Engineering Graduates country correlates directly with the growth in

and Trends in Shares of World Trade their share of international trade over the last

Share of world trade decade. While this is not proof of a cause-effect

Engineering

Country graduates 1963 1977 relationship, it does suggest that one may

exist.

SOURCE: National Science Foundation

Information

Doctorate-level graduates in engineering

and science are needed to support innovation

and growth in a high-technology society by

conducting research that builds a foundation

for new development, conducting applied research and product development, and staffing

college-level computer science and engineering

programs. NSF found that the most serious

shortages of Ph.D.’s are in computer sciences

and in engineering, the two areas that are at

the leading edge of technological growth. The

production of Ph.D.’s in the computer sciences and in engineering has not grown significantly over the last decade. In fact, in the case

of engineering, it has dropped. The situation

may be even worse than the numbers indicate,

since NSF estimated that in some departments nearly half the engineering graduate

students are foreign nationals. While some foreigners may stay in the United States and

enter the U.S. labor pool, others will return to

their native countries.

Scientists

●

●

●

●

●

Engineering programs are experiencing

repercussions from an oversupply of two

decades ago followed by strong student

antipathy in the late 1960’s and 1970’s.

Computer science programs have experienced their strongest growth pressures in

a time of general retrenchment in academic budgets.

A shortage of top-level, research-oriented

faculty prevents the growth of graduate

programs; 10 percent of the faculty openings in computer science were unfilled in

1980.

High private sector salaries and tight

basic research funding are drawing the

best faculty out of the classrooms and

laboratories.

High salaries for programmers, analysts,

and engineers at the baccalaureate and

master levels are attracting students

away from Ph. D. programs.

Several factors have been mentioned as underlying the Ph. D. shortage:
Chapter 4

Trends in

Information Technology

Chapter 4

Trends in Information Technology

Electronics technology in general has evolved rapidly over the last few decades,

but the changes now taking place in communications, computers, and video technology are, perhaps, the most profound.

Findings

● The next decade will see a wide assortment

of new information technology products and

services offered to the consumer. Many existing products and services, such as the

telephone or television set, will be altered

and enhanced by incorporating microelectronics technology.

● These new products and services are being

provided by a rapidly growing business sector called the information industry. This

sector is composed of both new firms experienced in technology, and some traditional publishing and entertainment companies that are adapting to technological

advances.

● While it is not possible to predict with certainty which of these products will succeed

in the marketplace, it is clear that a wealth

of new technology will be available to the

●

●

●

home, school, and business. Many of these

products and services will, at least initially, be directed to upper-income consumers.

Educational users are not likely to stimulate

the development of technology specifically

oriented to their needs. Rather, they will use

products and services designed to serve

other consumer markets such as business

and entertainment.

New firms in the information industry may

play key roles as new providers of educational hardware and curricula. Curricula

may also be provided by a few traditional

textbook publishers that are moving into

new information technology markets.

Automated work stations, such as word

processors, are beginning to incorporate

training and job assistance software.

,0

Several new types of communication tech- ● Much larger volumes of data can be carnologies are being developed and installed. ried over the lines.

They will offer the following improved capa- . An international data communications

bilities: network is evolving that will allow the es-

●

●

●

The cost of communications, particularly

high-speed, long-distance data transmission, will continue to drop.

Users will have a variety of communication services available to serve different

needs.

Communications networks will be easier

to use, so that users can build distributed

networks of interlinked computers and

terminals.

tablishment of high-speed communication

links between virtually any two points on

the globe.

Specific communications technologies contributing to this picture are two-way cable,

satellite communication, digital telephone networks, new local loop distribution technologies, and new broadcast technologies, such as

the direct broadcast satellite and the lowpower broadcast.

37
● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Cable

Cable television transmits the signal to a television receiver directly through a wire rather

than through air waves. Its principal advantages are better reception, the ability to direct

specific signals to specific receivers, and the

availability of more channels for use.

Originally viewed simply as an antenna

shared by a community, usually in an area

with reception problems or with limited local

service, some cable systems have been in place

for over 30 years, and their growth has been

slow. Cable now, however, seems to have

passed a critical threshold and is growing

rapidly. This growth is spurred by the availability of a number of new services and, in the

view of some, by the deregulation of the cable

industry. The number of past and projected

installations of cable in homes and the number

of local community franchises for new cable

networks to serve them are shown in table 8.

The principal technological differences between older and new cable systems are the

numbers of channels and two way access.

Older cable installations provide only a small

number of channels into the home, in some

cases, less than 12. Some modem systems now

being installed provide over 100 channels. It

has been estimated that by 1990 over 50 percent of the homes served by cable will have

access to more than 30 channels.1 This additional channel capacity is important for educational purposes, since it implies the potential

availability of a wider variety of programing

aimed at narrower audiences (called narrowcasting). The content of television programing no longer must be determined by a limited

number of channels serving a mass market.

Two-way access means that in addition to

receiving programing from the cable center—

the “head-end”--the user has a communication channel back to the center. In current

systems such as the Qube system in Columbus, Ohio, the viewer has a hand-held keyboard through which he can make responses

to program inquiries. Some two-way systems

allow the connection of security devices such

as fire or burglar alarms and meters that can

be read remotely for utility billing.

‘LINK, New Electronic Media Program.

Table 8.—The Growth of Cable Television in the United States

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985

Operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 640 1,352 2,490 3,506 4,225 6,000

Total subscription households . . . . . . . 150,000 650,000 1,275,000 4,500,000 9,800,000 16,000,000 33,000,000

SOURCE LINK

Satellite Communication

In slightly over a decade, communication

satellites have become a major component of

the national and international communication

network. The past and projected growth of

communication satellite usage for a variety of

services is shown in table 9. These projections

of growth depend on assumptions about what

new services may be developed and about how

much satellite capacity may be available.

Table 9.—Projected Demand for Satellite

Communications in Number of Transponders

1985 1990 1995

Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 74 117

Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 660 1,008

Video-conferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 100 200

Video-television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 200 225

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 1,034 1,550

NOTE: Projections vary greatly.

SOURCE: U.S. Satellite Systems Inc., Fi/ing Before FCC, Nov. 23, 1981.
—.

Ch. 4— Trends in Information Technology ● 39

Availability is affected by technical, economic, Satellites stimulated the development of new

and regulatory factors that are independent types of television networks formed specificalof the existence of a potential market. ly to serve cable subscribers with specialized

Different studies have resulted in strikingly different estimates of communication satellite usage. The numbers shown in table 9

are estimates based on these studies and are

thus useful only to indicate trends.

programing in such areas as news, sports, religion, minority interests, movies, and fine

arts. This programing is distributed over a

combination of satellite and land communication lines to the cable center, where it is then

redistributed to the subscribers’ homes.

The growth of communication satellites is

closely connected with that of cable systems.

Digital Telephone Network

The basic technology of the telephone network and its use is changing. The principal

shift is from an analog-based system to a

digital-based one. In analog transmission, the

human voice (or any sound pattern) is transformed into electrical wave form, similar to the

way music is stored on a record as a series of

wavy lines. Digital transmission, on the other

hand, encodes the information as a series of

discrete pulses. In a manner similar to that of

Morse code, different sequences of pulses represent different numbers. The sound wave is

encoded as a series of numbers and then converted into sequences of electrical pulses on

the line.

The shift to digital transmission will profoundly affect both the potential uses of the

network for data transmission and the types

of sophisticated communication services that

can be provided. Digital technology allows the

transmission lines to carry more information

at higher rates. Moreover, transmission is

more accurate. Distortion of analog signals

does not usually affect normal voice conversation; however, computer data transmission

is far more demanding. Digital coding allows

for error correction.

The digital communications network combined with the presence of computers, both

within the network and at the terminal ends,

will provide a basis for a wide array of new

communication services that unite the communication of information with the ability to

store and process it. Most electronics technology on which the telephone network is becoming dependent is digital. Central office switching is computer-based, as are most new PBX

(Private Branch Exchange) systems on the

market. A new generation of telephones based

on digital microcomputer electronics is also

appearing.

A service already being offered is “packetswitched” data transmission, which is designed specifically to carry data between a

computer and either another computer or a

computer terminal. In this type of system,

digital information is packaged in small pieces

called packets. A packet contains information

about the source and destination of the data

and the relationship of that piece to the whole

message. The packets are transmitted separately through the network, sometimes taking different paths, depending on which paths

are free at the moment.

The telephone network was originally designed for human conversation, not for computer data transmission. That the requirements of these two types of communication

are significantly different is shown in table 10.

Packet switching systems incorporate computers into the network in such a way as to

make it far more efficient for data transmission. It is cheaper, faster, more accurate, and

eliminates some incompatibilities between the

various types of equipment on the network.

1. .
40 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

— —

Table 10.-Chief Characteristics of

Voice v. Data Communication

Voice Data

Transmission

speed . . . . . . . . . . . Low Very high

Characteristics of

message . . . . . . . . . Infrequent bursts Nearly constant

of data use of line

Length of time

connected to

network. . . . . . . . . . Minutes Hours

Sensitivity to

distortion . . . . . . . . Very low Very high

SOURCE: Off Ice of Technology Assessment.

Packet systems, because they lease telephone lines from AT&T and produce a different type of service for their own customers,

are called “value-added carriers. ” They are

under Federal Communication Commission

(FCC) regulation. Other future services that

link computers and communication lines will

not be so clearly classifiable as common carriers, since computers within the network and

at its nodes will provide services that look like

data processing and storage. For this reason,

they may not be regulated.

It has not been completely decided–either

by the courts, by the regulators, or by the

marketplace-which of these advanced services the telephone companies will be allowed

to provide in competition with other companies in the information business, and what

the rules of competition will be. The implications of the recent reorganization of AT&T,

agreed on between AT&T and the U.S. Department of Justice, are still not clear, although

the telecommunications and information services marketplace will be affected. Congress

may wish to legislate in certain areas of telecommunications policy that it still feels to be

unresolved.

Digital data communication services have

been particularly important to higher education, which has been experimenting with their

use to form nationwide computer networks.

For example, the Edunet system facilitates

the exchange of educational computer programs and the sharing of unused computer

resources among institutions. Under sponsorship of the National Science Foundation,

university computer science departments are

forming a network of their departmental education and research computer systems to allow

scientists all over the country to share programs, resources, and ideas

on joint research projects.

and even to work

Local Distribution Networks

A local exchange is that part of the telecommunications network that provides point-topoint service within a given geographical area,

ranging from a single office building to an entire metropolitan area. The telephone company

has historically been the provider of this service; however, competitors, stimulated by deregulation to make use of new technology, are

now developing technologies that promise to

change the economics and form of local data

transmission.

Thus, for example, some experts predict

that as an outgrowth of the potentially large

capacity of cable transmission technology, the

next stage of cable services will be the provision of full two-way data transmission services

within local areas. Some channels of two-way

cable service will be withheld from general

home use and sold to Government agencies,

school systems, and businesses to form their

own private cable-based communication networks. Local franchises in a few areas (e.g., the

New Orleans, La., agreement with Cox Cable)

are already providing for this type of facility.2

Other firms are experimenting with packet

communication systems that use broadcast

media. Networks for interoffice communication are also being developed, principally by

firms interested in the office automation

‘Cable TV’s Third Wave: tial Broadband C%xnnmnication

Services, NRM, vol. 2, 6. LINK, New York, 1981.
Ch. 4—Trends in Information Technology ● 4 1

market which will make it possible for different types of computer equipment located

in different parts of a building to communicate

with one another, transferring data and processing work as needed. Finally, a new form of

broadcast transmission, called cellular radio,

will greatly increase the availability and use

of mobile telephone communication.

they will provide a mechanism to distribute

programing among schools in a district or

within a school; they will facilitate the sharing of expensive resources; and they will allow

educational services to be directed outside the

school—to homebound students, to students

with special needs and interests, and to vocational students at their workplaces.

Both regional and office technologies promise a number of benefits to educational users:

New Broadcast Technologies

A number of recently developed communication technologies will make new services available for the distribution of programing. While

most of the industry is focusing on applications in the entertainment market, these services will also have important potential educational use.

Direct Broadcast Satellite

In a direct broadcast satellite (DBS) system,

a satellite transmits a program directly to a

receiver in the home or office, bypassing the

intermediate step of using cable. Several companies have applied to FCC for permission to

offer this service, and, if approved, it would

become available toward the end of the 1980’s.

The applicants have different views of the

forms a DBS service might take, ranging from

traditional pay television to new video

technologies such as high-resolution television. * One applicant would use it as a more

highly developed form of network transmission to cable and other redistributors, rather

than to home consumers. It is noteworthy that

at least one applicant, COMSAT, has included

an educational channel in its proposal. If available, DBS could be a relatively inexpensive

● A ~levi9ion ~iver “draws” its picture ~ a number of dots

on the screen. Its resolution, the fineness of detail that can be

displayed, is fixed by decades-old transmission standards. The

higher resolution displays that occur in computer graphics systems are technically feasible. Because more information must

be transmitted to produce more image detail, substantially

greater bandwidth is needed for transmission.

means of distributing educational programing,

particularly in rural areas where providing

adequate education and other social services

is still a costly and difficult process.

A number of market, technological, and regulatory issues, some of them international in

scope, must be resolved before a DBS system

can become operational. Many questions remain about the potential utility and market

for such types of services. Will DBS simply

compete with current cable offerings, and if

so, what are its advantages? Would high-resolution television find a viable market? Are

special provisions needed to encourage its use

for such public services as education? Finally, many users are competing for the increasingly fewer available frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum and for orbital “parking places” for satellites.** Would current or

potential uses of these resources allocated to

DBS be more productive, more economical, or

of greater value to society?

Low-Power Broadcast

In 1980 FCC began to consider applications

for licenses to establish low-power television

stations. Such stations broadcast with restricted power that limits their range to a few

miles (10 to 15 miles or even less).

**Broadcasting equipment such as satellites transmit their

information on an assigned radio frequency. When this frequency is being used for one purpose, no other use of the same frequency can be tolerated in geographical areas where the two

signals might interfere with one another.
42 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

It is estimated that low-power stations will

require a relatively small capital investment

to set up, possibly as little as $5,000. Furthermore, since the stations have a restricted

range, many more licenses can be granted

within any geographical region. FCC’s stated

purpose for promoting low power is to provide

greater diversity of ownership and programing than that traditionally available over the

restricted number of broadcast channels currently serving an area. The advantages of low

entry cost and license availability may make

low-power stations attractive as a medium for

distributing educational programing and providing other public services.

Low-power stations can be connected and

used to distribute programing from a central

source similar to the way that cable operates

now. Programing can be distributed by satellite or by less exotic means, such as by mailing video cassettes. A network of inexpensive

low-power stations could serve as an economical way to provide television broadcast to

regions with low population density. For example, the Alaskan Public Broadcasting Commission has authorized an experimental network of low-power stations to serve the residents of Bethel, Alaska. Similar systems are

also being developed in Canada to serve remote northern regions.

Computers

The fundamental technological base for computer hardware has undergone revolutionary

changes over the last decade that are expected

to continue in the next. In 20 years, computer

designers have advanced from using vacuum

tubes, through solid-state transistors, to using

microelectronic integrated circuits on single

silicon chips the size of a dime. Researchers

are now developing the ability to print electronic circuits in the sub-micron (less than 1

millionth of an inch) range.

These developments have had an enormous

influence on the way computers are used and

on who uses them. A mass market for computers and computer software has developed

that serves retail consumers. Where computer

ownership and operation used to be restricted

to large, expert organizations, it now potentially extends to millions of homes, small

businesses, and schools. Contributing to this

trend is the fact that the cost of computing

has dropped steadily and rapidly-to the point

that so-called desktop computers can be purchased for no more than a few thousand dollars. These small machines have the capability of computers that two decades ago sold for

hundreds of thousands of dollars, and it is anticipated that their price will continue to drop.

In addition, networks of computers now

allow the owners of even a small computer to

gain access to special resources—hardware,

software, or data bases—and enable them to

communicate among themselves. Moreover,

software, which instructs the computer how

to do specific types of work, is becoming

available in the commercial market. In the

past, computer operators were faced with the

problem of developing most software themselves, an expensive task that required computer expertise. Now, there are enough users

with similar computer hardware and needs to

form an attractive market for software.

Other consumer devices that use microcomputer technology to increase the capabilities

of traditional consumer products such as typewriters, automobile carburetors, television

sets, or thermostats are also being marketed.

In some cases, entirely new products, such as

computer video games, are being developed.

However, these are not designed to be used

as computers.

These general technological trends are resulting in the availability of a number of specific products.
Ch. 4—Trends in Information Technology * 43

Desktop Computers

Desktop, or personal, computers are small

machines that retail for prices ranging from

less than a thousand to a few thousand dollars.

They are based on microelectronic technology,

using inexpensive memory and computer

chips commonly available on the market. Most

current desktop computers are based on one

of two basic chip designs that use an 8-bit

word as their fundamental unit of information. * Newer models are appearing, however,

that use a more recently developed 16-bit word

chip. (Larger word-size generally results in

faster computation and more memory directly available to the machine.)

The owner of a desktop computer has a wide

variety of attachments available. These “peripherals” allow the computer to perform various tasks—such as printing results, drawing

graphs, communicating over the telephone

line, storing information (e.g., on magnetic

tapes or disks), and even generating musical

sounds. While the computer manufacturers

themselves offer a selection of peripheral

devices, many have been designed and marketed by independent firms. The role played

by these small independent firms has undoubtedly stimulated innovation in the small computer field and, by developing new applications, accelerated the growth of the market.

Over the last 5 years, the structure of the

market has undergone substantial changes.

Desktop computers were originally developed

and sold by small entrepreneurial firms such

as Apple, one of the most successful to date.

However, an unexpectedly broad consumer

market rapidly developed, and in response,

larger, more consumer-oriented firms entered

it. Tandy Corp., for example, entered the

desktop computer market with a machine

called the TRS 80. While not a computer company, Tandy had a national network of retail

outlets—Radio Shack—through which the

small computers could be sold to consumers

*An s-bit Word is a quantity of information roughly large

enough to contain a single alphabetic or numerical character,

A 16-bit word can contain twice as much information.

interested in electronics. This company

became a major competitor in the market.

Atari, originally a small firm manufacturing video games, but now a subsidiary of

Warner Communications Co., followed soon

after. Most recently, giant firms such as IBM,

Xerox, and Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC)

have entered the market. The growth of this

market is continuing, albeit at a slower pace,

stimulated by use of computers for entertainment and games, education, household management, and hobbies (e.g., computer-generated art or music).

Another market, originally unanticipated, is

that of the small business user. It started slowly, principally because professional users were

often nonexperts who needed more reliable assistance and better software than the manufacturers were originally willing to provide.

However, growth of the business market has

been rapid, and most experts expect that it

will predominate in this decade.

Finally, many manufacturers see the education market as one with great potential. Apple, Atari, and Tandy have set up nonprofit

Software selection available at a Yonkers, N.Y., store
44 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

organizations intended to encourage the educational use of computers. (The past and projected growth of the desktop market is summarized in tables 11 and 12, and fig. 2.)

Growing along with the desktop computer

industry are the firms that provide the programs for these devices. Nearly all of these

companies are new, started by one or a few

programmers with a bright idea. Their packaged

programs make the computer useful, and

therefore attractive, to most customers. Given

the current size and expected growth of the

personal computer market, a single successful

program can make a firm’s fortune and establish it in the business. Like the independent

peripheral industry, such software companies

have been a major force in expanding the use

of desktop computers. For example, the availability of VISICALC, a budgeting and planning program offered by Visicorp, has been

cited as the principal reason that some

businesses bought desktop systems. Similarly, the availability of sophisticated wordprocessing and accounting packages has

opened the business market to small

computers.

In some ways the small computer software

business resembles that of traditional book

publishing. A software company often purchases rights to distribute packages written

by independent programmers. The company,

which may also assume the costs of testing

Table 11 .—U.S. Installed Base of PersonaI

Computers by Market Sectora (units in thousands)

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Home/hobby . . . . . . . . . . . 700 1,327 2,357 3,407 4,798

Business/professional . . 1,236 2,345 3,975 6,025 8,428

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,936 3,672 6,332 9,432 13,226

aBa~ed ~rl IIX Survey of Desktop Cornwters.

SOURCE: LINK.

Figure 2.— Installed Base Micros

Total Universe and School Installed

22

20 -

/

Y

u

Jan 1982 1987 1992

SOURCE: LINK

and documenting the program, handles all the

standard publication jobs of production and

marketing. Some programmers are beginning to

be well known. Their names are attached to

the software packages just as those of authors

are to books; and, just as with books, customers often show preferences for software

written by particular programmers.

Hand-Held Computers

The hand-held computer is somewhat larger

than a normal pocket calculator, contains a

microcomputer chip and sufficient memory to

allow simple programs to be entered and run,

and sells for only a few hundred dollars. It is

both much cheaper and considerably more

portable than the desktop computer.

Table 12.—Micros in Schools (installed base)

Purchased by

school district School level Total for Total

Hardware for K-12 Grades K-8 Grades 9-12 College 1981 installed

Totals . . . . . . 10,400 16,800 22,800 30,000 80,000 145,000

SOURCE: LINK.
Ch. 4—Trends in Information Technology ● 4 5

Its portability, however, is also the source

of its limitations: the keyboard is small and

difficult to use for entering large amounts of

text; the display is limited to a single line of

text or numbers; and no convenient, fast, bulk

storage such as a floppy disk is attached.

These deficiencies may be overcome by designing the hand-held computer to plug into other

hardware devices, thus sacrificing its portability.

One promising application of the hand-held

computer for educational use will be as an inexpensive terminal. Although containing within itself some computer power, the hand-held

computer could also be used in conjunction

with a communications network connected to

one or more larger computers. In an educational setting, for example, students might use

their personal hand-held computer by itself

wherever possible. For assignments that require more capacity, the hand-held could be

linked over a phone line to a larger system at

the school.

Human Interface

Much research and development (R&D) in

computer technology is directed at making

computers and humans communicate with one

another more easily, a process referred to as

input/output. The input function has two basic

activities: 1) instructing the computer in the

task that it is to perform; and 2) reading data

or instructions into the computer quickly, accurately, and inexpensively. The output function refers to producing results that are understandable and easily used either by a

human or, increasingly, by some other computer or machine.

New languages are being developed to help

both experts and nonexperts program computers more efficiently. Many of these languages are tailored to specific applications—

such as educational use. For the professional

programmer, the goal is to develop languages

that allow increased productivity—either

faster and more accurate programing, or the

creation of more complex programs. For nonexpert users, the goal is to provide a language

closely related to their language and problemsolving styles.

Computer experts see a close connection between the language used to program a computer and the mental problem-solving strategy

of the person using it. If the logical structure

of the programing language is significantly

different from the user’s mental processes, the

language can actually be a barrier to effective

computer use. On the other hand, according

to this theory, a properly designed programing language can actually guide the user to the

solution of a problem. It was this latter observation that led to the creation of a programing language called LOGO, which was designed for educational use. This language

teaches children new patterns of thinking

about problems, patterns not only more attuned to the use of computers, but also—

according to some experts—more powerful for

solving very complex problems.

Data have traditionally been typed into the

computer, either directly or through punched

cards or some other intermediate medium.

Technology is now appearing on the market

to input directly, either by speaking to the

computer or by showing it pictures. Present

voice input capabilities are quite limited,

however. Only a few hundred words can be recognized, and these only in a few specific voices

for which the system must be trained. During

this decade, experts expect that significant advances will be made in both vocabulary size

and number of speakers that can be recognized. An interesting application of a handheld computer would be as a personalized voice

input device that is tuned to respond only to

the owner’s voice.

The principal developments in output technology have been in the areas of low-cost

printers, graphics, and voice. Printers have
46 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

historically been an increasingly expensive

technology to add to small computers. Predominantly mechanical, they have not shared

in the price reductions experienced by electronic devices. Recently, however, stimulated

by the growing small-computer market, a

number of firms have developed inexpensive

printers that use electronics more extensively. These “dot-matrix” printers, selling for a

few hundred dollars, print characters as patterns of small points. Besides cost, other advantages of the dot-matrix printers are that

they can produce a wide variety of type fonts

without changing the print mechanism and

that they can be used to print graphic

material.

Lately, the most active computer peripheral

market in new product development has been

color graphics output. Systems can now display solid shapes, in full color, with shading

to reflect light sources and surface textures.

While this technology is still very expensive,

prices are dropping rapidly, and new and more

sophisticated capabilities are coming on the

market. Limited, but inexpensive and useful,

color graphic capability is already available on

most desktop computers. While elaborate, fullscale graphics would be useful for engineering

design education and for simulators—say, for

flight training-the limited capability available on small systems has not yet been fully

exploited for many educational uses.

Voice output technology, while still primitive, is also improving steadily in price and

performance, although it is unlikely that accurate reproduction of human speech will be

achieved in this decade. Texas Instruments,

with its successful “Speak and Spell” line of

products, has illustrated how useful even a

limited capability can be for educational

applications. *

*Spe~ ~d SwlI i9 a sm~ hand-held device with a keyboard

and display. It speaks a word to the learner, who types in that

word on the keyboard. If the word is spelled correctly, the device

moves on to the next word. If not, after giving the child another

chance, it displays the correct answer.

Storage Technology

Technology for storing data is steadily improving, for both large and small computer

systems. The most significant developments

for educational use are those storage technologies used by software publishers for the data

and programs they sell. The storage medium

must be cheap, durable, easily handled, hard

to copy (in the view of some firms), and, most

important, usable by purchasers on their

systems.

Many desktop systems are designed to operate programs stored permanently on silicon

chips in a high-speed memory that cannot be

changed. This so-called “read-only memory”

(ROM), is plugged into a socket on the computer. Its most common form is the game cartridge for the Atari and other electronic game

packages.

The other major memory technology for

small computers is the floppy disk, which was

probably as important to the development of

the desktop computer as was the microprocessor, itself. The floppy disk, which comes in

5 1⁄4- and 8-inch sizes, is most typified in wordprocessing systems in its 8-inch form. It provides a low-cost, rapid, and reliable storage

medium for the small computer. Programs are

now commonly distributed on floppy disks.

There is currently a debate about whether software firms will favor floppy disks or ROMs

as the medium of choice for distributing their

products. Disks are cheaper to reproduce,

while ROMs are now harder to copy and

“pirate.”

Now, economical bulk storage systems that

use hard disk technology are becoming available for small computers. These systems have

many times the capacity of floppy disks and

are much faster and more reliable. However,

they are also more expensive and do not provide a facility for data backup.
— ———

Ch. 4—Trends in Information Technology ● 4 7

Video Technology

Like the computer and communications industries, the consumer entertainment sector,

principally television, is also making technological advances. This decade is likely to see

significant developments in several areas of

video technology: video cassette recorders, improved quality (high-resolution, flat screen,

large screen, high-fidelity sound), filmless

cameras, and video disks.

Video Cassette Recorders

Video cassette recorders have already become important consumer goods. Based on

consumer surveys, their principal home uses

seem divided between viewing movies, particularly those not readily available at local

movie houses or on network television, and socalled “time-shifting.” Time-shifting means

recording a program at the time it is broadcast for later replay. (According to a recent

court ruling, such practice may be in violation

of the copyright law, although the court also

acknowledged the difficulty of its enforcement.)3

Video cassette recorders have become an established consumer technology despite their

lack of standard recording format and their

restricted marketability (to the relatively

small upper-income bracket). It has not been

difficult to produce and sell tapes in different

formats, and time-shifting use does not depend

on common standard formats.

Improved Quality

R&D is under way to develop basic new

video technologies that promise better performance. Although none of these has yet

reached the market place, experts think that

at least a limited number will be available in

this decade.

The flat and large screen protection systems

that are currently available are expensive and

3Universal City Studios v. Sony Corp., 659 F. 2d, 963 (9th

Cir., 1981).

awkward to use in small rooms. The goal of

researchers is to develop a true flat display

screen, since the market for such a technology

would be large, not only for entertainment, but

also for use in computer systems. Since manufacturers are keeping their progress in this

area quiet, it is hard to predict the likelihood

of success.

High-resolution television, another area of

intensive development, may be closer to technological realization. However, its widespread

adoption will be hampered by the need to use

different broadcast formats on transmission

channels with much higher capacity, as well

as by the viewer’s need to purchase expensive

new receivers. For this reason, CBS is proposing the use of direct broadcast satellites for

transmitting high-resolution programing.

Cable is another possible transmission medium. Initial users are likely to be institutional

users, such as theaters, that can afford to purchase receivers and pay relatively high transmission costs.

Filmless Camera

The Japanese firm, Sony, recently announced the development of a camera that operates electronically. The camera, which

combines video and computer technology,

“writes” a picture on a very small, reusable

floppy disk. The picture is then viewed on a

television display. The initial version is expensive, and its performance is limited by the

resolution capability of current television displays, which is much lower than that of film.

However, the future availability of high-resolution television displays will allow a picture

quality as good or better than that of film.

Video Disk

A technology eliciting much interest from

the education community is the video disk, a

medium that stores television programing on

a disk resembling a phonograph record. Educators and information publishers are excited
48 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

about its potential because such disks are

durable, and copies are cheap to produce. Each

disk has two sound tracks, which may be

played singly or together, and individual

frames on the disk can be addressed and

viewed. Moreover, the storage capacity of a

disk is high-56,000 frames on a side. Computer data and programs can also be stored

on such a disk.

These characteristics suggest that a video

disk coupled with a small computer would be

a very flexible and powerful device, allowing

on the same disk a combination of moving sequences, still pictures, and text, all under interactive control.

There are a number of competing technologies for recording and reading the information on a disk. However, they can be regarded

as two basic types, capacitance and laser. The

capacitance system, marketed by RCA, stores

the information on a disk in a spiral of tiny

grooves, much smaller than, but similar to,

those on a phonograph record. The information is read by a needle that physically rides

in the groove. RCA has marketed its capacitance system directly to the upper-income

home buyer, selling it principally in competition with video cassette records as a medium

for viewing movies and other packaged program materials. However, since the system

does not offer recording capability, it is not

useful for those who want to record from

broadcasts or create their own video tapes.

The laser system stores information as

transparent or reflective spots on the disk. The

reader uses a laser light beam that either

passes through or reflects from the disk surface. No physical contact is made with the disk

surface, and the reading accuracy is immune

to damage to the disk surface. Currently available laser disk systems record on one side.

However, at least one firm will soon offer a

technology that stores information on both

sides and that can read both without having

to flip the disk.

The principal benefits of the laser system are

its ability to lock onto a single addressed

frame and to move at random, under computer

control, through the information stored on the

disk, as well as the durability of the disk itself.

Its chief drawback to date is cost.

The principal market for laser video disk

systems has been industrial and military

users. Experts differ on whether this technology will become common in the home and

school. For this to happen, the cost of a

computer-controlled video disk reader must

drop substantially from its current price,

which runs well over $1,000.

Information Services

The new information technology described apart. * This technological merger is taking

in this chapter will form the basis for a wide place in two ways:

variety of information products and services

for the home, office, school, and other loca- ● The technologies are becoming integrated

tions. The most significant ones will incor- into each other. The digital telephone netporate the integration of several technologies. work uses computer technology; distribThe three areas of information technology– *Thig Overlap creates regulatory problems, ShlW the commUcomputers, communications, and video-have nications industry is regulated and the computer industry is

grown up separately, connected only by their not. The FCC recently concluded an inquiry, “Computer II, ”

joint dependency on microelectronics. Now, it motivated by this growing overlap, which was intended to better

distinguish computer services from communications

is becoming increasingly difficult to tell them (5-FCCINQ).
—

Ch. 4—Trends in Information Technology . 49

uted computer systems use telecommunication services; video disks are controlled by microcomputers.

● New types of information services that

make use of all three technologies are

being planned and offered. For example,

Pergamon Press offers a patent search

system that integrates a personal computer, a video disk, and a remote data

base accessed by telephone to allow attorneys to search U.S. patents.

Several sectors of the industry are also

beginning to overlap:

●

●

●

●

High technology-communications and

computers.

Traditional print publishers—newspapers, magazine, and book publishers.

The entertainment media-film, television, and radio.

Other information-dependent firms–

banks and credit card companies.

To some extent, mergers of previously independent business sectors reflect normal

business growth through diversification, but

the firms also see their various business activities as becoming more closely related.

Thus, diversification within the information

industry has become a way for companies to

protect themselves against technological obsolescence. The industry overlap is motivated

by two trends:

●

●

Computer and communication technology

is becoming central to the provision of

many traditional information services.

For example, some providers of two-way

cable services plan to offer an electronic

newspaper. Furthermore, traditional publishing is becoming increasingly dependent on the use of electronic systems.

Unique new services are appearing that

can be interpreted as a blend of more traditional businesses. For example, AT&T

has been considering offering an in-home

information service that, while resembling

an electronic version of the yellow pages,

competes in the eyes of some newspaper

publishers with classified advertising.

While some of these new information services are described below, the list is not complete. It is possible to predict with some certainty what technological capabilities will exist over the next decade or two. It is not possible, however, to predict how entrepreneurs will

use those capabilities to bring innovative services to the marketplace. The new information

technology base that is being developed and

installed offers a rich opportunity for such

invention.

Videotex and Teletext

Some European nations, along with Japan

and Canada, have been developing a technology that uses the existing television broadcast medium to bring an information service

into homes and offices.

A picture on a television screen is composed

of several thousand lines. During the transmission of the television signal that-paints the picture line-by-line on the receiver screen, there

are a number of times when no useful information is being transmitted. These so-called

“blanking intervals” are needed to allow the

receiver and transmitter electronics to catch

up and get ready to display the next line.

While some of these intervals are used to synchronize and control the picture display, many

of them are unused. Information can be transmitted in these intervals. A properly modified

television receiver can pick out the information and, on command from the viewer, display

it on the screen, either alone or on top of the

existing picture.

In a teletext system, several hundred or

even thousands of pages of information are

continually being transmitted. (It may take

several seconds to transmit the entire volume

of data.) The user selects a page for viewing;

the television set then waits for that page to

come along in the information stream, picks

it out, stores it, and displays it on the screen.

Videotex is a more sophisticated version of

this service. It requires two-way communication between the viewer and the transmitter.
50 c Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

The viewer requests a specific item from the

central system; that page of information is

then transmitted on the television signal to the

viewer’s screen.

The term videotex is sometimes used more

broadly to include all on-line service designed

to display information on demand. Such systems may use cable, telephone lines, or new

packet broadcast technology to distribute

their products. The advantage of videotex is

that a larger data base can be made available

to the user, since the entire data base does not

need to be transmitted continually. It also

allows for interaction between the user and the

central data base. One could, for example, examine a catalog of merchandise or an airline

schedule and then complete the transaction by

buying a product or making a reservation. Because it allows individualized interaction with

a data base, the videotex system may offer valuable opportunities for educating and training.

Broadcasters and information publishers in

the United States have been experimenting in

a small way with various forms of videotex

and teletext services, in most cases using

technology developed in Europe and Canada.

A recent proposed rulemaking by FCC opens

the way for their widespread introduction. The

principal problems in the commercial development of this type of service will be identifying information markets, assembling an adequate and marketable data base, and pricing

recorders for home television sets at a level

where they can be purchased for use in the

average household.

Information Networks

Closely related to videotex are various services that have developed to provide owners of

desktop computers and terminals with access

to computer and data services over communication networks. This business is expected

to grow rapidly over the next decade. Some

experts project over $6 billion in annual billings by 1985.

Providers of these services distinguish their

markets by the nature of the services offered

and by the types of clients they serve. General

services offer access to a wide variety of data

for a broad customer market. Specialized services provide narrow, but usually deeper and

more sophisticated, information services to

customers with special needs. Some firms

serve home, professional, and small business

users, while others serve large industrial

clients.

There are no clear dividing lines between

these markets. In general, however, the largescale specialized data bases tend to be expensive, and using them requires a great deal of

computer processing, at either the provider’s

or customer’s end of the telephone line. Systems oriented to individual customers tend to

be less costly and less specialized.

For example, using ordinary telephone lines,

owners of small computer systems can connect

with on-line services such as The Source and

CompuServe. Companies like these offer a wide

variety of information to subscribers. Although originally oriented to the needs of the

home consumer, these firms are beginning to

expand their network offerings to the business

market. Their services now include direct

access to United Press International and

Associated Press news wires, stock exchange

transactions, weather information, transportation schedules, restaurant and film reviews,

sports scores, and even computer programs

that can be directly loaded into the home or

office system from the company’s network.

A number of newspapers are conducting experiments to provide electronic newspapers.

Customers paying a special access charge will

be able to get news summaries and special

features such as horoscopes and weather. Twoway services such as bill paying and teleshopping will also be offered to network subscribers. Customers can view lists of products

and prices and put an order into the system.

After the product is delivered, the customer

will be billed via credit card. Some banks are

experimenting with in-home banking services.

In addition to communication with the central network data bases, customers can exchange messages with one another through

the system, allowing a simple form of “elec-
Ch. 4—Trends in Information Technology “ 51

tronic mail.”* The network services also use

this two-way communication to provide elaborate games that can be played by several customers simultaneously.

While The Source and similar firms sell access to a wide variety of services, other companies offer more specialized products. Dow

Jones, for example, sells access to its stock exchange data base. A customer with an Apple

or other small computer and a communications interface buys a special program for the

computer from Dow Jones and subscribes to

the data base. Using the home computer, recent transactions can be monitored and historical trends analyzed.

Some firms offer large sophisticated data

bases designed primarily to serve institutional

customers with special information needs. Examples are:

*For examp]e, Con=essman James Coyne uses The SOUrCe

as a way to stay in electronic communication with his constituents.

●

●

●

●

●

Bibliographic and reference data bases for

research, are offered by DIALOG Information Services, Inc. (a subsidiary of

Lockheed) and the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) of the U.S. Government; also the New York Times Information Service, which offers indexed abstracts and full text retrieval of news articles appearing in a number of magazines

and newspapers.

Medical information are provided by the

Medline service of the National Library

of Medicine; also, Harper and Row’s

HARFAX service publishes an on-line

pharmaceutical data base.

Legal information, such as the Legis data

bank of citations and the Pergamon online collection of patent information.

Econometric information such as offered

by Data Resources, Inc.

Natural resources data such as the

petroleum reserves estimates developed

by the Department of Energy and offered

by the I. P. Sharp Co.

Electronic Conferencing

With electronic conferencing, a meeting is

conducted in which geographically dispersed

participants talk with one another over telecommunication lines. There are three categories of electronic conferencing, depending on

the

●

●

●

technology used:

Audio conferencing, which uses the

telephone: individuals at different locations are linked together by a conference

call wherein both a loudspeaker and a

microphone system are used at each location.

Video conferencing, which supplements

the voice connection with television images of the participants or of display

charts, tables, or other graphics under

discussion.

Computer conferencing, which transmits

messages through a central computer

that stores them and forwards them on

request to another participant. In a computer conference, the participants do not

need to be connected at the same time. In

addition, since each message in the dialog

is stored as computer data, it can be indexed to topic, date, sender, and so on.

This facility allows a complete running,

indexed transcript to be available to the

conferees at all times.

All of these conferencing modes offer an alternative to traveling for meetings, thus saving energy and time. Additionally, because

computer conferencing offers time-independence, it is even attractive for use within a

single office for meetings between busy executives.

Extensive research has been done on the use

and effectiveness of different types of teleconferencing systems.4 Each has its own advan4

J. V. Johansen and K. Spengler, Electronic Meetings (Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley, 1979).
52 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

tages, disadvantages, and costs. Video con- Turoff at the New Jersey Institute of Techferencing, for example, will be more expensive nology (the EIS system) and by the Institute

than computer or audio conferencing; however, for the Future (the PLANET system). Comcomputer conferencing offers time-independ- mercial systems are now appearing on the

ence. market. Infomedia, a small California-based

firm, is marketing its NOTEPAD conferencExperimental computer conferencing sys- ing system to large industrial and government

terns have been operated for some time by clients.

Advanced Business Services

AT&T is planning to offer an advanced data

communications service known as ACS (Advanced Computer Service). This service, principally designed to serve major corporate

users, will integrate high-speed data communications for computer applications with such

uses as teleconferencing (video and audio) and

facsimile transmission. Satellite Business Systems is planning to offer a similar service, and

other firms may also enter the market soon.

One principal advantage of these new computer-based communication systems is that

they will allow the integration of communication services economically over a single highcapacity channel. Incorporation of computers

within the network will provide the customer

with more flexibility, since the network can

handle incompatibilities between different

types of computers and terminals and can also

manage the flow of work among several interconnected computers. The network can even

offer a customer data storage and retrieval,

as well as computer-processing services.

Data networking has been of interest to

higher education for several years. Post-secondary education institutions may find fewer

technological barriers and lower data communications costs if they link their computers

and use teleconferencing for teaching and

management. Industrial firms that install

ACS-type services almost certainly will use

them to provide education and training for

their employees.
Chapter 5

Educational Uses of

Information Technology
An elementary school teacher in Lexington, Mass., prepares a program for

presentation to her students
Chapter 5

Educational Uses of

Information Technology

Since the development of the radio, people have proposed that communications technology provide major improvements in the delivery of education.

Research on “teaching machines” dates back to the 1940’s, before the general

introduction of computers into the marketplace. Since that time, there has been

continual research, development, and implementation of techniques for using information technology in various aspects of education.

OTA investigated what is known and what has been proposed about possible

applications of information technology to education.

Findings

● Information technology is capable of becoming a major resource for the delivery of educational services over the next decade:

— It can be an effective delivery mechanism

for most existing forms of education. ●

— It provides capabilities for responding to

new demands that traditional schoolroom education cannot meet adequately.

. The cost of information products and

services for educational applications will

continue to drop with respect to other

items in the educational budget.

● The principal benefits will be realized from

combinations of new technologies rather ●

than from any single device.

c Most educational applications will be based

on hardware technology that is originally

developed for a broader consumer market.

The only exceptions will be devices designed

for specialized industrial uses–e.g., flight

training for airline pilots-or education and

training for the handicapped.

It is impossible to predict with certainty the

technological base that will exist for educational use. Some of the products and services now projected for the next decade, and

described in chapter 4, may not survive the

competition for the consumer’s money. This

uncertainty may inhibit the rapid development of software and services particularly

oriented to the education market.

The provision of high-quality, reasonably

priced educational software is the principal

technological challenge. Low-cost hardware

will be widely available to most homes, offices, and schools.

Functions of Educational Technology

There are a variety of ways in which comput- Passive Instruction

ers and communications technology can provide educational services. In some cases, dif- The oldest instructional use of information

ferent types of applications will require differ- technology is simply to present information.

ent technologies; in other cases, the same type The textbook is the traditional passive instrucof technology can be used to provide different tional system. Projection media-slides, filmtypes of services. strips, overhead transparencies, and pictures

55
56 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

—are more modern forms. Educational radio

and television have experienced quiet but

steady growth since the late 1950’s and early

1960’ s.’ Video cassettes and video disks will

provide even more flexible tools for presenting

video-based instructional material.

The best known recent examples of passive

instructional programing are the ‘(Sesame

Street” and “Electric Company” programs

produced by The Children’s Television Workshop with partial Federal support. These programs were intended to supplement, not replace, normal schooling. Sesame Street is intended to teach preschool children some basic

concepts and learning attitudes. Electric Company is principally aimed at supplementing

reading instruction at the grammar school

level.

At the other extreme, a full alternative to

traditional education is the “Open University” in Britain, which has conducted a full college degree program for over 11 years, based

principally on passive instruction using the

broadcast networks. In the United States, the

Corporation for Public Broadcasting is developing an educational program along similar

lines in cooperation with universities across

the country.

New technology for video production is also

having an impact on educational uses. Computer animation systems have become considerably less expensive than older, hand animation techniques. Video processing uses computers to perform elaborate modification of

video images. Both of these technologies are

widely used in commercial television and motion pictures, but they are also particularly attractive for instructional application in which

concepts and processes that are subtle and

difficult to visualize need to be illustrated.

Complex physical processes, such as fluid flow

or load stresses on structures such as bridges,

can be simulated on a computer and displayed

as dynamic graphic images. In addition, video

cassette recorders (VCRs) and video disks

promise to relieve students from the dictates

IP. J. Dier and R. J. Pedone, Uses of Television for Instruction, 19761977, NCES/CPB, 1979.

of schedule. The VCR, in particular, allows—

copyright law permitting-instructors and

students to copy instructional programs off

the air and play them back at some later time.

Video cassettes and video disks will provide

alternate modes of broadcasting for the distribution of instructional material.

Passive instruction systems have the following characteristics:

●

●

All educational decisions are in the hands

of the providers; what information is to

be presented, for how long, in what sequence, and even—in the case of such current instructional broadcasting—the

schedule—when it is shown.

The boundaries between entertainment,

public information, and educational services can become blurred. A Shakespeare

play, a concert, or an informational series

such as the successful Cosmos series carried by the the Public Broadcasting System, may all be considered important instructional resources as well as entertainment.

Interactive Instruction

This technology is used to teach a specific

subject or skill directly to a student, guiding

the learner through a sequence of steps involving the presentation of information, drills, and

exercises designed by an instructor. Interactive instructional systems require the student

to communicate with the device, allowing the

system to vary the pace of instruction, select

among alternate sequences of presentation,

test for understanding, and alter the content

according to the specific needs of the individual.

Computer-assisted instruction is the best

known interactive technology. A student sitting at a computer terminal works through a

series of “frames” that teach and test understanding.* If the student is progressing slowly, the computer branches to an alternate style

*A ‘{ fr~e ” i9 a &splay on the television screen in a SAI 9y5-

tem. The term dates back to programed learning research in

which a frame was a unit of material presented at one time.
Ch. 5—Educational Uses of information Technology ● 5 7

Capitol Children’s Museum, Washington,

D. C.—Consternation is a constant in the

first phases of instruction . .

&

. , . but the student’s discovery of

wrong responses . .

of presentation or a remedial section. If the

student has mastered that section, the computer jumps ahead to more advanced material.

The Plato system was one of the better

known experiments. It was developed by researchers at the University of Illinois and Control Data Corp. With principal funding from

the Federal Government, the system originally

combined a new type of interactive graphics

terminal with a large multiterminal computer

system and an elaborate language specifically

designed to create instructional programs.

While Plato was originally a very expensive

experimental system, most of its underlying

concepts survive in commercial instructional

systems now marketed by Control Data.

Four factors have more recently revived interest in interactive instruction: 1) the rapidly

declining costs of computers and the advent

of the desktop computer, 2) the escalating

labor-intensive costs of traditional schooling,

3) an improved understanding of how to create

instructional packages, and 4) the development of alternative delivery mechanisms that

link the computer with other technologies,

such as video disk and interactive cable.

. . . is followed by the sense of reward for

right responses which makes the anxiety

of exploring the unknown bearable

The video disk is a good example of how new

technologies can be combined to form instructional systems. The video disk contains an extensive data base of text, still images, and

film. The computer controls the sequence of

presentation and, using an educational program contained on its floppy disk and information stored in the remote data base, interacts with the student.2

The video disk, for example, might contain

several thousand images of microscope slides.

The data base would have full descriptive information on the subjects illustrated by the

slides, indexed in various ways. Educational

software on the computer would take a student through sequences of slides and text presentation, providing information and administering tests. While the computer program

would be designed to achieve a specific instructional purpose, the slide catalog and data base

would be intended to be more widely applicable for research and education.

‘L. F. Eastwood, “Motivation and Deterrents to Educational

Use of ‘Intelligent Videodisc’ Systems, ” J. Ed. Tech Systems,

vol. 7(4), 1978-79, PP. 303-335.
● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Several experiments are under way to develop instructional packages using combinations

of video disks and personal computers. The

Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium is developing a series of video disks in

basic economics. The first disk of a planned

6-disk series has been produced and tried in

the classroom with favorable results. Other

companies are developing products aimed at

the industrial training market; and a few

firms, such as IBM, are already using interactive video disks for employee training.

Interactive instructional technology has the

following characteristics:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

It allows the system to customize teaching to the particular level of understanding, learning style, and ability of each

individual student.

The system can be designed so that students can pace themselves.

Because individualization and self-pacing

may not fit well with traditional schooling, large-scale implementation of interactive instructional technology in the

schools may engender substantial institutional resistance.

Instructional software is often divided

into discrete packages, each designed to

teach a specific skill or item of information. An instructional curriculum (say, a

fifth grade mathematics course) is a collection of these packages, which, for a full

course, may number into the hundreds.

Extensive design effort is needed to create each module. The material to be

taught must be broken down into framesized pieces. Tests of understanding must

be devised, and the paths that students

are most likely to take in going through

the material must be anticipated.

Because they are so carefully tailored, interactive curricular packages are inflexible. They are not generally useful for any

purpose, clientele, or environment other

than the specific one for which they were

designed.

The skills required both to produce software and to assist students with its use

are substantially different from traditional teaching skills.

● Some experts suggest that smaller instructional modules can be designed to fit

into the regular course of instruction, permitting a gradual introduction of educational technology. Others maintain that

the principal educational benefits of technology are lost with such an incremental

approach.

Learning Environments

The interactive instruction technology described above can be used to create a special

environment-a language, simulation, or data

base–that can be manipulated by the student.

For example, special computer languages,

such as LOGO, can help learners gain particular problem-solving skills. Languages such as

VISICALC, a system designed for business

users of small computers, can be a powerful

tool in teaching accounting principles and financial planning techniques.

Another form of learning environment is the

simulation. A simulation of a laboratory experiment for a physics course, for instance, might

present on a television screen a variety of

weights and springs. The student would be

allowed to “connect” them in various configurations, to apply forces of prescribed amounts

at different points in the arrangement, and to

measure and record the results. Working with

this system for only a few days, a student

would learn some basic principles of mechanics. As another example, large-scale simulations can be made of physical processes or of

equipment that might be too expensive or dangerous to use in person. Simulated nuclear

powerplants provide vehicles for training new

operators; simulated aircraft are used for pilot

training.

For medical education, computer-controlled

robots can be used to simulate injured or ill

human beings. A small computer presents the

student with an instructional sequence where

proper techniques are illustrated using a computer-controlled video disk. The student then
Ch. 5—Educational Uses of Information Technology ● 5 9

At Fort Gordon, Ga., Signal Corps Center, video simulation

is used to teach repair techniques. If instructors were to use

actual equipment, it would have to be returned to a repair

shop for costly work and expensive ‘downtime’

The actual coil shown on right, whose removal and respacing

would require costly downtime for the instructional radio set.

The student is given the learning experience by TV instead,

testing his notion of the proper technique against solutions

stored on the random-accessed video disk

practices on a dummy equipped with sensors

monitored by the computer, which, in turn,

presents the results to the student.

Simulations of economic and social systems

are used to teach political science, economics,

and management. Business management

games are one of the earliest educational applications of computers, and they have been

deeply integrated into the curricula of many

business schools. Other educational applications range from simple economic simulations

on small computers to elaborate simulations

of city management and international politics

that require very large computer systems. The

Defense Department makes extensive use of

computer-based simulations to train senior

decisionmakers in crisis management.

Using information technology to provide a

learning environment has several implications:

●

c

●

An instructional program can be applicable over longer course periods and for a

greater variety of educational uses than

can an interactive module that concentrates on a single teaching unit.

Since the interaction is so flexible and is

directed in large part by the students, instructors and students need documentation and supplemental curriculum materials appropriate for using the system to

meet their particular educational objectives. Except for large simulations (such

as flight trainers) that may require special

hardware, the principal cost of “learning

environment” applications will be in developing these supplemental curricular

materials. Developmental costs for the

programs will, in general, be written off

against a much larger customer base.

Because it fundamentally changes both

content and the way material

– is presented, use of an automated learning environment may require extensive changes

in course content or even a broader redesign of an entire curriculum.

Information Resource

General information literacy is needed for

all individuals to work and to participate fully in an information society. In addition, for

most professions, specialized computer and

communication-based systems are rapidly becoming indispensable tools of the trade. Students must learn how to use these services as

part of their early training.

For these reasons, in addition to being an

instructional tool, the computer in education

is viewed as an intellectual and problem-solving resource, akin to the library or laboratory.

Information services will need to be both
60 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

broad enough to support general education

and specialized enough for particular subject

matter. Examples of specialized systems include computer-aided design systems for industrial engineering students, on-line legal or

medical information retrieval systems for use

by law students or doctors, and automated accounting and financial analysis systems for

business students.

In addition to these specialized resources,

students in all fields will need constant access

to information services and computer facilities

for their work. One engineering school is experimenting with providing a desktop computer to some of its entering freshmen, with a

view toward giving computers to all students

in the future. A graduate school of business

has already adopted a similar policy for its

entering students. The leader of the movement

to provide all undergraduate students with

computer access has been Dartmouth College,

which, for well over a decade, has operated

with a policy of universal computer literacy

and free student access to computer terminals.

The role of the computer as an educational

resource on campus is blending with the view

of libraries as automated information centers.

Software Library of the Columbia University Computer Center.

Software is placed into the computers on an hourly basis to

the department utilizing the computer

Many college and university libraries have

been among the leaders in this movement—

first in automating their management, then

in providing users access to computerized bibliographic services. Their ultimate goal is to

provide full-text, on-line retrieval. As these

trends continue, the computer center and the

library will actually merge into a single, automated information utility.

Regional and national networks will provide

scholars with access to information and computational resources anywhere in the country.

EDUCOM, a nationwide consortium of universities and colleges, has been developing this

concept for several years and now offers its

members access to EDUNET, a nationwide resource-sharing data communication network.

Administration and

Instructional Management

Information technology can be used by the

teacher to help plan coursework and manage

the classroom. Computers not only assist with

mundane daily tasks such as grading and recordkeeping but can also help keep closer track

of the daily accomplishments and problems of

individual students. Teacher attention can,

thus, be more focused on individual student

needs. Teleconferencing via radio, television,

or computer allows teachers to exchange experiences, develop curricula, and coordinate

educational programs among a number of

schools in a district.

Distribute Education

The distribution of services to those who

need them has always been a difficult problem

for the educational system. For as long as education has been provided by schools, the distribution problem has been responsible for institutional constraints of both time and location on the student. That schooling takes place

on a physical campus, attended principally by

young people, may be more reflective of the

limitations of the traditional schooling system

than it is of the current needs of society for

education. Chapter 6, which examines the

state of the educational system, concludes that
Ch. 5—Educational Uses of Information Technology ● 6 1

At the Oxford High School, Oxford, Mass., students operate

the Digital Equipment Corp. mainframe computer that

controls the student records system for the school district

a significant gap may exist between the forms

of educational needs of a modern information

society and the traditional institutional forms

of educating.

Information technology is a tool that can address these two distributional problems–distance and time. In the past, television and

radio have been used for this purpose, often

to good effect. However, their applicability has

been limited both by the need to use expensive and scarce broadcast facilities to serve a

relatively small clientele and by the inability

to provide interactive services.

Modern technology removes these barriers.

Communication facilities such as cable, direct

broadcast satellite, low-power television, and

video cassette and video disk will greatly increase the number of information channels

coming into the home and office. Two-way

cable, remote conferencing facilities, and optical video disk microcomputer systems provide

the capability for interactive education.

Among the particular applications of information technology for distribution are the following:

● General educational services to dispersed

populations: Some geographical regions

need to provide schooling to a sparse population spread over a large area. Communications technology such as direct broad-

●

●

●

cast satellite or low-power television allows educational programing to be broadcast at low cost to small rural communities and even to individual residences.

Video cassettes, video disks, and personal

computer programs can be distributed

physically by mail.

Specialized educational services to small

populations: Some groups in society that

have very specialized needs for educational services are not concentrated geographically. Only by providing courses regionally or nationally can a critical mass of students be assembled to justify the expense

of the course. Information systems provide that wider market. For example:

.

—

—

Advanced professional training, especially continuing education in such

fields as medicine, law, and engineering, in which knowledge advances at a

rapid rate.

Unusual educational needs, such as accelerated science programs for the

gifted or courses conducted in a foreign

language.

Instruction in subjects for which experienced teachers are scarce or courses

conducted by outstanding scholars and

leaders in a field.

Education for the homebound: For a number of reasons–e.g., illness, physical

handicap, or age—many individuals in

society cannot travel physically to attend

a class. Information technology can provide educational services directly to the

home, hospital, or workplace.

Job-related education and training in the

workplace: There are a number of barriers

to workers who wish to take job-related

instruction. Attending regular classes is

difficult due to competing demands on

their time, travel to a campus maybe burdensome, and there is reluctance on the

part of some older individuals to sit in a

classroom and compete with younger students.’ Information technology, by bring-

‘R. L. David, “Adult Higher Education: Thinking the Unthinkable, ” Adult (%ntinuing Higher Education Chrference,

Region V, Appalachian State University, April 1977.
62 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

ing the course to the workplace, can remove some of these constraints.

Testing and Diagnosis

Computers have been used for some time to

grade and analyze the results of college admission exams, intelligence tests, and a variety

of psychometric examinations designed to explore the values, attitudes, and thinking patterns of individuals. Educational testing can

be thought of as having four basic roles:

●

●

●

●

Strategic: Testing helps assess a student’s general levels of understanding and

learning strategies. It is used to determine what classes and courses of study

a student should pursue, and what instructional approaches would be most effective for him. After a course, testing

measures the skills and knowledge that

the student.

Tactical: Testing also takes place during

instructional sequences to determine how

the student is progressing through the

course and to detect and diagnose difficulties the student might be having.

Gatekeeping: Testing plays an increasingly important role in supporting decisions

on admissions to institutions and to programs of study. It is a basis for allocating

scarce resources (e.g., admission to a prestigious college or university) and for the

granting of licenses to practice professions.

Certification: Testing plays an important

role in certifying the-knowledge and skill

of individuals, qualifying them to pursue

professions such as medicine or law, or attesting that they have progressed along

certain educational or training paths.

Modern information technology will likely

have several effects on testing:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Continual testing of students’ progress

and levels of understanding is an important pedagogical tool, even in a nonautomated teaching environment. However it

is very demanding of a teacher’s time.

Automated systems will allow much closer monitoring of student and class progress in a normal classroom environment.

Automated teaching systems depend on

continual testing and evaluation to direct

the presentation of material.

Automated instruction may lead to a decoupling of instruction from institutions

—in the sense that a student moves freely between home, job, and school for

coursework. This trend will create greater

need for strategic testing to determine

appropriate instructional programs for

students.

Institutional decoupling will also require

more testing for purposes of certification.

Traditionally, an engineering degree was

obtained by following a course of study

at one department. Certification was the

degree earned by successfully completing

the program.

The accelerating growth of knowledge is

pressuring professions such as medicine,

law, and engineering to require retraining

and periodic renewal of certifications.

If traditional forms of education become

increasingly expensive and, hence, scarce,

gatekeeping requirements will inevitably

continue to grow in importance. The current competition for entry into medical

school illustrates this trend.

On the other hand, automated learning

systems may make certain types of education and training far more accessible and

affordable. If that occurs, gatekeeping

may take place not on entry to the education program, but in licensing to practice.

Capabilities of Educational Technology

None of the technologies and services de- bilities required to support all of the applicascribed in the chapter 4 overview has the capa- tions listed above. Hence, the growth of an ex-
Ch. 5—Educational Uses of /formation Technology ● 6 3

tensive automated education network will de- cation. Thus, the basic message is that differpend on the integration of information tech- ent information technologies will need to be

nologies. linked in order to provide all of the capabilities needed for extensive automated learning

Each particular technology-cable, personal systems to be developed. As shown in chapter

computers, etc. –has some but not all of the 4, such integration is already taking place for

capabilities necessary to provide effective edu- other applications.

Cost and Effectiveness

For many years, the cost and effectiveness

of educational technology has served to circumscribe the debate about whether and how

it should be used. OTA found that:

There is a substantial amount of agreement

that, for many educational applications, information technology can be an effective and

economical tool for instruction.

This conclusion is based on a number of observations:

● Research exists, some of it dating back

years, to suggest that students do learn

as well or better from educational technology than from conventional means. Little evidence exists to the contrary. Much

of the past debate centered around whether technology was more effective than

conventional means and hence warranted

substitution for traditional classroom

instruction. 4

● Costs for labor-intensive education and

training methods continue to climb faster

than the inflation rate, while costs for information technology continue to drop

precipitously. These trends will result in

a steadily growing number of applications

in which technology-based instruction is

clearly the most cost-effective method.

‘See, for instance, W. L. Schraumrn, Bighfedia Little Media

(Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1977); A. Bork, “Interactive Learning, ’ Amer. Journal Physics 47(l), January 1979,

pp. 5-10; L. J. Seidel and M. L. Rubin, Computers and Chnrnunicatkms lrnph”cations for Education (New York: Academic

Press, 1977); J. Edwards, et al., “How Effective is CAT? A

Review of the Research, ” Educational Leadership, November

1975, pp. 147-153; and R. Dubin and R. A. Hedley, The Medium

May Be Related to the Message: College Instruction by TV,

Center for the Advanced Study of Educational Administration,

University of Oregon, Eugene, 1969.

● For many educational and training needs

—e.g., educational services to the homebound, to geographically isolated regions,

or to the workplace—there are few viable

alternatives to the use of technology, provided that it works adequately. In a growing number of instances, teachers qualified to teach in certain fields—such as science, mathematics, or bilingual education

—are difficult to find. In these cases, technology may be the only means by which

such education can be provided.

This is not to say that there are no potential limitations or dangers in the uncritical use

of educational technology nor that there is no

need for additional research in the field. In

fact, in the eyes of some critics, a number of

questions remain unanswered.

Will access to computers reduce the ability to practice and learn basic skills?

Some parents and teachers are concerned

that student use of hand calculators may

lead to the atrophy of simple computational skills. Some modern word processors incorporate spelling correction facilities, and future systems will probably incorporate simple grammatical analysis

and correction. Will use of such technology decrease a student grasp of writing

mechanisms?

Does the medium have characteristics

that, when exploited, distort the educational message or produce subtle side effects? Some observers, for example, have

suggested that television educational programs such as Sesame Street may reinforce short attention spans. A similar example is the finding of some developers
64 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

●

of interactive computer-based reading ●

programs that, in order to maintain student attention, shorter passages must be

used on video screens than would be

needed to maintain student attention for

reading exercises on paper.

Most research on technology-based education has focused on the development of

well-defined skills, such as arithmetic

computation or foreign-language vocabulary. While proponents argue that computers can encourage the development of ●

new problem-solving skills,5 critics suggest that education of the more general

conceptual skills could suffer.

‘S. Papert, Windstorms (New York: Basic Books, 1980).

If, over the long term, education is provided principally by technology, what are

the unintended long-term impacts on social, cognitive, and psychological development? Very few answers to this important

question are known. However, since it

would take several years before technological and institutional changes could

create such a possibility on a massive

scale, there seems to be adequate time to

study it.

Do particular characteristics of information technology subtly favor some types

of students psychologically or cognitively? Do differences exist that tend to favor

performance by sex, age, social class, or

values? These questions are important

when dealing with issues of social equity.
Chapter 6

The Provision of Education

in the United States
Access to new information technologies can be provided In a number of, and In many nontraditional, ways. In

the Oxford School District, Oxford, Mass., computer programs are provided by bus throughout the school district
Chapter 6

The Provision of Education

in the United States

●

●

●

Within all societies there is an educational system that is both central to and

dependent upon the rest of society. Its role, its functions, and the resources available to it are determined by the very social institutions for whose maintenance

and effectiveness it is responsible.1 Thus, while all societies educate, the particular

form that any educational system takes will depend in large measure on the nature

of the society of which it is a part.2 How a particular educational system evolves

will also depend on the nature of the decisions made about it. For within the constraints established by

educational outcomes.

Recent social and economic

the socioeconomic order,

Findings

developments vate

there are a variety of possible

good, and decisions about education

have fostered a reevaluation of how educa- are made in the market instead of in the

tion should be treated—as a public or as a governmental arena,

private good. —

Because they are capable of providing specialized educational services to narrow segments of the educational market, the new

information technologies will make it easier —

to produce and distribute education in the

marketplace.

If education is increasingly treated as a priindividuals and groups that can afford to

buy educational services may be more

satisfied with the kind of education that

they receive, but

fewer social resources may be made available to support what traditionally have

been regarded as the public benefits of

education.

Social Change and Education in America

All societies educate; education is necessary

to either maintain or to structure the social

order. Education mediates between individuals and society. It is the means by which societies transmit acquired knowledge, attitudes,

values, skills, sensibilities, and symbols from

one generation to the next—and thus the

means by which individuals learn the skills

‘Lawrence A. Crernin, Public Education, Basic Books, 1976.

‘Herbert A. Thelen, and Jacob W. Gretzels, “The Social Sciences: Conceptual Framework for Education, ” The School lb

view, vol. LXV, No. 3, autumn 1957, p. 346.

and roles necessary to function in and to act

upon societies.3

*

Individuals and societies have differed with

respect to how they believed educational deci-

‘Ibid; see also, Charles Weingartner, ‘‘Redefining Education

in a Changing Present for an Uncertain Future, ” paper presented at meeting of Chief State School Officers, Orlando, Fla.,

winter, 1980; and Charles E. Bidwell, “The School as Formal

Organization, ” Handbook of organizations, James G. March

(cd.) (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1965), pp. 972-1,969.

*SocietA factors may affect an educational system in ZUIY

number of ways. Factors such as population size and structure,

family and social organization, working patterns, patterns of

(continued next page)

67
68 . lnformational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

sions should be made. Plato and Aristotle believed that education was so important it

should be monopolized and controlled by the

state. Rousseau, on the other hand, was opposed to all formal schooling, believing that

nature was the best teacher. John Stuart Mill

took a middle position. Strongly in favor of

public support for education, he feared the consequences of public control over education.

Mill said, for example:

The objections which are urged with reason

against State education do not apply to the

enforcement of education by the State, but to

the State’s taking upon itself to direct that

education; which is a totally different thing.

That the whole or any large part of the education of the people should be in State hands,

1 go as far as anyone in deprecating. All that

has been said of the importance of individuality of character, and diversity in opinions and

modes of conduct, involves, as of the same

unspeakable importance, diversity of education. A general state of education is a mere

contrivance for molding people to be exactly

like one another; and as the predominant power in the government-whether this be a monarch, a priesthood, an aristocracy, or the majority of the existing generation.4

Writing in 1859, Mill expressed an attitude

toward public education that was greatly at

odds with the one then prevailing in the

United States, where the crusade for public

schools was at its height. If Mill were to write

these words today, however, he would find a

more receptive audience. For today, serious

question is being given to the question of

whether or not education should be treated as

a public or a private good.

In the United States, education has traditionally been treated as if it were a public

good.* Most educational decisions have been

social and economic mobility, the availability of leisure time,

and personal resources all serve to establish who, in a society,

will be educated. Similarly, the level and configuration of social

organization determine, in part, the kinds of institutions that

are adopted perform the educational function; while the level

of economic, social, and cultural development determin e, in part,

the idea of what, in a given society, constitutes literacy.

‘John Stuart Mill, On Liberty.

*~blic g~s refer to those goods whose benefits are available to everyone and from which no one can be excluded. These

made in the political arena; and most educational activities have been supported, if not

financed, with public funds. This practice of

treating education as a public good reflects,

in part, the traditional American belief that

education plays an essential societal role. Contrasting the attitude of Americans towards

education with that of Europeans, Alexis de

Tocqueville, the well-known commentator on

American society, noted in 1831:

Everyone I have met up to now, to whatever rank of society they belong, has seemed

incapable of imagining that one could doubt

the value of education. They never fail to

smile when told that this view is not universally accepted in Europe. They agree in thinking that the diffusion of knowledge, useful for

all peoples, is absolutely necessary for a free

people like their own, where there is no property qualification for voting or for standing

for election. That seemed to be an idea taking root in every heads

The public benefits that Americans have

associated with education have changed over

time and in different historical circumstances.

In the earliest years of American history, education was, for example, considered essential

for the survival of the new democratic Nation.

Later, with the need to acculturate immigrants into society and to unite a divided Nation in the aftermath of the Civil War, it was

considered the means for building a Nation of

citizens. At the turn of the century, education

was expected to train and socialize American

youths for participation in a modem, industrialized society. More recently, Americans have

goods will not be produced privately, and thus they must be

produced by government. There are only a few pure public

goods, one example being national defense. There are, however,

some goods, like education, that are impure public goods. These

combine aspects of both public and private goods. Although

they serve a private function, there are also public benefits

associated with them. Impure public goods may be produced

and distributed privately in the market or collectively through

government, How they are produced is a societal choice of significant consequence, If decisions about impure public goods

are made in the market, on the basis of personal preferences

alone, then the public benefits associated with them may not

be efficiently produced or equitably distributed. Edwin Mansfield, Macroeconomics Theory and Applications, New York,

1970.

bAlexis de Tocqueville, Journey to America translati by

George Lawrence, J. P. Mayer (cd.), Anchor Books, 1971.
Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States . 69

seen in education the solutions to some of the

Nation’s thorniest social problems.

To guarantee that these public benefits

would be provided, Americans established a

whole range of public institutions-elementary

and secondary schools, 4-year and community colleges, libraries, and museums. Moreover,

to assure that private educational institutions

served public goals, they supported and regulated them.

Americans were able to treat education as

a public good because, having similar needs

and agreeing essentially upon the rules by

which they lived, they were able to agree upon

the kind of education that they wanted to pass

on from one generation to the next.6 Given this

consensus, there was little conflict between

what was a public or a private educational interest, or between what was a local or national

educational goal.

Although highly institutionalized, the

American educational system has been quite

successful in adapting to meet the changing

needs of society. It has been transformed from

a system designed to meet the needs of an

agrarian society to one tailored to meet the

needs of an urban, industrialized society. It

has been changed, moreover, from a system

structured to meet the educational needs of

a privileged few, to one more structured to

meet the diverse and sometimes conflicting

needs of a growing and heterogeneous population.

Today, however, society is undergoing

changes that may affect the nature of the system itself. Some of these changes originate

within the educational system; others stem

‘Rush Welter, Popular Education and Democratic Thought

in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962); David

Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, “Conflict and Consensus in American Public Education, ” America SchooLs: PubL”c and l?riva@

Daedalus, summer 1981.

from the profound changes taking place in the

larger social environment. Among these developments are:

●

●

●

●

●

●

an increase in the level of education that

individuals need to participate effectively

in society;

an extension of the period of time during

which individuals can and need to be educated;

an increase in the diversity of the educational clientele and thus an increase in the

diversity of the demand for education;

a decline in the public resources available

for education, resulting in part from:

— an increase in the cost of producing

education,

— a questioning of the public benefits associated with education, and

— a loss of confidence in the institutions

providing education;

the emergence of new institutions that,

under new circumstances, find it profitable to market education; and,

the development of the new information

technologies that allow educational institutions to provide specialized services to

specific sectors of the market.

These developments, taken together, will

have a major impact on the educational system and on the institutions that have traditionally been responsible for providing educational services. Taking advantage of the developing market for special kinds of educational

services, new profitmaking institutions are

emerging to provide education. To compete in

this growing and increasingly segmented market, many traditional educational institutions

may have to curtail some of the services that

they provide, retaining only those that have

the greatest economic and political return.

Changes such as these are, in fact, already occurring in almost all sectors of the educational

system.
70 ● Informationa/ Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Elementary and Secondary Education

Public Schools

The traditional American belief in the public

virtues of education is nowhere better illustrated than in the historical commitment to

a system of public schooling. It is highly

symptomatic, therefore, that today serious

questions are being raised about whether or

not elementary and secondary education

would be best served if it were provided

through the mechanism of the market.

A legacy of the past, the public school system is a unique and typically American institution. For, while educational institutions are

publicly supported in many societies, in no

other country have they been established with

such deliberate purpose and public expectation

or been conceived of as being such an integral

part of the political, social, and economic

order.

Clearly recognizing the important role that

education could play in building a nation, the

Founding Fathers did not leave its development to chance. They strongly advocated public support for schooling.7

* In fostering education, however, they made little distinction between its public and private aspects. If American youth were provided with the knowledge

necessary to preserve their liberties, all schooling, it was believed, would serve the public

interest.

The American commitment to public schooling grew in the wake of the Civil War. This

commitment was so intense that it gave rise

to a national crusade to establish public

schools. Concerned about the problems of reconstruction in the South, the influx of Catholic im migrants, and the advent of industrialization in the North, Americans saw public

‘Bernard Bailyn, Education in the Forming of American

Society (New York: W. W. North, 1980); Lawrence A. Cremin,

!Zhd”tions in American Education, Basic Books, Harper 1976.

*There W- veV little formal schooling in America Untfl titir

the Revolutionary War, Throughout colonial times, education

was conducted informally in the home and in the church. The

formal schooling that did exist was of marginal significance,

serving only those who were training for specific roles.

schooling as a way of preserving the social,

economic, and political system. By educating

American youth in common, public schools,

they hoped to inculcate them with a common

set of patriotic, Protestant, and republican

values.8

With the industrialization and urbanization

of American society, it was expected that

schooling would serve not only to prepare

American youth for a common political role

as citizens, but also to prepare a growing number of people from increasingly different social,

economic, and ethnic backgrounds for an increasingly differentiated set of economic roles.

To perform this economic function, the public

schools were restructured in accordance with

business principles. 9* Vocational education

and guidance were introduced as part of the

educational curriculum. Assuming that the

majority of Americans would be working at

industrial jobs, educators believed that vocational education would serve not only the best

interests of the individual, but also the best

interests of society.10

In the period that followed World War II,

support grew for the view that the social and

*Welter, op. cit.; Tyack and Hansot, op. cit.; Robert A.

Carlson, The Quest for Clmformity: Americanization Through

Education, John Wiley & Sons, 1975; “ Public Education as

Nation Building in America: Enrollments and Bureaucratization in the American States, 1870-1930, ” American Journal of

Sociology, vol. 85, No. 3, November 1979.

‘David K. Cohen and Barbara Neufeld, “The Failure of High

Schools and the Progress of Education, ” America Schools:

Public and Priva~ Daedalus, summer, 1981; Tyack and

Hansot, op. cit.; and Sol Cohen, “The Industrial Education

Movement, 1906- 1917,” American Quarterly, spring 1968, pp.

95-1 10; Martin Trow, “The Second Transformation of American

Secondary Education, ’ International Journal of timparative

Sociology, vol. 7, 1961.

*TO uni~ the school system and to make it more efficient,

educational reformers began to standardize textbooks and curriculum, to grade classes, to train teachers in approved methods,

and to improve the supervision of the schools. Businessmen

played an important role in bringing about these changes. Viewing education as a public good, businessmen looked to the public

schools to expand wealth and improve productivity. Concerned

about strikes, labor turnover, and increasing worker absentee

ism, many businessmen hoped that public schooling, and vocational education, in particular, would socialize a growing

number of irnmigrant youths for the workplace.

‘“I bid.
Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States ● 71

economic well-being of the Nation depended

not only on the efficient production of goods

and services, but also on their equitable distribution. As a growing and upwardly mobile

school-age population began to compete for

educational rewards, the question of distribution and access became central to the educational system.11 This new emphasis on equity

had a profound effect on the American school

system. For, in addition to fulfilling apolitical

and an economic function, the American public

school system was increasingly called upon to

serve as an agent of social change.12* To implement the extensive goals provided for in the

legislation of this period, the Federal Government became increasingly involved in the

funding, operation, and ‘administration of

school activities.13

Status of the American

Public School System

The American public school system is a relatively large enterprise. In the school year

1978-79, it included 16,014 school districts in

which there were 53,192 elementary schools,

12,020 middle schools, and 16,639 secondary

schools including high schools14 (see table 13).

Public education accounts for a significant

portion of public expenditures. In 1977-78,

$84.9 billion was spent on elementary and secondary education. Of this total the Federal

Government contributed about $8 billion, or

about 9.5 percent15 (see table 14).

“Cohen and Neufeld, op. cit.

‘

zCohen and Neufeld, op. cit.

*This wa9, for example, the goal of the Elementary ~d Secondary Educational Act of 1965, the most comprehensive and

significant educational legislation passed during this period.

Conceived of and marketed not only as an education bill, this

act was a major piece of antipoverty legislation. Between 1958

and 1978, for example, Federal expenditures on education increased sixfold. The Federal Government became so involved

with the operational activities that it presented an unprecedented challenge to the authority of the States and localities

to control public school programs.

‘

g

Steven K. Bailey, “Political Coalitions for Public Education, ” America schools: Pubfic and Private, Daedalus, summer 1981; Tyll van Geel, Authority to Control the School Pro

gram (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1976).

“Digest of Education Statistics, National Center for Education Statistics, May 1980.

‘

s

Ibid.

Table 13.—Number of Public Elementary/Secondary

Schools and Estimated Percentage Distribution, By

Level of instruction and Grade Span Served:

School Year 1978-79

Percentage

Level a and grade span Number distribution

Total schools ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Elementary schoolsb

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preprimary only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preprimary to 2nd . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preprimary to 3rd . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preprimary to 4th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preprimary to 5th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preprimary to 6th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preprimary to 7th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preprimary to 8th . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4th to 6th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other spans with highest grade

preprimary to 6th. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Junior high or middle schools . . . . .

5th to 8th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6th to 8th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7th to 8th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7th to 9th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other spans with highest grade

7th to 9th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Secondary schools including high

schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7th to 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8th to 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9th to 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10th to 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other spans with highest grade

10th to 12th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Combined elementary/secondary

schools (preprimary to 12th) . . .

Schools not classified by lowest

and highest gradec 

. . . . . . . . . . .

87,006

53,192

902

1,052

2,215

2,920

8,116

25,618

790

7,229

746

3,604

12,020

928

2,888

2,132

3,790

2,282

16,639

4,045

417

7,584

2,813

1,780

1,145

4,010

100.0

61.1

1.0

1.2

2.6

3.4

9.3

29.4

0.9

8.3

0.9

4.1

13.8

1.1

3.3

2.4

4.4

2.6

19.1

4.6

0.5

8.7

3.2

2.1

1.3

4.6

aLevej of school jS a classification by highest grade served Elementary includes

schools with no grade higher than 8th Junior high and middle schools have

no grades higher than 7th, 8th, 9th and no grade lower than 5th, 6th, or 7th

Secondary schools have as the highest grade IOth, 1 Ith, or 12th

bLowest grade of elementary schools may include prekindergarten, kindergarten,

or 1st grade

cschools in this category have grade spans that are unspecified, ungraded, or

unclassified

NOTE’ These national estimates are based on information reported in 1978

by all States except California, Georgia, and Massachusetts. Each category was

inflated equally to represent a known national total of 87,006.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,

Common Core of Data (CCD) 1978-79 Survey, unpublished tabulations

Measured by the goal of providing universal public education, the public school system

has been a reasonable success. Americans today are better educated than ever before.

Moreover, many of the barriers to education

that once served to limit an individual’s access to the socioeconomic benefits of society

have been removed. However, despite the central role that the public school has played in

American society and the numerous accom-

—,
72 .Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table 14.— Revenue and Nonrevenue Receipts of Public Elementary and Secondary Schools, By Source,

1977-78 (amounts in thousands of dollars)

Revenue receipts

Total revenue and Federal State Local and other

non revenue Percent Percent Percent Non revenue

receipts Total Amount of total Amount of total Amount of total receipts

$84,969,058 $81,440,326 $7,699,042 9.5 $35,005,584 43.0 $38,735,700 47.6 $3,528,732

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1980

plishments that can be attributed to it, the

American public is becoming increasingly disenchanted with public schools (see fig. 3).

Several explanations have been suggested

for this loss of support.” It has been suggested, for example, that the school system

has

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

suffered from:

a general loss of confidence in and support

for all public institutions;

the association of public schooling with

unpopular social policies such as busing

and desegregation;

the decline in overall school performance

as measured by traditional indicators

such as test scores;

the public backlash against what appears

to be the unprofessional behavior of some

unionized teachers;

the concern about inflation and increased

taxation;

the dissatisfaction with American youth

and their culture; and;

the disintegration of the political coalition

that has traditionally provided support

for the public schools.

The loss of a common base of support for

the public schools has had a negative effect

on the conditions under which they have had

to operate. Forced to appeal for their support

to a number of increasingly distinct and diverse interests, the public schools have had to

take on a multitude of new and often conflicting tasks at a time when they face the prospects of reduced economic and human re-

——

sources.

“Michael W. Kirst, “Loss of Support for Public Secondary

Schools, ” &hools: fiblic and fiivaa Daedalus,

summer, 1981; Bailey, op. cit.; Patricia Albjerg Graham, “Literacy: A Goal for Secondary Schools, ” America Schools: fib

fic and Private, Daedahzs, summer 1981.

Future of the American

Public School System

Many educational commentators have argued that if public schools are to survive, educators will have to adopt a more limited set

of goals, which, although less ambitious, will

be more likely to gain public support.” Success in this endeavor will depend, to a large

degree, on future societal developments. The

prognosis according to educational futurists

is not particularly good. Instead of providing

the basis for a national consensus in support

of public schools, demographic, economic, and

societal trends may, in fact, serve to intensify

the centrifugal tendencies already at work in

the educational system.18

Forecasts of demographic trends suggest,

for example, that Hispanics, Asians, and other

cultural groups with specialized needs will

soon comprise a major portion of the school

population. Moreover, the increase in the number of school-age children living with a single

parent or two working parents will force

schools to provide more supervision and socialization. Instead of cutting back on their educational activities, schools will have to cater to

a growing variety of educational needs.

Economic forecasts also cast doubts about

the future of public schools. If economic

growth rates remain slow, and inflation and

interest rates continue to be high, the schools

will be in intense competition with other service sectors for reduced human and economic

resources. Faced with the loss of personal income because of increased levels of inflation

“Graham, op. cit.; Tyaclc and Hansot, op. cit.; Bailey, op. cit.

‘Christopher Dtie, Potential 

 unpublished report prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment, March 1981.
———

Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States ● 73

Figure 3.—Quality of the Public Schools: Opinions of Parents

With Public School Children

“Students are often given the grades A, B, C, D, and F (FAIL) to denote the quality of their

work, Suppose the public schools themselves, in this community, were graded in the same

way. What grade would you give the public school here—A, B, C, D, or F?”

Percentage distribution of responses

100

80

60

40

20

0

1974

SOURCE. “The Condltlon of Education, ” 1981, National Center for Education Statistics
74 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

and high energy costs, the American public is,

in general, less willing to finance educational

expenditures through additional taxation.

This reluctance is likely to increase as the

number of families with school-age children

declines and the number of those beyond childbearing age increases.

Faced with their own problems of increasing costs andshrinking resources, Federal and

State governments will be unable to fill in the

financial gaps. Continued high inflation will

also reduce the economic resources available

for public schools. Because of inflation, the

costs of education are increasing twice as fast

as the rate of increase of revenues for education. Thus, in 10 years, if inflation continues

at its present rate, educational institutions will

have only one half of the revenues (in real

terms) that they have now.19*

The problem of scarce economic resources

will be matched by a problem of scarce human

resources. The problem of human resources is,

however, not so much a problem of numbers—

for the supply of teachers may very well exceed the demand-as it is a problem of quality. A decline in highly qualified educators is

already evident. Few entering-college freshmen select a career in teaching, and, more significantly, those that do are generally among

those who have the lowest academic qualifications. 20 Increasingly, there are fewer incentives

for well qualified individuals to enter the

teaching field.

Given the financial problems facing schools,

a career in teaching is no longer considered to

be secure. Given the loss of public support for

education, a career in teaching is less likely to

‘

e

Ibid; Kirst, op. cit.

*Wh,i,le ~ public schools likely to suffer a loss of economic

resources, the problems created will be greater in some areas

than in others. The urban schools in the Northeast will be the

most seriously affected because the recent migration of people

away from the area has caused a significant loss of taxable resources. The economic problems in the area of the sunbelt, on

the other hand, will be ameliorated by an influx of population

which will increase the area’s tax base.

‘“’’ Introduction,” America Schools: Public and Private,

Daedalus, summer 1981; J. Myron Atkin, “Who Will Teach in

High School, ” America Schookx fiblic and Priva@ Daedalus,

summer 1981; Dede, op. cit., 1981.

provide the rewards of public status or personal esteem. Since teaching salaries are not competitive with those in private industry, many

of the most highly qualified teachers—especially those with qualifications in math and

science—will give up teaching to sell their

skills on the open market. Well qualified women—a traditional source of high quality educators—are particularly likely to seek out the

wider range of employment opportunities now

available to them. 21

Private Alternatives to

Public Schools

Conflicts over public and private control of

education have always existed. While reserving for itself the dominant role in educational

matters, government in the United States has

always recognized that private individuals

have an interest in the outcome of educational

policy decisions. It has generally been recognized, for example, that parents have certain

rights—based on notions of liberty and privacy—in determining the education of their

children.

In order to take into consideration both public and private concerns, the responsibility for

educational policy and administration has traditionally been allocated to the States and to

local jurisdictions where, given more homogeneous populations, public decisions about education would be most likely to reflect private

concerns. 22 Parents whose needs were not adequately met by public education were allowed

the option of sending their children to private

schools.

This arrangement, which served in the past

to reconcile public and private educational

needs, is thought to be increasingly less effective, as the assumptions upon which it is based

become increasingly less realistic. For example, as the Federal Government assumed more

authority over educational policy, the character of schooling has become less subject to

local influence and control. Moreover, since

2’Atkin, op. cit.

‘

zVan Geel, op. cit.
.

Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States ● 75

many local communities are no longer comprised of homogeneous populations, there is

also less likelihood that public decisions-even

when they are made at the local level—will be

synonymous with private, individual needs.23

Conflicts over public and private educational

interests have grown along with the enhanced

importance of education in American society.

Because education has come to be regarded as

the essential means for gaining access to socioeconomic rewards, individuals now believe

that they have more of a stake than ever before in the outcome of decisions about it. In

this sense, individual interests are likely to

diverge from those of government. For whereas government is committed to providing

equal access to educational opportunities, an

individual, if he is to compete successfully for

socioeconomic rewards, must gain an educational advantage.24

Private dissatisfaction with public decisions

about education has led some people to seek

alternatives to public school education. Traditionally, that alternative has been the private

or independent school. Although such schools

have always provided a considerable proportion of all elementary and secondary education, they are today experiencing a revival of

interest .25

There are today in the United States 14,300

private elementary and 4,700 private secondary schools.26 Of these schools, 85 percent are

religiously affiliated, and 65 percent of these

are associated with the Roman Catholic

Church. 27

Private schools provide educational services

to one out of every nine students. Enrollment

in the fall of 1978 totalled 5,000,158. Having

declined substantially since the 1960’s, enrollment is more stable today. Declines in enrollment have been greatest in Roman Catholic

231bid. Zicohen and Neufeld, op. Cit.

“William A. Oates, “Independent Schools: Landscape and

Learnings, ” American Schools: Portraits and Perspectives,

Daedalus, fall 1981; James Coleman, “Private Schools, Public

Schools, and the Public Interest, The Public Interest.

ZdDigest of Educational Statistics, OP. cit.

270ates, op. cit.

schools, a considerable number of which have

closed due to lack of resources.28

Unlike public schools, private schools are

relatively independent of public control. Accountable to a governing board of trustees,

they are free to determine their own objectives

and the means by which they pursue them. Although the types and levels of courses vary

significantly between schools, private schools

are generally distinct from public schools inasmuch as they offer less work experience, less

bilingual education, and less alternative

schooling (see fig. 4).

Demand for private school education appears to be also related to the quality of public

school alternatives. Private school enrollments

28Digwt of Educational Statistics, op. cit.

Figure 4.—Secondary Schools

Providing Special Programs

experience

credit

Credit by

contract

courses

Gifted and

talented

program

a Public school

~ Private Catholic school

=Other private school

SOURCE’ “The Condition of Education,” 1981, National Center for Education

Statistics
76 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

are highest in those areas where public schools

are experiencing the most severe problems.

Private school enrollments are highest in the

metropolitan cities of the Northeast, where

21.3 percent of all students attend private

schools. Of all students in the North Central

Region, 11.5 percent attend private schools as

compared with rates between 7.8 and 7.9 percent for the West and the South. The lowest

rate of private school attendance, 2.8 percent,

is in the nonmetropolitan areas of the West.29

Demand for private school education is also

related to the ability of individuals to pay for

it. Levels of family incomes distinguish those

students who are enrolled in private schools

from those who are enrolled in public schools,

and those students who attend religiously affiliated schools from those who attend the

more expensive, unaffiliated schools (see fig.

5). While 21 percent of all public school students come from families with annual incomes

of $25,000 or more, as many as 37 percent of

all private students do. And, whereas 35 percent of the students attending religiously affiliated schools come from this income bracket,

there are over 56 percent in unaffiliated

schools who do. Students coming from families

of this income level are also among those who

are most likely to spend $1,000 or more on tuition and fees.30

Because cost is a major factor inhibiting individuals from choosing private alternatives

to public education, much of the discussion

about public and private school education has

focused on public policy options that call for

public subsidization of private educational

costs. The options that have been most frequently proposed and considered are the tuition tax credit and the educational voucher.

The educational voucher has generated such

diverse interest and support in part because

it is a general concept for which there is no one

particular model. Included under the rubric of

an educational voucher could be, for example,

any sum of money (or financial credit, such as

a tax credit) provided by any class or group

‘

gThe Clmd-tion of Education, 1981,

‘“I bid.

Figure 5.— Private Elementary/Secondary School

Tuition and Fees by Family Income

Racial/Ethnic Group

All students

Family income

$20,000 to

$24,999

Black

I 1 I I I I I I 1 1 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

~ $500 to $999

SOURCE” “The Condition of Education, ” 1981, National Center for Education

Statistics.

of individuals for the purpose of buying any

type of educational service in the market. The

nature and potential impact of any particular

voucher would vary, therefore, according to

who receives how much money, from whom,

under what conditions, and for what purposes.

Although not a new idea, the educational

voucher has only recently become a topic of

public debate in the United States. Interest

in the voucher has grown with the public’s increased disillusionment with the public school

system. Initially championed during the

1960’s as a way of providing aid to parochial

schools and of circumventing desegregation

rulings, during the Nixon administration, it

was proposed as a way of providing education-
Ch. 6--The Provision of Education in the United States s 77

al assistance to disadvantaged groups. Today

it is receiving attention, if not the support, of

a wide variety of diverse interests each of

which seeks to bring about structural changes

in the educational system.

Although many different versions of the

voucher idea have been proposed, all educational voucher proposals have one essential

element in common. They all assume that education should be treated as a private, rather

than a public good. While acknowledging that

education merits public support, voucher advocates would generally argue that the present

system of public schools, responsible as it is

to a political body, produces poor-quality education. They see the voucher as a way of

allowing government to continue to support

education without having, at the same time,

to sacrifice quality and diversity to public conformity. They argue that if parents were to be

given public vouchers with which to buy educational services in the marketplace, then

schools, forced for the first time to compete

for students, would have not only to improve

the general quality of their educational services but also to tailor these services more

specifically to meet the needs of their clientele.31 By providing diversity and accountability as well as the encouragement of high-quality education, the educational voucher would,

according to its proponents, benefit both individuals and society.

Voucher proposals have been strongly criticized on the grounds that, once implemented,

they would recreate many of the same problems that the public school was established to

rectify. In encouraging diversity, critics argue,

the voucher system may exacerbate socioeconomic disparities and cleavages. They contend

that a voucher system would discriminate

against the poor, because in an unregulated

market, educational services would be distrib-

“George I.a Naoue, Educational Vouchers, Cbncepts and Ckmtroversies, Teachers College Press, 1972.

uted according to one’s ability to pay. Opponents are concerned, moreover, that vouchers might be used, as they have in the past,

to facilitate segregation.32

Acknowledging these problems, some proponents have suggested that the voucher be

regulated to prevent them.33 To assure open

access to private schools, regulations have

been proposed, for example, that would set

limits on tuition and that would guarantee

that a certain proportion of the student bodies

of all schools be selected at random. However,

a basic problem with the regulated educational

voucher would be that the more complex the

regulations, the less likely that individuals

participating in the system would be able to

take full advantage of whatever benefits it offers. This could be one reason why the proposals for the regulated vouchers have received less public attention and support than

those for unregulated ones.

In 1978, a tuition tax credit bill was approved in the House of Representatives, and

gained 41 new votes in the Senate. In 1980,

the Republican Party supported the voucher

concept in its party platform, and the concept

has clearly gained in popularity. Most recently, the Reagan administration has proposed

its own tax tuition plan. Dissatisfied with the

private benefits of the public school system,

more and more Americans regard the voucher

as a way of reducing the costs of educating

their children in private schools.34

Designed as it is to cater more specifically

to particularistic needs, the voucher is an idea

that should be well received in the segmented

educational market that will characterize the

future. Public pressure to adopt some kind of

a voucher system will probably increase.

321bid.

‘

s

Ibid.

94Jean Rosenblatt and Hoyt Gimlin, “Tuition Tax Credits, ”

Editorial Research Reports, Aug. 14, 1981.
78 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

University and the Four-Year Colleges

As semiautonomous communities of faculties and students, universities are organized

for learning and for research. Although they

still retain many of the institutional features

of their medieval heritage—a name, a central

location, a degree of autonomy, a system of

lectures, a procedure for examinations and

degrees, and an administrative structure organized around faculties—universities have

evolved over time to meet changing societal

needs .35

American colleges and universities were able

to monopolize the field of higher education

because they were relatively autonomous, economically self-sufficient, and comprehensive

in scope-capable of serving the multiple goals

of higher education.36 Today, they no longer

enjoy these advantages. As knowledge has increasingly come to be viewed as an important

economic resource that can be bought and sold

in the market, colleges and universities, faced

with increasing costs and with competition

from private, profitmaking institutions, have

had to consider undergoing some radical

changes.

Public Role of Higher

Education

Although originating in the private sector, 37 * American universities have become

semi-public institutions, regulated and supported, to a large extent, by government. This

development occurred near the end of the 19th

“Clark Kerr, The Uses of the University (Cambridge, Mass.:

Harvard University Press, 1972).

‘Edward Shils, “The Order of Learning in the United States

From 1865-1920: The Ascendancy of the Universities, Minerva, vol. xvi, No. 2, summer 1978.

‘

7 Shils, op. cit; and Martin Trow, “Elite Higher Education:

An Endangered Species?” Minervq vol. xiv, No, 3, autumn

1976; Ernest L. Boyer and Fred M. Hechinger, Higher Learning in the Nation Service (Washington, D. C.: The Carnegie

Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1981).

*The f~st Universities to be established in the UniW sta~s

followed the traditional European model. Serving primarily the

wealthier members of society, they were specifically established

to educate youth for leadership positions in the fields of

theology, law, and education.

century, when Americans began to regard colleges and universities as having a unique societal role.38 Unlike institutions of elementary

and secondary education, which were expected

to prepare the general population of youth for

adult roles in society, institutions of higher

education were expected to recruit those who

qualified for leadership positions. And, whereas elementary and secondary education schools

were designed to transmit the general, or popular, culture from one generation to the next,

colleges and universities were expected to

transmit the total knowledge base of society.

They were to be responsible, moreover, not

only for the transmission of knowledge, but

also-through the pursuit of research-for its

creation. Believed to have a special understanding of society, universities were called on

to bring about its improvement.39 *

Two events–the land-grant movement and

the alliance during World War II between the

universities and the Federal Government—

strongly influenced this development, giving

the American university a distinct character.

Involving the university in the daily life of the

Nation, both of these events served to reinforce the public aspect of the university’s role

and to enhance the public’s involvement in the

affairs of the university.

Democratic and populist, the land-grant

movement called on the universities to extend

the benefits of education to all segments of

society. Responding to the Nation’s rapid industrial and agricultural development, it called

‘

8 Shils, op. cit.

‘gIbid.

*ArneriC~ colleges and universities were particularly Well

suited to play the role prescribed for them. Bringing together

faculty members from all disciplines, they were unique centers

of intellectual stimulation. The income they derived from teaching made them economically self-sufficient. And because their

work was not circumscribed by practical necessities, faculty

members were free to work on basic research in areas of their

own intellectual interest, Notwithstanding a growing focus on

research, the multidisciplinary nature of the university prevented it from becoming limited in scope and helped to foster

a public belief that the pursuit of knowledge was, in and of itself,

an important societal goal and one that the colleges and universities were alone capable of achieving.
Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States ● 7 9

on the universities, moreover, to expand beyond their traditional role of training gentlemen as preachers, lawyers, and doctors, and—

through applied research-to develop the more

practical applications of education. Provided

for under the Merrill Act of 1862,40* land-grant

colleges, open to children of all backgrounds

were established to provide education in fields

such as agriculture, engineering, home economics, and business administration. Unlike

the traditional colleges, the land-grant colleges

were not isolated communities. Through their

agricultural experiment stations and their

service bureaus, their activities were designed

to serve the State.41

Although the land-grant movement established the Federal Government’s interest in

higher education and served to legitimate the

university’s involvement in public affairs,

there was no significant interaction between

Government and the academic community

until World War II, when several major universities were enlisted to conduct research for

national defense. This wartime collaboration

established a precedent by which the Federal

Government began to look to the universities

for help in executing national goals. In exchange for its assistance, the Federal Government provided the academic community with

financial aid.42* An increasingly important

source of funding, the Government came to ex4~he Merrill Act of 1862. *’l’’ his law provided land to the States, the proceeds of which

were to be used to teach in the fields of agriculture and mechanical arts. Subsequent legislation provided Federal financial support for research and the operation of the land-grant

colleges.

4’Kerr, op. cit.

42 Kerr, op. cit.; Patrick M. Morgan, “Academic and the Federal Government, ” Policy Stu&es Journal vol. 10, 1981; D. Bok,

“The Federal Government and the University, ” D. Bok, The

Public ~ntires~ winter 1980.

*Feder~ ~volvement in higher education increased markedly

after World War 11. By 1960, the academic community was receiving about $1.5 billion from the Federal Government, 100

times as much as it had received 20 years before. Most of these

funds were spent on research-related activities, and were channeled to a limited number of universities and to a limited group

of departments within universities.

ert a considerable influence on university

affairs. 43*

While continuing to support research, the

Federal Government, in the late 1960’s, also

began to provide funds to assure that all

qualified students would have access to higher

education. 44* In fiscal year 1978-79, the Federal Government spent approximately $14 billion to meet these goals.45 Today, nearly 40

percent of all students receive Federal aid, and

75 percent of all university expenditures for

scientific research are federally funded.46

Measured in accomplishments, it is clear

that the alliance between Government and the

university has been quite successful. American

universities have been responsible for many

of the Nation’s most significant achievements.

Since World War II, for example, American

scholars have received more than half of all the

Nobel Prizes awarded for science. And American research dominates the world’s scientific

and technical literature, accounting for approximately 40 percent of the articles written

each year.47 Moreover, the American university system has been remarkably successful

in providing extensive and varied educational

resources to a broadly based and increasingly diverse clientele.

43 Kerr, op. cit. *Feder~ finding Was used to support research in about 10

major universities. Most funds were spent for research in the

physical and biomedical scienms and in engineering. Only about

3 percent were used to support research in the social sciences,

and almost nothing was spent for the humanities. University

decisions to accept Federal funds for research occurred outside

of the normal academic decisionmaking process, and often determined how the universities would distribute their own funds

and facilities.

“Morgan, op. cit.

*The Civil Rights Act of 1964, the National Education Act

of 1965, and the Educational Amendments of 1972 provided

the legislative basis for increased Federal involvement in

academic affairs. In this legislation, the Federal Government

endorsed the view that higher education was a vital national

resource and one to which all Americans should have equal

access.

“Sloan Commission on Government and Higher Education,

1980 Report.

48 Morgan, op. cit.

4

’Boyer and Heckinger, op. cit.
80 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Status of American Colleges

and Universities

Today there are in the United States approximately 1,957 4-year colleges and universities,

549 of which are public and 1,408 private. Reflecting the pluralistic nature of American

society, they include a wide variety of institutions. All together they enroll about 4,115,000

full-time students.48 Over the past 10 years,

institutions of higher education have expanded rapidly in size, in number, and in the

kinds of services that they render.49* During

the same period, higher education has been

made available to a much broader section of

the population.50*

The expansion of colleges and universities

to meet the growing demands for education

has, however, affected their future viability.

American colleges and universities are, for example, no longer semiautonomous institutions. Heavily supported and regulated by

government, they have lost considerable control over some of of their own internal affairs.

In recent years, the Federal Government has

come to determine such issues as who should

be taught what, by whom, and how.51

The American university is, moreover, no

longer economically self-sufficient. Funds

derived from teaching can no longer be used

to subsidize university research. In fact today

the reverse is true. Revenues from research

now pay the overhead for many of the university’s more traditional functions. As a result,

more than ever before, departments are being

designed to suit the needs of research, and

igThe ~n~”tjon of Education, Op. Cit.

‘

g

Ibid.

*DUr~g the 1970’s, the number of institutions of higher education increased by 241 percent, the number of students attending these institutions increased by 290 percent, and the

number of degrees conferred upon graduates increased by 251

percent,

‘“I bid.

*Increased access to institutions of higher education is indicated by the changed racial and ethnic composition of the student body. For example, the difference between the percentage

of blacks in the total population and the percentage of blacks

in the student body decreased significantly during these years.

This changed composition of the student body can also be seen

in the increase in the number of degrees that were conferred

upon female and minority students.

‘lBok, op. cit; Morgan, op. cit.

faculty members are being selected more on

the basis of their ability to attract research

contracts and grants than on their ability to

teach or even to publish.52

Once the undisputed center of research efforts in the United States, American universities are today competing strenuously with

one another and with business and governmental research institutes for money and resources. In the present economic and educational climate, most universities are finding

it difficult to compete. The cost of equipment

for advanced scientific research is extremely

expensive to buy and to maintain.53 Faculty

members, drawn by the superior research opportunities and financial benefits offered by

private firms and government, are leaving the

universities and taking their research teams

with them.54

To make themselves more financially independent, many universities and colleges have

begun to sell their educational services to new

clients and to deliver them in new forms. In

an effort to capture some of the growing adult

market for education, universities, as early as

1963, began to develop programs of continuing education. Many colleges and universities

now offer degree courses through correspondence programs. To compete more effectively with proprietary educational institutions,

several colleges and universities have shifted

the focus of their curricula from the arts, culture, and leisure activities to vocational needs.

Taking advantage of some of the new information and communications technologies, several universities have, moreover, begun to

broadcast courses over cable TV and to package instructional materials on video disks and

video cassettes for sale to businesses or to

other educational institutions.55

s~stephmie y~ctiski, “Universities Take To the Market

Place, ” IVew ScientisL December 1981; Will Lepkowski, “Research Universities Face New Fiscal Realities, ” Chemical and

Engineering News, Nov. 23, 1981.

‘

g

’’ Graduatx Universities-A New Model,” scien~ December

1981.

biLepkowski, op. cit5Kpatsy Vyner, Telephone Survey on Use of Teleco=unications Technologies at Post Secondary Institutions unpublished

paper, 1982.
Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States ● 81

Operating more and more in the market sector, universities are also beginning to sell and

to patent the results of their research.56* Many

of these arrangements are being made with the

cooperation of business. Moreover, several

faculty members acting independently have

joined with suppliers of venture capital to establish new companies in fields such as genetics and electronics.57*

If universities are to keep pace with their

competitors in the profitmaking sector, it is

clear that, given diminished Government funding, they will have to make some new financial arrangements with industry. This development has caused some concern within the academic community. Meeting in Rome, Italy, a

number of biologists recently identified some

of the issues that might arise if universities

become deeply involved in commercial ventures. To preserve their proprietary rights,

universities might, for example, begin to

restrict the free exchange of information, a

process upon which so many of the university’s traditional functions depend. In an effort

to preserve traditional values, some academics

are now trying to develop guidelines for collaboration. 58

Today, as the demand for knowledge and the

cost of its generation increase, many colleges

and universities are finding it more difficult

to be all-purpose “multiversities.”* Unable to

obtain Government or industry funding, many

small liberal arts colleges, for example, can no

“Lepkowski, op. cit.

*FOr ex~p]e, stanford University recently sold the design

of their software chip of a music synthesizer, developed by one

of their music professors, to Yamaha of Japan for $700,000.

“’’The Academic-Industrial Complex,” Scien@ vol. 216, May

28, 1982.

*For exmple, Hoechst AG, a German pharmaceutical f~ml

recently provided $70 million for the founding of a new department of molecular biology at the Massachusetts General Hospital. In exchange for this contribution, the Massachusetts General Hospital has agreed to grant Hoechst exclusive worldwide

licenses to any patentable developments that result from company-sponsored research. Harvard Medical School has a similar

agreement with E. I. du Pent de Nemours. In exchange for a

$5 million contribution to build a new genetics department, Harvard has agreed to grant Du Pent licenses to market any commercially useful research for which it has paid.

681 bid.; and Yanchinski, op. cit.

*The km “m~tiversity” was coined by Clark Kerr. It refers

to university communities where teaching and research activities coexist but are performed in and by different sectors

of the university.

longer afford to pursue major research efforts.

And many larger institutions have had to

curtail some of their research departments.

Others are beginning to shift their educational

focus from one that emphasizes the liberal arts

to one that prepares students for careers in a

great variety of new and expanding technical,

semiprofessional, and managerial occupations.

This public/private development may have far-

-reaching consequences. If more and more colleges and universities begin to function as single-purpose organizations, they may find that

they face much stiffer competition from the

growing number of other single-purpose institutions now seeking to provide education in

the marketplace.

Information and communication technologies have potential applications for all aspects

of higher education. They can play an important role, for example, both in providing a

liberal education as well as in training individuals for specific roles in society. They can

serve, moreover, to facilitate research and the

storing, retrieving and sharing of knowledge.

Many of the ways in which the new technologies can be used will be of special interest to

those universities which, in the face of shifting

demands and shrinking resources, are searching for new ways to become more economically

and socially secure.

They might be used, for example, to provide

faculty support in routine and remedial learning situations. The need for such support is

likely to increase in the future, given an increase in the costs of providing higher education, an increase in the number of college

students who will come from minority backgrounds, an increase in number of adults seeking higher education, and an increase in the

need for job retraining. Many colleges and universities are already using and developing new

ways to apply information and communication

technologies for these purposes. At North

Carolina State University, for example, students and faculty members worked together

to develop a successful video tape instructional program that teaches strategies for

studying and learning.59

bvTelescan: The Digest of the C%nter for hxirning and Tele

communications, VOL 1, issue 1, October 1981.
82 ● informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

The new technologies can also be used to extend the boundaries of the university to provide teaching facilities to those who would

otherwise not have access to them. Many colleges and universities have, for example,

joined with public broadcasting stations to

broadcast college credit telecourses as part of

a new Adult Learning Service to be coordinated nationally by the Public Broadcasting

Services. 60 Members of the health community have, moreover, used video teleconferencing to provide continuing medical education

to professionals throughout the country.61

Communication and information technologies can also be used to distribute scarce teaching and faculty resources across many campuses. Recognizing the potential for sharing,

‘“I bid.

“James J. Johnson, “A Case Study: The Healthy Pulse of

Medical Video Teleconferencing, ” satifi”~ ~munjcat~on~,

May 1981, pp. 19-23.
Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States ● 8 3

several colleges and universities have formed

consortia to advise and assist them in the use

of media-based materials. A telecommunications task force was recently formed at the National Association of State Universities and

Land Grant Colleges,62 for example.

While the use of computers in college and

university teaching has traditionally been

limited to the fields of math and science, it is

increasingly being extended to other areas as

well. Viewing computer literacy as an essential element of any general education, a number of liberal arts colleges, such as Harvard

and Wells, now require that all of their

students become familiar with the computer.

Faculty members and students have experimented in using the computer to teach a wide

range of courses including drama, English literature, psychology, and the classics.63 Where

students on a campus have ready access to

computers, they are using them more and

more not as an adjunct to, but as an integral

part of their learning routines.64*

By facilitating sharing, information and

communication technologies can help reduce

the costs of and increase the resources available for performing university research. Networks to transmit data, voice, and video be- ——6ZT~leScn, M@JUne 1982.

‘

3

’’ The Wired University IS On 1ts Way, ” Business Week

Apr. 24, 1982.

“Ibid.

*La~t Yem, for exmple, 60 of the entering students at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute were given computers as an experiment to see how they would be used. Within a short period

of time, these students became very comfortable with them,

using them as extensively as students who had brought their

own computers to campus.

tween universities are already being established. Some will provide individual users access to library resources and scientific data

bases, while others, like Bitnet, will allow

faculty members and students to communicate with their colleagues at different colleges

and research institutions and provide an environment in which they can exchange ideas

and information, and even coauthor papers.65

By extending their traditional boundaries, the

new information and communications technologies may help the universities to adapt to the

changed needs and circumstances of an information age.

However, at the same time, and for many

of the same reasons, they may also serve to

undermine those aspects of the university that

have traditionally set it apart from–and

above—the rest of society. Semiautonomous

communities’ universities were expected to

operate by a special set of rules and standards

that would foster the development and the

preservation of knowledge as a goal in and of

itself. And members of the academic community, assumed to be loyal to these goals, were

called on to serve as independent observers

and critics of society. The widescale deployment of information technologies may affect

the university’s ability to perform this role.

Increasingly linked to outside groups, the university community may be less able to function as an independent source of knowledge

and as independent observer of society.

s5Bitnet L~s Yde Unjversjty, City University of New York,

Columbia University, Princeton University, Rutgers University, Penn State University, Brown University, Boston University, and Cornell University.

Two-Year and Community Colleges

More than any other educational institution, suited to take advantage of, the new informathe American community college has ex- tion technologies.

hibited an ability and willingness to adapt

rapidly to changing societal needs and cir- Community colleges emerged at the end of

cumstances. Experienced in reaching out to the 19th century to accommodate the growprovide nontraditional services to new cat- ing number of youths who, seeking some kind

egories of students, community colleges may of postsecondary education, either were unprehave a special need for, and be particularly pared for or could not find room in the tradi-
84 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

tional college and university system.66 Some

of these new colleges were extensions of secondary schools; others were 4-year colleges

converted to 2-year programs. Referred to as

junior colleges, they provided a general college

curriculum designed to be transferable to 4-

year colleges and universities.

Today, as the change in their name suggests, community colleges offer a curricula

more oriented towards the needs of local communities. Having continually added new functions as the need arose, community colleges

now provide a wide variety of educational services. These include:67

academic transfer programs;

terminal general education programs;

technical productive skills programs;

life skill programs not related to employment;

remedial programs;

cultural, social, and recreational programs; and

counseling.

To provide such a wide variety of programs

and services, community colleges have employed untraditional organizational structures

and educational techniques. Willing to adapt

the institution to the needs of their students,

they have followed policies of open admissions,

made use of the special skills of nonacademic,

part-time faculty members, allowed flexible

scheduling, and offered courses off-campus in

such remote places as nursing homes, prisons,

and storefronts.68

Because of their organizational flexibility,

their open-door policies, and their aggressiveness in recruiting new students, community

colleges benefited more than any other institutions of higher education from the postwar

baby boom and from the national emphasis

during the 1960’s on providing equal educa68FO~ ~ hi9toV of community colleges, sw Ralph R. Fields,

The Cbmmunity CWlege Movement (New York: McGraw Hill,

1962).

“Clark Kerr, “Changes and Challenges Ahead for the Community College, ” Clxnmunity and Junior Ckdlege JoumaL vol.

50, May 1980.

“Barbara Guthrie-Morse, “Agenda for the 80s: Community

College Organizational Reform, ” Community CWege fiview,

spring 1981, pp. O-8.

tional opportunities. Their growth during this

period was phenomenal. Enrollment increased

by 930 percent, and, on the average, one new

college was established every week.69

Today there are 1,194 2-year community colleges in the United States, approximately

three-quarters of which are publicly supported.

Together they constituted in 1979a $52-billion

enterprise.70 In 1980, community colleges enrolled 1,718 full-time and 2,733 part-time students, and employed about 87,000 full-time

and 115,400 part-time faculty members. Although their distribution varies from State to

State, they account for a substantial proportion of higher educational enrollments in all

of them. In 1979, one-third of all students, and

27 percent of all full-time students were enrolled in community colleges.71

Although a large portion of all students of

higher education are enrolled in community

colleges, community college students differ

significantly from those who have historically attended 4-year colleges and universities.

As compared with those in the more traditional institutions, community college students are more likely to be older, registered

part-time and in noncredit courses, to come

from lower economic backgrounds and from

minority groups, and to be in greater need of

remedial instruction.72

Because of their demonstrated ability to

adapt to change, and to attract new groups

of students, community colleges, unlike most

other institutions of higher education, are

predicted to grow throughout the 1980’s.

Their future will, however, not be without

problems.

As total levels of enrollment decline, all

educational institutions will begin to compete

for the same categories of students. Once alone

in marketing their service to nontraditional

groups of students, community colleges may,

WD8 W. Breneman and S. C. Nelson, FhIancing ~mmunity

GW.Zeges: An Economic Perspective (Washington, D. C.: The

Brookings Institution, 1981).

‘“Ibid.

‘

i Ibid.

“Ibid.
Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States “ 85

in the future, have to compete with high

schools to provide adult basic education, with

area vocational centers and proprietary institutions to teach vocational and commercial

skills, with company-based training programs

to provide job specific instruction, and with

4-year public and private colleges and universities to teach part-time and general education

courses .73

Community colleges will also have to compete with other institutions for scarce public

resources. Charging relatively lower tuition

fees than other institutions of higher educa-

“S. V. Martorana and Wayne D. Smutz, “State Legislation,

Politics, and Community Colleges, ” Cbrnmunity College %

view, winter 1980; S. V. Martorana and W, Cary McGuire, “Recent Legal Action Affecting Community Colleges: A National

Survey, ” Cixnmunity Cblfege Review, fall 1976.

Proprietary

Proprietary educational institutions are

profit-seeking institutions that offer programs

closely geared to preparing students to enter

specific jobs and occupations. Over the years,

four types of proprietary institutions have

evolved, each appealing to a distinct educational market. They include trade and technical schools, licensed occupational schools

(e.g., cosmetology and barbering), independent

business schools, and home study schools.

Most private and profit-seeking, preschool,

elementary, secondary, and preparatory

schools are not considered part of the proprietary educational system, perhaps because

they are less occupation-oriented and their curriculums tend to be more traditionally structured.

Status of Proprietary Schools

Proprietary schools have existed as distinct

institutions in the United States since the

1880’s. Many were typical small businesses of

the time—established by individual entrepretion, community colleges are more dependent

than most on public funding.

In recent years, State governments have

assumed greater responsibility for and control

over community college affairs.74 In a period

of increased costs and declining revenues,

State policymakers, now responsible for a

much broader area of educational activities,

may have to reevaluate the rationale according

to which educational funds are allocated. Community colleges may be particularly vulnerable in such a reevaluation, since there is less

general recognition of, and no longstanding

tradition to publicly finance, many of the functions that they perform.75

74Breneman and Nelson, op. cit.

761bid.

Education

neurs or as family operations.76 The overwhelming majority of these schools are still

individually owned today, but corporate ownership is now the most common form of proprietary school organization.77 Most schools

are small. The average private school enrollment (includes nonprofit) in 1978 was 153,

compared with an average enrollment of 556

during the same year for public postsecondary,

noncorrespondence schools.78

According to biennial surveys of postsecondary schools that offer occupational programs, conducted by the National Center for

Education Statistics (NCES), the number of

“Donald E. Mellon, The Role of the Entrepreneur-Educator

in Private Business Education in the United States From 1850

to 1915: A Study in C%mch”tioned Entrepreneurship, 1975 doctoral dissertation, New York University, Graduate School of

Business Administration.

“Steven M. Jung, Proprietary Vocational Education (Columbus, Ohio: National Centir for Research in Vocational, The Ohio

State University, 1980).

“Evelyn R. Kay, Enrollments and Programs in Noncollegiate

Postsecondary Schools, 1978 (Washington, D. C,: National

Center for Education Statistics, 1979).
86 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

proprietary schools had increased from 5,814

in 1978 to 6,141 in 1980, of which 4,151 (67.6

percent) were accredited. 79 Of the 1.5 million

students enrolled in 1978 in all public and private noncorrespondence postsecondary schools,

61 percent (or 928,000 students) attended proprietary institutions.

80 An unpublished NCES

survey indicated in 1980 that total postsecondary occupational enrollments had increased to

2.4 million and that the number of students

attending all types of noncorrespondence proprietary schools had risen as well. (No comprehensive enrollment figure for 1980 is available

at present.) Cosmetology/barber schools, business/commercial schools, flight schools, and

trade schools were the largest groups of proprietary institutions operating in 1980 (see

table 15). As indicated in table 16, more of

these schools are accredited than any of the

other types of proprietary institutions.

There are an estimated 250 home study

schools in the United States. The 70 of these

that are accredited have some 1.5 million

students enrolled annually .81

It has been suggested that vocational education began to evolve when those seeing the

‘

g

’’ Statistics of Postsecondary Schools With Occupational

Programs, ” National Cknter for Education Statistics Early

Release, September 1981.

80Kay, op. cit.

“Interview with Michael P. Larnbert, Assistant Director, National Home Study Council, fall/winter 1981.

need for additional and expanded occupational

training attempted to join two separate educational systems—craftsmen education, which

prior to that time had been in the hands of the

craftsmen themselves, and academic education, which had developed around the concept

of scholarship. Attempts by educationally innovative individuals to place the preparation

of craftsmen in the same context as academic

education met resistance from more traditional educators. However, the need for occupational education remained.

Vocational education developed as a separate branch of what was then the traditional

education system, but traditional academic

school standards-such as length of programs

and methodology-were superimposed on this

new type of educational experience. This resulted in a vocational program that was too

abstract and” . . . lacked the desired technical

knowledge and practical skill.”82

While public and nonprofit vocational education programs continued to develop over the

years, the need to which proprietary education

had become at least a partial response began

to take shape. A study of personality characteristics of 19th to early 20th century private

business school founders indicates that those

82Melain L. Barlow, “Our Important Past, ” in The Future of

VocatiomdEducatio~ Swanson, Gordon I. (cd.) (Arlington, Va:

American Vocational Association, 1981).

Table 15.—Number of Postsecondary Schools With Occupational Programs, By

Control and By Type of School: Aggregate United States, 1980 (universe data)

Private

Independent

Type of school Total schools Public Proprietary nonprofit

Vocational/technical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 591 85 13

Technical institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 2 96 9

Business/commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,388 3 1,348 37

Cosmetology/barber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,128 3 2,125 0

Flight school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928 1 926 1

Trade school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 8 739 26

Arts/design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 0 233 17

Hospital school. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859 171 51 637

Allied health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 117 220 47

Junior/community college. . . . . . . . . . . 1,116 905 86 125

College/university . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 260 11 376

Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 0 221 3

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,493 2,061 6,141 1,291

SOURCE: “Statistics of Postsecondary Schools With Occupational Programs, ” National canter for Education Statistics Ear/y

Re/ease, September 1981.
Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States w 87

Table 16.—Number of Postsecondary Schools With Occupational Programs, By

Control and By Type of School: Aggregate United States,

1980 (accredited schools onlya)

Private

Independent

Type of school Total schools Public Proprietary nonprofit

Vocational/technical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661 591 64 6

Technical institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 2 83 7

Business/commercial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743 3 731 9

Cosmetology/barber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,713 3 1,710 0

Flight school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 1 712 1

Trade school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 8 398 14

Arts/design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 0 136 10

Hospital school. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 171 39 599

Allied health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 117 161 23

Junior/community college. . . . . . . . . . . 1,112 905 84 123

College/university . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 260 11 376

Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 0 22 3

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,383 2,061 4,151 1,171

alnclurjes all Schools accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting association, whether Institutional or specialized. or

eligible for participation in cerlain Federal programs

SOURCE: “Statistics of Postsecondarv Schools With Occut3atlonal Proorams.” Natior)a/ Center for Ecfucat/on Statistics Early

Release, September 1981 “

who were successful in their ventures possessed both educational expertise and business

know-how. More often than not, in the early

years, ability as an educator was subordinate

to that of entrepreneur.

At the end of this period, however, the entrepreneur without considerable sophistication

in educational matters was unable to compete

in the industry. 83 Perhaps the entrepreneurial

skills of these early business educators and

their counterparts in trade and technical

schools enabled them to identify significant

markets, while their educational skills enabled

them to translate market needs into educational programs.

Some view proprietary education as filling

a vacuum in occupational training that was

created by the failure of continued development of apprenticeship education and the

public vocational education system in the

United States. In Europe, where these two

types of educational experiences are thriving,

no private vocational school system has

evolved .84

‘

3 Mellor, op. cit.

“Dorothy Kile Cann, proprietary Vocational Schools: An Alternative Lifestyle for the Disenchante&Disadvantaged paper

presented at the National Center for Research in Vocational

Education’s Employability Conference, Columbus, Ohio, October 1981.

Characteristics of Proprietary

Schools

Perhaps the most distinctive characteristic

of proprietary schools is their flexibility.

Because they are operated as businesses, they

are constantly monitoring the needs of their

respective markets, for their survival depends

on how well they meet the needs of their clients who are seeking adequate preparation for

employment. The balance that must be maintained between providing suitable training and

making a reasonable profit results in continuous assessment of and changes in operation

and instruction.85

Proprietary schools are totally dependent on

student tuition income. Rarely if ever are they

endowed or do they provide student scholarships. As a result of the Education Amendments of 1972, their enrollees are eligible for

financial assistance from such Federal programs as Basic Educational Opportunity

Grants and Federally Insured Student Loans.

In comparisons of the costs of private versus

public vocational education programs, including Federal and State assistance to public

institutions, proprietary school programs are

86A. H~vey Belitsky, l+jvab Vocational Schools ~d Theti

Students: Limited Oh~ectives; Unlimited Opportunities (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Co., Inc., 1969).
88 s Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

less costly, although tuition for students

enrolled in private, profit-seeking institutions

is higher.86

The course offerings of these institutions

tend to be shorter than those of their publicly funded counterparts, and liberal arts requirements are usually not a part of their curricula. Because enrollments are much smaller

than those in publicly funded vocational

schools and their administrative structures are

less complex, they can develop materials and

introduce new courses more quickly in the occupational fields that are in demand in the industrial job market (e.g., data processing).

More often than not proprietary schools include as course content only those principles

which are directly related to and necessary for

mastery of a specific occupation. A year-round

schedule of day and evening classes is common.87

Instructors in proprietary schools tend to

be selected because of their work experience

and craftsmanship rather than on the basis of

their experience in the classroom or their academic degrees. They are not tenured employees, and are constantly evaluated in terms of

their achievement of student satisfaction and

graduate employability .88 In some proprietary

schools, instructors also serve as placement

counselors. This is seen by some school administrators as yet another way to ensure that

what is taught in the classroom is appropriate

preparation for entry or reentry into the job

market .89

Another characteristic of proprietary school

education is its emphasis on the development

of what might be called widely accepted work

behavior in enrollees. Students are expected

to attend classes or risk suspension, to complete assignments in a timely fashion, and,

especially in business school programs, dress

according to common business standards,

since all these characteristics are seen as

‘

aJung, op. cit.

a7Belitsky, op. cit.

“Cann, op. cit.

“Interview with Stephen Friedheim, President, Association

of Independent Colleges and Schools, falllwinter 1981.

necessary for successful, long-term employment.9O

Markets Served by

Proprietary Schools

A 1980 study that used 1975 data suggests

that, in general, proprietary school students

share the following characteristics:

●

●

●

A larger percentage are female and black

as compared with students in community

colleges;

They are more likely to come from lower

income backgrounds and be older, married, and out of high school for a longer

time; and

They are more likely than community college-freshman to receive financial aid-from

Federal funding sources. The most frequent source is the Basic Education Opportunity Grant, which supported 4 out

of 10 students. The greatest source of dollars is the Guaranteed Student Loan

Programs.

Further comparisons in the study of students

within the proprietary school sector reveal

their diversity:

●

●

●

The enrollees in independent business

schools are largely women, while enrollees

in trade and technical schools are considerably older and are comprised of a high

proportion of veterans, married students,

and minorities.

More trade and technical school students

come from wealthier families than do

those in business schools.

Independent business school students are

more likely to participate in college work

study programs, and trade and technical

school students are more likely to support

their studies through GI benefits and

money earned from full-time work.91

‘Ibid.

olMWci L. Cox, charac~rigtics of Students

prietary Schools and Factors Influencing Their Institutional

Choice 1980 doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los

Angeles.
.

Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States s 89

A study of proprietary schools and colleges

conducted in 1975 found that students who attend proprietary schools are, for the most part,

ignored by institutions of higher education.

Proprietary schools do not compete for students with colleges and universities, but instead meet a specific market need. Their greatest potential impact on higher education is in

diverting Federal assistance from collegiate

institutions.92 

In the 1978 survey of postsecondary schools

with occupational programs conducted by

NCES, 32 percent of men and 38 percent of

women attended private schools (includes nonprofit). The survey results show that, during

the period 1974 to 1978, more women than

men were enrolled in private (includes nonprofit) schools. As illustrated in table 17,

female enrollments fluctuated from 52.9 percent to 54.2 percent. Enrollments for males in

private schools increased significantly from 61

percent to 67 percent during the same 4-year

period. Increases in enrollment levels in private schools from 1974 through 1978 accounted

for most of the enrollment growth in postsecondary occupational education.

While individual enrollees represent the primary target audience for all types of proprietary education programs, business and industry, as well as State and local education agencies, have been looked on by some segments

“J. Michael Ervin, The Proprietary School: Assessing Its Impact on the Cdegiate Sector (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University

of Michigan, Center for the Study of Higher Education,

February 1975).

Table 17.—Percent Distribution of Men and

Women by Control of School

Control Total Men Women

Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 58,5 41.5

Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 47.1 52.9

Total, 1974 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 51.0 49.0

Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 54.7 45.3

Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 45.8 54.2

Total, 1976 ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 48.8 51.2

Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100,0 53.1 46,9

Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 45.8 54.2

Total, 1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 48.0 52.0

SOURCE Evelyn R Kay, Enrollments and Programs m Nonco//egiate Postsecond

ary Schoo/s, 1978 (Wash Ington, D C Nat tonal Center for Educat!on

Statistics), p 5

of the profit-seeking educational system as important markets. Prior to and during World

War II, for example, extensive amounts of

training for industry were carried out by trade,

technical, correspondence, and home study

schools. After the war, however, there was a

dramatic drop in the volume of contract training, as companies who had not already done

so began to establish their own in-house training capabilities.93

Although relations between proprietary

school educators and nonprofit educators have

been and continue to be strained due to their

different views about the profit motive in education, State education agencies and local

school districts are beginning to approach

profit-seeking institutions to operate special

programs. The Vocational Education Act of

1963 cleared the way for public agencies to establish contractual relationships with proprietary schools where such schools can “ . . .

make a significant contribution to attaining

the objectives of the State plan for vocational

education and provide substantially equivalent training at a lower cost; or provide equipment or services not available in public institutions." 94

Despite this enabling legislation, contracting between public and proprietary institutions remains at fairly low levels. In 1977, contracting between local school districts and

private vocational schools made up between

0.6 and 1 percent of Federal outlays for vocational education under Part B of the Vocational Education Act. Barriers identified to

more extensive utilization of proprietary

schools included a distrust of the profit

motive, a concern over highly publicized

abuses of Federal student loan programs by

some profit-seeking institutions, and the

absence of administrative systems that would

encourage more working agreements.95

s31n~rview ~th willi~ A. Goddard, Executive Director, National Association of Trade and Technical Schools; Interview

with Michael P. Lambert, falliwinter 1981.

giEducation~ ‘1’eSting servi~, Education Policy Research institute, Private Schools and PubLic Policy (Washington, D. C.:

Office of Education, September 1978).

‘sIbid.
90 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Applications of Information

Technology in Proprietary

Education

All proprietary education industry leaders

and school administrators interviewed in this

investigation expressed awareness of the increasing role of information technology. However, differences of opinion exist as to how

useful such technology is in specific types of

proprietary institutions. It is interesting to

note the applications of information technology within a group of institutions forced to be

wary of high administrative costs, and known

for their ability to be flexible and responsive

to frequently changing needs in their respective markets.

Trade and Technical Schools

Little or no use of any form of information

technology is being made by accredited trade

and technical institutions. This type of proprietary school tends to be highly instructororiented, to emphasize learning by doing, and

to restrict the amounts of theory presented in

the classroom to that which is directly jobrelated. Video tapes are sometimes used to

demonstrate equipment operation and to provide individuals with performance feedback.

Costs associated with the use of educational

technology are cited as a reason for its limited

use. Data processing schools are the only possible exceptions.

Licensed Occupational Schools

To date, schools of cosmetology and barber

colleges have made very little use of information technology in their occupational programs. The most commonly utilized forms of

technology in the cosmetology field tend to be

video tape, used to record remarks of visiting

instructors or to demonstrate particular processes and/or techniques, and audio cassettes,

used to record instructor presentations. Although the potential for the use of educational

technology is recognized, the relatively small

size of most licensed occupational schools and

the investment required for equipment and

software result in few applications.96

Proprietary Business Schools

Video tape, closed-circuit television, computer-managed instruction (CM I), and computerassisted instruction (CAI) are all in use at present in profit-seeking business schools. Video

tape is by far the most common form of technology being applied, closely followed by CMI,

which is used for tracking applications, enrollments, financial aid, grading, and placement.97

At Johnson and Wales College in Providence,

R. I., closed-circuit television is used to link

two classrooms and to provide better viewing

of cooking demonstrations for students attending the culinary arts program.

An electronics school affiliated with Johnson and Wales also makes use of closed-circuit

television in selected classroom sessions. Although cost remains a major deterrent to further use of these and other technologies, the

administrator of this school feels that proprietary business schools will be forced to

make greater applications of technology in the

classroom, given what he calls the “video

orientation” of today’s students.98

Coleman College, located in LaMesa, Calif.

and founded in 1973, offers programs in data

processing and computer electronics to a student body of 800. Closed-circuit television is

utilized in every course offered. The college has

two large viewing rooms as well as individual

viewing stations for student use, and its own

video tape studio. Video tape is used to record

lectures prior to delivery, and then to highlight

them with graphics. Coleman has a CM I system used to monitor student progress, to select appropriate readings, and to administer

testing. 99

‘Interview with Gerald Donaway, Executive Director, National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, fall/winter

1981.

sTIn~rview with ~phen Friedheim; also interview with Jack

Yena, Executive Vice President, Johnson and Wales College,

fall/winter 1981.

‘

a

Ibid.

‘Interview with Coleman Furr, Chairman of the Board, Cole

man College, fall/winter 1981.
Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States ● 91

Home Study School s

At present, the home study industry remains very print-oriented. The National Radio

Institute (NRI), a wholly owned subsidiary of

McGraw-Hill, Inc., and the largest technical

correspondence school in the country, with an

average annual enrollment of 60,000, uses a

CMI system that permits student examinations to be graded, annotated with personalized comments and mailed back to the enrollee

within a 24-hour period. The admissions and

financial records of NRI have just recently

been converted to a computer format. Lessongrading records will be automated in the next

phase.

As part of a video cassette repair course now

offered by the school, two instructional video

tapes have been developed that soon will be

distributed to enrollees. Plans for 1982 call for

the addition of CAI to the microcomputer

technology course, which begins by taking the

student through basic electronics and ends

with microtechnology. A TRS-80 computer, included in the cost of the course, is shipped to

each student after successful completion of a

certain number of lessons on basic electronics.

Enrollees learn how to repair the computer and

how to develop and run simple software programs. Through CAI units, to be added next

year, students will learn how to do elementary

programing in BASIC. Cost is a major deterrent in conversion of additional courses to

CAI, video disk, or any other form of technology. 100

Future Uses

By far the segment of the proprietary school

industry doing the most to encourage additional applications of information technology

in future education programs is the home

study group. A recent review of current practices in home study suggested that greater use

of educational technology is one way to ensure

regeneration of the industry.101 In May 1981,

Ioorntemiew With John F. Thompson, President, National

Radio Institu@; also interview with Louis Frenzel, Senior Vice

President, Ptiuct Development, National Radio Institute,

fall/winter 1981.

‘“’ Louis E. Frenzel, “Ten Reasons Why Home Study May Not

Survive the 80’s, ” NHSC News, fall 1981, pp. 11-18.

the National Home Study Council (NHSC) established a forum for educators known as the

Green Chair Group to predict what shape

home study will take by 2000.

In addition to a series of papers produced

by selected individuals, the end-product of the

effort will be a predictive model, developed

from a Delphi survey series administered to

group members. From the first round of

papers submitted to NHSC in 1981, it is clear

that these educators see extensive use of information technology in “distance education’’—the new name they have coined for

home study–in the very near future. While

they see the continued use of print media,

some predict that in most homes there will be

interactive video and voice units with hardcopy capability that may be utilized by distance educators. Others feel that home study

students will be offered a choice of straight lecture or interactive systems similar to today’s

PLATO. There is speculation that laser-based

holography will be perfected to the point that

it will be used to bring the instructor—lifesized and three-dimensional-into the home.

There will also be interactive computer simulation capability.

Some see enrollment as a process that will

be handled through home-based electronic devices or through home study industry-sponsored centers set up for this purpose. Industrysupported regional counseling centers will

operate as nonprofit cooperatives. Counselors

will be trained and compensated by distant

education suppliers who are cooperative members. Satellites will be the most likely mode

of transmission and will create a climate in

which transnational education programs will

be commonplace.

Technologies currently available, such as

video tape, video disk, CAI on microcomputers, and cable will increase in use. One

panel member expressed the view that in the

future information technology will allow distant educational institutions to offer their students personalized instruction and services

comparable to those of residence training programs, while at the same time continuing to

allow them “ . . . to study at their own pace

and to have a full-time job while they are pur-
● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

suing a program of study. ” One representative cautioned however, that the major problems in application will come, as they have to

date, from “ . . . enthusiasts for technology

who are long on fervor and short on understanding, not from those who resist its

utilization. 102

Future Uses by Other

Industry Segment s

While cost will remain a prohibiting factor

for the foreseeable future, other proprietary

educators, especially business schools, are

speculating on how existing technologies will

‘“’Green, Chair Group, Unpublished Papers (Washington,

D. C.: National Home Study Council, 1981).

be applied in the future in their institutions.

For example, local television stations may be

used to broadcast courses emanating from independent business schools.103 One business

college administrator suggested that his institution might adapt its culinary arts program for delivery to the home market via television. Another business school official feels

that within 3 to 5 years, video disk will become

practical for acquisition, due to considerable

cost reductions. He also hopes that increased

availability of video teleconferencing equipment through local telephone company offices,

plus cost reductions associated with its use,

will make application of this technology feasible.

IOSIn@~iew with Stephen Friedheim.

Education in the Home

The family household has always been a center of learning, and its members have always

played a key role in providing educational

services. Grounded in the social and economic

order, the family household mediates the culture, helping to provide the behavioral and

cognitive skills members need to perform effectively in society.

Learning within a household is a loose and

informal process. Family members act as both

teachers and learners. By interacting with one

another, they adopt roles, acquire personality traits, form values, and pattern their behavior .

104 Of all of the institutions that

educate, the family is the most versatile and

the least restricted with respect to the educational methods and the technologies it can use.

Given this versatility, the household may provide a particularly suitable environment for

using the new information technologies. If

widely used for educational purposes in the

home, the new information technologies could

make the household an increasingly important

center of learning.

1°4Jarnes Garbarino, “The Family: A School for Living, ” N~-

tional Elementary School Principal vol. 55, May 1976.

Status of Education

in the Home

Although most people receive most of their

formal education in institutions outside their

homes, the home has always played an important role in education, particularly in the

education of the young. For even though family members are not primarily responsible for

the instruction of cognitive skills, their

behavior in the home strongly affects attitudes about learning. Recent studies have

shown that the home environment is the most

significant single factor that determines academic achievement.105

Adults also learn in the home, either indirectly through interaction with others or

through deliberate efforts to acquire certain

kinds of knowledge and skills. Books, magazines, radio, and television can all be used at

home as learning resources. Some adults may

continue to receive formal education in their

homes through correspondence courses.106 *

I°KJarnes S. Coleman, Equality of Educational Opportunity,

Amo Press, 1979.

‘O’Dede, op. cit.

*The Nation~ Home Study Council estimates that there me

4 million correspondence students in the United States. Because
Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States ● 9 3

Today the American family is undergoing

some radical changes that could significantly

affect its ability to provide educational services in the home. At present, for example,

about 40 percent of all American families are

structured or operating in a way that markedly varies from the traditional norm. Since

1960, there has been, for example, a 100-percent increase in the number of single-parent

families, and, since 1970, a 33-percent increase

in the number of households headed by women. 107 Because single parents have less time

and fewer resources to spend in or on the home

than do couples, these changes may seriously

reduce the ability of some families to provide

for the educational needs of their children. A

recent study found that children from singleparent families fare less well in school, both

socially and academically.108

The educational needs of the family are also

changing. Until recently most people had by

the end of their childhood developed and acquired the skills and resources they needed to

operate effectively in society. Today, however,

with the explosive growth in the fund of

knowledge, people are becoming increasingly

dependent on continuing education for both

their social and their economic welfare. It has

been estimated that the average American

growing up today will have to be retrained four

times during his working life. He will also need

more education if he is to participate in making decisions about his life and environment,

and if he is to make effective use of his increased leisure time.l09

How well families of the future can meet

these enhanced educational needs will depend

not only on the organization of the family and

education in the home is such an informal process, it is difficult

to determine its extent. A number of recent surveys have concluded, however, that nearly 90 percent of all adults undertake

at least one major project a year.

‘“’Winifred I. Warnat, “Future Families as Household School

Institutions, ” Education: A Time for Decisions, Kathleen M.

Recid and Arthur M. Harkins (eds.), selections from the Second

Annual Conference of the Education Section of the World

Future Society, 1980.

‘WDavid Melendez, “A Developing Paradox: The Role of Family Education, Clearing House, vol. 55, No. 5, January 1982.

‘OsKatherine Patricia Cross, Adults as Learners (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1981).

on its relationship to the rest of society, but

also on the kind of technologies that are available to assist them. Printing and the mass

publication and circulation of books, newspapers, and periodicals, for instance, have

greatly improved the possibilities for learning

in the home. And the invention and widescale

deployment of radio and television has also

had an extraordinary impact with respect to

who learns, and what is learned at home.110

Many new educational technologies such as

cable, video disks, and the personal computer

are now being made available for use in the

home at more affordable costs. In 1981, there

was a market for about 1 million personal computers. It is estimated that by the late 1980’s

as many as half the families in the United

States will have them in their homes. It is predicted, moreover, that, by the end of the

1980’s, the percentage of homes wired for cable will increase from the present 28 to 50 percent. 111

Because the widespread deployment of information technologies will significantly affect

how members of a family interact and use their

time together in the home, it will have a significant effect on education. It is difficult to predict, however, what that impact will be.

The new information technologies could significantly improve the learning environment

for children in the home. Parents often lack

the time and expertise necessary to effectively supplement their children’s education at

home. Traditional resources such as books,

television programs and recordings are essentially passive and cannot be tailored to meet

individual needs. The new technologies are individually oriented and interactive. Because

they can rapidly process information, they can

be used, moreover, to assist parents in diag1 locl~k C. Abt, ‘‘what the Future Holds for Children in the

TV Computer Age: Unprecedented Promises and Intolerable

Threats to Child Development, ” an adapted version of the

keynote address to the National Council for Children and Television Symposium on Children, Families, and the New Video Computer Technologies, Princeton, N. J., Mar. 10, 1980.

Inclement Bezold, ~Orne (%mputers and 

May 1980, for the Foundation for Child Development by the

Institute for Alternative Futures.
94 ž . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

A family leaves a store in Yonkers, N. Y., with a computer and

software to be used by an oceanographer father and his

high-school-age children

nosing learning problems and in developing

creative approaches to remedy them.112

If they enhance the household resources

available for instruction, the technologies will

make it easier for the growing number of

parents who, dissatisfied with formal educational institutions, would prefer to educate

their children at home.113* The technologies

may make it easier for parents to meet the

educational standards required by many State

compulsory education laws.

“

zVictor Walling, Thomas C. Thomas, and Meredith A. Larson, Educational Implications of In-Home Electronic Technology, SRI prepared for the Department of Health, Education,

and Welfare, Washington D. C., May 31, 1979.

“sLeah Beth Ward, “What Happens When Parents Turn

Teachers, ” The New York Times Winter Survey of Education,

sec. 13, Sunday, Jan. 10, 1980.

*The num~r of parents who choose ta educate their c~tien

at home is difficult to estimate, since many parents do it

clandestinely so as to avoid court battles. According to the National Association for the Legal Support for alternative schools,

the number of families, now about 1 million, is rapidly growing.

While the new technologies may serve to enhance the possibilities for learning in all

households, they could be of special educational value to those individuals who have

traditionally found it difficult to learn in formal educational settings or institutions. Many

adults, for example, have often been inhibited

from participating in traditional educational

programs because they felt too self-conscious

or because such programs were too expensive,

time-consuming, or inconvenient. Educational

services delivered directly to the home could

overcome such barriers. In addition, children

living at home with a single parent who works,

and handicapped individuals, confined more

than usual to the home, may also find that the

new information technologies have, for them,

a special educational potential.114

On the other hand, it is possible that the

technologies may actually diminish the opportunities for home education. Like television,

they may be more of a technological than a

cultural success. Instead of increasing individuals’ access to information, and providing new

ways of problem-solving, they may, in fact,

lead to an unproductive use of time, provide

children access to pornography and violence,

and replace formal learning activities with

much less valuable ones. 116 Moreover, if th e

technologies are primarily designed for and

made available to middle-class families, they

could increase rather than diminish the gap

between the educationally advantaged and disadvantaged.

“’Walling, op. cit.

l15Abt, op. cit; and J. Weizenbaum,“once More-A ComPutir

Revolution, ’ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 34,

September 1978, pp. 12-19.

Libraries

As institutions that acquire, store, manage, dividuals of all ages are free to come and go

and disseminate information, libraries provide as they please; to learn on their own, and at

a variety of educational services. The learning their own pace. Information is presented in

environment in a library is unstructured. In- general terms so as to be most relevant to a
Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States ● 95

broad, undifferentiated clientele. The traditional medium by which learning takes place

is the printed word.

Today, libraries are at a turning point. They

must make some major decisions about

whether and how they should employ the new

technologies-decisions that will significantly affect their ability to perform what has been

their traditional educational role. Taking advantage of these technologies, libraries might

increase and/or enhance the educational activities that they provide. On the other hand,

libraries might use these technologies as the

means of shifting their role from one of providing public services such as education to one

of providing information on a fee-paying basis.

Education in the Library

In the United States, libraries have always

been regarded as popular, educational institutions. Like the public schools, they derived

their support from the public education and

reform movements that developed after the

Civil War.116 Traveling libraries were founded

to bring news and reading materials to rural

areas where book deposit stations were set up

in grange halls, neighborhood stores, fire stations, and women’s clubs. In the cities, libraries were established not only to provide access

to books but also-like the settlement houses

—to provide a haven and adult education programs for a growing number of working-class

immigrants. These libraries developed rapidly during the post-Civil War period, and even

continued to thrive in the depression years.117

More recently, libraries have tried to provide

programs, materials, and services that could

help all individuals, whether they could read

or not, to attain their educational goals. The

National Commission on Libraries and Information Sciences, for example, recently

adopted the goal of:118

. . . providing every individual in the United

States with equal opportunity of access to

that part of the total information resources

which will satisfy the individual’s working,

cultural, and leisure time needs and interest,

regardless of the individual’s location, or

social or physical level of achievement.

The important educational role that libraries

perform has been recognized and supported by

the Federal Government. Federal aid to libraries was first granted, in fact, as part of the

Federal Government’s efforts to enhance and

equalize educational opportunities.

Status of Libraries

There are in the the United States today

29,446 individual libraries, some publicly and

some privately supported. These include

14,390 public libraries or library branches,

4,676 academic libraries, 489 military libraries, 1,451 civilian government libraries, 5,294

special libraries, 429 law libraries, 1,705 medical libraries, and 1,012 religious libraries. In

addition, there are library media centers in 85

percent of the public schools.119

Not all of these institutions provide educational services. Unlike public libraries, special

libraries, for example, are supported and maintained to provide a specific kind of information to a particular clientele. They are not

necessarily open to the public.

Although libraries were once a major center

of activity in many communities, they have

become increasingly irrelevant to many Americans. Television and the inexpensive paperback book have replaced the library as a major source of information and entertainment.

Now only about two-thirds of the population

of a typical community use the public library.

Another third have never used it at all.120

Lacking public support, many libraries operate under severe economic constraints. Most

negatively affected are those that provide

educational services—public libraries, school

libraries, and universities. Public libraries, for

example, are dependent for their financing and

‘“V. H. Mathews, Libraries for Today and Tomorrow (Garden

City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1976).

“’Ibid.

“’Ibid.

“gThe Bowker Annual of Library and Book IYade Information, 25th cd., 1980.

‘

z

’ Mathews, op. cit.
96 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

support on local communities that are themselves experiencing severe economic difficulties. Approximately 81 percent of their financing comes from local property taxes, funds for

which many social services compete. Of these

funds, public libraries typically receive less

than 1 percent. Unable to meet increased costs

with declining budgets, many libraries have

had to cut back their services, buy fewer materials, shorten hours and share resources.121

Also vulnerable are academic libraries—

some of which have, over the last decade, had

to reduce their expenditures for materials by

20 to 40 percent.’” To meet the rising costs

of operations, the Firestone Library at Princeton University is now considering charging

fees for all nonaffiliated users.123

The major research and special libraries

have had fewer of these problems. Because

they have a more clearly defined and economically valued role in their institutional environments, they are more financially secure.

The growing demand for information and

the development of information technologies

offer libraries an opportunity to establish a

new rationale for their existence and a new

basis of economic support. Demographic

changes, new lifestyles, and changing values

may create new library users with greater and

different information needs, and the new information technologies may provide possible

ways of meeting them.124

Taking advantage of these developments,

some libraries are already moving ahead to

define a new role for themselves as information brokers.

126* If they are to move in this

direction, many libraries may, however, have

“’Ibid.

“

Z

Ibid.

“

$Princeton Apr. 19, 1982.

‘

z

’ Leigh Estabrook (cd.), Industrial Socie

ty (Oryx Press, 1977); Into the Information Age: A Perspective

for Federal Action on Information (Chicago: American Library

Association, 1978); Robert Taylor, “Professional Education and

the Information Environment,” lh”brary~oumal Sept. 15, 1979,

pp. 1871-1875.

lZ5Estabrwk, op. cit.; Taylor, Op. cit.

*El~tronic technologies are already beginning to reshape the

traditional library as software becomes commercially available

for carrying out overall library operations.

to reconsider their traditional policy of providing free services to the public. To compete

effectively with the growing number of other

information enterprises, they will have to

restructure their operations to meet the specific needs of their paying clientele. Unless

libraries receive increased public support or

subsidies from their private operations, fewer

human and economic resources will be available to provide educational services to the

public.

Not all libraries will use the new technologies to compete in the information market.

Some libraries are trying to regain a base of

popular support by using the new technologies

to enhance the public services that they perform.

126 In the Plattsburg public library in

upstate New York, for example, a microcomputer has been used successfully to develop

‘*eInto the Information Age, op. cit.

*competing with libraries in the information market me a

growing number of profit-making institutions that, taking advantage of the new information technologies, provide a broad

range of information services for a fee. Describing themselves

as information brokers or as information specialists, they provide such services as supplying bibliographies and documents,

and, in some cases, conducting substantial research. Large organizations bill their clients at about $100 per hour; the smaller

ones at about $25 to $35 per hour. The business of providing

information is a thriving one, and one that is predicted to double in volume over the next 10 years.

At the Trediffrin Public Library, Trediffrin, Pa., the public pays

for access to the computer
Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States . 97

computer literacy among rural children. *127 If

public libraries are to expand their educational

programs in this way, they may need some additional support. Given the recent poor support for libraries, the economic situation in

many communities, and the limited awareness

of the potential use and value of the new technologies, libraries may find it impossible to

raise the initial capital needed to undertake

new programs of this sort.

Whether because they lack funds or because

they lack initiative, some libraries will not

utilize the new technologies at all. Using in-

*The new ~hno]ogies will, moreover, dow libraries to serve

better as centers of information. The Los Angeles County Public

Library, for instance, now uses cable to provide information

services in over 100 libraries to the 2.6 million residents of Los

Angeles County. These services are designed for both the traditional library user and the nonuser, including the nonreader.

As part of this program, librarians continually learn how to

assess the informational, cultural, and recreational needs of their

communities, and the best methods for handling, retrieving,

storing, and disseminating information (Los Angeles County

Public Library Draft Cable TV Policy Statement).

‘*’Anne F. Remans and Stanley A. Ransom, “An Apple a Day:

Microcomputers in the Public Library, ” American Libraries,

December 1980.

house information and traditional means of

delivery, they will continue to provide free

educational, recreational, and cultural services

in local library buildings to those citizens who

value them. If libraries follow this path,

however, they may become less and less relevant to a public that increasingly values information and is computer-literate. As on-line information takes the place of books, these libraries will have less that is of interest to the

public. It is conceivable, moreover, that as the

proprietors of nonprint media are paid fees for

the use of their materials, the authors of books

housed in public libraries may seek greater

compensation for the use of theirs. *128 With

diminished public support and a shrinking clientele, these libraries may be unable to generate the economic resources necessary to

maintain even their traditional services.

*This Pro=m has been quite successful in meeting itS gOZd.

Attracted to the computer, more and more children are becoming regular library visitors. Adults use the computer on offhours to try out their own programs or to develop software for

business use.

‘*”B. Benderly, “Libraries Do Exploit Authors, ” Letters to

the Editor, The Washington POS6 June 26, 1982, p. 15.

Museums

The museum is an institution that houses

a collection of objects of cultural and scientific

significance. The museum documents, orders,

and preserves these objects for others to examine. It often helps to interpret and to explain them and to provide a context in which

they may be best understood and enjoyed.

Museums in their current form are only

about 200 years old. They were established for

a variety of purposes: members of royal and

aristocratic families built them to house their

treasures; religious orders established them to

enhance their places of worship; governments

used them to cultivate national sentiments;

scholars and artists established them to foster

research and to publicize their achievements;

manufacturers and industrialists used them

to publicly display their wares; and wealthy

individuals built museums as memorials to

themselves .*129

Museum Educatio n

Although education has never been their primary function, all museums possess valuable

educational resources. The objects from museum collections can be used not only as self-contained exhibits, but also as illustrations for

courses, lectures, and other educational purposes. Designed to be relevant to a diverse lay

public, museum education is relatively un-

*Enghsh authors are compensated, for example, in accordance

with how often their books are borrowed from public libraries.

Since the money to pay the authors comes from the government, the books are freely available to the public.

“

gUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization, the Organization of Museums, Paris, 1960.
98 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

structured. Visitors can come and go at will,

drawing whatever they please from the experience. The exhibits they view are not always

ordered in a typical pedagogical fashion; that

is, sequentially and according to a lesson plan.

More often, their arrangement is designed to

enhance a particular display.l30

Museum education is also more active than

the passive education that takes place in a

classroom. It facilitates individual participation, interaction, and response.131 Museum visitors are, for example, often encouraged to interact with museum guides, to make drawings

of art objects, to feel the texture of materials,

and to pull the levers on machines.132 In its

varied purposes, its lack of educational structure, and its openness to the public, the

museum is similar to the library. In fact,

together they have been described as constituting the two halves of the public’s

memory. But museum education, while similar

in purpose, is different in method. It is more

sensory, using experience itself as a pedagogical tool. In comparing the two it has been

said, for example, that whereas the museum

represents the right half of the educational

hemisphere, the library represents the left.133

In the United States, museums have always

been conceived of as having an important educational function. Education was considered

to be so important, in fact, that in some

museums educational programs were set up

even before buildings were built or before collections were assembled. Many museums were

expected to provide vocational training together with more general educational services.134 The Cleveland Museum, for example,

was required by its charter to maintain an industrial training school.135 Several other

ISOMUseU~s ud Education, Eric Larrabee (cd. ) (Washington,

D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1968).

“’Ibid,

“’Barbara Newson, “The Museum as Educator and the

Education of Teachers, ” February

1978, vol. 79, No. 3.

‘‘gIbid.

‘“Ibid.

‘S6Barbara Newson and Adele Silver (eds.), The Art Museum

as Educator (Berkeley, Calif.: The Council on Museums and

Education in the Visual Arts, University of California Press).

museums began conducting vocational counseling and training during the depression

years. Today, American museums have substantially increased their educational offerings

to the public.

Status of Museums *

There are approximately 1,821 museums in

the United States. Of these, 62 percent are

organized around a historical theme, 34 percent around an art theme, and 34 percent

around a science theme. A large majority offer

some educational programs. The most common programs involve school children and are

jointly sponsored by museums and State and

local educational departments.136 Programs

directed at elementary and secondary schools

often entail museum visits designed to acquaint children with a museum’s resources.

Some museums also provide classes for individual students at this age level. For junior

and senior high school students, there are

classes in special subject areas. Museum programs for university students and postgraduates are least well developed.137

Museums also provide educational services

aimed at other members of the community.

These programs include adult educational programs and some special programs designed to

meet the unique educational needs of particular groups such as the economically disadvantaged or the blind.

The ability of museums to provide educational services is circumscribed by the limited

resources available to them. Most museums

are small, operating with budgets of less than

$50,000. Only 10 percent have operating

budgets of $1 million or more. Museum resources are, moreover, relatively insecure. For

example, two thirds of all museums in the

United States rely on private sources for financial support, and more than half provide admissions free. Museums must also rely heavi-

*As defined by the National Council for the Endowment for

the Arts in their study, MUSEUMS USA 1974.

‘WIbid.

l~T~useums USA, National Endowment for the Arts, Washington, D. C., 1974.
Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States ● 99

ly on volunteers, who outnumber the full-time

and part-time professionals working in museums.138

Because much of their distinction and appeal derives from their ability to communicate

in a sensory, unstructured fashion, museums

may be particularly vulnerable to competition

from the new information technologies that

will have a similar appeal. On the other hand,

by their very nature, they may be particularly well-suited to acquaint the public with these

technologies. Some museums are, in fact, already offering the public first hand experience

with microcomputers and video disks. The extent to which museums will be able to continue

to provide this service will depend not only on

the amount of resources that they have at

their disposal. It will also depend on the

readiness of both museum leaders and the public to view museums as relevant and dynamic

13a Ibid. institutions.

In the Capitol Children’s Museum, Washington, D. C., children are provided with their first contact with the computer, They

take their first steps tentatively but soon find that the computer itself is an interactive teacher, rewarding them immediately

for the right moves

Business and Labor

1 3 9

Advanced training and education are assuming special roles in the lives of Americans

employed in all sectors of the economy, but

especially among those who work in business

and industry. Continuing breakthroughs in

technology and their subsequent applications

in the workplace change the working lives of

professional employees, skilled craftspeople,

semi-skilled workers, and office support personnel. Such change may take the form of

slightly modified practices and procedures or

even of entirely new job functions for which

individuals must be retrained. This process

now occurs as often in older industries such

as steel, rubber, and auto, as it does in the

newer high-technology firms, even if the degree of change and the reasons for it differ

significantly.

Both groups are faced with the need to con- lsQBeth A. Brown, Characteristics of Industry-Based ~d

Labor-Based !i%iningand Education I+ograms, Including Uses stantly reexamine methods and processes in

of Information Technology in Such Programs: An Overview order to improve efficiency and remain com-

(w@@@n, D. C.: OTA, 1981); and Beth A. Brown, Cb~8Ctcnstics of Industry-Based Training and Education Programs,

petitive in the marketplace. This reevaluation

Including Uses of Information Technology: S4ected Case Stud- is especially necessary when the markets are

ies (Washington, D. C.: OTA, 1981). international in scope and when competition
100 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

must take into account many variables such

as wage levels, government subsidies to business and export levels. The day is fast approaching when career-related training and

education at all occupational levels will be a

lifelong process and possibly a mandatory one.

Role of Education in

the Workplace

Even in periods when there are no major

changes, work force expansion and employee

turnover require that training and education

programs be provided by companies for new

personnel. In addition, current staff must be

provided with opportunities to upgrade their

skills and to acquire new ones if they are to

be effective in the jobs or to prepare themselves for advancement opportunities. Companies sometimes also provide special programs for employees wishing to make major

career changes. Whatever events or policies

make it necessary, more and more corporate

resources are being earmarked for instructional activities.

The delivery of educational services to

employees in business and industry is accomplished in a number of ways. A large portion of it is provided through established

public and private, nonprofit and for-profit

educational institutions, either by contract or

in the form of cooperatively designed and administered programs. But an equally large portion is being sponsored, designed, and operated by companies themselves. Labor unions

and labor organizations also are heavily involved in work-related training and education,

both as cosponsors and as initiators.

Some say that the movement of industry

and labor into the educational arena reflects

their dissatisfaction with existing educational

structures and is a comment on educators’

lack of responsiveness to the needs of individuals for some degree of work preparation

prior to employment. Others feel that traditional educational institutions cannot be expected to keep up with rapid changes in equipment and procedures. Still others argue that

the sheer size of the task of necessary training, retraining, and professional development

has demanded that industry and labor become

more deeply involved, and that a little healthy

competition among a broader base of alternative education providers can do nothing but

improve the quality of education overall. However one views the situation, all the signs point

to increased involvement of industry and labor

in training and education.

Industry-Based Training

and Education

Growth in industry-based training and education has been particularly pronounced since

the end of World War II, although most larger

firms have been engaged in some forms of instruction since their founding. While no one

actually knows how many employees participate in instructional programs each year, some

measures of the degree and scope of activities

are available. The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) estimates that

corporations spend $30 billion annually for

programs, staff, and materials. ASTD has also

calculated that in the United States there are

at least 75,000 individuals engaged full-time

in-house training and development activities,

plus another 75,000 who are employed on a

part-time basis. Approximately two-thirds of

ASTD’s 40,000 members are employed in the

private sector, either as training consultants,

as staff members within corporate training departments, or as managers, directors, or vice

presidents of those departments.

A Conference Board survey of industry education conducted in 1974 indicated that 75

percent of the 610 companies responding provided some in-house courses for employees; 89

percent had tuition refund programs; and 74

percent authorized and paid for selected

employees, usually managers and other professionals, to take outside courses during

working hours. The Conference Board estimates, moreover, that, among the 32 million

individuals employed by companies that responded to the survey and that had staffs of

500 employees or more, about 3.7 million-or
Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States ● 101

11 percent—took part in in-house courses

sponsored by their firms during working

hours, and approximately 700,000, or another

2 percent, participated in company courses

delivered during nonworking hours. Exempt

employees were more frequent enrollees than

those in the nonexempt category. Only those

firms that had 1,000 employees or fewer appeared to place greater reliance on hiring pretrained personnel or to utilize on-the-job

training. 140

Broad estimates of worker participation are

probably lower than the estimates that might

be found today, especially given the present

trend within U.S. factories towards installing

computer-assisted design and computer assisted manufacturing systems (CAD/CAM),

and the retraining requirements that accompany their use. In a study comparing the effects of technological change on the need for

human resources in the chemical and allied

products industries in the United Kingdom,

Japan, and the United States, it was predicted

that major U.S. companies, in order to meet

their need for retrained production workers,

would be compelled within the next 5 years to

set up special training schools to provide

“craftsmen’ level instruction to their process

operators. 141

In addition to these changes, one can also

expect that the increased use of robots and

other forms of computer-assisted production

may result in widespread restructuring of established occupational groups. This may, in

turn, create a need for more job-related instructional programs.

Today’s corporate training programs cover

almost all aspects of company operations, not

just manufacturing. Typically, instructional

offerings address the following skills and corporate program areas:

. manufacturing and technical;

● specialized skills development;

““Seymour Lusterman, Education in Industry (New York:

The Conference Board, 1977).

“’Frank Bradbury and John Russell, Technolo~ Change and

Its Manpower Implications: A Comparative Study of the Chemical and Allied Products Industry m the U. K., U. S., and Japan,

Chemical and Allied Products Industry Training Board, 1980.

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

sales and marketing;

safety;

data processing;

management and executive development;

clerical and secretarial;

basic education (remedial programs in

math and oral and written communications for hourly as well as salaried employees);

tuition assistance (now considered by

most companies to be part of the instructional program, rather than just an element of the corporate benefits package);

trainer’s training (which is offered in firms

with many small or broadly scattered installations where supervisors and others

must assume responsibility for administering training packages or managing

some form of instructional program); and

retraining.

Trend Toward Decentralized

Instruction

The size of the work force, the numbers of

persons to be trained, the existence of multiple facilities, and the complexity of instructional needs have all led to the decentralization of corporate training operations. While

some firms maintain control of training design, development, and delivery functions at

the corporate level, others handle some or all

instructional responsibilities at the divisional

or plant level. In these situations, the role of

the corporate-level training group is usually

one of encouraging the sharing of information

among all personnel involved in the development of human resources. Industrial training

activities tend to be based in the personnel,

industrial relations, or engineering departments. Sometimes three or more departments

share the responsibility for instructional development, focusing on one or more of the following staff groups:

production line (unskilled and semiskilled);

skilled trades;

technical (usually engineering, data processing, and R&D);
102 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

● management;

● supervisory (first-line); and

● professional (specialists who are not technical staff and who may not supervise or

manage operations).

Training: Investment v.

Expens e

In companies that have a staff of over 500,

size does not appear to be important in determining perceptions about employee education.

If training is viewed as an investment that has

a long-term payoff, even firms that have experienced economic difficulties may be willing

to provide adequate financial support for instructional programs. Some corporate training groups, when they have the support of top

management, are able to obtain the resources

necessary to expand into new instructional

areas and to use the latest equipment. Management has recognized a direct correlation

between training, reduced turnover, and

higher productivity. In some companies, however, training personnel have small budgets.

They have to prepare in-depth justifications

for refunding even at current levels of expenditures, and to prepare elaborate documentation

for proposals to expand instructional activities

and to utilize new equipment.

Relationship With Local

Educational Institutions and

Industry-Sponsored

Educational Institutions

One-third of the 50 companies that OTA

contacted in the course of this study, have

established some sort of working relationship

with high schools, vocational/technical

schools, and colleges and universities in order

to train or educate employees.

Companies and educational institutions

jointly develop and administer programs, for

which the firms provide ongoing financial support and donations of equipment. One company works with 10 local vocational/technical

schools and community colleges to deliver

entry-level, production-line training on an asneeded basis. Another firm has established its

own in-house associate degree program, with

assistance from several local colleges. In yet

another case, a corporation has been the major

force behind the establishment of an independent, degree-granting institute that offers graduate-level instruction in software engineering

to personnel of high-technology firms in the

New England region, as well as to other interested individuals in the United States and

abroad.

It has been suggested that such corporatefounded institutions compete with, and will

thus detract from, established college and

university programs. Predictions have been

made, for example, that as many as 300 colleges may close their doors during the 1980’s

due to declining numbers of high school graduates, at a time when 300 company-sponsored

institutions of higher learning will begin operations. 142 However, companies do not see

themselves as being in direct competition with

traditional institutions of higher education.

They maintain that they have established

their programs to meet needs that the traditional education community never addressed;

that their needs are so specialized that they

must be met in-house; and that traditional institutions do not have the capacity, either in

terms of resources or in terms of scheduling

flexibility, to provide for their needs.

Information Technology in

Corporate Instruction

Communications technology is being applied to a limited extent in the instructional

programs of both centralized and decentralized corporate training operations. However,

the trend toward the decentralization of training in larger firms has increased the potential

for more widespread use. First of all, while the

front-end development time may be increased,

the use of technology allows more standardization in instructor-dependent designs than

‘42Henry M. Brickell and Carol B. Aclanian, “The Colleges

and Business Competition, ” New York Times Survey of Clmtinuing Education, Aug. 30, 1981.
Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States ● 103

could otherwise be achieved, especially in

cases involving the direct transfer of large

amounts of knowledge. Second, while the cost

of development and the expenditures for

equipment are greater, the low costs of reproducing the instructional package for distribution to the field offices or plants, or of the computer time necessary for field staff to access

a centralized instructional system, makes the

utilization of the technology an attractive

option.

Third, especially in the case of self-instruction packages, there is greater flexibility in the

scheduling of training sessions and more opportunities for employees to participate, regardless of the nature or location of their work

site. Also, travel cost for employees attending

centralized instructional programs are eliminated, and greater integration of instructional

programs with actual worksite operations becomes possible.

One company has developed an instructional

package for production-line equipment maintenance personnel that is run on a microcomputer integrated with a video disk unit that

allows for both graphics and text display. The

package is used in classroom instruction sessions, but several units have been installed on

the production line, where the maintenance

and repair staff are assisted on an ongoing

basis. Finally, in both centralized and decentralized instructional settings, technologybased training modules or programs, (particularly those that are computer-assisted) may be

used to bring course participants to a desired

level of competency or to determine initial

competence levels for designing classroom

instruction.

Factors That May Affect

Instructional Use of

Technology

While communications technology has

achieved acceptance within industry-based instructional programs over the past few years,

there are still a number of obstacles to be overcome before more widespread utilization will

be achieved. Cost is most frequently cited as

a major deterrent, particularly for computerbased instructional systems and newer forms

of technology such as video disk, teleconferencing, and closed-circuit television.

Another problem area is that of hardwaresoftware compatibility, especially for corporate trainers who want to purchase commercial courseware but who have in-house computer capabilities on which they want to build.

Many companies have made the decision to

develop their own instructional packages

rather than invest in a new system of hardware on which commercially available courseware would run. The frequency with which instructional programs must be modified—as,

for example, in R&D-related training-may

make the use of computer-based programs and

video disk impractical.

Even the type of instruction itself may preclude the use of technology. For example, computer-assisted instruction has, to date, been

found to be of little value in advanced engineering and software development courses, as

well as in apprenticeship skills training. This

is due to the complexity of the information

that must be conveyed and, in the case of apprenticeship, to the need for repeated demonstration by a knowledgeable instructor who

can respond to a trainee’s questions and who

can demonstrate on actual equipment. Many

corporate trainers still feel that classroom instruction is the best approach. Others resist

the use of technology in their programs because they feel that they are often being sold

technology for technology’s sake, rather than

as a tool to be utilized within the framework

of an existing instructional system.

Computer-Based Instruction

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) appears to be a commonly utilized technology for

industrial training. A recent survey of the uses

of microcomputers in the training programs

of selected Fortune 500 companies revealed

that, of the 56 firms responding, about 50 percent were utilizing either mainframes or microcomputers. 143 In companies contacted by

“SGreg Kearsley, Michael J. Hillesohn, and Robert J. Seidel,

The Use of Microcomputers for I%uhing: Bustiess and Indust@

(Alexandria, Va.: Human Resources Research Organization,

March 1981).
104 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

OTA for this study, technical personnel such

as entry-level engineers, field service representatives for computerized equipment, development programmers, and applications programmers are frequently trained using CAI

packages.

Some companies develop their own CAI

software; others purchase commercial packages. The airline industry makes extensive use

of this mode of instruction for ground personnel. Some particularly interesting applications

may be seen in pilot training, where CAI is

used in combination with video disk to replace

more expensive flight simulators. The insurance industry is beginning to utilize CAI

courses with selected field office staff, such as

their claims representatives and premium auditors. Occupational groups most infrequently

mentioned as potential trainees are administrative/secretarial personnel and productionline staff.

Computer-managed instruction (CMI), unlike CAI, is rarely found in the industrial setting, although there are cases where it is used

in airline and insurance companies. Corporate

training personnel may not yet appreciate the

possible advantages of CMI; they may feel

that functions are best handled by instructional staff; or they may view CMI as being

too costly an application.

Video Disk

The most controversial form of technology

for use in corporate training is video disk.

Many firms have investigated its potential application, but few seem to be utilizing it at

present. One automobile manufacturer has developed a video disk program to train auto

dealer mechanics on how to repair the new car

models. A computer hardware and software

company uses video disk in training its

customer service engineering staff. It has

recently converted all of the instructional programs used in its 60 field centers for customer

and staff education from video tape to video

disk.

Most corporate training representatives

who are enthusiastic about video disk mention

its random access capability and its ability to

expand its utility through integration with a

microcomputer. However, many instructors

do not believe that the differences between

video disk and video tape warrant the additional investment, especially if video tape

equipment has recently been purchased. Other

concerns have to do with the cost of video disk

equipment, the cost of producing master disks

relative to the number of copies required, and

the inability of revising a video disk program

once it has been created. It appears that it will

be several more years before many industrial

training applications of video disk will be

realized.

Teleconferencing

At present, teleconferencing is of limited use

in industry-based training and education programs. Industry representatives feel, for the

most part, that costs are still too high to make

applications feasible unless the technology has

been acquired for other uses, such as business

meetings, and is accessible at a subsidized

rate. One firm, experimenting with audio teleconferencing to link an instructor with a group

of trainees assembled several hundred miles

away, found that the lack of visual stimuli

distracted many of the participants who, in

this case, were midlevel managers.

Another company, engaged in hotel, motel,

and food service operations, uses a full teleconferencing system, initially established

among 70 of its facilities for convention

clientele, for in-house quarterly business performance conferences. Some firms have tentative plans to experiment over the next few

years with teleconferencing in field staff training.

Satellite Communications

Applications of satellite technology within

corporate training and education programs are

rare, but many companies with extensive na-
Ch. 6—The Provision of Education in the United States w 105

tional or international field office networks

place it high on their lists for future use, once

costs come down and they are more certain

about how it can be more effectively used. The

technical instruction group of one major hightechnology firm is now looking into how satellite technology might be used to beam

classes that originate at the corporate engineering and development installations around

the world.

Another high-technology corporation, having looked into the use of satellite communications for initial and repeated instruction of

marketing personnel based in various parts of

the world, decided against pursuing the project because of the cost and the uncertainties

involved in securing information transmitted

in this way.

Implications

There is considerable potential for the more

widespread application of communications

technology in instructional programs within

business and industry. Training requirements

will increase tremendously through the year

2000 and beyond, and there are sufficient financial resources to invest in equipment and

courseware. However, the presence of computers and other equipment in the plant does

not necessarily guarantee that educational and

instructional applications of the technology

will be made. Neither the level of sophistication of the training system nor the degree of

corporate support for employee education ensure that the technology will be used. Those

who are employing the computer, the video

disk, and other forms of technology in their

instructional programs seem to have taken

their own initiative to find out how these tools

might be most effectively applied.

The educational technology industry has not

yet developed a comprehensive sales strategy

to use with the corporate market. A number

of training administrators who have contacted

sales representatives reportedly felt that they

were being sold technology for technology’s

sake rather than as an instructional tool. If

broader and deeper utilization of technology

in corporate instruction is a future goal, present marketing strategies may have to be reviewed and altered significantly.

Union-Sponsored Training

and Education

Labor unions and labor organizations have

a long history of involvement in training and

education. The American Federation of Labor

(AFL) began to provide such services to members in 1881, the year of its founding. In 1921,

the AFL was instrumental in establishing a

Worker’s Education Bureau, a separate body

that carried out programs for its affiliate

unions. By 1929, the Bureau had become the

formal education arm of the AFL. In 1936, 1

year after its establishment, the Congress of

Industrial Organizations (CIO) created an

education department.

When these two labor groups merged in

1955 to form the AFL-CIO, the emphasis on

training and education was continued. A new

education department was formed, and eventually the Human Resources Development Institute (1968) and the George Meany Center

of Labor Studies (1968) were created to address the expanded needs for apprenticeship

recruitment and instruction and to train union

members to assume leadership positions within the labor movement.

At present, the AFL-CIO has 102 affiliate

unions which, together with a few independent

unions, constitute the labor movement in the

United States.144

Education Programs

The majority of the educational programs

offered, sponsored, or otherwise supported by

the labor movement, fall into one of three

categories:

1. College Programs: These are usually 2-

and 4-year degree programs in labor stud-

“’Interview with Edgar R. Czarnecki, Assistant Education

Director, AFLCIO, fall/winter 1981.
106 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

2.

3.

ies offered through community colleges,

colleges, and universities. In some cases

they are single for-credit courses jointly

developed by unions and local postsecondary institutions around such subjects as

collective bargaining or leadership techniques.

Apprenticeship Programs: Apprenticeship programs usually entail specialized

training in a skilled trade, craft, or occupation that is provided at the worksite

and in off-the-job instruction of some

type. Most of these programs are operated by the unions themselves or are

jointly sponsored by unions and industry.

However, a fair share are now offered by

community colleges under contract or via

joint ventures with unions. All 17 of the

building trade unions offer apprenticeship

programs, as do the maritime trade unions

for those engaged in shipbuilding, machining, and seafaring.

Other unions with apprenticeship systems include those who represent molders, pattern makers, and upholsterers, to

name a few. According to figures supplied

by the Human Resources Development

Institute, there were, at the close of 1979,

323,866 persons enrolled in apprenticeship programs. Of this number, 18.2 percent were minorities, 6.4 percent were

female, and 23.7 percent were veterans.

The Labor Department’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training has set a longrange goal of having 500,000 registered

apprentices by 1984.

Special Programs: The largest number of

training activities available to union

members are special, or noncredit, courses

offered by the education departments of

individual unions to representatives on

various levels—from that of shop steward

to local president. Collective bargaining

techniques, labor law, and parliamentary

procedures are popular subjects.

Tuition assistance programs provided by

management under negotiated contracts with

unions are not considered to be a part of the

training and education programs provided by

the labor movement. However, thousands of

unionized workers take advantage of this benefit every year and enroll in courses, most of

which are required by companies to be jobrelated.145 Because of the availability of these

benefits, a number of college programs have

been established in union halls and other

facilities near industrial plants. Classes are offered at hours that will allow workers to attend on hourly shifts.

Courses are offered year-round, and the existence of weekend classes permits participants to earn bachelor’s degrees in 4 years

while they continue to work full-time.146 The

first such program, Wayne State University’s

“Weekend Worker College” (Detroit), was developed in conjunction with the United Auto

Workers. The curriculum consists of 1 year of

humanities, 1 year of social sciences, 1 year

of physical sciences, and a fourth year devoted

to a major field. A 2-year associate degree is

also offered. 147 Some 20 programs of this kind

were expected to be under way by the end of

1981, and the American Federation of Teachers is now trying to establish similar projects

in six other locations.148

Other Types of Instructional

Programs

Various unions have been active in providing other training and educational services

to their memberships and to the community

as a whole. Unions and companies in some

areas of the country have cosponsored training designed to prepare individuals for advancement from entry-level positions or what

would otherwise be considered jobs with no

promotional opportunities. Funding, in most

cases, has been provided by the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA)

title II and title III grants, although some pro-

“’Interview with John Carney, Education Director, United

Steelworkers of America, fall/winter 1981.

“’Interview with Jane McDonald and John Good, Human R+

sources Development Institute (AFL-CIO), faU/winter 1981.

147” Worker V: More Colleges Offer Programs for Blue Collar

Employees, ” Wall S&et Journal May 12, 1981, p. 1.

‘481nterview with Edgar R. Czarnecki, faU/winter 1981.
Ch. 6— The Provision of Education in the United States . 107

grams have been privately funded by labor,

by industry, or jointly by labor and industry.

Where other jobs are available within a

reasonable geographic range, unions have also

engaged in the retraining of members who

have lost their jobs due to plant closings and

site relocations. The “Mass Layoff Job Search

Club” was formed in Midland, Pa., to provide

such assistance to 300 former Crucible Steel

workers whose jobs were eliminated. The program is jointly sponsored by the United Steelworkers local and Crucible Steel. In St. Louis,

Me., a joint labor-management committee has

been formed through which local unions, businesses, educational institutions, and community-based organizations are working

together to identify ways of dealing with the

large numbers of displaced workers in the area.

On the campuses of local community colleges,

career readjustment and reemployment centers have been set up to handle the needs of

an expected 1,000 participants.149

For several years, the AFL-CIO’s Human

Resources Development Institute has operated a nationwide apprentice outreach program for minorities and women to recruit and

prepare them for available apprenticeship

slots. Many AFL-CIO affiliates and independent unions conduct preapprenticeship training

sessions and basic education programs for

young people who wish to improve their reading, math, and other skills so that they might

qualify for participation in apprenticeship programs. Career education and vocational exploration programs sponsored by local school

systems and others also receive substantial

support from labor unions and labor organizations. 150

Information Technology in

Union-Sponsored Instruction

There is no evidence in the literature or in

the interviews conducted by OTA with labor

education directors to suggest that unions are

“

g

Interview with Jane McDonald and John Good, falllwinter

1981.

““Ibid.

taking great advantage of information technologies. These technologies may be considered inappropriate to the apprenticeship

system. The importance of the individual instructor, the duration of the apprenticeship

period, lasting usually 4 years, and the unique

funds of information that must be conveyed,

such as local building codes which differ from

area to area, tend to discourage the use of technology such as computer-assisted instruction.

In the college programs and special programs, there is also little use of information

technology. One reason for their infrequent use

is that the lecture method has generally been

considered to be successful in labor education

programs. Films, slides, and video cassettes

were most often used by those who were interviewed. The United Steelworkers of America, for example, uses video tapes and cassettes in mock arbitration exercises at the

union’s Linden Hall Residential Training Center, but they use no other form of technology.

The cost of computer-based learning systems

was cited as a deterrent to their use. 151

A national AFL-CIO training representative

stated that most member unions were just beginning to use video cassettes in arbitration

simulations and for circulating messages of

their presidents to State and local chapters.

He also described a model communications

project, “To Educate the People Consortium, ”

which was staged by Wayne University as a

part of its local instructional program. To

stimulate interest in using the medium as an

educational device, union representatives in

100 cities across the country were connected

by a network via two-way, closed-circuit television. The demonstration was so successful

that another model broadcast, “Safety and

Health for Women, ” is now being planned.152

A Texas State AFL-CIO representative reported that video cassettes were used in education programs, but he indicated that none of

the other newer forms of technology were

being used because they were inappropriate

for the kinds of programs offered–mostly

“’Interview with John Carney, fall/winter 1981.

“’Interview with Edgar R. Czarnecki, fall/winter 1981.
108 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

workshops—and because they were too costly.153 A Dallas AFL-CIO representative could

identify no applications of technology. He

regards classroom training with lectures as the

most popular format. However, he hopes to

use cable television once it becomes available

in the Dallas area as a way of more effectively reaching the membership (1985).154 The

United Rubber Workers do not use educational technology either, and they have not

thought about it for the future.155

The International Brotherhood of Electrical

Workers (IBEW) employs computer systems

to track apprentices in training. It has

established some joint information systems

with the Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship Training. In addition, an IBEW

representative reported that video disks are

—. IS~lnteWiew With RUth Ellinger, Education Director, Texas

State AFL-CIO, fall/winter 1981.

I“Interview with Willie Chapman, AFLCIO, Dallas, Tex., fall/

winter 1981.

ISSInterview with Jg.mes Peake, Education Director, United

Rubber, Cork, Linoleum and Plastic Workers, fall/winter 1981.

used in labor education seminars. Unions that

are using video cassettes in training packages

include the United Carpenters and Joiners of

America and the American Postal Workers.156

In contrast to industry-based instructional

activities, there seems to be less potential for

applications of information technology in

union-sponsored training and education programs, primarily because such programs are

still highly instructor-centered and classroomoriented. However, the success of closed-circuit television experiments initiated by the

labor movement suggests that this form of

technology might achieve more acceptance

and be utilized for national and regional educational sessions in the future. Perhaps union

association with colleges and universities that

utilize educational technology in labor education courses and degree programs may result

in more widespread application in union-sponsored training and education activities.

“’Interview with Kenneth Edwards, Director, Skill Improvement Training, International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, fall/winter 1981.
Chapter 7

State of Research

and Development in

Educational Technology

Chapter 7

State of Research and Development

in Educational Technology

Support of basic research and development (R&D) in most fields of technology has traditionally been a function of the Federal Government. The Government has also funded applied research when its purpose was to advance certain

national goals or to serve the mission needs of Federal agencies. R&D not only

generates important new knowledge about educational technology, but, when done

in academic centers, it can also provide an instructional base with which to train

experts needed to create effective instructional materials.

Findings

Gaps in our knowledge about information

technology could limit our ability to use it

effectively, and, if leading to its inappropriate implementation, could negatively affect

both the learners and the institutions using

the technology.

The Department of Defense (DOD) now provides the bulk of R&D support in the field

of learning technology.

Civilian agency funding for R&D in learning technology, the majority of which comes

from the Department of Education, has

fallen precipitously from a temporary shortterm peak in the late 1960’s.

If Congress wanted to stimulate effective

educational applications of information

technology, it would have to undertake or

foster a substantial program for R&D. The

Secretary of Education has stated that a

program of research support is a major ad-

●

●

ministrative priority, and that such a program has been built into the 1983 budget

request.

Given the number of agencies that have an

existing or potential interest in R&D in this

area, the Federal Government may want to

coordinate these efforts so as to allow for

a greater exchange of information and a

more efficient and effective allocation of

responsibilities. The responsibility for such

coordination could be vested in a single

agency, or existing interagency group, or an

agency especially established for that purpose.

In light of the tight Federal budget and the

potential interest of the private sector in

educational technology, mechanisms for

leveraging Federal support to stimulate industry and foundation funding for R&D

might be investigated.

Introduction and Background

Since the 1950’s, R&D in educational tech- of the Federal Government has been to pronology has been funded by the Federal Gov- vide initial and limited ongoing support that

ernment, by foundations, by the business com- might serve to attract other sources of fundmunity, and, in some cases, by all three in col- ing. The Federal agencies most deeply inlaboration with one another. To date, the role volved have been the National Science Foun111
112 . lnformational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

dation (NSF), the Department of Education

(OE) (formerly a part of the Department of

Health, Education, and Welfare), and DOD.

Acting on a legislative mandate to foster

computing in science education, NSF, through

its Science and Engineering Education Directorate, has funded a variety of computerassisted learning research efforts, including

the initial development of the PLATO instructional system at the University of Illinois in

1959. ’ Grants have been made to provide initial and ongoing support of educational television projects such as NOVA and 3-2-1 Contact, both of which have received worldwide

acclaim and have served as models for programs in other nations. NSF has also funded

efforts to determine how computer-controlled

video disk may be used to enhance science

education in physics and biology. It has issued

grants for science news coverage broadcast on

227 public radio stations, and has sponsored

early satellite experiments. In addition, in fiscal years 1980 and 1981, NSF and the National Institute of Education (NIE) jointly funded

‘‘Mathematics Education Using Information

Technology, ” a program that, through the use

of small grants, has encouraged the development of computer software for use in mathematics curricula.

Support of educational technology R&D

dates back to the early 1960’s with the inception of the Educational Broadcast Facilities

Program, which was designed to improve the

national capabilities of public radio and television. In fiscal year 1968, OE funding of the

Children’s Television Workshop, along with

that of the Carnegie and Ford foundations, led

to the creation of Sesame Street and The Electric Company, two programs that have won

international recognition. Computer-based instructional materials on the elementary, secondary, and college levels for target populations such as the handicapped, video disks for

classroom use, and experiments with educaIThe National Science Foundation Act, Public Law 81-507.

tional broadcasts via satellite, have all been

undertaken with OE support.

DOD has also made significant contributions to the R&D of educational technologies.

Faced (since the 1970’s) with a greater need

to provide basic skills instruction to recruits,

to train individuals to operate more complex

equipment, and to deliver instruction in the

field in multiple locations, the military has

placed renewed emphasis on developing applications of technology. Through the tri-services

of the Army, the Navy/Marine Corps, and the

Air Force, DOD has, since then, sponsored

R&D projects in the areas of:

● computer-based education;

● computerized-adaptive testing;

● simulation and gaming;

● video disk technology;

● artificial intelligence;

● instructional development/authoring aids;

and

“ job-oriented basic skills training.2

Other agencies that have made grants on a

periodic basis include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (health/education satellite projects in the 1970’s), the Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Interior, the National Institutes of

Health (contributions to NSF grants in science

broadcasting), and the Department of Commerce (telecommunications projects jointly

funded with OE).

In recent years, the Federal Government’s

involvement in and support for educational

hardware, software, and basic research has decreased. A brief review of the current trends

in R&D, and of the comparative roles that the

public and private sectors have played in this

area will contribute to an understanding of the

causes and potential impact of declining Federal support.

‘B. K. Waters and J. H. Laurence, Information Technology

Transfer From Mi.h”taty R&D b Civih”an Education and !lkaining, report prepared by Human Resources Research Organization for the Office of Technology Assessment, January 1982.
Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 113

Changing R&D Climate

Since 1980, the industrial sector has provided more funding for all types of R&D activities than the Federal Government. Recent

projections indicate that, in 1982, industrial

funding will rise to $37.7 billion, which represents an 11.4-percent increase over 1981, and

48.6 percent of the total $77.6 billion available

for support of R&D. Federal funding will rise

to $37 billion, an increase of 13.3 percent over

1981, and 47.7 percent of the total R&D expenditure for 1982. Academic institutions are

expected to contribute $1.7 billion (2.2 percent

of total), while other nonprofit groups will provide $1.1 billion (1.5 percent of total). Industry

will perform 70.8 percent ($55 billion) of all

R&D, while the Federal Government will carry

out only 13 percent ($10.1 billion-a large portion of this defense-related). Academic institutions will perform 12.5 percent of all R&D

($9.7 billion) and other nonprofit groups 3.6

percent ($2.8 billion). Thus, although once at

the center of basic research and R&D efforts,

colleges and universities will now receive only

one-fifth of the moneys earmarked for these

activities. 3

The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981

may improve the universities’ chances of

receiving basic research grants from industry,

since it allows companies to treat such grants

as qualified research expenses on which 25 percent tax credits may be claimed. The act is also

expected to encourage corporations to donate

scientific equipment to universities for R&D

use.4 Some firms are also establishing longterm working relationships with universities

for the performance of basic and applied research. These arrangements are economical to

them because of lower labor costs. In addition,

faced with increased international competition, firms are more interested in tapping the

reserves of university research talent.5

3

J. J. Duga, Probable Levels of R&D Expen&”tures in 1982:

Forecast and Analysti (Columbus, Ohio: Battelle Laboratories,

December 1981).

‘R. W. Wood, “Research and Development Expenditures

Under the Economic Recovery Tax Act, ” Taxes, November

1981, pp. 777-783.

“’Industry Funding of Research at Schools Grows as Firms

Find the Work a Bargain, ” Wall Street Journa4 vol. 102, June

24, 1980, p. 14.

Shifts in the source of funding of and in the

majority of performers of R&D from the public

and nonprofit sectors to the private sector

have occurred after a period in which the business community (especially manufacturing industries) had sharply reduced involvement in

basic research and long-term R&D projects.

As reasons for these changes, business leaders

cite increased Government regulation, increased rates of inflation that make return on

long-term investments more questionable and

an increased concern for the short-term effects

of R&D on profits. As a consequence, many

companies have focused their R&D efforts on

short-term, low-risk, incremental projects.6

Industrial R&D funding has also been affected by the availability of R&D tax shelters

—limited partnerships formed to finance new

product development. These provide companies with virtually free money until their products can be marketed. But these shelters are

used only in selected parts of the country, and

then, only in newer firms willing to take greater risks.7

To complicate matters further, a severe

shortage of scientists and engineers, projected

to last through the 1990’s, has had a tremendous impact on U.S. R&D efforts in all sectors. The most alarming effects are seen in the

faculties of colleges and universities, where,

at the start of the 1980-81 academic year, approximately 10 percent of the teaching/research engineering positions remained vacant.

Only 5 percent of engineering undergraduates

now choose to pursue doctorates in contrast

to 11 percent in the 1970’s. Those who earn

higher degrees are electing to start careers in

industry, where salaries are considerably higher and equipment and resources are more plentiful. In a recent NSF study of engineering

schools conducted by the American Council on

Education, 35 percent of the respondents reported that, because of shortages in personnel, their institutions had to cut back research

6E. Mansfield, ‘‘How Economists See R&D, Harvard Business Review, November-December 1981, pp.. 98-106.

7“R&D Tax Shelters Are Catching On, ” Dun Business

Month pp. 86-87.
114 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

efforts, increase faculty teaching loads, and

curtail certain courses when demand for engineering talent, especially in high-technology

industries is at an all-time high.8

8F. J. Atelsek and I. L. Gomberg, R.ecruitrnent and Retention of FiuYl%ne Engineering Faculty, Fa 1980 (Washington,

D. C.: American Council on Education, October 1981).

The shift in sources of funding and in the

amount of R&D performed by industry, as

well as the critical shortages of scientists and

engineers, have weakened the ability of the

United States to compete in worldwide R&D

activities, and have hampered U.S. manufacturing firms from effectively competing in international markets.

Federal Funding

Even more critical than the state of R&D

in general is the current state of R&D for educational technology. Analyses made in March

1981 of the Federal budget proposals for fiscal

year 1982 indicate that education and research

programs, which accounted for approximately

4 percent of all Federal spending in 1980, will

constitute 13 percent of the total spending reductions. Even with the approved fiscal year

1982 funding levels established by Congress

in December 1981, Federal expenditures for

education and research in constant dollars will

be well below actual 1980 levels. In 1982,

spending will be about 20 percent below 1980

levels, and, by 1984, it may fall by as much

as 53 percent below.

Federal support represents a significant portion—in some cases up to 25 percent—of funds

that the nonprofit sector, including universities and other educational institutions, uses

for operations and programs. Federal support

grew over the past 20 years, as the Federal

Government came to rely increasingly on nonprofit organizations to deliver and/or evaluate

federally funded programs. While foundations

and corporations have been generous with

funding, their contributions will probably not

make up for reduced Federal involvement, especially since nearly one out of every four of

the dollars eliminated from the Federal budget

for fiscal year 1982 would have gone to a nonprofit organization.9

‘L. A. Salamon with A. J. Abramson, The Federal Government and the Nonprofit &ctor: Implications of the Reagan

Budget l+oposals (Washington, D. C.: The Urban Institute, May

1981).

Private Funding

Foundations have also played an important

educational role by financing coremissions and

studies, funding development and demonstration projects, organizing conferences, and supporting think-tanks. Recently, the Sloan Foundation supported a conference at which educators and representatives of industry discussed

how mathematicians might be retrained for

careers in applied computer science in order

to alleviate severe occupational shortages. The

Carnegie Foundation has participated in jointly funded broadcasting projects produced by

NSF. The Hewlitt Packard Foundation has expressed an interest in supporting NSF-sponsored science programs for commercial television. Plans for the project may be jeopardized,

however, because of funding reductions within

NSF’s Office of Science and Engineering Education (formerly the Science and Engineering

Education Directorate).
Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology “ 115

In the past, selected companies have been

generous in their support of education. Some

have participated with Federal and State

governments in jointly funded computerbased learning projects as well as other technology-based activities. Although it is difficult

to estimate the amount of corporate support

for educational technology, education has

always been a high-priority area for support.

The Annual Surveys of Corporate Contributions, a series conducted by the Conference

Board for the years 1978, 1979, and 1980,

shows that contributions made to educational

institutions and organizations for a wide variety of purposes have increased from $256.3

million to $375.8 million-from 37 percent of

the total contributions of reporting companies

in 1978 ($693.2 million) to 37.7 percent of those

firms reporting in 1980 ($994.6 million) .’” Support of education measured as a percentage of

pretax net income has increased from 0.179 in

1978 to 0.220 in 1980. ” However, if funding

for such activities is to remain at the 1980

levels (in constant dollars), private donations

will have to increase substantially in all program areas, including education and research.

An Urban Institute study of how the Federal

budget cuts, as proposed in March 1981,

would affect the educational programs of nonprofit institutions showed that they will receive $0.7 billion dollars less in income from

public sources, and they will receive $7.3

billion from private sources. To maintain the

existing value of private support, contributions from the private sector must increase by

17.9 percent:

. . . private giving would have to increase b y

144 percent between 1980 and 1984 in order

to keep up with inflation and makeup for revenue lost to nonprofit organizations as a con-

‘“It is important to note that response rates to the Annual

Survey of Corporate Contributions varied for the years cited:

1978–759 companies; 1979–786 companies; 1980–732 companies. Annual tabulations of corporate contributions published

by the American Association of Fund-Raising Counsel, show

that giving levels for 1980 and 1981 were $2,7 billion and $3.0

billion respectively.

‘‘Conference Board and the Council for Financial Aid to Education, Advance Report From the Annual Survey of Corporate

Contributions, 1980 (New York: The Conference Board, Inc.,

1981).

sequence of the budget cuts. By comparison,

however, during the most recent five-year

period, private giving in practice increased

only 38 percent. In other words, in order for

private nonprofit organizations to hold their

own . . . even using (administration) inflation

assumptions, private giving would have to increase four times faster between 1980 and

1984 than it did over the five-year period just

ended. 12

There is evidence that corporations are willing to increase their support of educational,

arts, and social service programs affected by

Federal budget reductions. Corporate giving

clubs are being organized by business leaders

in various part of the country to ensure that

companies set aside up to 5 percent of pretax

revenues for this purpose. However, according

to Internal Revenue Service records, only

about 35 percent of the Nation’s 1.5 million

profit-reporting firms claimed any charitable

deductions in 1977 (latest figures available),

with only 58,000 taking advantage of the full

5 percent allowable deduction. Furthermore,

most of these donations went to support local

community projects rather than national programs. Few, if any, of these donations carry

with them the requirement that projects’ results be widely disseminated.13

Hopefully, the founding of such clubs will

offset the potential negative effect that the

provisions of the Economic Recovery Tax Act

of 1981 might have on charitable donations.

Because the act allows faster depreciation and

more investment tax credits, it will have the

effect of reducing taxable income.14 A recent

Conference Board survey of trends in business

volunteerism in the largest U.S. manufacturing, service, financial, and transport firms indicated that, for a variety of reasons—among

them current economic conditions, companies

are not redirecting or expanding their program

interests in response to Federal budget reductions. In fact they may not be able to give as

much in the future as they have in the past.

‘Z%lamon and Abramson, op. cit.

‘

3

’’ How Corporate ‘Clubs’ Fill the Gap in Giving, ” Business

Week NOV. 23, 1981, pp. 54 F-55.

“’’More Tax Incentives for R& D,” Business Week Sept. 7,

1981, pp. 74L,P.
116 ● lnformational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Some respondents said that they thought that place of, or in addition to, direct contribua lower corporate tax rate may well discourage tions.15

giving. Representatives of 6 of the 10 com- ISE. P. McGuire and N. Weber, Business Volunteerism: Pros- panies said that they do not expect to lend pects for 1982 (New York: The Conference Board, Inc., January

more executives to nonprofit institutions in 1982).

Federal Commitment to Educational

Technology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982

Approved congressional budget levels and

conversations with budget and program officers in NSF, OE, DOD, and other agencies,

suggest that the Federal investment in educational technology R&D in fiscal year 1982 will

amount to $273.915 million, $256 million of

which will be utilized by the tri-services

(Army, Navy/Marine Corps, and Air Force) as

a part of the Training and Personnel Systems

Technology Program (TPST). Ongoing program elements of TPST, according to which

specific projects are funded, are listed in table

18; selected project topics funded within these

program elements are listed by service branch

in table 19.

Of the remaining $17.915 million (non-DOD

funding), the largest percentage-an estimated

$5.55 million-will go to support computer research, including software development in science, math, reading, and written communications. Educational television projects will

receive the second highest amount-an estimated $5.236 million. The remaining $7.129

million will be used to support educational applications of video disk and teleconferencing

and to develop special technology applications

for educating the handicapped.

Breakdowns of R&D funding within NSF,

OE, and DOD and estimates of the dollars set

aside for educational technology R&D projects

in fiscal year 1982 are given in tables 20, 21,

and 22. NSF has provided $4.536 million—

0.457 percent of the agency’s total projected

R&D expenditure ($991 million) -to grants of

this type. Educational technology projects w-ill

be funded to varying degrees within six program areas in OE. The total projected amount

is $13.379 million, 12.45 percent of the apTable 18.— Department of Defense Training and

Personnel Systems Technology R&D Program

Elements and Funding Levels—Fiscal Year 1981-82

Program element

Army

Training, personnel, and human

engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Human factors in systems development

Human performance effectiveness and

simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Manpower, personnel, and training . . . . . .

Nonsystem training devices technology.

Synthetic flight simulators . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Manpower and personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Nonsystem training devices development

Human factors in training and

operational effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . .

Education and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Training and simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Synthetic flight training systems. . . . . . . .

Nonsystem training devices engineering .

Navy and Marine Corps

Behavioral and social sciences . . . . . . . . .

Human factors and simulation

technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Personnel and training technology . . . . . .

Human factors engineering development.

Manpower control system development .

Man-machine technology . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Education and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Navy technical information presentation

system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Marine Corps advanced manpower

training system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Training devices technology. . . . . . . . . . . .

Training devices prototype development .

Prototype manpower/personnel systems

Air warfare training devices . . . . . . . . . . . .

Surface warfare training devices . . . . . . . .

Submarine warfare training devices . . . . .

Dollars in millions

Fiscal Year Fiscal year

1981

$3.9

7.0

3.2

6.2

2.7

3.9

3.4

0.0

1.9

7.8

1.5

0.6

12.2

1982

$4,0

8.7

3.5

6.0

2.7

7.8

4,7

1.4

3,1

9.6

2.2

8.3

12.9

$54.3

7.7

5.9

5.7

2.9

3.1

0.0

4.8

1.8

1,3

6.0

13.9

1,1

13.7

34.4

2.9

$74.9

8.8

6.5

6.4

3.1

2.8

0.0

3.7

1.3

1.5

8.0

10.4

5.0

27.9

41.7

4,6

Air Force

Human resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Aerospace biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Training and simulation technology . . . .

Personnel utilization technology . . . . . . . .

Advanced simulator technology. . . . . . . . .

Innovations in education and training . .

Flight simulator development. . . . . . . . . .

$105.2

4.8

8.2

12.9

5.3

3.2

1.7

5.5

Total . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

$41,6

$201.1

$131.7

4.9

8.8

14.2

5.5

2.2

2.5

11.3

$49.4

$256.0

SOURCE Department of Defense, Office of the Undersecretary for Research and

Engineering, comp!led January 1982
Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology “ 117

Table 19.—Training and Personnel Systems

Technology R&D Program: Selected Project

Topics— Fiscal Year 1981-82

Army

Man-computer communication techniques

Application of video disk to tactical training and skill

Qualification testing

Technology-based basic skills and individual skills

development systems

Computer-based maintenance training aids

Integration of microwave and computer technologies

Computer-based maintenance training aids

Computer-based maintenance training and other

computer-based instructional systems

Individualized automated training technique

Computer literacy (teaching computer programing skills)

Advanced training technology development

Advanced voice interactive systems development

Computer-assisted design and evaluation systems

Computerized personnel acquisition system development

Utilization of computer graphics for maintenance

instruction

Computer-based basic skills instruction

Advanced computer-aided instruction for complex skills

Experimental, technology-based combat team training

systems

Computerized course authoring systems

Computer-based speech recognition and synthesis

Human-computer combinations

Computer-aided technical instruction

Advanced visual technologies

Computer-based maintenance aids

proved R&D funding level of $107.4 million.

Of $19.9 billion approved for DOD R&D funding, 1.28 percent, or $256 million, will be spent

on training and simulation devices, computer

instructional software development, and other

technology-based projects. Government-wide

commitment levels to educational technology

projects are broken down by agency in table

23.

SOURCE Department of Defense, Office of the Undersecretary for Research

and Engineering

Table 20.— National Science Foundation R&D Budget, Fiscal Year 1982

for Selected Program Areas

Approved R&D Funds for education Percent of

Program area funding level technology R&D program total

Mathematical and Physical Sciences . . $273 million o 0

Engineering and Applied Sciences . . . . $92 million o 0

Scientific, Technological, and

International Affairs and CrossDirectorate Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $40 million o 0

Science Education, Development, and

Research a 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $21 million Estimated $2.2 21 .60/0

million computing

in education.

Estimated $2.336

million science

broadcasting.

Subtotal, selected program areas. . . . $426 million $4.536 million 10.6

Total (all R&D within agency) . . . . . $991 million $4.536 million 0.4570/0

aLeglsl ative mandate to foster computing in science education

SOURCE American Association for the Advancement of Science, National Science Foundation, and Off Ice of Technology

Assessment
118 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table 21 .—Department of Education R&D Budget, Fiscal Year 1982

for Selected Program Areas

Approved R&D Funds for education Percent of

Program area funding level technology R&D program total

National Institute of Education. . . . . . . . $53.4 million $1.3 million (est.) 2.430/.

National Institute for Handicapped

Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $28.6 million $0.2 million (est.) 6.99

Bilingual Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $6,0 million o 0

Handicapped Research Innovation &

Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $7.2 million $0.9 million 12.5

Vocational Educational Programs of $5.5 million

National Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (est.) o 0

Educational Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . $6.679 million $6.679 million 100

Special Education Resources . . . . . . . . . $1.8 million

Fund for the Improvement of

Postsecondary Education . . . . . . . . . . $10 million $2.5 million 40

Total (all R&D within agency) . . . . . . . $107.4 million $13.379 million 12.450/o

SOURCE: Department of Education and Office of Technology Assessment.

Table 22.— Department of Defense R&D Budget, Fiscal Year 1982

for Selected Divisions

Approved R&D Funds for education Percent of

Department funding level technology R&D program total

Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $3.6 billion $74.9 milliona (est.) 20.80/o

Navy and Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5.9 billion $131.7 milliona (est.) 2.23

Air Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $8.9 billion $49.4 milliona (est.) 5.55

Defense agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1.7 billion o 0

Total (all R&D within department) . . . $19.9 billion $256.0 million 1.280/o

aAdditlonal R&D efforts may exist that are not captured within training and personnel technology program data base.

SOURCE: American Association for the Advancement of Science, Department of Defense; and Office of Technology Assessment

Table 23.—Projected Federal Expenditures for Educational Technology R&D,

Fiscal Year 1982

Projected expenditure educational Total R&D budget

Department technology—R&D (approved levels)

National Science Foundation . . . . . . . $4.536 million (est.) $991 million

Department of Education . . . . . . . . . . $13.379 million (est.) $107.4 million

Department of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . $256 million (est.) $19.9 billion

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $273.915 million (est.) $20.99 billion

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment and American Association for the Advancement of Science,

Discontinued and Consolidated Projects

Research on the educational applications of

satellite technology will not be supported by

the Federal Government in fiscal year 1982,

with the exception of one small project sponsored by NIE and conducted by a regional educational laboratory. Support for Federal telecommunications research and demonstration

has been discontinued, except for two projects

that will receive some funding for fiscal year

1982. The Deafnet Telecommunications Model, the product of a 3-year effort that involved

modifying existing electronic mail technology,

will be disseminated to potential users under

a $300,000 grant. OE’s Division of Educational Technology (Office of Educational Research

and Improvement) will provide $1.1 million to
Ch. 7--State of Research and Development in Educational Technology . 119

support “Project Best, ” a series of teleconferences designed to help officials in 45 States

to understand the potential of the technology.

The National Telecommunications Program

established by Congress in 1976 to “promote

the development of nonbroadcast telecommunications facilities and services for education

and other social services” was not reauthorized for fiscal year 1982. It would also appear

that a 3-year project that was designed to

demonstrate the use of teletext in the United

States and that was jointly sponsored by OE,

NSF, the National Telecommunications Information Administration, and the Canadian

Government, will be discontinued. (In fiscal

year 1981, OE contributed $1 million to the

effort.) The Television and Radio Program

authorized by the Emergency School Aid Act

of 1972 under which grants to reduce minority isolation in the media were made, as well

as the Basic Skills and Technology Program

authorized by the Education Amendments of

1978, designed to encourage research into the

application of technology to problems in basic

skills instruction, have been consolidated with

other programs into a State educational block

grant at overall reduced levels of funding. (In

1981-82, the combined support for these two

programs amounted to $6.5 million.) OE support for video disk development will not be

pursued due to lack of funds. However, several

video disk projects included within a group of

multiyear contracts previously awarded by

OE (an estimated $20 million investment for

all such contracts) are scheduled for completion in fiscal year 1983 and fiscal year 1984.

Continuing Projects

Multiyear grants that will continue to be

funded in fiscal year 1982 are listed by agency in table 24. Seven ongoing educational television projects will be supported by OE. The

use and adaptation of technology for the handicapped and for special education will be encouraged. And, through the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education, grants

will be made to local educational projects that

use teleconferencing, computer-aided instruction, video disk, and other forms of technology (estimated $25.7 million). NSF will continue its science broadcasting program ($2.336

million) and will review its computer-based

education projects and others similar to them

($2.2 million). Support has been discontinued

for the Mathematics Education Using Information Technology Program, designed to encourage computer courseware development,

and previously supported jointly with OE. To

date, NSF has contributed $3.5 million, and

NIE has contributed $0.5 million to this project. In fiscal year 1982-83, NIE will provide

$0.6 million in support.

Information about which specific projects

will be funded in this fiscal year under

elements of DOD’s Training Personnel and

Systems Technology Program is still unavailable. However, some idea about the nature of

these activities can be gained by looking at

selected tasks that are under way at the Army

Research Institute (ARI). ARI will continue

development of a hand-held computer for vocabulary building, a computer-assisted career

counseling system, and a special data management system that will integrate video disk

technology with a computer for basic skills instruction (estimated at $2.25 million).
120 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table 24.—Continuation Grants for Educational Technology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982a

Program Grant description Funding level

Department of Education

Division of Educational Technology

(Office of Educational Research

and Improvement

National Institute for

Handicapped Research

Special Education Resources

Handicapped Research—Innovation

Development

National Institute of Education

Fund for the Improvement of

Postsecondary Education

National Science Foundation

Office of Science and

Engineering Education

Department of Defense

Army

Navy and Marine Corps

Air Force

Microcomputer Software

Development: Elementary grades (3 yrs. funding at $150,000 per project)

Ohio State: mathematics; development and testing in 25 schools by

fiscal year 1963.

Wycatt: reading; Bolt, Beranek and Newman: written communication

composition

Video disk

University of Nebraska: development of Spanish-English dictionary and

microcomputer software.

American Institute of Research: video disk for music and math curricula

for elementary grades; 45 site demonstrations and electronic mail

component.

Teleconferencing

“Project Best:” assistance to officials in 45 States in understanding

potential of technology; electronic mailbox component;

8 teleconferences.

Television

Seven projects: (selected grants highlighted)

“3-2-1 Contact:” production funds to Children’s Television Workshop

($1 million).

“Power House:” health and nutrition—economically disadvantaged

minority youth ($3.5 million).

“Kids:” program for elementary grades on radio broadcasting

($1 million).

Adaptation of educational technology for use by handicapped

Deaf net Telecommunications Project—model dissemination

($0.3 million).

Line 1 Caption Broadcasting Program ($1.5 million).

Technology Utilization Project

“Mathematics Education Using Information Technology:” (until fiscal

year 1982-83 jointly funded with NSF; $0.6 million). Computer

courseware development “Calculator Information Center” ($0.1 million).

“Computer Software Clearinghouse” ($0.2 million). Portion of Regional

Educational Laboratories budget utilized for educational technology

projects: courseware development; satellite telecommunications project

(est. $0.4 million).

Educational television, teleconferencing, computer-aided instruction, and

video disk (local projects)

Computer-based education, CAD/CAMb education, and other projects

currently up for review.

science Broadcasting

Prism Productions, Inc., “How About:” 90 second science series for

commercial television (syndicated to 140 stations—jointly funded with

General Motors Research Labs; NSF contribution: $0,208 million).

Children’s Television Workshop, “3-2-1 Contact:” science programing;

National Public Radio, “Science Information on Public Radio:”

establishment of science production capabilities and provision for science

coverage for distribution to 227 public radio stations ($0.198 million).

See tables 18 and 19 for program elements and project topics.

See tables 18 and 19 for program elements and project topics

See tables 18 and 19 for program elements and project topics.

$2.25 million

$0.225 million

$0.250 million

$1.1 million

$16.175 million

$0.2 million (est.)

$1.8 million (est.)

$0.9 million (est.)

$1.3 million (est.)

$1,5 million (est.)

$1.7 million (est.)

$2.336 million

$73.5 million

$131.7 million

$49.4 million

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $284.336 million

%orne funded with fiscal year 19S0 and fiscal year 19S1 moneys.

bCAD/CAM.Computer. assist ed designlcornputer-assisted manufacture.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment.
—.—-

Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Education/ Technology ● 121

New Grants for Fiscal Year 1982

A breakdown of the funds that have been

tentatively earmarked or committed for new

projects within OE, NSF, and DOD is shown

in table 25. Approximately $6.8 million are

available, $5.4 million within OE. The Army

has established a new Non-System Training

Devices Development Program with an initial

budget of $1.4 million. NSF will fund only one

new project in fiscal year 1981—a $0.5 million

effort to foster innovative ideas for using computers in science education. The project was

conceived after NSF had been approached by

several manufacturers who offered to provide

free microcomputers for experimentation in

educational institutions.

A revealing analysis of Federal support of

R&D for educational technology in fiscal year

1981 is shown in table 26, which presents estimates of funding levels for particular types of

technology. Educational television will receive

more money than any other form of technology-an estimated $21.411 million, a sum that

includes grants for local demonstrations. From

fiscal year 1968 through fiscal year 1980, the

Children’s Television Workshop received

grants from OE totaling $46.3 million for the

development and production of Sesame

Street and The Electric Company-an average

of $3.56 million per year.16 If the increased

costs of television production and general inflation are taken into account, the $21.411

million Federal support level for fiscal year

1982 will clearly be insufficient to maintain the

same volume of programing that previously

existed. This year, OE’s Office of Educational

Research and Improvement (Division of Educational Technology) has plans to award only

16A. A. Zucker, Support of Educational Technology by the

U.S. Department of Education: 1971-1980 (Washington, D. C.:

U.S. Department of Education, February 1982).

Table 25.—New Grants for Educational Technology R&D, Fiscal Year 1982

Program Grant description Funding level

of Education

Division of Educational Educational television projects $2.9 million (est.)

Technology

National Institute for Adaptation of educational technology for use by

Handicapped Research handicapped; other topics to be identified.

Bank Street College: 26- to 15-minute programs for ITV or $1 million (est.)

ETV use, plus computer game software, computer

graphics, and video disk application.

“Careers in Electronics and Computers” (working title):

two 60-minute programs that focus on opportunities for

young people and displaced workers.

Special Education Resources None

Handicapped Research— Technology utilization projects

innovation and

development

National Institute of None

Education

Fund for the Improvement of Based on proposals received to date (40 percent are for

Postsecondary Education education technology projects

National Science Foundation

Science and Engineering “Gift Program:” (in response to gift of microcomputers

Education Office offered by two producer companies) foster innovative

ideas for using computers in science education.

Department of Defense

Army Nonsystem Training Devices Development $1.4 million

Navy and Marine Corps None o

Air Force None o

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $6.8 million (est.)

SOURCE” Office of Technology Assessment

o

0

0

$1 million (est.)

$0.5 million
722 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table 26.—Federal R&D Funding for Educational Technology Fiscal Year 1982

By Type of Technologya

Technology Agencies funding Funding level

Computer-based instruction

Educational television

Teleconferencing

Video disk

Electronic mail

Satellite

Calculators

Other

National Science Foundation;

Department of Education;

Department of Defense

Department of Education

Department of Education

Department of Education

Department of Education

Department of Education (Funding

of Regional Laboratories)

Department of Education

million (est.)

$21.411 million

$1.1 million (est.)

$0.975 million (est.)

$0.3 million (est.)

million (est.)

$0.3 million (est.)

$4.55 million (est.)

Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $34.236 million (est.)

alnclude~ ~ultiyear projects funded with fiscal Year 19S0 and fiscal Year IW1 ‘oneys

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment.

two new educational television grants that (at a total level of $5.55 million). Other techamount to $2.9 million. Computer-based in- nologies, such as video disk, electronic mail,

struction (including software development) is and calculators, will each receive between $0.2

the only technology that will be supported in million and $0.3 million in Federal support, all

fiscal year 1982 by all three Federal agencies of it coming from OE.

Federal Support for Educational

Laboratories

With the Cooperative Research Act of 1963

and the Elementary and Secondary Education

Act of 1965, the U.S. Office of Education

established regional centers and laboratories

for educational research to focus efforts and

to encourage experimentation under controlled

conditions. In fiscal year 1982, NIE will provide $28 million for these centers and laboratories. Of this amount, about $335,000 will

be used to support educational technology

projects. The Wisconsin Center for Educational Research at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, Wis., will investigate possible uses of microcomputers in problem-solving

and language skills instruction. The University of Pittsburgh’s Learning Research and

Development Center has initiated small curriculum software development projects in developmental reading, writing, and mathematics.

Through a communications skills project, the

Southwest Regional Laboratory hopes to develop microcomputer software for student use

in generating, manipulating, and editing text

in an interactive mode. Some of the funding

for educational technology R&D projects

comes from the States, as do some of the funds

to support the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory educational satellite project for

R&D dissemination.

Educational Technology R&D Support by

Other Nations

While the U.S. Government is reducing its formation technology in education, a number

commitment to develop new applications of in- of other countries are planning or initiating
Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 123

major programs. Some have succeeded in attracting U.S. researchers as major participants.

France

In January 1982, France announced plans

to establish a World Center for Computer

Science and Human Resources for the expressed purpose of designing personal computer systems for use in training and education projects in industrialized and Third World

countries. With an initial annual operating

budget of $20 million, the center staff has tentative plans to develop computer-based education projects in Senegal, Kuwait, Ghana, and

the Philippines. The center will most probably

receive additional financial support from those

countries. Programs to retrain workers whose

jobs have been eliminated through automation

are also under consideration.

Some see the establishment of the center as

evidence that the French Government regards

the computer as an important agent of social

change and that it views its development as

an important factor in determining how well

the French will compete with the United

States in the field of microelectronics.17

Although the center’s board of directors will

have international representatives, at least

nine French cabinet ministers will be among

its members.18 The chairman of the World Center will report directly to President Francois

Mitterand, an indication of the importance

that the French Government attaches to the

project.

Two U.S. scientists have accepted positions

with the center. Nicols Negoponte, a professor

of computer graphics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), will assume the

post of director. Seymour Papert, founder of

MIT’s artificial intelligence program and developer of the computer programming language

LOGO, will serve as its chief scientist.

“’’Micros Are This Year’s Paris Fashion, ” New Scientist Feb.

2.5, 1982, p. 486.

‘8M. Schrage, “France Plans Computer World Center, ” Wash

ington POS6 Jan. 28, 1982.

Testifying on May 19, 1982, before the Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight

and the Subcommittee on Science, Research,

and Technology of the House Committee on

Science and Technology, Jean Jacques ServanSchreiber, chairman of the World Center, described it as the first of a network of such

facilities that will focus on human resource

development through application of computer

technology. He expressed the hope that the

United States would establish the next such

center, encourage the funding of others, and

cooperate with France in “ . . . the implementation of a policy aimed at the stimulation of

worldwide economic activity and employment. "19

European Commission

The European Commission, the independent

policy-operating body of the European Community, plans to launch a 10-year, $1.6 billion

program to aid research in computer-related

technology. Funding will come from the commission, from the industrial sector, and from

other sources. These funds will be distributed

as grants to European research groups, private laboratories, and universities for concentrated efforts in such areas as office technology, factory automation, software, advanced

microelectronic chips, and artificial intelligence. European researchers and business representatives will discuss the project during

1982. Plans call for the program to be initiated

before the end of 1983.20

United Kingdom

Britain believes that its future role in international markets will be largely affected by the

investments it makes now in fostering the development of information technology. With

this in mind, the British Government is establishing a comprehensive policy for information

“J. J. Servan-Schreiber, testimony of Jean Jacques ServanSchreiber, before the Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight and Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology,

Comrnittee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, May 19, 1982.

~“EEC Stakes 855 Million on Tomorrow’s Computers, ” New

Scientis6 Jan. 7, 1982, p. 5.
124 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

technology that will have the following key

elements:

●

●

●

●

A

provision of a national telecommunications network;

the development of a statutory and regulatory framework designed to encourage

further growth of information technology

products and services;

initiation of actions to create an awareness of the inherent advantages of information technology and to stimulate interest in utilizing new services and equipment; and

direct support to the development of new

products and techniques.

Ministry for Information Technology has

been created within the Department of Industry, to serve as the point of coordination

for all government activities. Apart from

designating 1982 as Information Technology

Year, the British Government has launched

a $1.2 million public awareness campaign. It

is, moreover, in the process of initiating a variety of projects, including one designed to place

a microcomputer in every secondary school by

the end of 1982, and another-known as the

Microelectronics in Education Program-that

will provide instruction to teachers on the use

of the computer as a classroom learning aid.

Clearly, the actions that nations are taking

to encourage basic research and productrelated R&D in information technology are in

accordance with the ideas U.S. researchers

have about Government support and participation. In hearings before the Subcommittee on Domestic and International Scientific

Planning, Analysis, and Cooperation of the

House Committee on Science and Technology,

held in 1977, researchers from educational institutions and other nonprofit settings, as well

as representatives from the computer hardware and software industry, advocated the establishment of large-scale, “critical mass projects” through which continued innovations in

educational technology could be achieved. A

number of participants cited the need for continuity in funding and ongoing support for

projects lasting from 6 to 10 years rather than

for the traditional 1- to 3-year cycles characteristic of Federal funding. They frequently

mentioned the vital role that the Government

plays in fostering development of the technology and in eliminating constraints that inhibit

applications. William C. Norris, Chairman and

Chief Executive Office of Control Data Corp.,

one of the U.S. firms most active in computerbased education, underlined the importance of

the Federal Government’s role in encouraging,

through funding and other means, cooperative

R&D efforts between universities and industry, in order to ensure that basic research

is undertaken and new products continue to

be developed and disseminated to specific

markets. Recommendations made at the hearings also included the establishment of a national center and/or regional centers that

would focus on further developments in educational technology .21

Implications of the Present

Federal Role in Educational

Technology R& D

Commitments made to R&D for educational

technology at the level of fiscal year 1982 funding do not permit the Federal Government to

continue to serve as a major participant in,

and catalyst for, new research activities. Given

decreased Federal funding levels and staff

shortages, the degree to which the university

community will participate in the future is also

in question. Thus, private industry will have

to provide the largest percentage of research

dollars, and to perform most R&D functions.

In a climate of increasing international competition, in which industry will tend to invest

more in product-related R&D that ensures

return on investment rather than in more fundamental research, the future of U.S.-based

basic research and other nonmarket-oriented

efforts is in doubt. This situation contrasts

sharply with the European examples where na21 Committee on Science snd Technology, U.S. House of Repre

sentatives, hearing before

the Subcommittee on International Scientific Plannin g, Analysis, and Cooperation, Oct. 4, 6, 12, 13, 18, and 27, 1977 (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978),
Ch. 7–State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 125

tional governments are becoming active participants in establishing national programs. In

Third World countries, governments are also

eager to utilize information technology to improve their training and educational programs.

Plans are underway at OE to establish an

Educational Technology Initiative, a $16 million program that, over a 3-year period beginning in fiscal year 1983, will focus on the development of educational software. This initiative will also set up lighthouse school demonstrations, where applications of educational

technology may be observed by school administrators and others, and an information clearinghouse and exchange.22 By leveraging funds,

the proposed program seeks to attract matching funds from industry to develop educational

software to meet school specifications. Given

past levels of Federal involvement in such

public-private R&D projects, it is questionable

whether the Federal contribution of $3.3 million extended over a 3- to 5-year period will be

enough to stimulate private investments.

“Department of Education, Office of Educational Research

and Improvement, FY/83 l?rogram/Budget Plan: Secretary

Technology Im”tiative (Washington, D. C.: Department of Education, February 1982).

Present and Future Support for

Educational Technology R&D

Arguments favoring Federal involvement in

R&D stress the riskiness of investment in

these early stages of market development and

the fact that much needs to be learned about

how to use these new media most effectively.

Some of the case studies that follow suggest

that Federal support has been a critical factor in bringing experiments such as Sesame

Street and PLATO to the point where commercial success stimulates private interest. If

Congress decides to emphasize R&Din educational technology, several issues must be

resolved.

● Source of Funding. —The Federal Government is only one of several potential sources

of R&D support. Are there ways of providing Federal support that encourage investment in R&D by private industry, foundations, and even local and State education

agencies? Mechanisms for coordinating and

pooling research funds from multiple

sources have to be explored.

● Level of Funding. —Several experts have expressed the opinion that current funding is

far below the critical level necessary to

make significant and rapid improvements

in the state of the art. They point out that

the French World Center has a starting

●

●

budget of over $20 million per year and that

previous Federal efforts in educational technology were funded at a significantly higher

level than at present.

Stability of Support. –Perhaps more important than the particular funding level is the

fact that in order to encourage the formation of high-quality centers of research and

to foster the entry of capable researchers

into the field, there will need to be a longterm commitment to support R&D at whatever level is deemed appropriate.

Type of Research .-There are four broad

areas of research in learning technology:

1) research on the hardware technology itself to develop appropriate educational

devices; 2) research on software development and courseware authoring techniques,

such as how to make the best instructional

use of information technology; 3) research

on human-machine communication and interaction such as that on languages, keyboard and screen design, and the use of

graphic images to transfer information; and

4) research on cognitive learning and on how

individuals interact with educational systems.
126 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

● Basic Research or Development —The prop- —what is the appropriate overlap between

er role of the Federal Government in fund- Government and private funding, and

ing research, however, is more clearly estab- —assuming that a Government funded projlished in basic research and becomes less ect turns out to be a commercial success,

clearly so as the work is more developmen- how can it then best be moved quickly

tal in nature. The closer a project moves to into the private sector?

developing a potentially marketable application, the more these issues come into focus:

Case Studies of Landmark R&D Dissemination

Efforts in Educational Technology

This section includes four case studies of educational technology projects initiated partly or wholly with Federal funding. These projects have significantly affected the educational

process, in some cases broadening the definition of what education is and where it can take

place. The first case study describes the formation of the Children’s Television Workshop;

the second, the development, production, and

marketing of PLATO, a computer-based learning system; the third, the establishment of the

Computer Curriculum Corp. as an outgrowth

of federally supported, university-based research in computer-based instructional systems for schools; and the fourth, the creation

of CONDUIT, a nonprofit group that evaluates, packages, and distributes computerbased learning materials to secondary and

postsecondary institutions.

Case Study 1: The Children’s

Television Workshop

The Children’s Television Workshop (CTW),

the creator of the prize-winning educational

television series, Sesame Street and The Electric Company, was the first television program

producer to design educational programs on

a large scale specifically for preschool children.

The CTW experience illustrates the highly successful use of technology for educational purposes, a substantial Federal Government investment and role, and the creation of a unique

organization. It can therefore provide useful

insights into and lessons about, the interrelation of public policy, technology, and education.

Context

CTW was formed in 1968 at a time when

early childhood studies had established how

important the preschool years are inlaying the

foundation for subsequent intellectual development. It was a period when educators, increasingly aware of the exceedingly large

number of hours that young children were

watching TV each day, were becoming concerned about the kind of programing being offered. There was at the same time a growing

sensitivity to the disparity in school readiness

between advantaged and disadvantaged children.

CTW decided to experiment with a show

that would attempt to capture the attention

of young children, particularly those from lowincome families. It was suspected that children

from disadvantaged families watched TV even

more than middle class children. Surveys

showed that 90 percent of all families with incomes below $5,000 owned at least one television set and that disadvantaged families with

preschool children had their sets on for an

estimated 54 hours per week.

Budget and Organization

In 1968, CTW was setup as an autonomous

unit within National Education Television,

which served as a corporate umbrella for the
.

Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 127

purpose of receiving grants. Two years later,

it became independent as a nonprofit corporation. The budget for its initial 2 years was $8

million-the first year for preparation, and the

second for production and broadcast. The U.S.

Office of Education agreed to pay 50 percent

of this cost; the remainder was funded primarily by the Ford Foundation and the Carnegie

Corp.

The present CTW budget is around $33 million, most of which is spent to pay the costs

of its nonbroadcast enterprises such as the

printing and postage for three widely circulated magazines.

Foundation support has tapered off, and

Federal support for Sesame Street ended in

fiscal year 1982. As a result, the staff was

recently cut back, and CTW’s community outreach program was reduced. While new programing continues for existing series, no new

large-scale projects have been announced.

An effort has been made to generate new

revenues through a whole series of products

based on CTW programs. These include books,

records, toys, games, and even clothing. CTW

estimates that in 1982, royalty revenues from

the sales of nonbroadcast materials will total

$22 million, $16 million of which will go to

cover costs, leaving an anticipated net revenue

of $6 million to be applied to the continuing

cost of Sesame Street and other educational

projects.

CTW has also established a unique educational park known as “Sesame Place” in Bucks

County, Pa. Designed for children age 3 and

up, it is of special interest because, in addition

to having dozens of outdoor play elements and

indoor science exhibits, it provides 60 Apple

computers on which children can plan educational games developed by CTW. A second

park was opened in the summer of 1982 near

Dallas, Tex. CTW also has a traveling roadshow called Sesame Street Live.

As another potentially important new revenue-producing venture, CTW is developing

and marketing game software for the personal

computer. While these games are intended to

be educational, one of their design criterion is

that they also be entertaining.

CTW Program s

CTW created three highly successful largescale educational series for children: Sesame

Street, The Electric Company, and 3-2-1 Contact. Sesame Street, the pioneer program,

demonstrated that high-quality education programs could win mass audiences of children.

After Sesame Street, CTW went on to develop

another equally successful show in its reading

program for young children called The Electric Company. Supplementary reading materials to reinforce both these programs were

developed for students, teachers, and parents.

The most recent series, 3-2-1 Contact, was

designed for children between the years of 8

and 12. Its aim was to acquaint children with

the nature of scientific thinking and with some

areas of scientific investigation. The initial

season ran daily for 26 weeks. Five programs

per week were built around a weekly theme

such as light/dark, hot/cold, growth/decay, and

fast/slow. As with Sesame Street and The

Electric Company, actual production was

preceded by careful study beginning with an

examination of need. It was discovered, for example, that half of the States had no science

requirements for teacher certification at the

elementary school level, and that only 6 percent of 9-year-old students ranked science as

their favorite subject. The developmental

stages of 3-2-1 Contact involved 6 months for

feasibility studies, 6 months for testing and

development, and 6 months for production.

CTW also produced Feeling Good, an adult

series on health; Best of Families, a series in

American social history; and a commercial

television family special: The Lion, the Witch,

and the Wardrobe, which won an Emmy as the

outstanding animated television special of the

year.

CTW considers none of its program series

to be a finished product. Programs are constantly brought up-to-date, expanded, and

revised for greater audience appeal and educa-
128 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

tional impact. Sesame Street went on from its

emphasis on cognitive learning to include such

societal goals as cooperation, conflict resolution, and fair play. Sesame Street and The

Electric Company programs were also adapted

to the special needs of the mentally retarded,

the deaf, and the Spanish speaking. 3-2-1 Contact was incorporated into museum programs

throughout the country and was made an integral part of the Girl Scout program for obtaining a special 3-2-1 badge. 3-2-1 Contact has

been used in prisons, and Sesame Street has

been used with the refugee boat children.

Impact of C T W

With Sesame Street and The Electric Company, CTW proved that skillful educational

programing could win a mass audience. Their

combined audience in the United States has

been estimated at 15 million people. They are

the two most watched programs on public television. Sesame Street regularly commands a

larger audience among 2 to 5 year olds than

any other commercial television program.

Studies conducted in low-income neighborhoods suggest that from 80 to 90 percent of

the children watch. CTW programs are also

cost effective. Cost per viewer per program,

for each CTW program, has been less than 1

percent per day.

Teachers throughout the United States report that children arrive in school more

knowledgeable and more able to master fundamental skills in reading and arithmetic. The

CTW style has been copied by other television

producers, and many parents and teachers

have reported a change in their own thinking

about education.

CTW programs are now offered in at least

eight different languages and are shown in

nearly 50 countries and territories. They have

received 18 Emmy’s, the European Prix Jeunesse, the Japan Prize, and numerous other

awards and commendations. In 1979, the

Smithsonian Institute’s Museum of American

History celebrated CTW’s 10th birthday with

a 3-month long exhibit.

Among the factors cited as contributing to

CTW’s success are:

●

●

●

●

●

●

Generous Funding. –The large initial

funding for Sesame Street was essential

for achieving high quality.

Planning.– Each project has been

planned very carefully and in great detail,

beginning with a feasibility study and

working through all stages; from the time

a CTW project was first considered to the

time it is first broadcast typically takes

2 years.

Producer Freedom. –CTW had complete

control over the content and design of its

program, and could make all programing

decisions without outside interference.

A Delivery System Already in Place.–

Almost every household had a television

set and the broadcast time and transmission facilities were available through the

public broadcasting system.

Available Professional Expertise.--CTW

could draw from commercial television.

Personnel–The project was initiated by

highly competent, creative people.

Case Study 2: Development,

Production, and Marketing

of PLAT O

PLATO, a computer-based education system designed for use with conventional and

multimedia learning aids, was developed at the

University of Illinois under the guidance of

Donald Bitzer. Since its initiation in 1959, it

has been supported by a combination of Federal, State, industrial, and private agencies

and organizations. Most of the financial assistance was provided by NSF with some funding

from OE. When OE discontinued its support,

several corporations also withdrew theirs. Control Data Corp. (CDC) was eventually licensed

by the University of Illinois to produce and

market the PLATO system.

CDC is a worldwide computer and financial

services company based in Minneapolis,

Minn., employing 60,000 people and market-
Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 129

ing products and services in over 47 countries.

In 1981, CDC’s net earnings totaled $171 million on combined revenues of $4.2 billion. Since

1962, the company has invested more than

$900 million in its educational products and

services.

CDC maintains that, in addition to its other

profitmaking activities, it can also make a

profit by addressing itself to the most intransigent problems of our society. In cooperation

with business, educational, and religious organizations and government agencies, CDC

has developed projects relating to the inner

city, low achieving students, prison inmates,

small businesses, and independent farmers.

Some projects are entirely devoted to education and some are only partially so. The

PLATO learning is heavily used in many of

these efforts.

PLATO Computer-Based

Education

In 1981, there were 18 PLATO systems, 10

owned and operated by CDC and 8 by universities. Nine of the eighteen are located in the

United States and Canada, and nine are overseas. The cumulative number of terminal contact hours on PLATO IV passed the 10 million

mark in 1979. This is by far the most extensively used system of computer-based instruction in the world.

A PLATO system consists of one large central computer that connects to many terminals

by long-distance telephone lines or satellite.

There is no technological limit to how far a terminal might be from the main computer; hundreds of miles is not uncommon. At the terminals, individuals or small groups of students

can have access to a wide range of instructional materials, which include presentations,

drills, tutorials, dialogs, simulations, problemsolving, and games.

PLATO learning can also be delivered on

microcomputers using disks that store the

learning materials. In 1981, CDC announced

its own microcomputer, the Control Data 110,

which runs PLATO as an application. The 110

also serves as a small business computer and

can be hooked up to the central PLATO system to deliver PLATO learning on-line.

The nature of the conversation or interaction between a student and the computer depends on the way in which the author has written the instructional materials. Generally, the

interaction has these characteristics:

●

●

●

●

●

The student gets immediate response

from the computer whenever the student

asks or answers a question.

The computer adjusts its lesson to meet

the particular needs and abilities of the

individual student at that moment.

The computer keeps track of what the student has already learned.

The student can work in private without

fear of exposing his weakness to other

people.

The student can use the computer to

assist him in visualizing ideas through

graphics, computations, examples, and

simulations.

In addition to interacting with the computer

program, the student can use the PLATO network to discuss his studies with teachers or

other students, even though they may be physically located thousands of miles away. The

computer can diagnose, evaluate, teach, test,

and keep records. The terminal screen is tactile-sensitive. If a child is learning to read and

does not know a word–e.g., “mouse’’ -he can

touch the word and, as the word mouse is

spoken, it will be replaced by a picture of a

mouse.

Availability and Use of PLATO

In 1981, about 6,000 PLATO terminals wer e

used in diverse settings. One type of setting

was the CDC Learning Center, which is open

to the general public and which offers courses

from a third grade level to advanced postgraduate work. There are 115 CDC Learning Centers throughout the United States, the subjects taught at these centers include business,

industry, and computer-related subjects as

well as foreign languages, English, math,

sciences, education, psychology, the arts, and
130 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

career counseling. Learning centers offer

business, industry, government agencies, and

schools a cost-effective alternative to traditional training programs. A company or agency can have PLATO programs written or

adapted to their particular training needs and

have the programs made available to their

employees throughout the country.

Customers can install terminals that deliver

PLATO CBE, either on-line or off-line, on their

own sites. Schools have terminals onsite in all

cases. With the release of PLATO courseware

to other micros, however, the use of PLATO

learning will be able to increase greatly at a

highly reduced cost.

Industr y

To date, the primary use of PLATO has

been for inservice training in industry. Courses

include basic management training, accounting, economics, equipment operation and

maintenance, powerplant operation, computer

fundamentals, and computer programing.

Examples of training needs to which

PLATO has been adapted include:

●

●

●

United Airlines uses PLATO to bring 367

new trainees each year up to entry level

for transitional training. The PLATOassisted program takes 11 days compared

to the 15 days formerly required without

PLATO. United Airlines estimates that

it saves $29,827 per year by using the

PLATO systems.

Control Data Institutes train 7,000 programmers, operators, and technicians yearly for the computer industry. In the

United States, 60,000 people have received this training since the first Control

Data Institute started in 1965. More than

50 percent of the training is on PLATO.

The Navy successfully adapted CDC’s

Basic Skills Learning System to train recruits at the Navy Recruit Training Center in Orlando, Fla. With the help of

PLATO, two to three times the usual

number of recruits were trained by the

same-sized staff, and they completed their

required course work in fewer hours. This

PLATO program was administered by

regular noncollege Navy personnel after

only 2 weeks of specialized training.

Higher Education

Many colleges and universities use PLATO

CBE. Some examples of the different ways in

which PLATO has been integrated into educational curricula are:

●

●

6

●

●

The University of Colorado uses PLATO

for developmental English, physics, electrical engineering, accounting, educational psychology, and astronomy.

The Reading Pennsylvania Area Community College offers PLATO courses in

basic skills, training for local industry,

and enrichment programs in math, Russian, and other subjects for exceptionally advanced high school students.

The University of Delaware uses PLATO

in its School of Music to provide drill and

practice with musical notes played by a

synthesizer connected to the terminal and

offers PLATO courses in dressmaking,

nursing, and agriculture.

The American College offers courses in

life insurance and related financial sciences to students in all 50 States and 12

foreign countries. The networking power

of PLATO is ideal for this widely dispersed student body.

The University of Quebec has eight terminals in almost continual operation on the

Trois-Rivieres campus. Faculty members

create their own lessons in French, chemistry, English, physics, geometrical optics, data processing, and psychology. It

sometimes takes as long as 250 hours to

produce a 60-minute lesson.

Public Schools

Although CDC is interested in introducing

PLATO into public elementary and secondary

institutions, PLATO has not been utilized by

public schools primarily because of its cost.

However, with PLATO learning new being

delivered on micros-both on CDC microcomputers and those of other companies-costs
Ch. 7–State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 131

may drop substantially. One example of a successful application of PLATO is in an innercity school in Baltimore. In 1979, 200 of Walbrook High School’s 538 seniors failed the City

of Baltimore math and reading proficiency

tests. After 60 days of using PLATO, all but

nine passed the test. PLATO has helped Walbrook’s low achieving students to increase

their academic levels as many as three grades

in 1 year.

Today, 180 Walbrook students each receive

25 minutes of PLATO instruction daily on one

of the school’s 12 terminals. At midterm, a second group of 180 students is chosen. Thus in

1 school year, 360 of the school’s 2,350 students will have received PLATO-assisted instruction. In addition, two junior high schools

have two terminals each, and six elementary

schools have one terminal each. The Baltimore

PLATO project, initially subsidized by CDC,

is now funded by the Baltimore City School

System.

Special Populations

American Indians.–The American Indian

Project of St. Paul, Minn., used the PLATO

Basic Skills Program to meet the remedial

educational needs of 1,200 American Indian

students in 65 urban areas. Some students

were able to raise their academic levels by 5

years in only 6 months of work.

Home Workers.–PLAT0 is used to train

and provide employment for homebound, disabled employees. CDC has created jobs in programing for businesses and in developing

courses for the PLATO system. The computer

network makes communication possible between employers, employees, and fellow workers, thus establishing a community that can

give peer support to homeworkers nationwide.

Prisoners. --In 1974, CDC chose correctional

institutions as one entry point for its Basic

Skills Learning System. A pilot PLATO Basic

Skills Learning program was installed in the

Minnesota State Prison in Stillwater. After

only 7 hours of PLATO study, inmates averaged gains of 1.6 grades in reading; after 12

hours, they averaged gains of 2.16 grades

in math. Students were anxious to use the

computer, and here again, as in the case of

the Indian program, academic success was

matched by improved social attitudes. PLATO

is now used in 29 correctional institutions

located in 10 States and in the United Kingdom.

Unemployed.– A CDC program specifically

designed for the hardcore unemployed, called

Fair Break, consists of the PLATO Basic

Skills courses in math, reading, and language,

as well as a course in how to choose and get

a job. The coursework is supplemented by a

counseling and referral program that helps

adult students cope with problems relating to

health, finances, drugs, and interpersonal

problems. The program also involves peergroup counseling. CDC provides part-time

work to program participants for the duration

of the course.

Assessing Benefits and Cost

Effectiveness of PLAT O

In attempting to assess the benefits or cost

effectiveness of a given PLATO application,

three factors must be taken into account: the

delivery system, the implementation, and the

courseware.

PLATO as a Delivery System.—While some

evaluative reports criticize minor aspects of

the central delivery system, most regard the

central delivery of PLATO learning as being

exceptional, and believe that its full potential

is still unrealized. The major criticism of

PLATO as a delivery system has been its cost.

The most clear-cut beneficial or cost-effective

uses of PLATO are those in which:

●

●

●

Educational opportunities are delivered

that would otherwise be unavailable to

the learner population in question.

Instruction is brought to learners who

would otherwise have to be transported

to a distant site for training.

Needed skills and knowledge can be acquired more quickly through a PLATO

course than they can through an alternative instructional method.
132 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Implementation of PLATO. --Implementation refers to the setting and manner in which

instruction is taken-the institution, the learner population, the role and personality of the

teacher, the relationship of the PLATO learning experience to other instructional components, the motivational aspects of the environment, and so forth. In a study conducted by

the Educational Testing Service, the use of

PLATO in four community colleges was found

to have no significant effect on student attrition, student achievement, or student attitudes toward their academic experience. Participating instructors tended to view PLATO

favorably, but teachers judged their PLATO

students less favorably than their non-PLATO

students in ability, motivation, and achievement.

Implementation in Military Training Settings.—The cost effectiveness of computerbased instruction in military training has been

investigated by analyzing 30 studies of computer-based instruction, seven of which used

PLATO; the rest of which used all other

computer-based systems. It was concluded

that, on the whole, computer-based instruction

reduced the time normally needed by students

to complete courses using conventional instruction by 30 percent. The difference in the

amount of time saved by individualized selfpaced instruction compared with computerbased instruction was found to be relatively

small. The PLATO system was not found to

be more effective than other computer-based

systems’ studies. Furthermore, according to

two cost-effectiveness evaluations, the Army

PLATO IV system was judged to be less effective than individualized (noncomputerized)

instruction.

Implementation in College Settings.–A

comprehensive analysis of computer-based college teaching was made that included 59 studies of which an unspecified number were of

PLATO courses. Although about 20 different

characteristics of these courses were analyzed,

they were not classified according to the particular delivery system that was used (e.g.,

PLATO, TICCT). It was found that a typical

computer-based institution class raised student achievement by about one-quarter of a

standard deviation unit.

Courseware.--The term courseware refers to

the programs on PLATO that contain both the

content and logic of the instruction. An extensive variety of different kinds of courseware

have been developed for this system.

Seven evaluation studies of the PLATO

Basic Skills Learning System have indicated

that the curriculum is at least as effective as

some conventional methods in providing

remedial instruction in math and reading. In

one such study, 236 high school students in

Florida received remedial instruction in

mathematics via PLATO. The median gain for

all students was 1.5 grade equivalents after

they have spent an average of almost 20 hours

in the math lessons. This equivalent equates

to about 1.0 grade equivalent gain for 13 hours

in the curriculum.

Because there was no control group in the

Florida study or in several of the other evaluations of the basic skills curriculum there is no

way of knowing whether other instructional

methods might have been as effective or as

cost effective. Where control groups were included in basic skills evaluations, the results

have been mixed or inconclusive.

Students using PLATO Basic Skills courseware tend to cover subject matter more quickly than do control groups. For example, at a

Minnesota correctional facility, 20 reading

students gained an average of 1.02 points in

test scores after 9.6 hours of PLATO-assisted

instruction. The control group of 6 students

that had 15 hours of instruction gained 0.08

points. Twenty math students gained 1.75

points after 17.6 hours of PLATO. After 25

hours of non-PLATO instruction the corresponding 6 control students gained an

average of only 0.35 points. In a comparison

of 15 PLATO students with 15 controls at

Bexar Detention Center, the PLATO students

gained 1.13 points in math tests. The control

group, after more than twice the amount of instruction time, gained only 0.19 points.

PLATO and other computer-based instruction methods have capabilities that provide
Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 133

unique learning experiences that are impossible or impractical using other means. One example is a cardiology course at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. These programs can simulate virtually any heartbeat.

The student is aided by a “stethophone,” an

electronic stethoscope that amplifies the lowfrequency sounds of the heart, and a terminal

screen that displays a diagram of the patient’s

body. The student can hear heart sounds indicative of virtually all coronary conditions,

providing an experience which traditionally

would have required first visiting the radiology department to review X-rays, and then

the wards to see the patient. Because of the

wide variety of cardiac dysfunctions, the

urgent nature of cardiac lesions, and the large

number of medical students, students normally would not have the opportunity while in

medical schools to observe every kind of heart

disease. Previously, classes as large as 118

students would spend 50 hours in a traditional

lecture environment. With the PLATO system, that instructional time has been reduced

to an average of 20 hours and with a higher

learning rate.

Case Study 3: Computer

Curriculum Corp.

Computer Curriculum Corp. (CCC) is a forprofit company that develops and markets

computer-assisted instruction (CAI) systems

to schools. It was founded in 1967 by Patrick

Suppes as a marketing outgrowth of R&D in

CAI that began in 1963, at the Institute for

Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences

at Stanford University. The institute’s first

instructional program was a tutorial curriculum in elementary mathematical logic. A preliminary version of its elementary mathematics program was tested in 1964. The first use

of CAI in an elementary school took place in

1965, when fourth-grade children were given

daily arithmetic drill-and-practice lessons in

their classroom on a teletype machine connected by telephone lines to the institute computer. (Before that, the children were transported to the campus.)

During this time, the institute engaged in

R&D on the use of CAI in teaching reading.

In 1964, this effort was developed into the

Stanford Initial Reading Project, the purpose

of which was to provide a comprehensive, individualized curriculum that would improve

basic reading skills. First, however, the project analyzed the obstacles encountered by

culturally disadvantaged children in acquiring

reading skills.

CCC Product Development

With private financing, CCC began developing a marketable CAI package based on the

research that had been done at Stanford. By

about 1973 the hardware became inexpensive

enough to develop a system that could be marketed at a reasonable cost. Thus, CCC started

as a marketing organization in about 1974. At

that time, about 20 schools throughout the

country were using CCC’s curricula. During

the 1970’s, CCC had the only commercially

viable and extensively validated computerbased curriculum for elementary schools.

CCC Products and Services

The CCC staff–about 200 employees—provides a turnkey system that includes computer hardware, software, curriculum, and

support services (e.g., teacher training and

equipment maintenance). A typical system in

a school has about 16 terminals in a CAI

laboratory, although this amount varies per

school.

The curricula consist of drill-and-practice

courses that supplement regular instruction

in basic skills, primarily in reading and

mathematics. In each course, students use the

drills for 10 minutes per day. The three most

widely used curricula are the mathematics

strands, grades 1-6; reading, grades 3-6; and

language arts, grades 3-6. Newer courses, such

as reading for comprehension and problem

solving, are rapidly being adopted.

Funding for R&D

Initial support for the work in elementary

mathematics and reading came from a private
134 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

foundation and was followed up by support

from NSF and OE. Since 1963, NSF has supported work with elementary school gifted

children and OE funded the reading project

at $920,000 from 1964-67. From 1966-68 OE

supported related work in CAI at Stanford.

Work with disadvantaged students was supported by title III of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, and work with

the handicapped, especially deaf students, was

funded by the Bureau of Education for the

Handicapped from 1970 to 1973.

A reoriented project in elementary reading

and math was conducted from 1967 to 1970

with a grant from NSF. Its aim was to design

and implement a low-cost CAI curriculum that

would act as a supplement to classroom instruction. Because the institute lost its Federal R&D support in elementary and secondary

curriculum development after 1970, it had to

reuse the elementary school curricula, making

some special applications for hearing-impaired

students. The institute then turned most of

its attention to the development of universitylevel curricula.

Impact s

Nearly 1 million students have used CCC

curricula over the past 10 years. In the 1981-82

school year, about 200,000 students from 30

States, most of whom are from disadvantaged

homes in inner-city and rural environments,

used them on a daily basis. CCC educational

materials are paid for with title I and other

Federal categorical aid.

Evaluation Studies

CCC curricula have been extensively evaluated by many groups, including individual

school systems. A wide variety of populations

were studied including inner-city students;

students in different sections of the country;

rural students in Appalachia; American Indian

students in New Mexico; and bilingual, deaf,

and mentally retarded students.

The studies have shown that, when used as

recommended, CCC’s elementary CAI curricula are effective in increasing student achieve

ment levels. Studies comparing gains of CAI

students with gains of non-CAI students show

that the curricula serves as an effective form

of supplementary instruction. Studies comparing CAI programs with other supplementary

programs suggest that CAI participants are

more likely to meet achievement objectives.

Longitudinal data indicate that achievement

levels can be expected to increase steadily over

several years of CAI participation and that

over summer holidays students do not seem

to forget the concepts reviewed.

The studies also showed that several benefits can be associated with the use of CCC curricula. First, because of the categorical aid provided by the Federal programs, CAI was introduced on a broad scale among disadvantaged students, including those that come

from low-income backgrounds, that are members of minority groups, or that are handicapped. Traditionally, innovation takes place

in affluent schools. Second, through the detailed and highly individualized feedback provided by the computer, students acquire habits of precision in their work. Third, increased

student motivation and decreases in vandalism and truancy were reported. Finally, students learned basic skills in reading and math.

Evaluations led to the following findings:

●

●

●

Federally supported R&D had a major impact on the state of the art in computerbased learning and teaching. Support

from OE and NSF R&D at Stanford University significantly influenced the development of curricula and methods of computer-based learning.

The focus of the Elementary Secondary

Education Act on the disadvantaged resulted in the development and implementation of high-technology systems that

are effective in providing such students

with basic skills.

Numerous evaluations of the use of CCC

curricula by a wide variety of students

have all clearly demonstrated that, when

used as recommended, they are effective

in increasing achievement levels in basic

skills.
. .

Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology ● 135

Case Study 4: CONDUI T

CONDUIT is a 10-year-old nonprofit organization that packages and distributes highquality computer-based instructional materials to colleges, universities, and secondary

schools. In 1971, when CONDUIT was conceived, the major barrier to instructional computing was a lack of quality learning materials

and computer software. Although materials

had been developed at universities and colleges, they were being used only at the

originating institution. No organization existed to distribute instructional programs.

Because there were so few programs available,

there was no visible market large enough to

justify investment by commercial publishers.

Without distribution mechanisms or author incentives, few high-quality materials suitable

for distribution were being developed.

Established as a partial solution to this

problem, CONDUIT was intended to provide

the organizational link that would search for

materials, test and review them, revise them

so that they could be used at different institutions or on different computers, and distribute

these packages to other institutions.

Profile of CONDUIT Today

CONDUIT has received support from NSF

and the Fund for Improvement of Post Secondary Education (FIPSE). It distributes NSF

educational materials that are reviewed, well

documented, programed for ease of transfer

to different computers, and kept up-to-date.

The instructional materials are all reviewed by

experts in each subject area for conceptual

validity, instructional usefulness, and overall

quality.

A typical institutional package consists of

a computer program written in BASIC or Fortran, a student guide explaining objectives

and methods of its use, an instructor guide illustrating course applications, notes explaining how to install the program on the computer, and the programs written in a form that

can be read by the computer. Programs are

provided both for use on small personal computers and for use on the large timesharing

computers typically found on university campuses.

As of August 1981, CONDUIT distributed

about 100 different packages for use in college

and precollege courses in biology, chemistry,

economics, education, geography, humanities,

management science, mathematics, physics,

political science, psychology, sociology, and

statistics. CONDUIT has gained an international reputation, distributing nearly 9,000

packages to 1,500 institutions in all 50 States

and 12 foreign countries.

Budget and Financing

CONDUIT currently operates on a monthly

budget of about $30,000. Two-thirds of this

amount is derived from revenues from the sale

of packages and other publications. One-third,

or about $10,000, is provided from grants from

NSF’s Office of Science and Engineering Education Directorate and FIPSE. Since its inception in 1971, CONDUIT has received about

2.5 million of support from NSF.

Benefit s

The direct beneficiaries of CONDUIT operations include students, teachers, and authors;

commercial publishers; and other groups benefit indirectly.

●

●

●

About 1 million students have benefited

from using CONDUIT materials, based on

conservative estimate of 120 student users

per package. (At a large university, one

package might be used by hundreds of students over several years.)

At least 18,000 teachers have benefited

from the availability of CONDUIT materials, at an average of two teachers per

package. Because CONDUIT materials are

so well documented, teachers may readily

tailor the materials to fit their own course

and teaching style.

Authors of computer-based learning materials also benefit from CONDUIT. Over 2,000

copies of CONDUITS guidelines for authors
136 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

●

●

have been distributed and over 100 have

had their materials packaged. Authors are

rewarded by having their materials widely

used, and they receive royalties on sales.

Commercial publishers are also indirect beneficiaries. Now that the commercial viability

of instructional computer materials has

been demonstrated, commercial publishers

have become more interested in marketing

such materials.

CONDUIT serves as a useful model to other

groups both within the United States and

in other countries. The Northwest Regional

Education Laboratory drew on CONDUIT

expertise in establishing MicroSift to

evaluate educational software for precollege

applications. The British have drawn heavily on the CONDUIT model in establishing

a similar network.

Findings

●

●

●

Sustained Support. –CONDUIT received

sustained support at somewhat below half

a million dollars per year, from NSF for several years before there was any significant

payoff.

About 40 percent of CONDUIT packages

were originally developed under Federal

grants. Thus, it has provided an important

dissemination function for curriculum development work.

It is possible for the Federal Government

to make a major contribution to improving

education through a minimal dollar investment, by the creation of an appropriate organizational entity. By 1972, numerous

studies had concluded that no existing

organization could perform the functions

necessary to break the cycle of barriers to

development and dissemination of educational computing materials. A new kind of

organization would be needed. Many difficulties were encountered in attempting to

establish such a new organization. A few

key individuals in academia and NSF were

committed to the idea, however, and it was

●

●

●

●

●

through their sustained efforts that the

organization finally became a viable entity.

CONDUIT’s relatively low level of Federal

support, and thus low visibility for several

years, was probably an advantage in working out the numerous technical, political,

and educational problems involved.

CONDUIT could not have become a viable

organization had it not been able to use the

revenues from the sale of packages for its

continued operations. This posed many

legal and contractual difficulties for NSF.

However, after prolonged negotiations, financial arrangements were made that enabled CONDUIT to become close to selfsustaining.

Coordination With Other Programs and

Projects. —The NSF Science Education Directorate encouraged projects supported by

its other program areas to collaborate with

CONDUIT. This collaboration provided important links to developers of exemplary

materials and also provided the development projects with guidance on how to

make useful products.

The support of established institutions,

while essential initially, has become less important over time. CONDUIT was originally established as a consortium of major

educational computing networks and university computer centers. These institutions

and networks provided the testing ground

and data base for the early CONDUIT investigations into the area of sharing and

transporting educational software.

It is possible to increase the supply of highquality, marketable materials by conveying

appropriate guidelines and standards to

authors and developers. CONDUIT has

found that as more authors and development projects use its guides, the amount of

quality materials available for distribution

has increased.

From 3 to 4 years are needed in order to

realize a return on investment for quality

computer-based instructional materials.
Ch. 7—State of Research and Development in Educational Technology c 137

This figure may be shortened somewhat as

the number of computers increases. However the present situation is such that the

time period required for return on investment is too long for most commercial publishers.

In creating and demonstrating the market

for high-technology materials, quality of

products is more critical than quantity.
Chapter 8

Conditions That May Affect

the Further Application of

Information Technology

in Education

Chapter 8

Conditions That May Affect the

Further Application of Information

Technology in Education

When attempting to forecast how, when, and where information technology

might be utilized in the education process, particularly by publicly funded institutions operating on the elementary, secondary, and postsecondary level, it is necessary to look at what is and what is not known about present uses and potential

applications. While certain forms of information technology-television, for

example-have been in use in education for a number of years and maybe evaluated

based on widespread applications (e.g., the programming developed by the Children’s

Television Workshop), other forms of technology-such as the microcomputer and

the video disk-are relatively new and in what might be described as the initial

stages of utilization.

Whether or not these technologies live up to their potential in educational

environments such as the school, the workplace, and the home is difficult to predict,

even in light of successful demonstrations made possible through public and private

funding. A discussion of what is known about current conditions and common

perceptions in segments of the education community where technologies have had

some impact and a description of perceptions of hardware and software vendors

about the structure and potential of the education market are the best means to

gain an understanding of the circumstances that now prevail.

Available Data on Educational Applications

Since few measures have been made of how

information technology is presently being applied in public and private schools, this discussion is limited to interpretations of data collected about the use of microcomputers, terminals, video cassette recorders, and video

disks.

Microcomputers and Terminals

Based on results of a 1980 survey of a sample of 579 of 15,834 school districts in the

United States, it was projected that about onehalf of all districts had one or more computer

terminals available for student use. Within

these districts, approximately one out of four

schools (or one-half of all public institutions

on the secondary level, 14 percent of those on

the elementary level, and 19 percent of the

vocational, special education and other types)

had at least one microcomputer or terminal

dedicated to student instruction (see table 27).

This number seems large in the aggregate.

However, within individual school districts

computer availability to individual students

is severely limited. About 18 percent of the

local education agencies—the majority small

districts of 2,500 students or less–had no

plans to initiate computer-based student instruction for the following 3 years (see table

28). It was determined that some 52,000 microcomputers and terminals were scattered

throughout local school districts for student

use, with microcomputers outnumbering terminals by 3 to 2.1 A 1982 industry survey con-

‘Student Use of CimputeIS in Schools (WaAington, D. C.: National Center for Education Statistics, 1981).

141
142 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table 27.—Public School Districts Providing Students Access to at Least One Computer for Educational

Purposes: United States, 1980 (table entries are school districts providing access)

Type of school, by grade level

Combined elementary/

Total (at least secondary schools More than

one level) Elementary level Secondary level and special schools one level

Type of access (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

At least one microcomputer or

one terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,606 2,196 6,161 678 1,884

(in percents of column 1)

At least one microcomputer or

one terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,606 29 87 9 25

At least one microcomputer . . . . . . 6,631 29 84 9 22

At least one terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,973 21 99 5 25

At least one microcomputer and

one terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,998 17 95 3 15

NOTE :Column 1 represents the unduplicated number of districts providing access to computers at any level, Since some districts make computers available at more

than one type of school, the percepts in cols. 2-4 include duplicated counts of districts. The difference between the total duplicated counts (cols. 2-4) and the

unduplicated count (col. 1) represents the percent of districts providing computer access at more than one level (coI. 5).

SOURCE: Student Use of Computers in Schools (Washington, DC.: National Center for Educational Statistics, 1981).

Table 28.—Availability of Computers Within

Districts: United States, Fall 1980

By number of computers per district

Number of available Districts providing access

computers per district To microcomputers To terminals

At least one . . . . . . . . . 6,631 2,973

(in percents)

At least one . . . . . . . . . 100 100

One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 35

2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 37

5-1o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 14

11-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6

More than 20 . . . . . . . . 3 8

By the number of schools with access, per district

Number of schools Districts providing access

with access per At elementary At secondary

district schools schools

ducted by Strategic, Inc., provides forecasts

of microcomputer usage in public and private

elementary, secondary, and postsecondary

schools as well as projections of microcomputer courseware sales through 1990.

Assuming a total new shipment base of 36,000

units of hardware in 1980, there will have been,

by the end of 1990,2,030,000 such shipments

to schools. In addition, by the end of 1990 the

installed base of microcomputers will grow

from 70,000 in 1980 to 8,860,000, with the

average cost per unit dropping from $2,100 in

1980 to $1,100.2 Computer courseware sales

are expected to increase during the same

period from $4.7 million to $257.5 million. If

the projected aftermarket (the sales carried

over from previous years, including courseware sold with microcomputer systems and replacement software) is factored into the projection, the total sales figure is expected to rise

from $6.4 million in 1980 to $599.1 million (see

table 29.)

In yet another study of the potential 1980

educational market for hardware sales, schools

represented the smallest of five potential

markets. The other four—in rank order—were

small business, scientific, home and office, but

a projected growth rate of 300 percent by 1985

would place annual sales at $145 million by

that year.3 However, by 1985, the school

‘The newest generation of home computers now sell for between $300 and $1,000, which has made it possible for many

more parents to consider purchasing them as educational aids

for their children (“The Home Computer Arrives,” New York

Times, June 17, 1982, D-1, D-6).

‘Interview with Denis P. Hoye, Director, U.S. Client Services,

Strategic, Inc., San Jose, Caiif., regarding report entitled Up

date on Educational Software: (2mverging Technologies and

Strategies, report No. 1500, 1982.
Ch. 8—Conditions That May Affect the Further Application of Information Technology in Education ● 143

Table 29.—Total Shipments of Microcomputers

in Public and Private Schools Operating on the

Elementary, Secondary, and Postsecondary Levels

and Forecasts of Courseware Sales

Total shipments 1980 1985 End of 1990

Total new

shipments . . 36,000 600,000 2,030,000

Installed base . 70,000 1,630,000 8,860,000

Average cost

per unit . . . . $2,100 $1,600 $1,100

Courseware sales

New courseware

sold . . . . . . . . $4.7 million $77.3 million $257.5 million

Aftermarket

sales (carryover from

previous

years and

courseware

sold with

systems). . . . $1.7 million $51.5 million $341.6 million

Total . . . . . . . $6.4 million $128.8 million $599.1 million

SOURCE Update on Educational Software: Converging Technologies and

Strategies (San Jose, Calif. Strategic, Inc , 1982)

market was projected to grow at a rate of 300

percent, placing annual sales at $145 million

by that year.

Other factors complicate this picture of market potential. In a 1981 study of 15,442 school

districts, it was found that 42 percent had at

least one microcomputer (6,441) with 43 percent of these being senior high schools. Junior

high and high schools with larger enrollments

were found to be the most likely to have acquired microcomputers, as were those schools

with per-student instructional materials budgets of over $60,000.4

4“Market Survey Discovers Where the Micros Are, ” Ekctronic Learning, March/April 1982, p. 14.

Video Cassette Recorders

and Video Disk

The growth rate of the general market for

video cassette recorders is expected to be very

high, based on 1980 estimates of 1.5 million

recorders and 6 million prerecorded cassettes

sold. However, there are no projections that

differentiate the education or school market

from other markets such as the home, so

growth in this type of utilization is hard to

predict. 5

Views differ about the potential popularity

of video disk, even in light of successful programs such as the “First National Kidisc.”

One study estimated that sales to all types of

consumers were less than 50,000 in 1980, although manufacturers predicted that 250,000

units and 5 million video disks would be sold

in 1981.6 Another market analysis, conducted

by Strategic, Inc., in 1982, suggests that by

1985 when educational programs and disks

become more widely available, over 250,000

video disk players integrated with microcomputers will be in use. Again, this analysis does

not isolate the school market. At present,

Department of Education officials estimate

that there may be less than 100 video disk

units in place in schools.7

“’Videopublishing: Licensing, Manufacturing and Distribution, ” LINK Research Memorandum, vol. 2, No. 15, December

1981.

‘Ibid.

‘F. B. Withrow and L. G. Roberts, “The Videodisc: Putting

Education on a Silver Platter,” Ekctronic Learning, May/June

1982, pp. 43-44.

Climate for Use of Information

in the Schools

Information gathered in this study about the most common

Technology

use, followed by drill and

the use of information technology in selected practice and some simulation exercises. Comschool districts seems to indicate that the puter literacy courses are particularly popular

computer-based education is far and away the in some areas on the junior high level.8

most accepted at this time. As the case studies

in this report illustrate, computer literacy pro- 8A. Luehrmann, “Computer Literacy: What It Is; Why It’s

grams for instructors and students represent Important, ” Electronic Learning, May/June 1982, PP. 20, 22.
144 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

A 1980 survey of school districts sponsored

by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) confirms the widespread frequency of computer literacy courses within schools

with at least one terminal or microcomputer.

NCES also cites cases where the computer has

been used to improve student learning in

selected subject areas and to stimulate high

achievers. Less than half of the districts

responding to the survey utilize the computer

in remedial and compensatory programs.

When sample districts contacted in the course

of the survey were asked to identify operational and planning needs critical to the initiation of use or to the expanded use of computerassisted instruction, the two most frequently

mentioned were teacher training and greater

variety of instructional software programs.

Approximately one-third of all districts indicated the need for assistance in program planning, technical support once programs are initiated, and financial assistance for hardware

and software purchases.9 Taken together, the

OTA case studies of local school districts show

that funding often became a critical factor in

the use of computers in education, especially

in light of reductions in Federal support to

schools, as well as diminishing State and local

resources. When traditional funding sources

in these districts were insufficient or unavailable for establishing computer programs, com-

‘National Center for Education Statistics, op. cit.

puter manufacturers or foundations were approached and/or individual parents or PTAs

made donations. These efforts were not equally successful, since local communities vary

significantly with respect to the level of

resources that they can make available for educational activities.

The lack of available courseware was also

identified in the case studies as a major

obstacle to initiation and/or expansion of computer education programs in schools. Often,

when hardware is available and when instructors have a positive view of it, the lack of commercial courseware induces teachers to create

their own courseware either through use of

school purchased authoring systems or other

means. The quality of this courseware varies

significantly, frequently because instructors

have mastered—usually on their own initiative—only the basics of the authoring system

or programing language.10

In some instances, the price of the courseware may be an obstacle to more widespread

computer use. Table 30 includes information

on the average prices, which range from $37.00

to over $200.00, for courseware available for

sale through industry, Government, and

foundations. ll

‘OA. Bork, Large &ale Production and Distribution of Cbmputerh’dedLaming Modukw (Irvine, Calif.: Educational Technology Center, University of California, n.d.).

11 The Education] Microcomputer Software Mdcet (OA

Park, Ill.: TALMIS, 1981).

Table 30.-The Educational Courseware Industry
Ch. 8—Conditions That May Affect the Further Application of /formation Technology in Education ● 145

Incorporating the use of the computer in a

traditional school environment-characterized

by set class schedules, primarily daytime programs-can present some complex problems,

even if the technology is highly valued as an

effective and efficient instructional resource.

Teacher resistance may also be a factor, in the

use, or the extent of use, especially if limited

school budgets have resulted in heavier teaching loads and less time for teachers to consider

possible new pedagogical approaches. A lack

of understanding of the potential of the technology in the classroom and the lack of instructor knowledge of programing or use of

authoring packages for courseware development may also determine if and how information technologies will be applied.

Hardware and Educational Software

Vendors: Views of the Education Market

In addition to conditions that might affect

the use of technology in the schools, there are

certain circumstances that may have a bearing on how producers of hardware and educational software approach the education market–in particular, publicly funded institutions.

For several years, hardware producers, especially manufacturers of microcomputers

such as Tandy, Apple, and Commodore, have

attempted to develop the school market while

cultivating the home market. Apple and Commodore have in some instances placed micros

in schools free of charge, in order to create

awareness in teachers and administrators as

well as to create opportunities for experimentation. In most instances to date, the companies were responding to requests of school

districts. Apple and other producers have also

been active in pushing for Federal legislation

that would create tax incentives for the donation of computers and related equipment to

elementary and secondary schools. H.R. 5573,

“The Technology Education Act of 1982, ” introduced in the 97th Congress calls for raising the maximum allowable corporate charitable contribution from 10 to 30 percent of

annual income. The bill was stimulated by Apple’s offer to donate computer centers to

75,000 elementary and secondary schools—a

gift valued at between $200 million and $300

million.

The central problem faced by microcomputer producers and manufacturers of other

types of hardware, such as the video cassette

recorder and the video disk, is that they cannot define the real potential of the school

market either in its individual segments or in

its aggregate form. A recent industry-sponsored market analysis for video disk, for example, cautioned against being overly optimistic about sales to all types of consumers

over the next few years.12 And, as is illustrated

by the variety of different projections on

microcomputer sales in general and potential

sales to educators in particular, the future

response to this technology is still open to

question. Because of these uncertainties, using

existing sales strategies with the school market as a way of testing the market potential

without having to add significantly to market

overhead. However, this approach may further

impede potential sales, if hardware and software specialists unfamiliar with curriculum

design and other aspects of school administration attempt to sell to educators.

“LINK Research Memorandum, op. cit.
146 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Conditions Affecting Commercial

Courseware

A recent issue of Electronic Learning contains a directory of zoo educational software

producers.

13 An industry-sponsored study conducted in 1980 identified some 304 educational

software developers—including traditional

print publishers, hardware manufacturers,

software firms of various sizes, and foundations and government-sponsored projects (see

table 31). Although, these numbers would seem

to suggest that the educational courseware

business is thriving, this is not the case. There

is considerable skepticism—especially within

the software industry-about the school market and its potential. Industry representatives

interviewed in the course of the 1982 Strategic, Inc., survey were concerned about the

difficulty of segmenting the software market

in order to develop products targeted to particular grade levels and subject matter needs.

Print publishers who have entered the industry are doing so judiciously in most cases

by adapting existing textbooks to machinereadable form or by creating software to

enhance existing textbooks and other hardcopy materials. This situation differs from

that in the software development market for

personal computers where there are now some

1,000 active firms and over 5,000 available

programs.14 Some hardware and software

firms have developed authoring systems for

use by educators, but commercial courseware

now available does not meet many of the needs

of local school systems. Courseware quality is

also of concern to some educators. At the same

time, the up-front costs associated with

courseware development—estimated by one

industry representative at over $250,000 per

package—is more than most firms, given the

market uncertainties, want to risk on an

“unknown quantity. ” The Department of

Education’s recently announced “Technology

Initiative” provides for matching funds to be

made available to commercial software devel-

●

‘

s

’’ Electronic Learnin g Software Directory,” Electronic Learning, May/June 1982, 1-A-1O-A.

“’’Using Personal Computers, ” LINK Research Repor4 vol.

3, No. 1, 1982.

Development

Table 31.—What Are the Industries

Competing for Business

Education/AV publishers—Companies traditionally supplying books and AV products to the school marketplace.

12 companies during the period under study (18 with

products as of September 1981) including:

Educational Activities

Milliken

Random House

Scott Foresman

SRA

Society for Visual Education

Sterling Swift Publishing

Hardware Manufacturers-- Microcomputers manufactures

developing courseware products for the schools.

5 companies, including:

Apple

Atari

Commodore

Tandy

Texas Instruments

Software houses—Software companies selling more than

$85,000 in courseware or companies with total software sales

over $150,000.

19 companies, including:

Brain Box

Creative Computing Software

Data Command

Edu-Ware

Hartley Software

Micro-Ed

MicroSoft

MUSE

Programs Design, Inc.

Small developers-Software companies selling less than

$85,000 in courseware and with total sales of all products less

than $150,000.

Approximately 250 companies (13.6°/0 sampled for this

report-see app. IX), including:

Avant-Garde Creations

Betamax

Bluebird’s

Cook’s Computer Co.

Custom Computer

Educational Courseware

Micro pi

Teacher’s Pet

T. H. E. S.I.S.

Teach Yourself by Computer

Foundations and Government-sponsored projects—Organized development and dissemination projects sponsored by

private foundations, schools, and local, State, or Federal

Government.

Approximately 12 agencies, including:

Apple Education Foundation

CONDUIT

Department of Education

MECC

National Science Foundation

SOURCE: The Education/ Microcomputer Software Market (Oak Parkl Ill,:

TALMIS, 1981),
Ch. 8—Conditions That May Affect the Further Application of Information Technology in Education ● 147

opers to assist in the creation of courseware unknown, however, whether this incentive will

for the schools that, because of market size, be sufficient to attract more commercial

may not otherwise be developed. It is still interest.

Summary of Current Conditions

Given what is known about present applications of information technology in the schools,

it is clear that the use of computers and other

forms of technology is far from being institutionalized at this time. Limited school funds,

educators’ limited recognition of the potential

of the technology, limited computer literacy

among instructors and students, and the limited variety and range in high-quality, commercial courseware have all contributed to this

situation. It is difficult to predict when or if

conditions in publicly funded educational institutions will change. However, expanded use

of information technology-especially computers—in the home and in the workplace may

result in pressure from parents, students, and

even employers on local school districts to

utilize technology in the instructional process.
Chapter 9

Federal Role in Education

Chapter 9

Federal Role in Education

The Federal Government has long been involved in encouraging or providing financial

assistance to State and local educational agencies. The first Federal aid to education occurred with the passage of the Land Ordinance

in 1785. Federal aid continues today in a very

expanded capacity.

Most Federal education initiatives often attempted to address or remedy issues not directly related to education. For example, the

early land grants were designed not only to

ensure public education in the newly formed

territories but also to “make public lands more

attractive to prospective buyers.”1 In the 19th

century, the Merrill Act was enacted to respond to the growing educational need for

practical higher education in the areas of science, agriculture, and industrial training. Simi-

——.-——

‘L. E. Gladieier and T. R. Wolanin, Cimgress and the CMlegw

(Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1976).

Education

The Early Years: 1642-1860

In 1642, the Massachusetts General Court

passed the Massachusetts Bay Law establishing a precedent of local responsibility for education. This act and the subsequent legislation

of 1647, the Old Deluder Law, which called for

the creation of local public schools according

to population size, were extended on a national

scale in 1785 by the passage of land ordinances. Under these ordinances, moneys were

set aside from the sale of lands and dedicated

to the maintenance of public schools. This

principle of Federal aid was consistently affirmed through a series of land grants (Statehood Acts) throughout the next century. Historians have debated the intent of the legislators in

fied a

rights

these actions—whether this effort signiconcerted attempt to preempt State

in educational matters. Nevertheless,

larly, in 1917 a vocational education act was

passed to reorient local education programs

to meet the needs of changing labor markets.

By the 1950’s, an expanded Federal role in

providing educational services was deemed

necessary. Support came in numerous forms,

from grants for school construction and veteran assistance to impact aid programs. By 1965

a Federal role in education had been generally

accepted. The questions raised were no longer,

what role, if any, should the Federal Government play; instead, Congress sought to determine what type of investment should be made

and where and how it would be most effective.

The “how” signified the next important shift

in the educational debate—from Congress to

the courts. Today many educational issues are

resolved in the judicial arena. In resolving

these issues the courts rely on interpretations

of the constitution as well as on recent educational legislation.

Legislation

98.5 million acres had been set aside for educational purposes by the Federal Government.2

The omission of education from express inclusion in the constitution has often been the

focus of the debate concerning the extent of

the Federal Government’s role in the educational system. Despite its absence, the framers

and other leaders of the time repeatedly called

for such a Federal role. Most of the proposals,

however, were directed at higher education.

For President Washington, a Federal role was

important for three reasons. First, there was

a desire to encourage a strictly American rather than a European education. Second, he perceived that nationally sponsored education

would eliminate sectional and local prejudices.

And third, as indicated in his Farewell Ad-

‘S. W. Tiedt, The Role of the Federal Government in Education (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966).

151
152 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

dress, Washington considered “the promotion

of political intelligence as a national safeguard. ” Despite his urgings and the urgings

of other leaders, the principal of local control

as set forth in the Massachusetts Bay Law remained constant.3

The land grants and the Enabling Acts or

Statehood Acts are the most comprehensive

Federal policy implemented during this time.

Other individual educationally oriented projects were passed by Congress but they were

aimed at specific educational concerns such as

the founding in 1802, of the U.S. Military

Academy at West Point.

Other Federal aid during this era took the

form of surplus revenue from the Treasury Department. Moneys were distributed to the

States but had no specific target. Much of the

surplus revenue was channeled into the public

schools by the States. Also the Preemption

Act of 1841 and the granting in 1849 of lands

to the States by the Federal Government converted further Federal moneys to the public

schools.

During this time, universal public education

became accepted. This new system of public

education was accompanied by the development of a professional class of educators. By

the closing years of the 19th century, this

group became a highly effective educational

lobby.

The Years 1860-1930

Between 1860 and 1930, the role and influence of the Federal Government in the educational system increased markedly.4 Although

this growth was, to a great extent, the result

of the Civil War, it was also dictated by the

Nation’s shift to an industrial society, coupled

with great demographic changes. More importantly, the U.S. Government in the post-War

period pursued many heretofore State and local concerns of which education was just one.

‘G. Lee, The Strategies for Federal Aid: First Phase, 187@

1890 (New York: Columbia University Teachers College, 1949).

4Tiedt, op. cit.

Much of the post-Civil War activity was directed at rectifying regional inequities in the

South. Educational measures enacted by the

Republicans allowed for unprecedented Federal influence in southern institutions. Also, the

illiteracy rates in the Nation, particularly in

the South (42 percent rate of illiteracy), were

extraordinarily high, necessitating some sort

of Federal remedy.

The passage of the Merrill Act of 1862,

which set aside land for the establishment of

schools, signified the first such Federal aid to

schools. 5 However, unlike earlier land ordinances, the act’s target was institutions of

higher education. The arguments in the debate

over the Merrill Act are strikingly similar to

those raised in educational debates today: its

constitutionality, the preemption of States

rights, its selectivity of focus, and the cost of

the legislation, were all cited as cause for defeat. In its favor were arguments citing a demonstrated need for agricultural, industrial, and

scientific and technological training, and citing

regional inequities in need of remedy.6

The next significant Federal initiative was

the creation of the Office of Education in 1867.

The debate concerning its establishment, while

continuing to focus on what role, if any, the

Federal Government should play in traditional

State and local affairs, also raised the question of public v. private education. A Federal

role was seen as posing a threat to private education, and the Catholic Church lobbied extensively against the bill. The education department that ultimately emerged was empowered

to collect educational data and statistics, to

disseminate information concerning education,

and to encourage educational endeavors. Establishing a Federal role, the creation of the

Office of Education lead to the formation of

congressional committees with specific educational responsibilities. In 1869, the Department of Education was relegated to bureau

status and was transferred to the Department

of the Interior. By 1930, the bureau was affiliated with the Federal Security Agency and

‘Lee, op. cit.

‘Ibid.
Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education ● 153

later with the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.’

Two other acts were passed before the close

of the century, the Hatch Act of 1887 and the

second Merrill Act. The former added agricultural experimental stations to the land grant

colleges, and the latter committed additional

Federal funds to certain areas of higher education.

A number of other educationally related proposals were considered but not passed. These

are pertinent because in many ways they

formed the framework of the educational debate that continues today. The Hoar bill, introduced in 1870, sought to establish a national

system of education. It proposed the creation

of “satisfactory common schools, and where

the States failed to do so, to authorize the Federal Government to provide them.”8 Hoar envisioned his proposal as one of”. . . protection

for American economic interests. No American

statesman will be unwilling to give the American workman the advantage in the great industrial competition which results from superiority of knowledge.”9 The bill did not specify

Federal aid, but instead advocated that a Federal standard be set nationally for schools. As

such, it represented to some an intrusion into

State concerns. As with other initiatives of the

time, it was specifically targeted at southern

institutions.

The Hoar bill resulted in the coalescing of

positions of professional groups concerned

with educational issues. It also created an

awareness in Congress of the issues involved

in an educational debate. The National Education Association (NEA) roundly denounced the

legislation because it specified a Federal role

but not Federal assistance. The Catholic lobby viewed the legislation as an intrusion into

Catholic educational practices and as an attempt

‘Ibid.

‘Ibid; and S. Tiedt, The Role of Federal Aid: First Phase,

18701890 (New York: Oxford University Press).

‘Brookings Institution, The llff~ts of Federal Programs on

Higher Education (Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution,

1962); and C. Dobbins (cd.), Higher Education and the Federal

Governmen~ Programs and Problems (Washington, D. C.:

American Council on Education, 1967).

to create one educational norm for the country. Moreover, this bill, along with others discussed below, raised issues concerning the

Federal role and Federal assistance that were

not resolved until 1965 with the passage of the

Elementary and Secondary Education Act

(ESEA). The issue of equity associated with

a single national standard is in many respects

similar to those parts of ESEA that allocate

moneys for the educationally disadvantaged.

Two bills, the Pearce bill of 1872 and the

Burnside bill of 1879, proposed a national fund

for public education from the sale of public

lands. The earlier bill sought to assist States

that would provide free education to children

between the ages of 6 and 16. The moneys

raised were to be used for teachers’ salaries.

It is interesting to note that the bill was

amended to recognize segregated schools;

thus, it signaled a recognition of race as an

issue in the educational debate. The latter bill

differed in that land grant colleges were eligible to receive one-third of the educational

grants from the land sales. In addition, the

educational fund was to be supported with surplus moneys from the Patent Office. These

revenues, combined with those from the land

sales, were to be invested in U.S. bonds, thus

establishing a permanent educational fund.

Both bills failed to pass both houses. They also

signified a return to the segmented as opposed

to a national approach to educational concerns.

Although no education bills were passed in

this decade, they did serve to raise issues central to the education debate. A concurrent development was a significant growth in organized educational advocacy groups and lobbies. For example, NEA experienced unprecedented development and growth as a professional group and lobby that could, wholesale,

either support or reject education measures.

This had not happened previously.

The education legislation considered in the

1880’s differed from previous funding mechanisms in that it sought to provide Federal revenue for education directly to the States. It

also proposed temporary aid as opposed to
154 ● informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

long-term aid. In this regard, the Blair bill, introduced five times in this decade and passed

by the Senate three times, is of particular interest. It stipulated that Federal aid should

be provided for 10 years to address emergency conditions in the South, that States were

to supply matching funds, that funds were to

be distributed according to State illiteracy

rates (of persons over 10 years old), that denominational schools were to be excluded, and

that the funds were to be granted within Federal guidelines.10

More than any other education legislation,

the Blair bill brought educational issues to the

fore. None of the measures incorporated into

the bill had ever been addressed together, in

such a comprehensive way, before. Public

awareness was stimulated and pressures were

exerted. Groups that actively participated in

the Blair bill debate included not only NEA

and the Catholic lobby but also Protestant denominations, business interests, agricultural

interests, the press, and political parties. For

the first time, education was included as a

platform issue by the Republican Party. The

Democratic Party strongly advocated State’s

rights and local authority over education policy.

The first education-related proposal enacted

in the early part of the 20th century was the

Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. It provided matching funds to States for developing curricula

in agricultural, industrial, and home economics; for administrative costs; and for teachers’

salaries. This act was amended continuously

until 1968. The George-Barden Act of 1946 increased the number of vocational education

programs and placed administration of these

programs in the Office of Education. From

then on, the amendments to the legislation

reduced the Federal role in agricultural areas

and placed more emphasis on education for the

disadvantaged.

Very little educationally oriented legislation

was considered or passed during the next several decades. Between 1935 and 1943, the Na-

‘OP. Morgan, “Academia and the Federal Government, ” Policy Studes Journal vol. 10, September 1981, p. 75.

tional Youth Administration (NYA) channeled

funds to a number of institutions in support

of work study programs. Over 600,000 students benefited from the NYA programs.ll

Some teachers and some school construction

were funded under a variety of New Deal programs (CCC, WPA, and the Federal Emergency Relief Administration), but none of these

measures signified an increased Federal role.

This scarcity of legislation was due primarily

to the Nations’ fiscal crisis and to the fear by

legislators that any program once instituted

would become permanent.

Several education bills were proposed during the 1930’s and 1940’s that reintroduced

the concept of general Federal aid, but none

were successful. A bill for a student loan program, the first of its kind, passed in 1943. Juniors and seniors in high school and graduate

and professional students in the fields of science, health, and engineering were eligible for

federally sponsored loans if, following completion of their studies, they joined the war effort. Also, the Serviceman’s Readjustment

Act of 1944, the GI bill, and Public Law 16

for disabled veterans were passed. The GI bill

was amended to include Korean veterans. As

with the case in secondary education, a pattern of connecting educational legislation to

other national concerns was also set in higher

education. “Its (the Government’s) interest

was confined to using higher education to deal

with specific national problems. ”12 The legislation did revive the religious and racial controversies. Federal aid to education was mentioned in the Democratic Party platform in

1944 with the stipulation that any aid provided be administered by the States. Aid to

education was not included in the Republican

platform until 1948.

The Expanding Federal Role:

1950-1970’s

By proposing school construction grants to

local communities, most of the congressional

“Ibid.

“J. L. Jundquist, PoL”tics and Policy, The Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson Years (Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution, 1968.)
—-— ———

Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education “ 155

initiative relating to education in the 1950’s

sought to circumvent the divisive religious issues inherent in the educational debate. It

therefore became politically attractive to support this form of Federal aid, which was based

on the increasing numbers of children entering

the school population (baby boom.) In 1941,

the Lanham Act was passed providing assistance to local communities in lieu of tax revenues to soften the impact of the war effort on

State and local governments. Moneys were

allocated to nursery schools and other schoolrelated needs and were later expanded into the

Impact Aid programs. The funds and scope

of the Lanham Act were increased by Public

Law 815 and Public Law 874, which provided

construction and operating grants to State

and local districts.

The continuing debate concerning an appropriate Federal role led to President Eisenhower’s establishing a White House Conference on Education in 1954. The task force

recommended that the Federal Government

should provide financial aid to State and local

communities for educational purposes. It concluded that there was an appropriate role for

the Federal Government in educational

matters.

The National Defense Education Act (NDEA)

of 1958 was passed as a consequence of the

widely held belief that the educational system

was inadequate in mathematics, science, and

foreign language instruction. This belief was

directly related to the successful launching of

the Soviet spacecraft, Sputnik. Moneys were

provided on a matching basis to public schools

and as long-term loans to private institutions

for needed equipment in these instructional

fields, for curriculum development, for guidance counseling, for vocational education in

defense-related fields, and for teacher training

in foreign language instruction. The passage

of NDEA resulted in a substantial increase in

Federal aid to education. Since Federal dollars

had to be matched by State and local funds

under provisions of the act, the overall investment in NDEA programs was large. Between

1958 and 1961, $163.2 million in Federal money were dispersed. Approximately 75 percent

of these funds were directed at developing science curricula.

The passage of NDEA led to an examination of Federal role in postsecondary education. This examination was also fostered by

the increasing numbers of students entering

postsecondary institutions. The educational

legislation passed in the 1950’s, which included postsecondary provisions, together

with the legislation passed in the 1960’s paved

the way for major legislation in the 1970’s.

This steady growth of Federal involvement,

culminating with the passage of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 (Public Law

92-318), was similar in process to the development of the Federal role in secondary education.

Two major pieces of legislation that Congress passed in the 1960’s were the Vocational

Education Act of 1963 and the Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963. The former was a

much expanded version of the Smith-Hughes

Act of 1917, establishing a permanent program for vocational education and setting

aside 10 percent of the annual appropriations

for research and development (R&D) projects

in vocational demonstration projects. Concomitant to the passage of the Vocational Education Act was the passage of two amendments

to NDEA, that extended the act and increased

the amount of funds available for student

loans. The latter provided Federal aid for construction of facilities at postsecondary institutions. This act was aptly named the “bricks

and mortar act. ” Community junior colleges

were covered by this legislation as was the construction of libraries at these institutions.13

The next major educational act, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA),

was passed in 1965. Its passage signaled an

unprecedented entry by the Federal Government into educational affairs. Between the

passage of these two landmark educational

acts, Congress and members of the educational community continuously debated what an

expanded Federal role in education should en-

‘

g

Ibid.
756 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

tail. In 1964, during the Johnson administration, the War on Poverty had become a domestic priority. ESEA, which was one outcome,

focused on the poor and disadvantaged child.

It incorporated a wide range of programs

which, while ensuring the acts passage by

their complexity, ultimately seriously hindered its effectiveness. However, a diversity

of interests rallied to support the act. As with

previous educational legislation, a constituency was built around a noneducational issue.

At this time the three main issues to overcome

in enacting any educational legislation at this

time were church and state relations, State

rights versus Federal control, and race relations.14

ESEA provided funds for educational R&D,

for promoting educational innovation, and for

assisting State agencies to establish these programs. The five original titles addressed many

issues. Title I provided Federal funds to areas

with concentrations of educationally and economically deprived children. Other titles of the

act were designed to assist State agencies in

various areas: title II—school libraries, textbooks, and instructional materials; title III–

educational services and resource centers; title

IV–educational R&D; and title V–State administrative needs. (See appendix of this chapter.)

Initially, two poverty indicators were used

to distribute ESEA funds: based on the 1960

census: 1) the number of children between 5

and 17 from families with an income of less

than $2,000, and 2) the number of children between 5 and 17 from families with income exceeding $2,000 receiving aid under title IV of

the Social Security Act, Aid to Families With

Dependent Children. Responsibilities for administering the act rested with both the Commission of Education and State and local education agencies.

The act was amended several times. The

supplemental enactments titles focused on the

issues of Federal regulation and grants, assist-

“F. J. Munger and R. F. Fenno, National Policies and Federal

Aid to Education (Syracuse, N. Y.: Syracuse University Press,

1962); and J. L. Jundquist, op. cit.

ance to the handicapped, and bilingual education. ESEA was designed so that its programs

would be administered by the State agencies

with local input. The Federal role would be to

distribute funds and to influence the work of

the States. Accordingly, control was maintained in the State and local communities,

resolving one of the major conflicts in the educational debate.15

Many of the amendments and changes in

ESEA were effected for political as well as for

educational reasons. One unanticipated outgrowth of the legislation was the use of ESEA

as a means of desegregating schools. Title VI

of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 stated that “no

person in the United States shall, on the

ground of race, color, or national origin be excluded from participation in, be denied benefit

of, or be subjected to discrimination under any

program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. ” ESEA was chosen as a conduit to enforce this title and to desegregate

schools. Another reason for modifying ESEA

was because its meaning was confusing. Every

title involved different interested parties and

different funding mechanisms and addressed

different educational concerns. Enforcement

and distribution of the funds was administered

by the Office of Education (OE), which traditionally relied on the State and local agencies

for advice and enforcement. OE was split over

what this massive and complex educational

legislation meant and how to implement it.

Many of the changes in the act reflected an

attempt to resolve these problems.

Many of the original concerns surrounding

ESEA still exist; its complexity, the amount

of funding, and dissatisfaction by State agencies over Federal regulations. Disillusioned by

‘6tJ. S. Berke and M. Kirst, Federal Aid to Education: Who

Benefik? Who Governs? (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1972);

F. M. Wirt and M. Kirst, The Politi”cd Web of American Schools

(Boston, Mass,: Little, Brown & Co., 1972); F. M. Wirt and M.

Kirst, The Political and Social Foundations of Education (Berke

ley, Calif.: McCutchan Publishing Corp., 1972); and M. Kirst,

“The Growth of Federal Influence in Education, ” in Uses of

the Sociology of Education, C, Wayne Gordon (cd.) (The 73rd

Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education,

Part II) (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education,

1974).
Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education ● 157

their concerns, both its proponents and opponents sought to amend the act.

The total funds allocated to federally sponsored programs appear to be a sizable Federal

investment in education ($8.8 billion in fiscal

year 1978-79). But when viewed as a proportion of a State and local education budget, the

Federal investment seems less significant.

Federal funds have accounted for between 6

and 9 percent of State and local education

budgets. Monetarily, then, this influence is relatively small.

Concerns by local and State officials over

regulations designed to enforce provisions of

the act have been extensive and numerous.

Many of the regulations resulted from the

original complexity of ESEA and from the

need to target funds to discreet groups with

special needs. Concerns and fears relating to

Federal control over State and local education

programs have not been realized. This has resulted from a combination of factors: the small

investment in each program per community

or per State by the Federal Government; staffing constraints at the Federal level, making

“control” or extensive influence difficult; provisions written into the act prohibiting such

authority; and, finally, State pressures against

increased Federal influence.16

“M. Timpane (cd.), The Federal Interest in Financing Schooling (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1974).

The

As ESEA moved into the

With the passage of education legislation in

the 1960’s and 1970’s, the role of the Federal

Government in education is, generally speaking,

●

●

●

●

●

.

fivefold:

—

Promotion of equal opportunity as exemplified by ESEA, the Education Amendments of 1972, by grants and legislation

for the handicapped, by desegregation efforts and bilingual decisions, and by

others.

Innovation and stimulation of education

reform through research grants, teacher

training, vocational education, reading

improvement programs, and others.

Provision of grants in support of educational research–the results of which could

have broad applications in the Nation’s

schools.

Promotion of educational preparation for

employment, which can be traced to the

Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. “The school’s

potential contribution to economic productivity was thus the first, and for a long

time, the only expressed national interest

in education. ’ ’17

Provision of limited funding targeting

specific needs areas such as planning

grants for management purposes on the

State level, equalization reforms for State

finance mechanisms, instructional equipment, and others.

“Ibid.

Courts and Education

implementation and political issues and which the legislative

phase, the educational debate moved into the

judicial arena. The courts have addressed numerous education-related issues ranging from

questions of student and teacher behavior to

those of access to educational resources. These

issues, traditionally addressed on the State

and local level and more recently by Congress,

have now become the work of the courts.

The schools have been caught up in the

complex multiracial and ethnic societal problems of our times which involve great moral

and ‘executive branches of the government

seem unwilling or unable to resolve. Although

lawyers and law courts in general possess no

special expertise in educational matters, they

have nonetheless been called upon to lend a

helping hand with these school problems,

which are fundamentally a function of social

change taking place in society over the past

twenty years or more. 18

— —- ------

“J. Hogan, “Law, Society and the Schools, ” in Uses of the

%cio)ogy of Education, C. W. Gordon (cd.) (The 73rd Yearbook

of Education, Part 111) (Chicago: National Society for the Study

of Education, 1974), p. 411.
158 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

The involvement of the courts in educational

issues can, from a historical perspective, be

divided into three phases. Prior to 1850, educational issues were considered by the judiciary

as State and local matters with no court role.

Between 1850 and 1950, the court maintained

this stance. When many parents brought cases

before the courts, the courts usually found

that the 10th amendment declared education

to be a State and local responsibility. The third

stage, from 1950 to present, can be characterized as one of active judicial involvement in

educational issues, particularly by the Supreme

Court. During this period the courts were involved in all aspects of education, including

administration, program development, and

organization.

Desegregation. –Court involvement in educational matters began in 1954 with the landmark Brown v. the Topeka Board of Education decision. In the Brown case, the courts

declared that schools that were deliberately

segregating children on the basis of race were

inherently unequal and thus were creating a

situation that was unacceptable. “Separate

but equal” was found to constitute a violation

of the 14th amendment. This decision not only

paved the way for desegregating schools in the

South; it also opened up many other legal

issues that are still being contested today.

Nevertheless, the Brown decision did not truly

become effective until the passage of the Civil

Rights Act of 1964. Since the Brown case,

courts have addressed such questions as those

relating to church and state relations in the

schools, to free speech, to the financing of education, to curriculum, and to student and

teacher rights. Most of these cases focused on

the first and 14th amendments. In general, the

courts held that State and local governments

should retain their authority over most educational matters.

Religion in the Schools.—In one major area

of court involvement, church and state relations, the first and the 10th amendments have

been used to balance competing constitutional

questions. The courts have drawn a very fine

line in their decisions regarding religious issues in education, and no clear pattern has

emerged. The courts have ruled, for example,

that there can be no direct aid to parochial

schools, yet the States may lend textbooks to

these institutions. In addition, parents can be

reimbursed for transportation costs to parochial schools. With regard to principles of free

speech, State laws requiring prayers in public

schools and those preventing the teaching of

the Darwinian theory of evolution in public

schools have been found to be unconstitutional. Similarly, the courts have ruled that enforced pledging of allegiance or saluting the

flag is in violation of the first amendment. In

general, questions or issues that impose specific standards of conduct on students and

teachers have been found to be unconstitutional. 19

Parental Right to Educate.–Another area

of limited court involvement has been the

question of parental right to educate children

in the home. Since questions arise from State

to State as to the legality of home instruction,

most parents do not openly acknowledge removing their children from the public school

system for fear of reprisal from State agencies

and ensuing court actions. It is estimated that

there are 1 million parents engaging in home

instruction. Thirty-two States now have legal

provisions for home instruction, but again,

these vary from State to State.

State and Local Funding Mechanisms.–

Nearly one-third of all State and local expenditures are education related. With increasing

pressures from the courts, from parents, from

interest groups, and from the Federal Government to provide educational services, local districts are reexamining the means by which

their programs are funded. School finance reform comes at a time of declining enrollment

in many parts of the country and in a climate

of reduced funding both on the State level (taxpayer revolts) and nationally, with budget reductions and challenges to the traditional

means of funding-property taxes. A brief historical examination of funding mechanisms is

merited because funding reforms will affect

the ability of State and local districts to in-

*

e

Ibid.
Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education ● 159

troduce information technologies into their

schools.

The educational structure in most Northeastern States largely followed that of Massachusetts, in which towns were divided into districts that retained responsibility over educational matters including school finance-a

practice that continued through the 18th century. In the early part of that century, Northern States began to exercise minimal control

over inspection, curriculum, and similar institutional concerns. Increasing State involvement gave rise to the growth of State boards

of education and, by the 19th century, the

State exercised a good deal of control over

educational matters through these boards.

Throughout this time of expanded State jurisdiction, financial control remained a local

responsibility.

The South, unlike the North, generally relied

heavily on the States for both administrative

tasks and financial support. This practice became widespread in the post-Civil War period,

at which time a system of State financing of

local districts was firmly established.

In the 20th century with the rise of industrialization and increased urbanization, localities turned more and more to the States for

financial relief from the growing educational

burden. It became evident at this time, as in

many of the cases before the courts today, that

there were wide discrepancies among districts

on the amount of funds expended per child and

per school. Some States did increase the funding allocations, though the impact was minimal and inequities remained.

By the 1960’s, spending on elementary and

secondary education was increasing at an annual rate of 10 percent, with enrollments growing by about 30 percent. In the 1970’s with

the rapid decline in enrollments, court challenges to the finance systems, and pressures

from taxpayers, made school finance reform

become a topic of debate in most State legislatures. Every State established commissions

to examine the financing systems, and 18

passed legislation to remedy recognized inequities. Thus, the early 1970’s was a period

of heightened activity within the State legislatures concerning school finance reform. The

latter part of the decade was a time of court

interpretations of State laws as well as a time

of interpreting new legislative actions.20

More recently, cases before the courts have

focused on financing mechanisms employed by

State and local governments for school districts. A series of cases have challenged the

means by which local communities finance

educational services, specifically property

taxes. In 1971, the California Supreme Court

struck down the State’s system of financing

education in the Serrano decision. The court

found that the California system, because it

discrimin ated against those living in propertypoor districts, violated the equal protection

clause of both the U.S. and California constitutions. In the Rodriguez v. San Antonio Independent School District, the U.S. Supreme

Court rejected claims similar to those in the

Serrano decision. In this instance, the court

declared that, although there was inequity in

the financing system in this Texas district,

there was “the absence of any evidence that

the financing system discriminates against

any definable category of poor people or that

it results in the absolute deprivation of education—the disadvantaged class is not susceptible of identification in traditional terms.’’”

Although the Rodriguez decision found that

Texas’ financing system was not unconstitutional, numerous cases before State courts continue to challenge State financing systems. In

early 1981, 31 cases relating to Serrano issues

were before the courts. The latest challenge,

in New York State, found that that State’s

financing system was, “constitutionally deficient” in that it discriminated against children

living in poor districts. Reliance on property

taxes to raise educational revenues has lead

to wide disparities in New York State. In the

decision it was noted that, although education

is not a Federal constitutional right, nor “such

a fundamental State constitutional right as to

‘OW. N. Grubb and S. Michelson, States and Schools (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1974).

~lD. L. K@ md M. G. Yudoff, Educational Poh”cy and the

Law(Berkeley, Calif.: McCurhan Publishing Corp., 1974), p. 587.
160 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

invoke special constitutional protection, it is

an interest of great State importance. ” ThereFederal Role

Federal support of museums is very recent

and began with the creation of the National

Endowments for the Arts and for the Humanities in 1965. The first program grants to

museums were initiated in 1971 by the National Endowment for the Arts. The endowments provide grants for projects or specific

endeavors. These funds may not be used for

operational purposes to support general programs.

Federal support for the general operation of

museums became available with the establishment of the Institute for Museum Services

(IMS) in 1977. IMS,

ment of Health and

Libraries began

amounts of Federal

now within the DepartHuman Services, is defore, the equal protection requirement of the

State constitution was invoked.

in Museums

signed to provide funds for rent, heat, lights,

and the like to museums. This institute has

no funding support in the current fiscal year.

Another avenue for support of museum programs, again in a limited fashion, is through

the National Science Foundation, which allocates funds to science museums, though the

educational division funding has been curtailed.

One of the most crucial forms of Federal support, albeit indirect, is through gifts or donations to museums by individuals or corporations. Tax deductions, made possible through

legislation, provide important incentives for

donors.

Federal Role in Libraries

to receive significant

aid only in the 1960’s,

“

when the Federal Government undertook a

major effort to provide services and opportunities to the disadvantaged members of society. The major pieces of legislation that provide for assistance to libraries include the following.”

● The Library Services and Construction Act

(LSCA) of 1964. Replacing the Library Services Act, this legislation provided a major

impetus to the use of and interest in libraries. Continually reauthorized since then, it

has served as one of the major channels

through which the Federal Government has

provided assistance to libraries.

● The Elementary and Secondary Education

Act of 1965. Title II of this act authorized

$100 million to be spent by States for school

2ZV. H. Matthews, h“braries for Today and Tomorrow (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1976.)

●

●

library resources. As a result, libraries were

established in the elementary schools in

many hundreds of cities and rural areas.

The Higher Education Act of 1965. Title I

of this act specified that 22 percent of the

funds provided be allocated for public community colleges and technical institutes.

Title II provided Federal assistance to college libraries. It authorized funds not only

for the purchase of books, periodicals, and

other library materials, but also for library

training programs and for R&D for new

ways to program, process, store, and distribute information.

The Federal Government has also provided

continued support to the Nation’ s-research

libraries-the Library of Congress, the National Library of Medicine, and the National

Library of Agriculture.

The momentum that developed in the 1960’s

in support of libraries began to wane in the

1970’s. The Nixon administration eliminated
Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education . 161

from its budget appropriations for all non-Federal libraries. The Carter budget for 1980 also

reduced library funding. It called for a $388

million reduction in Federal aid to schools and

libraries; it eliminated funds for college library

resources, training, and demonstrations; and

it significantly cut back funds for library services, interlibrary cooperation, and library materials. Similarly, the Reagan administration’s

proposals for libraries also call for greatly

reduced funding. Funding, for example, under

ESEA has been incorporated into block grants

under the Education Consolidation and Improvement Program.

Notwithstanding these significant reductions in the subsidies for libraries, the Federal

Government continues to provide substantial

support, most of it channeled through State

agencies. In fiscal year 1982, for example, total

Federal appropriations for library services under LSCA was $71,520,000, total appropriations for libraries and instructional and total

Federal appropriations under title II of the

Higher Education Act were $8,568,000.

Effect of Federal Telecommunication

Regulation and Legislation on Education

Regulations, statutes, and ordinances at all

three governmental levels have shaped the

growth and structure of the telecommunication industry and have significantly affected

the use of telecommunication technology by

educators. A number of regulations have attempted to foster the application of communication services to education directly (e.g.,

Federal Communication Commission (FCC)

rules governing instructional fixed television

systems).

However, while the focus and legislative intent of some regulations have been on the provision of educational services, others have focused exclusively on telecommunication per se,

disregarding their potential effects on education. These latter regulations, although necessary to effect the provision of telecommunication services, have inadvertently affected the use of modern telecommunication

technology for educational purposes by forcing educators to compete for its use with

wealthier and more politically powerful interests. This situation has had a detrimental

effect on education by preventing and inhibiting educators from realizing the benefits

of this technology. It has become increasingly apparent that telecommunication regulators

must recognize the impacts of their decisions

on education and must begin to take into account the interests and needs of education in

formulating national telecommunication

policy.

Governmental Control of

Telecommunication

Telecommunication is regulated at all three

governmental levels. On the local level, programming options are weighed and decisions are

made. For example, Instructional Television

Fixed Service (ITFS) licenses are, by their very

nature, confined to local delivery of information. Once FCC has granted an ITFS application, the local operator/licensee controls its

programing input and the extent of its output.

States have the authority to regulate cable

franchising by local municipalities and to set

up rate structures for the public utilities. Most

of the regulation of telecommunication, however, takes place at the Federal level, and it

is this level which is of primary interest here.

Governmental Control

of Education

Education is largely controlled at the local

and State levels. At the local level, it is carried out primarily by local school boards; while

accreditation and licensure functions are performed at the State level. The State’s exclusive power over education derives from the
162 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Reserved Powers Clause of the 10th amendment.23 Thus, Federal laws relating to education usually include a reference to the primacy

of the States.24 For example, the General

Education Provisions Act states that: “No

provision of any applicable program shall be

construed to authorize any department, agency, officer or employee of the United States

to exercise any direction, supervision, or control over the curriculum, program of instruction, administration, or personnel of any educational institution . . . "25

The traditional role of the States in controlling education may, where telecommunication

technology is concerned, run into direct conflict with Federal laws and Federal policy.

Specifically, State educational policies concerning telecommunication may conflict with

the interstate commerce powers of the Federal

Government, the express provisions of the

Communications Act, and the general principles of the first amendment.26 For example, the

power of the States to control education is

often exercised through the process of licensure of educational institutions and services.

However, licensure requirements vary widely from State to State. Thus, an institution

that seeks to offer programs, such as telecourses, on a regional or national basis must

deal with several different licensure statutes.

The question then arises as to whether the

State receiving the service has jurisdiction to

impose its licensure requirements on the offering institution, especially where the institution has no other contacts within the State.

The more fundamental issue, however, is

whether these State licensure requirements

operate to circumscribe various available services and thus impose an undue burden on in-

‘

gThe powers not delegated to the United States nor prohibited by the Constitution to the States, are reserved to the States

respectively, to the People.

*’M. B. Goldstein, “State Licensure of Instructional Telecommunications: An Overview of a Constitutional Problem, ” Tek+

scan 1(3):3, January/February 1982.

“General Education Provision Ac& sec. 432, 20 U.S.C. sec.

1232a).

“M. B. Goldstein, A Survey of Key Policy Issues Affwting

Higher Education and the Adult Learner, discussion draft pre

pared for The Ace Commission on Higher Education and the

Adult Learner, October 1981, p. 39.

terstate commerce, in violation of the Commerce Clause of the constitution.27 28 In other

words, can the several States constitutionally control the delivery of multi-State educational services flowing into their borders or are

such services covered under this clause subject to Federal control? The issue has not yet

been resolved, but it is clear that in the near

future it will demand greater attention and will

require resolution by the courts.29 In the meantime, State licensing authorities are free to

adopt discriminatory and protectionist regulations that have a potential chilling or inhibitory effect on the provision and delivery

of educational programs and services.

The Federal Communication

Commission and Educational

Telecommunication Services

Various Federal rules and regulations governing telecommunication also affect educational programs and services. Under the 1934

Communications Act, FCC has jurisdiction to

allocate the broadcast spectrum among communications services. In the past, the commission has made several policy decisions directly intended to promote educational access to

the broadcast spectrum. The clearest example

was the commission’s reservation of 242 channels in the very high frequency (VHF) and

ultrahigh frequency (UHF) bands for educational use. In 1938, 1945, and 1952, respective

ly, the commission announced that several

radio and television channels were being reserved for the use of nonprofit educational

“The Commerce Clause gives Congress the power to regulate

interstate commerce. U.S. Constitution, art. I, sec. 8, clause 3.

‘EM. B. Goldstein, “Federal Policy Issues Affecting Instructional Television at the Postsecondary Level,” Adult L.arning

and PUM-C Broadcasting, report of a project conducted by the

American Association of Community and Junior Colleges with

support from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary

Education (FIPSE), 1980, p. 45.

-s argument was recently raised in an action by Nova University, to prevent the State of North Carolina from regulating

the offering of education services in that State when the degree

conferred was authorized by the school’s domicile State, Florida.

WhiIe the case was ultimately decided on narrow statutory

grounds, the issue of State v. Federal powers was strongly enunciated in the arguments put forth by both sides. Nova IJniversity v. University of IVorth Carolina No. 110A81, N. C,, Mar.

3, 1982.
Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education ● 163

organizations advancing an educational purpose. These decisions presaged the beginning

of educational or instructional television and

directly provided for community educational

programing.

The commission’s original intent in setting

aside these channels was to promote noncommercial educational broadcasting. FCC took

a broad view of such broadcasting, and no programming requirements were assigned to its instructional and cultural components. It has

been claimed that the failure to define the term

educational broadcasting more narrowly had,

in fact, the effect of diminishing the amount

of instructional programing, which resulted in

a public broadcasting system that serves a

wider audience.30 In the absence of a narrowly drafted set of regulations governing educational broadcasting, market forces took over

and influenced decisions on programing content by licensees and broadcasters. The programing on the channels originally reserved

for educational broadcasting became predominantly cultural in content.

Instructional Television

Fixed Services

The regulation of ITFS is a further illustration of the effect of regulation on the educational use of telecommunication. ITFS is a

point-to-point communication system that can

transmit up to four channels of programing

at one time to predetermined reception points

located from 5 to 20 miles away. Therefore, it

is a method of transmitting television signals

directly to the classroom.

ITFS was established in 1963 when FCC

opened 31 channels in the 2500-to 2690-MHz

frequency range for this private distribution

system. It was intended to satisfy the need for

a more economical and efficient means of distributing high quality learning materials to

the classroom. In the 1970’s, FCC issued rules

and regulations that provided for the licensing of 28 of the 31 available channels to educational institutions. The remaining three chan30S. A. Shorenstein, “Pulling the Plug on Instructional TV, ”

Change, vol. 10, November 1978, p. 37.

nels were to be assigned to municipal or State

governments for operation of a similar service,

Operational Fixed Service (OFS).31

Soon after ITFS was established, FCC received many construction permit requests for

the use of its assigned channels. However, the

cost of the components necessary to operate

an ITFS system, (transmitters, receivers,

studio equipment, down converters, etc.), prevented most educational institutions from utilizing this technology. ITFS was thus installed

and used predominantly by larger universities

capable of affording it.32 Once installed, the

system was economical to operate. Currently,

ITFS is being used to provide a variety of educational services, including adult and professional continuing education courses. Some universities, such as the University of Southern

California, use an ITFS system to transmit

graduate engineering courses to nearby businesses and firms with staff engineers. The

future of this system and its use as an educational tool is uncertain.

In 1980, FCC began proceedings to reallocate the 31 channels in the 2500-to 2690-MHz

frequency range, the assumption being that

educators were not taking full advantage of

the channels allocated to ITFS.33 Faced with

an increasing demand and a growing number

of applicants for Multipoint Distribution Services (MDS) and Private Operational Fixed Microwave Services (POFMS), FCC proposed to

redistribute these channels by allocating 10

each to MDS and POFMS, leaving ITFS with

the remaining 11.34 As satellite distribution of

programing made MDS more profitable and

as the market demand for MDS grew and developed, FCC proposed to offer MDS operators use of part of the spectrum allocated to

ITFS. Similarly, as business and industry

found new uses for POFMS, demand for fregloFs i9 finction~ly equiv~ent to ITFS. It is a short-range

private distribution service intended for governmental as opposed to instructional use. 3zAs of Jm. 1, 1981, there were 180 ITFS hCenSE@S in the

United States, Television l%ctbook stations volume, 1981-82

ed. No. 50.

“General docket Nos. 80-112; 80-113; 80-116.

34MDS is a common carrier service, delivering pay-m pro-

@aming from a central transmitter to several lirwof-sight reception points.
164 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

quencies to operate this service has grown.

Thus, FCC proposed to reduce the number of

ITFS channels to make room for MDS and

POFMS systems.

Here again, FCC had created by direct regulation a system primarily for offering educational programing. Yet, because of high installation costs, along with budget cuts, ITFS

has not been used by most educational institutions. Although FCC has not yet acted on this

proposal, clearly a reduction in ITFS channels

will have an effect on cities like New York and

Los Angeles where ITFS is widely used. While

it is possible that such large metropolitan

areas, which have as many as 25 operational

ITFS systems, may have to curtail their use

and reduce the number of educational services

offered, it is more likely that FCC will “grandfather” (allow them to continue under the new

system) active channels as long as the present

licensees retain their control. Only assigned

but inactive ITFS channels would be reassigned for commercial spectrum use. A further

consequence of the proposed cutback in ITFS

channels is that it may affect the recent Public

Broadcasting Service (PBS) application for

ITFS facilities.

The Public Broadcasting

Service

PBS and its member public television stations have applied for ITFS channels to set

up the National Narrowcast Service to extend

their distribution of instructional, educational,

and cultural programing to meet specialized,

educational needs. The system is designed to

reach those who live where educational programing is not readily available and to create

a local means for expanding the educational

services offered by PBS stations. If FCC decides to reallocate the ITFS frequencies, this

proposed service will be in jeopardy. With fewer ITFS channels available, PBS will have to

compete for channels with other educational

users. While the FCC proposal will, if adopted,

increase the number of channels available for

commercial MDS and POFMS systems, it w-ill

also limit the availability of educational services to the community through ITFS systems.

In effect, another educational resource would

be reduced and replaced by services unlikely

to be available for educational programing.

Low-Power Television and

Direct Broadcast Satellites

While low-power television (LPTV) and direct broadcast satellite (DBS) systems may

become available for distributing educational

programing, they are not equivalent substitutes for ITFS. LPTV applications will be

granted on the basis of an available broadcast

spectrum, and educational institutions wishing to apply for such frequencies will have to

compete with other users for a frequency allocation. In other words, allocation by FCC

will occur entirely apart from the needs of the

educational community. In addition, although

DBS service has the potential to reach nationwide audiences, it is unclear whether DBS applicants will, in fact, transmit educational programming to the public or whether educational

institutions will be able to afford satellite time.

The answer to these uncertainties will be

known in time if rules and regulations are

adopted to govern both LPTV and DBS systems. Given the present emphasis on deregulation, it is unclear whether LPTV and DBS

will be regulated to provide educational

services.

Cable Television

Another area where telecommunication regulation has affected education is illustrated by

cable television requirements. FCC rules originally required that all cable systems serving

more than 3,500 households provide opportunities for “educational access with no cost

for use of the system.’’” At present, only a few

universities (e.g., Purdue and Oregon State

University) use this resource. Furthermore,

specialized, educational programing generally comprises a very small part of cablecasters’

offerings. The regulation of telecommunication

via cable is in transition.

s5The~ r~uirement9 have been overturned by the court% *

Midwest Video Corp. v. FCC 571 F. 2d 1025, 41 R.R. 2d 659

(8th Cir. 1978) (Midwest Video II), cert. granted, 47 U. S.L.W.

3187 (No. 77-1575). However they would be reinstated to some

extent by the passage of S. 2172.
Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education ● 165

Telecommunication Legislation

and Educational Services

The Senate Commerce Committee has recently introduced a bill to move primary

jurisdiction over cable regulation from the

cities and States to FCC.36 The bill also requires that cable systems with more than 20

channels dedicate 10 percent of such channels

for use by public, educational, and governmental programers and 10 percent to leased channel programers, all on a first-come, firstserved, nondiscriminatory basis.37 This bill

represents one of many congressional efforts

to revise telecommunication regulations and

set national telecommunication policy. Although this legislation explicitly provides for

educational programing, other bills, such as

those dealing with revision of the 1934 Communications Act, often do not address educational interests. Such congressional consideration is necessary to ensure the low-cost

availability of telecommunication services to

educators in both the public and private

sector. 38

As with FCC regulation, telecommunication

legislation may have both a direct and indirect

effect on the means by which educational services are provided and on the ability of educators to utilize telecommunication for disseminating educational materials. Legislation can

affect the cost of interconnections, the means

of delivering services, and the nature of educational programing.

Congress has directly influenced the manner and scope by which educational services

are provided both in approving appropriations

for the Corporation for Public Broadcasting

(CPB) and by enacting legislation like the

Public Telecommunications Financing Act.39

Congress has also proposed legislation which,

——

3“’Where Things Stand, ” Broadcasting, Apr. 5, 1982, p. 26.

‘“U.S. Congress, Senate, A Bill To Amend the Communications Act of 1934, S. 2172, 97th Cong., 2d sess., 1982.

38A, B. Shostak, “The Coming Systems Break: Technology

and Schools of the Future, ” f%” Delta Kappan, vol. 62, January

1981, p. 359.

3’U. S. Congress, Public Telecommunications Financing Act,

Public Telecommunications Financing Act, Public Law 95-567,

95th Cong., Nov. 2, 1978.

although dealing with telecommunication,

could indirectly set a precedent regarding the

provision of educational services. For example, a bill introduced by the House Subcommittee on Telecommunications, Consumer Protection, and Finance, which revises and updates title II of the 1934 Communications Act

governing the provision of telephone and telecommunication services, may have important

implications in the educational arena.40 Access

provisions under the proposed legislation may

affect the costs of interconnections for home

computers. This, in turn, could affect the demand for such terminals. Similarly, issues of

maintenance, ownership, and technical grades

of lines and wiring may affect the quality of

data communication and ultimately the supply

of information for educational purposes. These

issues need to be considered by legislators in

their efforts both to rewrite the 1934 Communications Act and to set national telecommunication policy.

As the foregoing discussion has shown, telecommunication regulation often indirectly

discriminates against educational services by

overlooking the stake educators and institutions have in telecommunication resources. An

issue entirely separate from that of telecommunication legislation and its effect on education, however, is the issue of Federal regulation of education and its effect on the use of

telecommunication. Although warranting

more consideration, it can only be dealt with

briefly here.

The clearest example of how educational regulations can have a chilling affect on the educational use of telecommunication is a Veterans Administration rule restricting and prohibiting reimbursement and educational benefits to veterans for curricula that use courses

taught via television and radio. While the rationale behind this regulation may have been

to prevent veterans from claiming credit for

sham courses, it clearly discriminates against

technology-based delivery systems and hence

can be deemed overbroad. Less restrictive al-

‘“U.S. Congress, House, A Bill To Amend the Communications Act of 1934 to Re\’ise Pro\’ isions of the Act Relating to

Telecommunications, H.R. 5158, 97th Cong., 1st sess., 1981.
166 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

ternatives must be found to meet the Veterans nication policy, the interests of educators must

Administration’s proper concern without com- be weighed and considered in drafting Federal

promising and discriminating against telecom- regulations.

munication technology .41 As with telecommu4’Goldstein, op. cit., 1980, p. 42.

The Protection of Information Software:

An Overview

In recent years, the software industry has

been plagued by an everincreasing incidence

of piracy .42 43 As software costs have risen, informal duplication of programs has increased

and has held down revenues for software publishers.44 Similarly, piracy via illegal duplication and distribution has diminished incentives for software producers to further development of novel and innovative software packages, particularly for educational use. Although technological solutions are being devised to prevent piracy, various legal methods

for protecting computer software from illicit

misappropriation are the focus here.

Given the fact that for the present, at least,

piracy does and will occur, the question to be

resolved is how to protect the software producer or proprietor from infringement of his

creative property rights. Such protection is

necessary to ensure that adequate incentives

exist for development of innovative software,

to protect the considerable investments in its

development, and to preserve legal means for

public access to creative works.

There are five currently legal methods that

can be used to protect computer software:

trade secret protection, trademarks, patents,

the doctrine of unfair competition, and copy4~he term software is meant to include any programs and

data bases designed to be used on computers, video disks, cable,

etc.

4SD. U. Gagliardi, “Software: What Is It, ” APLA Quarterly

Journal 8(3), 1980, p. 239.

44When programs are copied without permission, publishers

do not receive royalties for their use and their profits are thereby

reduced. See “Trends in Personal Computer Software Publishing,” A Research Memorandum, LINK, NRM, vol. 2, No. 10,

August 1981.

rights.45 None of these, however, provides a

well-defined, reliable form of protection for

novel developments in software.46 The law

regarding software protection in each case is

hazy and complicated and still in the early

stages of development. Thus, it may be necessary to use several methods simultaneously, with or without technological protection,

to achieve maximum legal protection for certain software. While copyrights and trade

secrets are the most widely used and advocated forms of protection, each of the five

methods can afford some degree of security

against unauthorized reproduction of costly

and innovative software.

Types of Software

All computer software has three basic components. These are the supporting documentation, including manuals and flow charts; the

algorithm or process, i.e., the underlying ideas

or information implemented in the software;

and the program or data base itself.

The program itself is embodied either in

human readable form, such as listings, or in

computer readable form, such as magnetic

tapes, disks, or paper punch cards. These

distinctions are important, because the utility of the various methods of legal protection

may differ depending on the type of software

“It should be noted that there is a diversity of views as to

what forms of legal protection are currently available and what

forms should be available in the future for software products.

Not all legal scholars agree that the five methods surveyed here

are available or should be used for protection.

“H. Levine and A. E, Hall, “Computer Software Protection

and Licensing, ” a paper presented at the Second Annual Talmis

Conference, Chicago, Feb. 28, 1982.
Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education ● 167

component and the formal representation involved in a particular case.

In addition to the three software components, computer programs can be broken

down into three formats or formal representations: the source code, the linkable formats,

and the object code.

The source code, or “the code at its source, ”

is a computer program written in a high-level

(computer) language. This representation is

the easiest to read and comprehend and hence

to pirate, modify, and expand. The linkable format results from the processing of the source

code by the computer’s compiler or program

converter. At such a level, it is more difficult

to reconstruct and, hence, to appropriate. The

object code results from loading the linkable

format into the computer in a form that it can

execute. In this format, the program’s underlying concepts are the most difficult to assimilate, comprehend, and appropriate.

Legal Protection for Software

Trade Secret Protection

Trade secrets are defined as formulas, processes, mechanisms, compounds, or compilations of data not patented but known only by

certain individuals using them in business to

obtain a commercial advantage.47 The classic

and most widely cited example of a trade

secret is the Coca-Cola formula, which is

known only to certain select Coca-Cola personnel and has never been patented.48

For a trade secret to exist and be enforced,

several requirements must be met. The first

is secrecy; a bona fide secret must exist and

must be contained within the business of a particular enterprise. Thus, those who are privy

to the secret must be under a duty not to

disclose it. This situation is generally achieved

by a confidential disclosure agreement or contract between the proprietor or software marketer and his employees, contractors, licensees, or leasees. The contract may require

those with access to the software to take ac-

“likstatxxnent of Torts, SS 757, Comment (b), 1939.

48LINK, op. cit., p. 18.

tions to limit its proliferation. The second requirement for trade secrets to exist is novelty—i.e., where the subject matter is unknown to the general public and the trade.49

Beyond these two formal requirements for

trade secrecy, the courts have placed some

reliance on economic criteria in determining

whether a protectable trade secret exists. The

amount of money or labor expended in developing information and the value of the information itself are factors which courts might

consider in making this determination.

It is well established that computer programs and certain program materials are protectable as trade secrets through civil and

criminal enforcement actions. However, the

boundaries of trade secret protection for software are unclear. Some courts have protected

algorithms along with the computer programs,

while others have declined to extend protection to “general information.”50 The nature of

the software, the circumstances of the taking,

and the intent of the taker can each influence

a court’s determination regarding trade secret

protection.

In deciding whether to utilize trade secret

protection for certain software, a proprietor

or marketer considers the following drawbacks. First, trade secrecy can be easily lost.

If a secret becomes widely disseminated, the

software protected may become part of the

public domain and thus no longer eligible for

trade secret protection. Thus, trade secrecy

may be difficult to maintain where public sales

or large-scale marketing of software is contemplated. Trade secrets can also be lost by

carelessness, by intentional or negligent

breach of contract, or by discovery and disclosure by competitors, e.g., reverse engineering and subsequent disclosure. The courts are

split as to whether trade secret protection is

49 Novelty for Puwoges of trade secret law k a relative concept unlike novelty for purposes of patent protection. In the

latter case, novelty is absolute; D. Bender, “Trade Secret Software Protection, ” APLA Quarterly Journal vol. v, No. 1, 1977,

p. 51. It should be noted that novelty is not required by all

States. See R. Milgrim, Trade Secrets, SS 2.03, 2.08(2), 1979.

‘“R. Smith and E. R. Yoches, “Legal Protection of Software

Via Trade Secrets, ” APLA Quarterly Journal vol. 8, No. 3,

1980, p. 240-241.
168 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

lost where software is appropriated by

memory. The majority rule is that trade

secrecy does protect against appropriation by

memory .51 Similarly, there is some debate

about whether trade secrecy is lost where a

software proprietor registers his software for

copyright protection. The issue here is whether

such registration constitutes publication and

hence destroys any legal claim under the trade

secret method of protection.52

In addition, trade secret protection, like the

law of contracts and unlike copyrights or

patents, is controlled by State statute or common law, as distinguished from Federal statutory law. Thus, protection for trade secrets

differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In

order to maximize his protection, a manufacturer or licenser may wish to seek an additional mode of protection, such as copyright,

to ensure uniform legal treatment of his software. Trade secret protection alone, however,

can provide a fairly reliable and economic

means of shielding software innovation.

Trademark Protection

Trademarks generally include “any word,

name, symbol, or device or any combination

thereof adopted and used by a manufacturer

or merchant to identify his goods and distinguish them from those manufactured or

sold by others. “53 While they are used extensively to protect product names, they have

been used only in a relatively minor manner

to protect computer software. The reason for

this is that in the past computer software has

had a relatively short life, and thus there was

no basis on which to build a proper trademark.

The current trend of “longer life” computer

programs may no longer sustain this reasoning.54 In addition, trademarks do not directly

protect the contents of the software from

unauthorized use, appropriation, or duplica5] Turner, The Law of Trade Secrets 169, 171, 1962.

“In a recent case, the court held that this was a question of

fact and not a question of law. Barrington Associates, k. v.

Real-7%ne Engineering Associates, Inc, 522 F. Supp. 367 (N.D.

Ill., 1981).

“The Lanhaxn Act of 1946, 15 U.S.C. SS 1127.

‘W. G. White, “Trademark Protection of Computer Software,”

APLA Quarterly Journa~ vol. 8, No. 3, 1980, p. 281.

tion by another. However, trademarks can

serve as a complement to other methods of

protecting the concepts contained in computer

programs. Computer program trademarks can

protect important proprietary interests in software by preventing software competitors from

using the same or similar marks on their

programs.

The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office has

recognized for some time that computer programs are “goods” within the purview of the

Trademark Statute.55 Thus, a trademark on an

item of software represents and is identified

by the public with the goodwill and reputation

of the business that produced it. If the manufacturer’s reputation is good, consumers may

tend to buy software based on the strength

of the mark, even though competing products

may perform as well. Whether the strength of

mark will be the sole criteria used by consumers in selecting software, or whether the

capabilities of various programs will also be

taken into account in making a selection, is

an open question. In either case, though, consumers will probably place some reliance on

the source of quality control identified through

the trademark.56 In this manner, trademarks

provide a relatively inexpensive and simple

means to protect indirectly computer programs.

Patent Protection

At present, there is much uncertainty about

the applicability of title 35 of the United

States Code (patents) to computer software.

The case law is inconsistent and confusing,

and no clear-cut consensus has been reached.

In addition, to the extent that some patent

protection for software is available, it would

apply only to protect the programmable process embodied in computer programs.57 Thus,

patent protection for software is often difficult

to obtain except in conjunction with a patent-

“The Lanham ACL 15 U.S.C. SS 1051 et seq.

~dwhit,e, op. cit., p. 280. In addition, although service marks

could also be included here, they are beyond the scope of this

brief overview and hence excluded from the discussion of trade

marks.

“Bender, op. cit., p. 67. See also Diamond v. Diehr and Diamond v. Bradley, footnote 15.
Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education w 169

able piece of computer hardware. Given the unpredictable nature of software patent law and

the relatively high cost of securing patent protection, a software owner may therefore wish

to seek other available methods of legal protection for his works. Once clarified, though,

patent protection for certain software may

prove to be superior to other legal methods.

There are several reasons why patent protection may be preferable to other legal

safeguards of software innovation. One is that

patent protection is very broad in scope. A patent provides its owner with the exclusive

right to the inventive work for 17 years. Thus,

he has the right to exclude others from making, using, or selling that work. Infringement

occurs when either the work is copied or it has

been independently developed. Another reason

is that patents protect the underlying ideas

or concepts of a computer program, not merely

the expression of a program, as copyrights do.

Thus, while an adaption of a program for use

in a different computer may not be a copyright

violation, it could be found to be a patent

infringement.

The issues concerning the patentability of

software are twofold. The first problem is

whether software is statutory or within the

categories of innovations and discoveries

which may be patentable. The law is that an

invention is patentable if it consists of ‘‘any

new and useful process, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and

useful improvement thereof. "58 Abstract ideas,

laws of nature, and physical phenomena are

excluded from patent protection.59 The question is, do computer programs fall under any

of the categories of patentable inventions? The

answer is that they may, if patentable, fall into

the categories of processes, machines, or manufactures.

Several recent cases have overturned the

courts’ previous reluctance to hold software

patentable. 60 Thus, the court has held that a

5

’35 U.s.c. Ss 101.

“Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 209 U. S.P.Q. 1, 7 (1981).

‘“Earlier landmark cases include: Gottschalk v. Benson, 409

U.S. 63, 175 U. S.P.Q. 673 (1972); Dam v. Johnston, 425 U.S.

219, 189 U. S.P.Q. 257 (1976); Parker v. Flook+ 437 U.S. 584,

statutory claim does not become nonstatutory

simply because it uses a mathematical formula, computer program, or digital computer.” Currently, the law seems to be that

algorithms or methods of calculation in the

abstract, like the laws of nature, are not

statutory subject matter. However, claims

reciting algorithms or formulas, or presumably

computer programs that implement or apply

those formulas in a structure or process (e.g.,

transforming an article from one state or thing

to another), are statutory within the meaning

of the patent law.62

If certain software is found to be statutory

then it must also meet four conditions to be

found patentable: novelty, utility, nonobviousness, and adequacy of disclosure.63

Numerous programs should meet these requirements. However, many others may implement an obvious process in an obvious way

and are valuable solely because of the man

hours saved to achieve the result.” They

would, thus, be ineligible for patent protection.

The problem then lies in the definition of “obpiousness. ” So far, there is no clear consensus

about the appropriate standard or test to be

applied to determine if a claim meets the nonobviousness condition. Judicial or legislative

clarification is necessary before the patentability of certain software can be determined

with any degree of certainty.

It should be noted that the patentability of

computer programs may also depend on the

subjective application of Patent Office guidelines by patent examiners, and ultimately on

the manner in which patent applications are

drafted. Future clarification of the boundaries

of software and computer program protection,

however, awaits the outcome of further litigation.

198 U. S.P.Q. 193 (1978). TWO recent decisions indicating that

patent protection may be available for computer software are:

Diamond v, Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 209 U. S.P,Q. 1 (1981); and Diamond v. Bradley, 450 U.S. 381, 209 U. S.P.Q. 97 (1981).

“Diamond v. Diehr, op. cit.

oZLevine ad Hall, Op. Cit., p. 19.

6335 U.s.c. 101, 102, 103, 112 (1979).

“Bender, op. cit., p. 67-68.
170 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Protection Under the Law of

Unfair Competition

Original software (both source and object

code), computer programs, and data bases

may be protected by the law of unfair competition. Evolving from the landmark case of International News Service (INS) v. Associated

Press,65 the law protects the originator against

misappropriation by competitors of his work

product and his investment capital risks. The

rationale for the doctrine lies in the equity

court philosophy of preventing and mitigating unjust enrichment. Until recently, however, the courts tended to limit the application

of the unfair competition doctrine to the facts

in the INS case. In one recent case, the courts

stated that a valid, unfair competition claim

had been advanced where, for commercial advantage, a competitor had misappropriated

the benefits and property rights of and had exploited his business values.66 Similarly, where

reproductions of original recordings were

pirated and marketed under a different label,

another court upheld the plaintiff unfair competition claim.67

While the doctrine has had an underlying effect in cases dealing with unauthorized appropriation of data bases, today it is becoming grounds for equitable relief on its own

merits. Therefore, it may be possible to bring

a valid cause of action based on the common

law right against unfair competition where a

competitor copies and sells another’s software

for profit. This method of software protection

may be of benefit to proprietors who seek to

protect both source and object codes. The law

of unfair competition would most likely make

no distinction between the two for purposes

of protection. However, it should be borne in

mind that unfair competition is a common law

doctrine and thus may vary from State to

State.

ebl~~matjona] NeWS service V. Associated Press, 248 U.S.

215, 39 S. Ct. 68 (1918).

‘Data Cash System.sj Inc v. JS&A Group, Inc, 480 F. Suppl.

1063 (N.D. Ill., 1979), aff’d on other grounds, 628 F. 2d 1038

(7th Cir. 1980).

137A&M &ords,Inc., et aL v. M. M. C. Distributing &rp.,

et aL, 197 U. S.P.Q. 598 (Sixth Cir., CA) (1978).

Copyright Protection

By far, the fastest growing legal mechanism

of software protection is the copyright law. It

is now well settled that copyright law is

available as a method for protecting software

and computer programs. The question to be

resolved, however, is the scope of the protection to be accorded computer programs by this

body of law.

The Copyright Act of 1976 protects original

works of authorship fixed in any tangible

medium of expression from which they can be

perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated, either directly or with the aid of

a machine or device.68 Computer programs and

data bases, to the extent that they incorporate

authorship in the expression of original ideas

as opposed to the ideas themselves, fall within

the category of “literary works, ” and thus

within the subject matter of copyright.69 The

actual processes or methods embodied in a

computer program, however, are not within

the scope of the copyright law.70

In 1980, the Computer Software Copyright

Act was passed by Congress.71 Incorporating

the recommendations of the national Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works, the act revised section 117 of

the 1976 Copyright Act dealing with rights in

conjunction with computers and information

systems. 72 The new section 117 dispelled all

doubts concerning the copyrightability of computer programs and made it clear that the

reproduction or adaption of computer programs would constitute acts of infringement.

The act also created an important exemption

for the input or reproduction of computer programs from copies which are sold.

The courts have not reached agreement on

the limits of computer software copyright protection. For example, there is still much debate

“17 U.S.C. SS 102(a).

q 7 U.S. C. SS 101(a). U.S. House of Representatives Report

94-1476, 94th Cong., 2d sess., p. 54.

7017 U.S.C. SS 102(b).

“Ckmputer Software Copyright Act of 1980, Dec. 12, 1980,

Public Law 96-517, sec. 10.

‘

zFinal R&port of the National timmission on New Techno

logical Uses of Copyrighted Works, July 31, 1978.
Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education ● 171

as to whether object codes can be protected

by copyright law. In order to be accorded the

protection of the copyright laws, a computer

program must be “an original work of authorship. ’73 Clearly, if a programer is the

“originator” of a source code, than he qualifies

as an “author” within the meaning of the

copyright law. However, the case law is still

developing on whether this source code

authorship is preserved in the object code.

Since the object code can be viewed as being

physically produced by a machine, the question arises as to whether the object code is an

expression of authorship or merely a utilitarian work outside the scope of copyright protection. Only original expressions of authorship, ‘‘writings, are protected by copyright

law. There is little doubt that source codes are

writings within the purview of the copyright

statute, but the status of object codes is not

so clear.74 75

Other issues associated with the copyrightability of computer software are preemption

of trade secret protection and the meaning of

“substantial similarity, ” (necessary for

copyright infringement) in the computer context.76 In addition, problems with computer

software copyright protection arise because

the act of copying is incidental to use of a computer program. In other words, computer input (i.e., of a program) constitutes the making of a copy and is thus a potential infringement of copyright. The 1980 amendment to

section 117 of the Copyright Act remedied this

problem by providing that it was not an infringement for an owner of a copy of a computer program “to make or authorize the making of another copy or adaption of that comTS17 u.s. c. ss 102(a).

“For illustration of this conflict see: Data Cash systems, kc.

v. JS&A Group Inc., et al, 480 F. Suppl. 1063 (N.D. Ill. 1979),

aff’d on other grounds, 628 F. 2d 1038 (7th Cir. 1980); Tandy

Corp. v. Persona/Microcomputers, k,, 524 F. Suppl. 171 (N.D.

CA 1981). And more generally, Gokktein v. California 412 U.S.

546 (1973).

‘SD. T. Brooks and M. S. Keplinger, Cbmputer Programs and

Data Bases: Perfmting, Protecting and Licensing Proprietary

Rights After the 1980 Copyright Amendments, Law & Business, Inc., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers (1981).

‘Thus, would translation of a program from Fortran to Basic

bean infringement? Or, how much retrieval of a work from the

computer is necessary to constitute substantial similarity?

puter program, ” provided that the copy or

adaption “is created as an essential step in the

utilization of the computer program in conjunction with a machine.”77 It is important to

note, however, that this exemption only applies to copies of computer programs that are

sold. Thus, if a copyright owner chooses to

make the program available only by lease or

by license arrangement, copying is permitted

only under the terms and conditions specified

by the copyright owner. Otherwise, computer

input can constitute infringement.

Another troublesome area concerns the

copyrightability of video software. Copyright

protects only the expression of original works

of authorship, not the ideas, methodology, or

processes embodied in the software or adopted

by the programer. Thus, copyright law protects the audiovisual aspects of video software

as a display, but does not protect the underlying “idea” itself. Protecting the expression of

a game program may necessarily also protect

the system or process embodied in the game

program or video display, a result violating the

principles of the copyright law.78 Thus, manufacturers of video games may protect the

visual display of their software by registering

a videotape of their screens with the Copyright

Office. While registration is not a condition of

copyright protection, it is a formality related

to the ability to sue for infringement. Manufacturers of videogames, however, cannot

preempt others from manufacturing and distributing games utilizing the same inherent

ideas (e.g., mazes and dot gobblers) regardless

of how inextricably linked they are to the program’s original expression. In those cases

where an injunction has been sought against

distribution of allegedly similar games, it is

not clear whether the courts relied on the doctrine of unfair competition or on copyright law

in granting the requested relief. Although the

courts apparently applied copyright law in

these cases, they may have been influenced by

unfair competition principles.79

7

’17 U.s.c. Ss 117(1).

“Matthew Bender, Nimmer on Copyrights, sec. 2.18(J) and

8.08 (1980).

‘Wee Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman, 213 U. S.P.Q. 75

(E.D. N. Y., 1981), aff’d — F. 2d. — (2d Cir., filed 1/20/82).
172 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

The most that can be said with certainty is

that some aspects of computer software can

be legally protected via copyright. Programs

tangibly fixed in books, catalogs, and instruction manuals are subject matter of copyright.

Programs fixed on cards or magnetic disks

that can be perceived directly or otherwise

communicated, e.g., by means of a computer

print-out or terminal, are protectable under the

copyright law.80 Other software, including object codes, may or may not be within the purview of the copyright law. Future developments both in Congress and in the courts will

hopefully resolve the issues relating to this

body of law.

Another issue relating to audiovisual software is that of copyright and home recording.

The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held in Universal City Studios v. Sony

Corp. (the Betamax case) that home videotape

recording of over-the-air copyrighted television

programs violates the Federal copyright law.81

While the Court’s decision will be reviewed by

the U.S. Supreme Court next term, the Ninth

Circuit Court ruled that home video taping for

private, noncommercial use was not a “fair

use” under the 1976 Copyright Act.82 Furthermore, the court held that manufacturers, retailers, distributors and advertising agents for

video cassette recorders could be held “contributorily liable” for this infringement.

While the decision has raised considerable

debate concerning the rights of program producers to control the use of their productions

and the rights of consumers to utilize new

home electronics, it may also have an impact

on the educational community. Thus, the educational community, and more specifically

Action for Children’s Television (ACT), has requested congressional legislation designed to

permit home recording of television programs

for education use. They argue that home taping would permit children to watch educa-

‘ONicholas Prasinos, “Legal Protection of Software Via Copyright, ” APLA Quarterly Journal vol. 8, No. 3, 1980, p. 257.

“Universal City Studios v. Sony Corp., 659 F. 2d 963 (9th

Cir. 1981). The Supreme Court has recently granted certiorari

to review the decision of the Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit.

‘zFair use is codified in 17 U.S.C. SS 107.

tional programs broadcast while they are in

school.

Although a legislative solution to the Betamax debate is being sought by many interested parties, educational groups are concerned both that the type of programing software currently being broadcast and the cost

of video cassette recorders may change (with

or without royalty assessments) as a result of

the present controversy .83 Thus, one major

concern is that schools that now buy video

cassette recorders and use videotaped programs in the classroom may no longer be able

to afford them. Also, education groups speculate that advertisers may support fewer overthe-air educational programs as a result of

advertisement deletion by video cassette

recorder owners. Although these problems remain to be resolved by the legislature and the

courts, it is clear that producers of educational

program software will be affected by the present taping/copyright controversy. As with

computer software, the law of copyright in

relation to audiovisual software is uncertain

and still developing. 84 However, as demonstrated by the Betamax case, copyright is a

viable and reliable means of protecting both

computer and audiovisual software.

Legal Protection: Issues and

Educational Options

It is clear that all five legal mechanisms for

safeguarding software offer some degree of

protection against misappropriation and

piracy. Each method of software protection

has different remedies for discouraging piracy

——

s91n fact, there me sever~ pending pieces of legislation de~-

ing with this issue: H.R. 4808 (10/21/81). These bills would exempt private home recording of TV programs from copyright

laws, but would not preclude later legislation to establish a

royalty fee assessed against recorders.

840n Oct. 14, 1981, Rep. Robert Kastenmeier (D-Wis.), Chair

of the House Judiciary Committee on Courts, Civil Liberties,

and the Administration of Justice, inserted guidelines for offair taping of copyrighted works for educational use in the Congressional Record. These guidelines were the result of a negotiated agreement between education groups, the broadcast industry, copyright owners, and industry guilds and unions. The

guidelines allow fair classroom use of videotaped TV programs

within specific time limits without infringing the rights of copyright owners.
Ch. 9—Federal Role in Education ● 173

and punishing infringement. For example, injunctive relief is available with all five legal

methods. However, destruction of infringing

copies and continuing royalties are available

only for copyright infringement. Similarly,

treble, punitive, and statutory damages are

available only for copyright, patent, and trademark infringement. In addition, even where

monetary and injunctive relief is available, the

type of infringement (e.g., copyright, trade

secret), may influence the way a court applies

these remedies.

Each method of software protection also has

its advantages and disadvantages and its legal

uncertainties. Many of the still unresolved

legal issues stem from the fact that the primary intent of intellectual property law protection of software is to reward and encourage

software creation and innovation, not primarily to punish copyists.” Yet, as software innovation becomes more costly and piracy more

rampant, software manufacturers seek solutions to legal problems and achievement of

both purposes of copyright, patent, trade

secret, trademark, and unfair competition law.

It is hoped that in the next decade, the courts

and Congress will provide software manufacturers with reliable methods of protecting

their valuable investments in software. Although test cases are themselves costly and

time-consuming, the benefits to be reaped by

an entire industry may outweigh the economic

burdens.

Clearly, the outcome of many of these issues

will affect the educational community’s abili-

‘5R. A. Stern, ‘(What Should Be Done About Software Protection?” European Intellectual Property Review, vol. 3, No.

12, 1981, p. 341.

ty to utilize and purchase new electronic hardware. Educators need to know their legal

rights and obligations, and manufacturers

want to ensure effective protection for their

software. Thus, it is necessary to answer several

●

●

●

questions such as: -

How should software be protected while

recognizing the competing interests of

groups who use software or benefit from

its use?

How can piracy and the various types of

misappropriation of software be better

dealt With?*’

How can the incentives be increased for

software innovation, especially educational software, when protection entails

costly judicial remedies?

While it may take some time before intellectual property law protection of software is

clarified, education groups have been involved

in the process. They have proposed that new,

uniform legislation dealing only with software

be enacted. Alternatively, they have proposed

that legislation exempting the educational

community from liability for use of copyrighted materials be adopted. They have considered bringing test cases into the courts

against pirates of educational software on one

or several of the grounds of protection outlined

herein. While it is clear that the economic and

social stakes are high, these efforts by the

educational community are aimed at clarifying the software protection laws for the benefit

of all software publishers and users.

“Ibid, p. 340,
174 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Appendix

“ Title I: “To provide financial assistance . . . to “

local educational agencies serving areas with

concentrations of children from low-income families to expand to improve their educational programs (to meet) the special educational needs

of educationally deprived children” (Public Law

89-10, title I). ●

● Title II: Provision of grants to public and private schools for school library resources, text- ●

books, and instructional materials, based on total school enrollments. Those materials used in

the public schools required prior approval. Also

those States, with laws prohibiting involvement “

with parochial schools, required the ESEA programs to be administered by the Commissioner

of Education.

Title III: Provision of grants by the Office of

Education with concurrence by the State Educational Agencies for projects to encourage educational innovation. Such projects included special education centers, instructional equipment,

guidance counseling, and similar services.

Title IV: Provision of grants to conduct educational research.

TitleV: Provision of grants to State agencies

to strengthen planning, administration, and dissemination of statewide educational data at the

State agency level.

Title VI: Placed a restrictive clause on Federal

involvement in State and local education programs, specifically over curriculum, personnel,

instructional materials, and administration.
Chapter 10

Implications for Policy
The new information technologies offer a promising mechanism for responding to the many challenges facing

American education. How they will be applied will be determined, in part, by governmental policies
Chapter 10

Implications for Policy

Whether or not the new information technologies fulfill their educational potential will depend, in part, on the kinds of actions that the

Federal Government takes to assure that

these technologies are used effectively and are

made accessible to all. OTA has identified several areas where it may be appropriate for the

Federal Government to play an active role

in its development. Anticipating structural

changes in the economy and the growing need

for a highly literate and technically trained

work force, Congress might wish to encourage

the greater use of educational technologies for

manpower training and retraining. Recognizing the educational benefits that can be derived from the use of information technologies,

Congress might take steps to assure that the

public has equitable access to them. Aware of

the powerful nature of the technology, Congress might take some actions to encourage

their effective development and use.

Directly or indirectly, Federal policy to encourage the use of educational technology

would influence a number of stakeholders,

among them:

c institutions that provide education and

training,

s clients for educational services,

c producers of hardware and providers of

information services,

Arguments for

Arguments in favor of adopting a policy in

support of educational technology are based

on the premise that the changes in American

society are creating new requirements for education and training. They are based, in particular, on the view that computer-based automation in the manufacturing and service sectors

will require workers who have new skills and

who can be continually retrained as changes

occur and new technologies are adopted. To

● producers of curriculum, and

● employers.

Legislation could be addressed specifically

at any of these groups-direct funding for

schools to purchase technology, support for

students taking technology-based education,

tax writeoffs or subsidies for donations of

technology and services, support for the development of curricula, or incentives for employers to provide job training.

In turn, all of these groups, and their potential use of technology, will be influenced by the

shape of education policy. Decisions made by

Congress will determine the roles various institutions will play in the education system of

the future. They will determine which options

for education and training are available to citizens, as well as which citizens will have access

to them. The information industry may also

be affected. Policy will influence industry decisions about what technology and services to

develop and market to schools. It will affect

whether curriculum producers will develop

high-quality, technology-based material. Finally, policy may influence the nature and level

of skills that employees bring to their jobs and

the choices employers will make about inhouse training and retraining.

Federal Action

be retrainable, the entering work force must

first be educated to a high level of basic and

technological literacy. There will also be a high

and growing demand for scientific and technical experts.

It appears that the educational system as

it is currently structured and operating will

be unable to fill these needs. Many public

schools face problems such as decreasing tax177
178 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

payer support and a decline in the quality of

entrants into the teaching profession. While

new commercial educational institutions may

emerge to provide necessary educational services, their existence may present a serious

challenge to nonprofit and publicly funded

schools. In making decisions about educational technologies, Congress may want to take

into account how their application and widespread use may affect the roles of present educational institutions.

Information technology could be a major

tool for responding to these challenges. It

could enhance the productivity of existing institutions and serve as the incentive for the

growth of new educational and training services and of new institutions to provide them.

If these technologies fulfill their educational

potential, the Nation as a whole would benefit

from the widespread adoption of educational

technology by both schools and other education providers. The Federal Government might

decide to take an active part in the adoption

of these technologies in order to assure their

equitable distribution, to overcome barriers to

their use, and to support the national dissemination of information.

OTA found that, while many schools are

adopting the use of desktop computers, there

is concern among educators that many schools

may be left behind. For a variety of reasons—

lack of funds, lack of information, unmotivated faculty, or parents-these schools may

not elect to use the technology. Such a choice

could consign their students to poor employment opportunities and could lead to greater

disillusionment with, and thus loss of support

for, the public schools. Most importantly, it

could result in substantial inequities in the

way that educational services are distributed.

Some experts think that the development of

good, innovative curriculum materials may be

too expensive for the currently limited and

fragmented market to bear. Not enough schools

use computers, video disks, and other technology to provide a large enough sales base.

Under these circumstances curriculum producers will be either inhibited altogether from producing material, or they will concentrate on

those few applications-such as professional

retraining-that have a high income potential

at the expense of more basic education. Furthermore, significant developmental work remains to be done before the technology can

reach its full potential. The Federal Government might provide the high-risk, criticalmass funding needed at this time to stimulate

the development of a technology-based curriculum market.

Finally, mechanisms for combining and

sharing experience gained from the existing

activities are needed. Some experts have

pointed out a need for one or more national

clearinghouses to review and evaluate educational software, as well as for research centers

where new techniques and materials can be developed. Again, Federal leadership is a means

for creating or aiding the development of such

nationwide activities.

Arguments Against Federal Action

Some experts have also raised a number of Federalism has been a major element of educoncerns about Federal involvement in stimu- cational policy debates for many years. If the

lating the educational use of the technology. Federal Government were to undertake action

Basically they argue that the private sector to encourage the development or use of educacan and will respond to the needs for improved tional technology, it is likely that concerns will

education, and that education policy is the be expressed about undue Federal interferproper domain of local and State governments ences in choices considered to be most approalone. priately made at the local level to suit local
.—

needs. These concerns would be particularly

strong if Government funds were used to develop curricula.

Any new program initiatives will be carefully scrutinized for their budgetary impacts. Although few policy options appear to be extraordinarily expensive when compared to other

education and research and development

budgets, the Federal education budget is

shrinking rapidly. Any increase of funding for

technology, no matter how modest, will appear

to be at the expense of other educational priorities that are already being tightly pressed.

Another important concern is that a Federal

education policy that focuses on technology

might create the impression that technology

is a panacea. Such an impression could divert

attention as well as funds from other signifiCh. 10—Implications for Policy ● 179

cant problems that may not be solvable by the

technology. It could also create overexpectation followed by unwarranted disillusionment

about the potential contributions technology

could make to education.

Finally, some concern has been expressed

about the potential long-term effect on learning that may be caused by an extensive use

of technology for education. Society would be

augmenting or even replacing an old and wellknown process—the classroom and teacher—

by new technology-based methods. Some people anticipate a number of possible side effects

that might have significant negative consequences for students. These effects might include shortened attention span, loss of effective learning, or decreased opportunities for

social interaction.

Congressional Options

OTA found that a broad range of Federal

policy options relating to educational technology have been suggested. They range in scope

from policies that call for no Federal action to

those that call for a marshaling of Federal

resources. All of these policies would, however,

be inextricably linked to the broader education

policy, which has recently been the focus of

significant restructuring. Since OTA has not

attempted to perform an overall assessment

of Federal education policy, only a broad overview of the structure of some of the more feasible options available has been taken.

Option 1: Subsidize Hardware

Legislation has already been introduced to

help schools obtain information technology.

For example, H.R. 5573 is intended to increase

the amount of tax deduction allowed to manufacturers for donations of computer hardware.

Such a policy would likely increase the number

of donations of technology to schools, although the quantity would depend on the

growth of the market. Firms with a large backlog of purchase orders might be less inclined

to see an advantage in donations, even if accompanied by tax writeoffs. On the other

hand, incentives such as advertising, longterm market development, or a sense of public

responsibility might encourage contributions.

On the negative side, some have suggested

that schools might be the recipients of obsolescent machines as manufacturers clear out their

inventories prior to the introduction of the

next generation of systems. Moreover, schools

might tend to accept inappropriate hardware

that is free rather than purchase equipment

that best fits their needs.

One congressional option would be to increase direct funding to the schools to allow

them to purchase hardware. Such a policy

would have the advantage of allowing the institutions to select the equipment they prefer.

The OTA case studies indicated that many of

the most successful schools that now employ

computers used Federal funds as seed money

for their programs. Desktop computers can be

used to teach introductory computer programing and computer literacy without extensive
180 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

software. Such a course characterized the initial use of computers in many of the schools

that OTA examined. In addition, a substantial increase in the base of hardware available

in educational institutions would provide a

more attractive market for curriculum producers. It could both encourage the development of material and decrease the price of software since development costs would be written off over a larger sales base.

Option 2: Subsidize Software

Many producers of educational curricula are

interested in the growing market for technology-based materials, but they are uncertain

about entry. In the early, formative stage of

the market development, expensive development projects are risky, at best. In addition,

much still needs to be learned about the best

educational use of the new media. These problems have served to slow the pace of development.

In response to these problems, some have

suggested that the Federal Government provide assistance with developmental costs of

some major curriculum packages. Either direct funding, full or partial, could be provided

to the producers, or educational institutions

could be given funds for the purchase of educational software.

Direct support of the producers would allow

the Federal Government to set priorities in

two ways. Curriculum packages could be designed around those subjects for which a clear

national need exists-e. g., mathematics and

science, foreign language, or adult literacy.

And research and development concerns could

be taken into account when setting priorities

for projects to be funded. Support could be

given to those that showed the most promise

of advancing the state of the art in the uses

of education technology. Opponents of such

an approach suggest that priorities for these

two concerns are best set at the local level and

in the marketplace.

An alternative method of support that takes

these objections into account would be to provide educational institutions funds to purchase educational software. Such a policy

would increase the size and likelihood of a

potential market for software and encourage

producers to compete for a share of that market. Priorities for subject matter would then

be set in the market by the users and producers, and competition would result in increased

quality and decreased costs. Opponents argue

that many potential educational users are not

yet sophisticated enough to exercise their best

judgment. Their naivete, coupled with the expenditure of Federal rather than local funds,

could encourage wasteful expenditures on wellmarketed but educationally unsound curriculum packages.

Option 3: Assume a

Leadership Role

The lack of information by the potential

users of educational technology is the basis for

suggestions that the Federal Government play

a leadership role, particularly with respect to

the elementary and secondary schools. Few

teachers or school administrators are trained

in the instructional use of computers or other

electronic media. Unsound decisions in implementing technology and selecting curriculum

packages could be extremely costly to schools.

Money would be wasted, and potential benefits could be lost. Furthermore, exaggerated

expectations or a bad initial experience with

technology resulting from a poor implementation strategy could lead to disillusionment

with educational technology and to significant

delays in its appropriate implementation.

At the same time, OTA case studies suggest

that, at least in a number of schools, there is

a great deal of interest and motivation by faculty and administrators, students and parents,

and local industries to promote the use of computer technology. This motivation, if properly

informed and guided, could be an important

driving force for the implementation of educational technology.

The Federal support might take the form of

funding for teacher training, either inservice
Ch. 10—Implications for Policy . 181

or preservice in the teacher colleges, for demonstration and development centers, or for

information clearinghouses. Such activities

might be undertaken directly by the Government, or through the encouragement of a variety of institutional partnerships involving education, industry, and nonprofit foundations interested in education. S. 2738, for example,

would provide tax credits to firms that hire

public school math and science teachers during the summer.

OTA has found general agreement that

there is a significant lack, particularly in the

area of precollege science and mathematics, of

qualified teachers. The concern has been expressed both about the numbers of teachers

being trained and their quality. The Federal

Government has funded teacher training programs in the past, particularly in areas where

there was a vital national need. For example,

inservice programs in science and mathematics education were funded by the National Science Foundation.

A major problem noted by some experts and

administrators in the area of computer training is the natural competition of the private

sector for people with abilities in this area. One

effect of the growth of the knowledge industry

has been to increase the earning power of individuals with expertise in science, mathematics, and engineering disciplines. This trend is

particularly apparent in the computer-related

fields.

This problem creates a need for more teacher

education. However, it also suggests that,

while salaries remain significantly lower in

education than in other sectors, teachers who

receive such training would need to take this

possibility into account, through mechanisms

such as:

making commitments to the teaching profession part of the selection criteria,

making contractual agreements with

teachers attending the programs that

they will return to teaching,

making agreements with local industry

not to lure teachers newly trained in computer technology,

setting up cooperative programs with local industry to provide summer jobs to

teachers that have been trained in computing, and

using differentials to encourage teachers

with more marketable skills to-stay in the

education profession.

The clearinghouse and demonstration center

suggestions respond to the other major nonmonetary barrier: lack of information and

guidance on how to institute and use educational technology. For many years, suggestions for various forms of such centers have

been put forth. They could perform a wide variety of functions, including the following:

●

●

●

●

●

evaluate educational software and disseminate their findings. The extreme case

of this review process would be for the

center to certify software as educationally

valid;

provide a location and experienced staff

for teachers and administrator training

programs;

provide expert consulting and guidance,

since salaries at such a center might be

more competitive;

serve as an instructional test bed for both

new technology and new teaching techniques that integrate instruction and

technology; and

identify and examine in detail those institutions that have already successfully

adopted technology in order to share their

experiences more broadly.

Option 4: Incorporate

Technology Initiatives in

General Education Policy

Congress makes policy that broadly addresses the general problems and needs of education. This broad legislation could be tailored

where appropriate, either to encourage technological use or to remove unintended barriers

to such usage.

To the extent that education legislation is

created based on a view of the educational system—needs, providers, and mechanisms--pol-
182 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

icy should also take into account the possibility of change from the information revolution.

For example:

●

●

●

Vocational education must take into account the problems of experienced workers displaced by automation and the new

skill requirements of high-technology industry.

Veteran’s education must consider whether continuing adult education will shift

focus from schools to industry or even to

the home.

Special education will need to consider the

enormous potential of information technology to improve the access of handicapped to the information stream of U.S.

society and, hence, to educational services

specifically tailored to their needs.

Impact s

Any policy relating to educational technology will need to be evaluated, not only for its

direct effect, but also for the potential it holds

for longer term impacts. OTA has identified

three general areas of potential impact that

seem particularly significant for Federal policy.

Implicit Choices

Congress could influence the long-term development of the educational system through

policies that deliberately or unintentionally

favored particular institutions, clients, or technological mechanisms. As a result, there could

be significant long-term effects on who is educated in our society, for what purpose, who

provides it, and what mechanisms are used to

provide it.

OTA found that a variety of new providers

of education and educational material are appearing and that the roles of traditional institutions are shifting. It is possible that information technology will be a powerful tool for

decreasing costs of instruction or for increasing the quality, distribution, or variety of educational offerings. If so, those institutions that

are able to adapt to its use most quickly will

have a significant competitive advantage over

those that cannot. By focusing on the needs

of one or more of these institutions—e.g., the

public schools, libraries, or industrial training

facilities-at the exclusion of others, Congress

could influence that competitive balance.

Certain objectives may overtly dictate such

policies. For example, if it were determined

that public school’s lack of access to educational technology put their students in a

severely disadvantaged position, Congress

could, for public policy reasons, focus policy

on public schools in order to strengthen them

institutionally. If it were determined that the

proper Federal interest was to see that information literacy increased among the population in more general terms, policy might address the needs of libraries or museums. Policy

that addresses the need for job training might

concentrate on industrial education.

Certain clients for educational services may

also be favored over others. To the extent that

different institutions serve different sets of

needs, the policy impacts on institutional roles

discussed above will also affect the clients. In

addition, a number of Federal education policies—those concerned with special education,

foreign language instruction, etc.—are specifically tailored to the needs of particular

learners.

Finally, policy may be directed at specific

technologies. OTA found that a wide variety

of computer, telecommunication, and video

technologies have potential educational application. Furthermore, they can be combined in

new and unexpected ways to form instruction

systems. Policies narrowly focused on one

technology-microcomputers, two-way cable,

etc.—could inhibit the full exploration of the

potential of the much wider collection of information technologies.

Potential Equity Impact s

OTA found concern among some experts

that the widespread implementation of educational technology could create issues of equity. Information technology could accelerate

the existing trend of educational services moving into the private marketplace. To the ex-
Ch. 10—Implications for Policy ● 183

tent that such a trend affects both the cost and

accessibility of instruction, it may have a differential impact on the ability of groups within

the society to become educated. The cost of

education may increase beyond the economic

means of some. Providers may not have an incentive to meet certain needs if they see less

potential for profit in them. Regions may be

geographically isolated, without access to vital

telecommunication technologies that could

provide needed educational services.

On the other hand, information technology

could also substantially improve access to

high-quality educational services. Communication services such as direct broadcast satellite

can bring instruction to remote areas. In-home

information technology such as two-way cable

and personal computers can improve the

homebound’ access to education. Technology

could provide effective education in areas such

as bilingual education, supplementary tutoring for children with learning disabilities, or

assistance in classroom communication for the

physically handicapped.

To the extent that Federal policy influences

the impact of educational technology on access

to education, it will also likely influence both

the access of affected groups to jobs and their

ability to participate in an increasingly complex society.

Long-Term Educational Impacts

Finally, over the long term, a major societal

dependence on information technology could

have significant educational and psychological

effects on the U.S. population. We have little

information about what those effects might

be. While the educational effectiveness of information technology seems generally to be accepted, not much has been learned about the

more subtle effects on learning or the possible impacts of more extensive, longer term use.

Most likely, some skills will be enhanced by

use of technology while others may be lost or

lessened.

To the extent that changes do occur, there

may be concomitant changes in the skills demanded by society. For example, some experts

argue that simple arithmetic skills may be less

important in a world of pocket calculators and

automated cash registers, and that spelling

may be less important in light of modern word

processing systems that correct errors. Even

more importantly, if more and more jobs may

require the use of computers and automated

data bases to solve problems, then the skills

that are particularly enhanced through interaction with a computer-based education system may be very important in the future.

The analysis of potential policies and their

impacts suggest that, while any particular action will affect the future use and development

of educational technologies, none of them can,

by themselves, meet the total challenge facing

American education today. As this OTA report demonstrates, to meet the educational

needs of an information society will involve all

individuals, groups, and institutions. It will

require the use of a full range of educational

approaches and technologies. It will, moreover, entail overcoming a wide variety of complex institutional and social barriers. And it

will necessitate a thorough understanding and

the continued monitoring of these rapidly unfolding technologies.

The information age is having a profound

effect on American education, increasing the

need and the demand for a broad variety of

educational services. The Nation’s educational

needs are not now being met, creating a situation that could impede the Nation’s economic

growth, undermine its international competitive position, and increase and exacerbate the

socioeconomic divisions within society. The

new information technologies offer a promising mechanism, and in some cases the only

mechanism, for responding to these educational needs. Their widescale application will

significantly affect how and to whom educational services are provided. Such changes will

present both challenges to and opportunities

for American education. Congress could take

a number of specific actions to affect the development, educational application, and distribution of information technologies. But such an
184 . Informational Technology and Ifs Impact on American Education

approach would address only a single aspect account the changing needs for education and

of the problem and may generate undesirable training, considerations of equity, and changand unexpected side effects. If this is to be ing institutional roles, will be required.

avoided, a broad approach, which takes into
Appendix
Appendix A

Case Studies: Applications

of Information Technologies

This appendix presents a series of case studies

exploring the applications and uses of technologies

in a variety of institutional settings. All were chosen to depict current, state-of-the-art uses within

institutions where application has been successful.

The seven studies describing information technology in the public schools were selected to include examples from the Northeast, Midwest,

South, West, and Far West regions of the United

States—and to include rural, suburban, and urban

school settings. In choosing sites to visit, the

major criterion was that activities involving technology were already under way and well-established. These cases were also selected to cover a

variety of instructional uses of computers; computer literacy, computers as instructional delivery

systems (CAI-CMI), and computers as tools for

problem-solving.

Three case studies of applications of information

technologies in corporate instructional programs

are presented to illustrate computer-assisted instruction, computer-managed instruction, computer-based simulation, video disk, and teleconferencing. The studies have been drawn from the airline,

high-technology, and tobacco products industries.

Use of information and communication technologies has affected all aspects of library services.

With a broad overview of different applications

within different types of libraries, there are examples of new and innovative programs that are local,

county, statewide, and national in scope.

As in libraries, information technology has

changed the nature of educational services provided by many museums. Recently, more and more

museums have been incorporating information

technology, particularly computers, into both their

exhibits and their educational programs. A survey

of the uses of the technology in museums and a

case study on a new childrens’ museum in Washington, D. C., are included to demonstrate current

programs.

All branches of the military have made substantial investments in research and development

(R&D) on applications of information technology

to education as well as investments in ongoing programs utilizing these technologies. Descriptions of

some of the military’s educational programs are

included to illustrate the types of programs

funded, the range of educational needs found in the

military, the uses of information technology to address these needs, and the extent to which these

programs may be applicable to the civilian educational sector.

Two other sections–information technology and

special education, and information technology in

the home—are also included in this appendix. Since

special education is a field, not an institution, OTA

did not fully explore the uses, impacts, and effects

of these technologies in this area. However, because the technologies will considerably affect the

schools in general, OTA examined the possible application of these technologies for teaching the

gifted and the handicapped. In a similar vein, OTA

took a broad overview of educational services that

are now available to be delivered directly to and

in the home.

Computers in Education:

Lexington Public Schools

Lexington, Mass .

The Computers in Education program of the

Lexington, Mass., public schools was selected for

study because the district is considered to be a

leader in the application of computer technology,

with experience and expertise that spans over 15

years. Located next to Route 128, the home of a

thousand high-technology companies, the district

typifies a community where parents’ technical expertise, leadership, and support have had a significant impact. The Lexington experience illustrates

a variety of computing applications, developed by

individual teachers with leadership from the district’s long-range planner and computer specialist.

The program also demonstrates a major planning

effort involving teachers, administrators, and parents. This 2-year effort has resulted in a comprehensive blueprint for computers in education

that depends on the district’s continued ability to

handle financial constraints (Proposition 21⁄2)

through frugal budgeting, redistributing available

funds, and forming new partnerships with the

community (town government) and the private sector.

187
188 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Fifth grade students (at left) at Fiske School, Lexington, Mass., gather about their homeroom’s computer console,

linked to the Lexington School System’s mainframe Digital Equipment Corp. computer, housed at the Lexington High

School. The computer is made available to all of the students in the class, much as are books, activity files, maps,

records, and educational materials of all nature. Their homeroom teacher assigns students to the keyboard on a rotating

basis, giving them assignments which enhance their computer literacy

The Setting

Lexington, one of the suburban towns that surrounds Boston, is located in the heart of the

State’s booming high-technology area. Many of

the Lexington parents and community members

are employed by the nearby technology industries

in white-collar technical and managerial positions.

There has been continual and strong community

involvement and support for the schools, with a

tradition of community participation in town governance and decisionmaking.

Contrary to trends in other districts, 90 percent

of Lexington parents send their school-aged children to the public schools. Assistant Superintendent Geoff Pierson observes that the flight to private schools has not occurred because “there is

consensus about what the schools are doing and

parents feel that the schools represent their children’s interests. ”

Lexington is also a relatively homogeneous, affluent, middle-class community. The school-aged

population is 95-percent white, 3-percent black,

and 2-percent Oriental. Seventy percent of high

school graduates go on to a 4-year college. Lexington boasts of having the largest number of

merit scholars in the area, in part because there

are many “smart kids” in the system, but also

because “our program is rigorous and interesting. ”

A total of 5,625 students are enrolled in grades

K-12 in seven elementary, two junior high, and one

high school. Five years ago, the district, accurately

projecting serious enrollment declines, planned

and prepared for significantly fewer students.

Over that period five schools were closed and 150

teaching positions were abolished, while teacher/

student ratios were held constant and the number

of instructional programs was increased. According to Superintendent John Lawson, declining enrollments, continuing inflation, and the passage of
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 189

Proposition 21⁄2, resulted in the allocation of fewer

resources to the public sector.

However, Lawson states that the school administration and the school committee have avoided

serious problems by planning carefully and spending frugally, “In an era of limited resources we

have had to develop better priorities, monitor our

successes, and determine where we want to go

next. ” Not all parents and staff have been happy

with the budget decisions and allocation of resources, but they agree that Lexington has fared

better than other districts in the State. There is

consensus that the over $17 million 1981-82 budget, with a $3,024 per pupil expenditure, supports

a comprehensive, high-quality educational program.

Computer Applications in

the District

The district’s first computer, a Digital Equipment Corp. PDP-8 with 14 terminals, was purchased with Federal funds by the mathematics department in 1965. Math-related computer courses

were first offered to high school students, and a

year later to junior high school students. As teachers and students became involved, interested parents worked with them to develop software, to expand programing skills, and to train others.

Spearheading all of the computer activities,

Walter Koetke, computer coordinator (no longer

with the district), encouraged parents and teachers

and, according to many, demystified computers.

He taught his colleagues BASIC, designed software for the system, and set the foundation for

Lexington’s computer applications. A math specialist trained by Koetke worked with an advanced

group of primary students, transporting these

youngsters to a nearby junior high so that they

could have once-a-week computer experiences. One

of the youngest, a first grader in the group, later

became one of the Lexington high school programing stars. By the late 1960’s, Lexington led in efforts to bring computer-related experiences to

groups of fifth and sixth graders who were transported to junior high schools by their schools’

math specialist and by parent volunteers.

In 1975, with leadership from Frank DiGiammarino (director of computer services), Koetke,

and others, the district obtained funding from the

Massachusetts State Department under title VI,

part B to develop a computerized system to deal

with the real problems of data management in a

local school district. Project LEADS developed

software for a wide range of management functions—e.g., budgeting, accounting, scheduling, attendance, and student and personnel data. Project

funds also supported the purchase of a DEC PDP

11/40 and peripheral hardware. Shortly, this

system was also used to support instructional activities at the secondary schools—primarily in

math and science, but also in other areas.

Parents soon began to push for computer use in

the elementary schools, locating unused terminals

at work, donating personally owned equipment,

and helping the schools get the hardware installed.

In addition, parents and math specialists trained

teachers, Because teacher acceptance and use of

computers was minimal, parents took over operation of the terminals and trained additional parent

volunteers to enable pupils at all elementary

schools to participate, These computer activities

continue to build general computer awareness and

comfort and to engage students in problem-solving

activities, drills, and games. When microcomputers came on the market, the Lexington computer

activitists were ready to move.

The first four Commodore PET microcomputers

were purchased with discretionary funds in 1978,

and a half-time position for a computer specialist

was created. A year later, an additional 35 PET’s

were purchased with Federal Title IVB funds and

PTA gifts. At the beginning of the 1978 school

year, workshops were offered to reach all teachers

to integrate them into instruction. The plan was

to diffuse computers among the schools. With a

total budget of only $800, a computer specialist

(Beth Lewd) was hired to work with each school;

community volunteers were enlisted to write software for the PETs or adapt software from the PDP

11; and a catalog and materials library was assembled.

In June 1980, it was clear that short-term, unplanned use wasn’t working. Rotation of the equipment was modified to concentrate resources in the

rooms of interested teachers, and a “models” approach evolved. The wide diffusion of computers

was seen to depend on successes in individual

classrooms first. Another lesson learned was that

the microcomputers had to be available for more

than a few weeks (e.g., one semester or all year)

to ensure maximum payoff in each classroom.

By 1980, more than 20 models were implemented with a focus on computer literacy and applications in math, spelling, social studies, science,

and language arts at all grade levels. In each case,

models were developed by individual teachers, a

team of teachers, or the entire school staff. In

many instances, school principals provided staff

support, while central office staff wrote grant pro-
190 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

posals to the school board to get additional funds

for microcomputers, software, teacher planning

time, etc.

To build awareness of computer potential and

to obtain support for the ongoing activities, a 2-

day leadership conference was held in October

1980. More than 90 district educators attended.

Experts from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), area colleges, regional cooperatives,

local school districts, and the private sector made

presentations. Teachers from the Lexington district demonstrated hardware and software and

structured hands-on experiences. The conference

was followed by the formation of computer planning committees.

Workshops and training sessions followed that

were intended to provide most of the staff some

training, at least at the awareness level. Teacher

participation has so far been voluntary. All of the

district’s library media specialists have had extensive training and, as a result, have initiated several

projects: a computerized annotated listing of

16mm films; a materials data base for all nonprint

materials in the district; and a computer center/

library media pilot. The media specialist’s role has

expanded in Lexington; in recent budget planning

sessions library positions were held constant, partly because of the school committee’s commitment

to computer activities and because of the plan to

focus computer centers around the media center.

Currently, the district’s 60 microcomputers, 2

minicomputers, and 33 terminals support the following uses:

Kindergarten - Grade 3

● Reinforcement of number and letter skills

● Computer awareness and independence

● Phonics instruction

● LOGO models

s BASIC for primary grades

Grades 4-6

● Word processing for editing

c BASIC for problem solving

● Using terminals in the classroom

c LOGO

● Skills reinforcement

Grades 7-9

c BASIC and computer literacy

● Word processing for writing

● Simulations in science

● Skills reinforcement

Grades 10-12

c Six math electives ranging from computer

awareness to computer science and assembly

language programing

● Business applications

● Science applications

Library

Q Materials data base

s Computer center/library media center pilot

Management and Systemwide Administrative

Services

● Program budgeting

● Program accounting

● Fiscal reporting

● Scheduling

● Grade reports

. Student and personnel data

Parent Involvement and

Community Suppor t

Parents have participated in the computer activities and served as a resource by:

●

●

●

●

●

●

providing technical advice and assistance.

Parents serve on advisory and hardware purchasing committees, help install equipment,

troubleshoot problems, and support computer

plans in school board deliberations;

writing educational software for the timeshare system and the PET microcomputers

and by inputing data in the materials data

base;

helping train students, teachers, and other

parents on the terminals. Parents help in individual classrooms using microcomputers, and

participate in district-level workshops;

assisting with computer clubs before and after

school;

supervising the use of the time-share terminals in the elementary schools; and

purchasing and donating equipment. PTAs

raised funds to purchase additional microcomputers. Other parents donated personally

owned computers and terminals or found excess equipment that was no longer being used

by companies.

Gloria Bloom–a parent volunteer, MIT graduate, and former computer programer--estimates

that parents currently spend approximately 70

hours a week operating the time-share terminals

in the elementary schools. Parents also come to

school committee meetings and meet with the

superintendent and school principals to help advance the program. Some observers of the Lexington program suspect that parents have led the educators by pressuring and demanding computer

programs for their children. Parents point out,

however, that educators must play the key role if
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 191

computer technology is to become integrated into

the educational process.

Although the major industries are literally next

door to Lexington, corporate-level involvement

with the school system is not direct. Rather, collaboration is primarily through the parents of the

pupils or through interested individuals in the

community who are also connected to the private

sector. Through these individuals, hardware is donated, software is developed, company tours are

conducted, and information on careers is disseminated.

Impact s

Ironically, increasing success has created problems. DiGiammarino describes the issues in terms

of ‘the ecstasy and agony of computers. ” As educators’ experience broadens and expertise develops, the potential uses for computers is recognized

—the ecstasy. “This, however, is tempered by the

realization that all the conditions necessary to

reach the ecstasy do not currently exist—the

agony. ” For example, more and more teachers are

moving ahead with classroom applications, enrolling in workshops and degree programs at nearby

universities, and, at the same time, requesting

more equipment, software, and in-service training.

The present time-share hardware systems are

aging fast; the microcomputers break down and

are difficult to maintain the demand is greater

than the supply; and funds for teacher in-service,

professional development, and sabbaticals are limited.

Impacts on Students. Students are motivated

and interested in computers, and there is evidence

of improved student performance through skills

reinforcement drills. But the existing software for

the minicomputers and microcomputers, obtained

through commercial sources and parent, teacher,

and student development, is limited in scope.

Although high-quality software is becoming available, it is very expensive. The LEADS system has

both management and instructional applications,

but its users are primarily central office staff and

special education staff. Its potential for diagnosis

and tutoring applications and materials retrieval,

however, is high. According to school officials,

what is needed to make LEADS fully operational

is an upgraded minicomputer, a unified distributive network, and training for both administrators

and teachers—to be implemented during the second year of the long-range plan.

Finally, there is the issue of program diversity.

As programs evolve, different approaches are developed by individual teachers. Each elementary

and secondary school uses terminals and microcomputers, but the applications and the penetration into all classrooms varies. Some teachers have

greater interest and expertise, hence their students have different experiences. Parents in some

schools have become more involved, have access

to resources, and are willing to push harder than

others. Principals juggle with conflicting needs

and set different priorities. The issue of equity in

access and quality has concerned Superintendent

Lawson and his administrative staff. More than

any other factor, it has led to increased leadership

responsibility for DiGiammarino, an expansion of

Lewd’s activities, and the creation of planning

committees.

For members of the district computer curriculum committee, as well as for others heavily involved with computers, the benefits to teachers,

their students, and the program outweigh the

problems or frustrations. Teachers point to their

new computer expertise. Many have written their

own programs, and others have helped design and

implement computer models and curriculum materials. Mainly by trial and error, teachers have made

the computer work, and they feel good about what

they and their students have learned together.

There is a pervasive enthusiasm.

Dave Olney, high school physics teacher, implements one of the district computer models for

using the Apple computer in physics. He spends

hours writing programs and expanding his own

knowledge and previous experience with the DEC

system. He is excited about using the microcomputer to speed up and improve Laboratory activities by having students punch-in data, calculate

results, and get immediate feedback. He sees a

whole range of applications including the feasibility of modeling problem-solving processes in physics. His enthusiasm results from the intellectual

stimulation he derives from the logic processes

that he uses as he programs these activities.

For other teachers, satisfaction comes from observing the progress of their students in writing,

in math and reading, or in simply feeling comfortable with computers in a variety of settings.

There is no question that students are enthusiastic

users. A group of third and fourth graders working with LOGO and problem-solving strategies, interviewed by their teacher, Florence Bailey, reported that learning is fun, that mistakes can be

handled, that solutions can be derived through experience, and that mastering programing skills is

challenging:
192 c Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Eric: It’s fun, but it’s actually school work. It’s

better than recess! Brad and I make a good

team. He knows things I don’t know, and I

know what he doesn’t.

Tim: If you’re bored, you just work on the computer, and you’re not bored anymore.

Tanya: I can make my own designs and pictures.

You’re learning while you’re having fun.

Chrissy: The big one upstairs is already programed.

This one you can learn to program with your

own things.

Shannon: You can learn by yourself. . . if you make

mistakes. You can fix a circle that’s too big.

Increasing numbers of Lexington students, particularly by the time they reach high school, have

expertise in programing that is impressive. Ed

Good, director of the high school computer math

center, points proudly to students who have written software for the districts’ data management

system, for elementary classroom instructional activities, and for small businesses in the area. He

cites the high school sophomore who designed the

interface to transfer (download) programs on the

PDP 11/40 to the PET’s, thereby saving the district thousands of dollars.

From the models and from other uses, it appears

that computers are, and will continue to be powerful tools for both teachers and learners. This notion explains, in part, why an increasing number

of staff members are using computers or are interested in having computers in their classroom. Jody

Josiassen, a fourth grade teacher, describes his

2-year involvement: “In my teacher training program there was nothing in my education that

spoke to this-the hardware-the software. It’s a

brand new field. I get excited about it from a teacher’s point of view because I think it can do things

in the classroom for me that I’ve struggled with

in the past. ”

Finally, in further justifying the comprehensive

plans for future computer applications, Lexington

administrators and teachers point to their hightechnology community and to the increasingly

technology-related world. Two-thirds of Jody

Josiassen’s students have their own home computers. He views this phenomenon as the “iceberg out

there and I’m at the very tip. ” He also sees that

the schools need to be part of the momentum, “to

catch it, structure it and use it . . . and help my

students develop their goals to use it. ”

The Future

Implementing the Long-Range Plan for Computers in Education. With district implementation

of the long-range plan, the following examples will

become not only possible, but commonplace. The

planning document projections include:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

A third grade student at a computer station

ready to LOAD, RUN, and LIST a program

from tape or disk.

A teacher at a computer terminal obtaining

a list of all nonbook resources owned by the

Lexington School System related to a specific

subject heading for students at the seventh

grade instructional reading level.

Elementary school students work at computer stations in the learning center or on teacher prescribed learning activities which have

been integrated into the curriculum.

The coordinator of language arts updating the

language arts curriculum data base from staff

evaluative information.

A junior high school student electing to take

a followup computer course as a result of positive experiences in the required computer literacy program.

A student at the senior high school level designing his/her own data base management information system.

Teachers or students using computer terminals to address computerized information systems anywhere in the Nation.

A teacher queries a terminal to determine exactly what are the educational plan objectives

of two students in the class and what is their

progress to date.

A program director querying a terminal to determine the exact cost to date of his program

and precisely what portion of that cost has

been used for special needs programs.

A counselor using the computer to assist

scheduling a new student.

An elementary principal, concerned about the

validity of the academic level recommended

for his students moving to junior high, using

a terminal to examine how previous students

have achieved in seventh grade relative to the

level recommended by his school.

The data-processing center adding to the data

base the information from the annual battery

of basic skills tests given to one-quarter of the

school population. Also, printing report cards

and searching for those students whose academic achievement is declining.

Acquisition and Placement of Hardware. Key

implementation strategies include the acquisition

of equipment over a 5-year period, with a mix of

microcomputers, terminals, and replacement of the

system’s PDP 11/40 and 8. Each school will have
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 193

a cluster of inexpensive portable microcomputers

and terminals that tie into the central system. The

upgraded central minicomputer system will significantly expand capacity to handle a curriculum

materials data base, software collections, and student information and management functions.

Each elementary school will have a computer

learning center supervised by the library media

specialist. A center or cluster will be equipped with

t h e

●

●

●

●

following:

11 small microcomputers (several available for

loan to individual classrooms),

three CRT terminals hooked to the central

minicomputer,

one printer directly tied to the central minicomputer, and

one printer for the microcomputers networking and electronic mail equipment.

Similar centers will be established at the junior

high school, with one center servicing the needs

of the computer literacy curriculum as well as the

academic areas outside of math and science. The

second center will support math and science applications. Similar configurations are planned for the

high school, as well as an upgraded computer center with a replacement of the PDP 11/40 and a

phase-out of the PDP 8.

Funding. Recommended equipment will probably cost almost a half-million dollars. Up until

now, computers and terminals were acquired without expenditure of local funds (see previous sections of this report). With reductions in Federal

and State funds, the district is searching for other

alternatives, such as corporate contributions from

the computer hardware manufacturers, to defray

part of the equipment costs. The school committee is also being asked to allocate funds from the

operating budget to support the computer program. For 1982 to 1983, the plan is to budget

$74,566 from local revenues, to use all of the Federal title IVB grants ($16,000) and reimbursements to the district for student teaching from

Boston University ($10,000), and to attempt to obtain a 50 percent discount from DEC for the new

minicomputer as a corporate contribution.

Although implementation of the plan is based

on funding sources such as Federal block grants

and other special area funds, the availability of

these resources is not guaranteed under present

circumstances. Furthermore, funding projections

deal solely with hardware acquisition. Costs for

software, continued training, and maintenance will

have to be absorbed by operating budgets.

A Separate Department for Information Science. The planning committee has recommended

the establishment of an information science department to lead program activities–handling

staffing, budgeting, maintaining, and evaluating

the K-12 computer literacy program. The department would also assume responsibility for the

revision, updating, and teaching of higher level

courses on programing, systems design, and computer applications. Inservice training and other

leadership and professional development activities

would be handled as well. Computer literacy and

computer science courses would be taken out of

the math department, and the scope of the program would be broadened to include all curriculum

areas. No new staff positions are contemplated;

staff members who have already played leading

roles will be reassigned to the new department.

Training and Curriculum Development: Computer Literacy. These efforts will continue with

summer workshops and inservice training activities scheduled on release days at the beginning

of the school term and periodically during the year.

During the summer, teachers from the computer

literacy committees will work with Lewd to assemble and prepare materials for elementary and

junior high school components. These teachers will

be responsible for teaching the course at the junior

and senior high schools in the fall. Resources (staff

time, equipment, and software purchase and development) will be concentrated over the short

term in grades 5, 8, and 10. Remaining portions

of the new curriculum will be piloted at other grade

levels.

Computers in Education. It is planned to extend

the use of computers as tools for instruction. The

materials data base will be operational. Because

of upgraded central computing facilities, teachers

and administrators are expected to increase their

use of computerized data. Also expected to increase are the communication and sharing of information and software via electronic mail among all

schools, as well as the number of accessing information centers and networks within the community, State, and region.

Parents and the Technology Community. Cooperative efforts with local district cooperatives and

user groups, with parents, and with the high-technology industries is essential to Lexington’s

future. How else, argue the educators, can the district keep abreast of technological advances, encourage or demand useful and appropriate software, make the best use of available resources to
194 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

advance the long-range plan, and maximize the potential benefits of technology for education?

As a result of district membership in EDCO, a

local education collaboration, Lexington teachers

will derive benefits from the computer resource

and demonstration center that is being established. They will also benefit from the knowledge

that they are not alone, that other districts are

copying with computer applications, too. The regular exchange of information with such districts

is welcomed by the staff. Finally, the technology

community and the parents offer valuable resources. Lewis Clapp, president of a local software

development company and also a parent, maintains “a school system that does not take advantage of the intellectual power of its parents and

community is doing a disservice to its students—

particularly in an era of 21⁄2’s and Reaganomics.”

The parents of Lexington recognize progress,

but they expect more. For example, Clapp believes

it is essential that all teachers be computer-literate; that public and higher education efforts be

coordinated; that computing and computer science

curricula be fully developed to reflect the current

state of the art; that computer tools be used to

support the entire curriculum, not just math or

science; and that every student has adequate exposure to computers—“knowing what computers

are all about and able to run programs-maybe

even able to write their own by the time they reach

high school. ” Clapp argues that the educational

community and the public schools have a critical

role to play in meeting these goals, but raises serious issues to be faced now and in the future:

The tragedy is that national support for this is

nonexistent-at the time we need it the most. The

local district can’t do it. Lexington-even Lexington–might not be able to (accomplish these goals)

with a budget limited to a 21⁄2 percent increase each

year. . . It is a disaster for this nation. If we fail

to invest in education nationally, we impact on our

future and our ability to be productive . . . (and

maintain) the edge we have in computers, in software, and in information retrieval.

Resources

Case study interviews:

John Lawson, Superintendent

Geoff Pierson, Assistant Superintendent*

Frank DiGiammarino, Administrative Assistant* for

Planning and Research and Director, Computer

Services

Beth Lewd, Computers-in-Education Specialist*

Bob Tucker, Teacher, Estabrook Elementary School*

Martha Angevine, Coordinator, Instructional Material

Services, Curriculum Resource Center*

Luree Jaquith, Media Specialist Bowman Elementary

School*

Beverly Smith, Teacher, Bowman Elementary School*

Jill O’Reilly, Math Teacher, Clark Junior High School

Bruce Storm, Teacher, Clark Junior High School

Jody Josiassen, Teacher, Barrington School**

Dave Olney, Science Teacher, Lexington High School

Ed Good, Math Teacher, Computer Center, Lexington

High School

Louis Clapp, Parent

Gloria Bloom, Parent

● Member, Computer Planning Curriculum Committee

** Member, Elementary Curriculum COIIIDU “tt.ee

Bibliography

DiGiammarino, F. P., Computers in Public Education,

The Second Time Around, preliminary draft, fall 1981.

DiGiammarino, F., Koetke, W., Guldager, L., and Clifford, L., Local Education Agency Data System: Project LEADS, Lexington Public Schools, September

1976.

DiGiammarino, F., and Lewd, B., “A Position Paper—Expanding the Use of Computers in the Lexington Schools” (revised), June 23, 1980.

DiGiammarino, F., and Lewd, B., Computers in Education: A Long Range Plan, Lexington Public Schools,

fall 1981.

Lexington Public Schools, 1981-82 Budget Summary,

March 1981.

Lexington Public Schools, Computers in Education,

1980-81 report.

Lexington Public Schools, “Computers in Education

1979-1980 Program Plan. ”

Computer-Using Educators

and Computer Literacy

Programs In Novato and

Cupertino

Introduction

The Silicon Valley and nearby communities were

selected for study because the area provides a rich

source and critical mass of educators, schools,

students, parents and community members, and

business representatives directly involved with

technology. The area is the center of the Nation’s

semiconductor industry. It is also the home of a

growing number of educational experts and leaders in computing. There are many examples of

locally developed projects sprouted by individual

teachers or administrators or parents, which have

developed into major programs affecting an entire
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 195

districts’ students and staff. These activities involving computers in classrooms also demonstrate

how resources–local, State, and Federal funding,

as well as parent and local experts and the private

sector—are critical to implementation.

COMPUTER-USING EDUCATORS

Computer-Using Educators (CUE) is a support

group organized by and for K-12 teachers, teacher

trainers, and others interested in the use of computers in education. Started by 12 teachers in the

spring of 1978, the organization has mushroomed

to a membership of 3,500, primarily in California

but also in 48 States and 13 foreign countries. Its

growth reflects the phenomenal growth of educational computer applications and mirrors the

grassroots development of programs in schools up

and down the San Francisco Bay Area. Groups

modeled after CUE have also been formed

throughout the country.

Through conferences, newsletters, and meetings,

CUE is a source of information and a vehicle for

sharing experiences with computers, and their use

in education. In addition, CUE members originated and now support the Microcomputer Center

and SOFTSWAP Library of public-domain microcomputer software housed in the San Mateo County Office of Education. To quote one member:

Learning is a never-ending process. Formal education is a small portion of this ongoing process.

The role of educators is to aid the learning processes. The philosophy of CUE should be to show

educators-mostly by example-the role computers

can play in the learning process, Computers can be

used in many ways to do many functions. The uses,

functions, methods, and materials will change and

evolve. CUE can help discover and show the way.

Microcomputer Center and SOFTSWAP. The

stimulus for the software exchange came from a

San Jose State University professor, Vince Contreras, a CUE member. He organized the exchange

of public domain and individually contributed software that was deposited in the San Mateo Education Resource Center (SMERC) Library in the

spring of 1980. By the time school was out, CUE

members had talked several of their microcomputer industry contacts into placing microcomputers

in the SMERC Library on long-term loan. Tandy

(Radio Shack) and Commodore (PET) provided the

first systems. Ann Lathrop, coordinator of the

Microcomputer Center reports that the center now

has 14 microcomputers and manufacturers help

maintain equipment and provide new models as

they have become available.

The center has a steady stream of users. The San

Mateo County Office of Education provides space,

maintenance, and support through Ann Lathrop,

library coordinator, and LeRoy Finkel, the county’s instructional computing coordinator. Superintendent William Jennings cites the center’s benefits to the county’s 24 school districts. Teachers

and administrators try out equipment and software; both Lathrop and Finkel are nearby to provide help and expertise. CUE members and their

district teachers and administrators take advantage of the center for meetings, training sessions,

demonstrations, and evaluation of hardware and

software. The center is visited by representatives

from hardware companies and software houses,

educators and government officials from all over

the State and even educators from other States

and foreign countries.

Ann Lathrop conceived SOFTSWAP, the software dissemination and evaluation project, and

garnered the support of colleagues to field-test,

evaluate, debug, and clean up the programs in the

system. Through SOFTSWAP, teachers can purchase software or swap their original program for

that of someone else. Most of the 300+ software

programs are short, stand-alone instructional

units; many are drill and practice exercises for the

elementary school level or for remedial work at the

secondary level. All were evaluated by educators

and edited for factual and spelling errors, inaccurate or incomplete instructions, programing errors,

etc.

When visitors come to the center, they can copy

dissemination disks without charge. Single mail

order disks are $10 apiece, or free if a disk with

at least one original program is contributed. Each

disk contains 12 to 30 programs. Since the major

thrust of SOFTSWAP is sharing with the widest

possible distribution, programs may be freely duplicated, but not sold.

CUE Conferences

CUE’s first conference, remembers William

(Sandy) Wagner, founder and first president of

CUE, evolved from CUE’s early meetings. “We’d

introduce ourselves, share ideas on curriculum, on

software . . . and see more new faces each time. By

September 1978 the small group had grown to 50

and it was agreed that “we can’t go on meeting

like this” . . . a conference would facilitate sharing

and in-depth discussions. CUE’s first weekend

conference in January 1979 attracted 65 edu-
196 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

cators. A few informal sessions expanded to multiple presentations, wide-ranging exhibits, and

hands-on workshops in the fall 1980 conference with

500 in attendance. By fall 1981, conference attendance reached 1,400—with some districts sending

all their teachers to view 45 commercial exhibits

and 60 different speakers. CUE’s officers and executive board members play critical roles in planning, organizing, and running the CUE conferences. They work evenings and weekends—all on

volunteered time. The conference coordinators

handle some tasks with their own personal computers, as well.

Impact s

The expansion of CUE membership and activities demonstrates not only the growing interest

and use of technology in schools, but also the fact

that teachers need help. They are coming for more

than help, some argue-they’re looking for leadership. These computer-using educators “are carrying the message that the time to move is now, ”

notes Arthur Luehrmann, former director of the

Lawrence Hall of Science Computer Project. “The

leaders are here in these counties who are responding to the signals coming from society, from the

employers, and the parents. ”

When asked why CUE and the grassroots phenomenon developed where it did, many point to the

“critical mass” of people that emerged—individuals developing separate programs and expertise,

but living close enough to meet. Finkel points to

the special and unique aspects of CUE. “CUE

members are teachers first. We share, we don’t

have district or school boundaries. We’re a network of people . . . and it’s a stupendous event

each time we meet. ” Furthermore, there was a

need for support, training, information, and leadership that neither the State education agency, the

institutions of higher education, nor the high-technology industries were providing.

Futur e

There are indications that the latter situation

may be changing, albeit slowly. The Fremont and

Los Gates High School districts plan to open a

joint Silicon Valley High School with support from

the Industry Education Council. Equipment and

training for teachers are being solicited from hightech industries. The high school will offer entrylevel vocational training and courses for the college-bound information sciences major who wants

a head start, and for other college-bound students

who want to learn how to use the computer and

related tools in their studies and future work.

Governor Brown of California, in his address

before the State Legislature in January 1982,

called for new priorities and action:

Our schools must augment the three R’s with the

three C’s—computing, calculating, and communicating through technology. We will do so or succeeding generations will inherit a society stagnating

in the aftershocks of massive foreign imports and

obsolete industry.

In addition to the first priority of an increased

commitment to mathematics, science, and computer instruction in California K-12 schools, the State

Education Agency is beginning to address technology issues. One issue that concerns many of the

local educators is how to meet these commitments,

given the growing disparity between districts that

have programs, trained teachers, and community

resources to draw on and those districts that do

not. Furthermore, not every district or county in

the State has a major industry to draw on. Even

in the Silicon Valley much of the private sector is

made up of small, short-term, entrepreneurial businesses that don’t have extensive resources.

In reflecting on the grassroots development and

the enthusiasm of CUE, Joyce Hakansson, formerly at the Lawrence Hall of Science and now a software designer and developer, cautions: “We need

to understand the place of technology and give it

a proper role. Don’t assign all of our ills to

technology . . . recognize that technology is just

another tool. ” Hakansson notes the new status

and positive feelings of self-worth resulting from

interaction with microcomputers, but also observes that, “software, the essence and heart of

the computer, is less than it could be” and that

“what youngsters are doing on computers may not

be worth the time or money. ” The future applications ought to capture the inherent interest and

motivating aspects of the technology and match

it with children’s learning needs--to integrate computers into the teaching and learning environment.

From the Silicon Valley and surrounding San

Francisco Bay Area communities, two school districts were studied. These districts’ educational

computing programs were locally developed and

typify the area’s grassroots activities. Key personnel from these districts are heavily involved in

CUE: Bobby Godson, from Cupertino, is CUE’s

President and Helen Joseph, from Novato, is a

member of CUE’S executive board. In-depth discussions of school district approaches to implementing computers in classrooms follow: The

Novato Unified District, a rural K-12 system at
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 197

the northern tip of Marin County, and the Cupertino Union K-8 district in Santa Clara in the center

of Silicon Valley.

Novato Unified School

District, Novato, Calif.

The Setting

Located at the upper tip of Marin County approximately 30 miles north of San Francisco,

Novato Unified School District (NUSD) is one of

two districts in the county combining elementary

and secondary schools. It is the largest of the

districts in Marin County. It is also more rural and

less affluent than other areas in the county. Agriculture predominates; the major local industry is

insurance-the Fireman’s Fund. Incorporated in

1961, Novato’s community is diverse: blue collar

workers, many San Francisco commuters, a growing number of retirees, and personnel and families

on the military base. The student body composition is 90-percent white, 5-percent Asian (and increasing), 3-percent Hispanic, and 2-percent black.

Three-fifths of Novato graduates goon to college.

In recent years, student enrollments have declined and several schools have been closed. The

present enrollment of 8,642 is expected to decrease

further and level off to 7,500 by 1985. Presently,

there are eight elementary schools, grades K-6;

three junior highs, grades 7-9; two high schools,

grades 10-12; and one continuation, grades 9-12.

One junior high school is targeted for closing at

the end of this year. If Novato can find buyers for

the surplus school properties it owns outright

(three sites are currently for sale), the interest from

these revenues can be used for equipment and capital improvements.

Local educators point out that while Marin

County boasts the highest per capita income in the

Bay Area, Novato is the “poorest part. ” The

1981-82 NUSD annual budget is $23,645,286. Onefifth of the budget is federally funded. School finances are and will continue to be a growing area

for concern. Superintendent Ronald Franklin explains the district’s bind:

Parents expect that educational programs will

reflect excellence . . . the toughest thing we have to

deal with in being able to handle our commitment

(to the district’s computer and other programs) is

the uncertainty of the financial posture of both Federal and State governments.

Novato’s board and administration are concerned

because they see cuts coming on all sides. The district’s Federal impact aid has declined from a high

of $938,714 in 1977-78 to $602,324 in 1981-82. In

1982-83, impact aid is uncertain. State funds,

which provide 70 percent of the district revenue,

have been cut, including categorical aid for special

education and gifted and talented programs. Educators note that the impact of Proposition 13

passed 4 years ago, is now being felt, since the

State’s surplus has been depleted.

Computer Applications in

the District

Computer education in the district began 8 years

ago, when a Novato junior high school acquired

a teletype machine and shared with Dominican

College the lease of a telephone line hookup with

the time-sharing computer at the Lawrence Hall

of Science in Berkeley. Novato was one of several

school districts linked to the Hall’s Computer Education Project (funded by the National Science

Foundation). The Hall staff, Lee Berman and

Joyce Hakansson, were invaluable resources as

computer activities evolved, relates Helen Joseph,

computer resource teacher and coordinator. Even

after the timesharing project ended, she continued

to turn to them for advice and support.

The district’s first microcomputers were acquired in 1977, when the time-sharing costs were

escalating. Richard Melendy, former math and

science coordinator, now school principal, and

Joseph met with the district director of instruction and examined how the district might best use

the MGM (mentally gifted minor) funds which had

supported the time-sharing project. The subsequent decision to purchase Commodore PETs was

based on cost and reliability.

Over the next 3 years the computer program

grew rapidly, expanding to the two senior highs,

an additional junior high, and an elementary

school. In this small district, officials made an early decision to standardize hardware because of

teacher training, software acquisition, and maintenance requirements. By 1980, there were 28 microcomputers purchased with MGM State funds,

magazine sales money, and district minigrants.

The development of the program by Joseph and

Melendy had strong support from the district administration. There was consensus that before the

district went further, an external assessment and

evaluation was needed. Arthur Luehrmann, former

director of the Computer Education Project at the

Lawrence Hall of Science, spent 3 days in Novato

in March 1980, meeting with more than 50 people

—students, teachers, parents, principals, district

administrators, and school board members. In ad-
198 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

dition to identifying current needs and recommending future directions, the strategy was to involve and educate all those concerned with computer education in the district. Luehrmann’s report stated:

The present state of computer education in

Novato is better than the average situation one sees

in Bay Area districts today. One finds a solid base

of computer equipment, several experienced and

creative teachers, a larger number of interested

teachers, student demand for increased access to

computer classes, strong administrative support at

most of the schools, and outstanding work at the

district office in planning and managing the development of computer education programs in the district during the past several years. The parents and

school board members with whom I spoke were also

supportive of the aims and accomplishments of the

programs thus far.

Specific findings indicated that primary uses were

in the secondary schools, where computer programming courses and that computer literacy activities closely identified with mathematics predominated. Demand for classes exceeded supply, and

teachers wanted more inservice training.

Luehrmann recommended a cluster arrangement

for each of the five secondary schools, involving

approximately 15 computers connected to a central disk unit and printer. Further, he recommended that the two high schools acquire computers that would facilitate instruction in a second

programing language. In the elementary schools,

uses were to continue to be limited to gifted programs in view of the district’s current priorities

and available resources. Luehrmann encouraged

the development of a de facto computer education

department, composed of the teachers of computing to develop curricula, course content, sequencing, and evaluation. He suggested that the

district also look at administrative computer uses,

drill and practice, and other CAI applications.

Finally, he recommended a gradual expansion of

the program over a 3-year period, with a projected

cost estimate of $110,700 for equipment.

The administration and school board approved

the recommendations. In fiscal year 1980-81,

$30,000 from local funds and IVB Federal moneys

were used to equip the junior highs. A request for

funding the second and third phase of the program

was submitted to the Buck Foundation, but was

turned down. In fiscal year 1981-82, the second

phase was funded, again from the operating

budget, and one high school is to be equipped with

an Apple lab.

Current Programs

Novato’s computer education activities focuses

on how to use the computer and include programing, problem solving, logical thinking, and debugging (tracking down errors). All seventh graders

have a minimum of 3 weeks of a computer literacy

unit that includes an overview, a historical perspective, basic terminology, impacts on society,

and career awareness. This unit is followed by 2

weeks of hands-on experiences running programs

(modeling programming activities, games, applications) and writing programs. Students can also

take elective programming and math enrichment

courses. One high school offers courses in BASIC

and one offers courses in BASIC and Pascal. The

few computers in four elementary schools are used

for computer awareness activities in upper grades

and for enrichment in the gifted and talented programs. A total of 77 computers are used throughout the district.

Staff Training Programs

and Workshops

All administrators attended districtwide workshops because the Superintendent felt, “There was

a need for every manager to know why we were

supporting this program. ” The district also supported numerous teacher workshops run by Helen

Joseph and encouraged staff to attend area workshops, conferences, and meetings. With the training activities of the Marin County Teachers Learning Cooperative, a 3-year federally funded teacher

center, CUE conferences and workshops, and the

increasing number of courses taught at nearby colleges, there have been many opportunities for professional development. In the spring of 1982

Joseph offered a course for teachers through

Sonoma State College. The district paid Joseph’s

salary and provided the computer lab facility,

while the university provided credit. What was exciting was that this course introduced programing without a mathematics orientation. Thus, its

applications will be interdisciplinary and, it is

hoped, lead to computer applications in a wide

variety of content areas.

Impact s

In establishing the priorities for the computer

education activities, the educators and community

members in the district have had to ask: how im-
—

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies “ 199

portant is computer education? As Luehrmann in

his report to the district explained:

There can be no simple answer to this question.

Most people in the world have gotten along fine

without knowing what a computer was, and today

most educated people have never used a computer.

But it was also true in Gutenberg’s day (and for

four centuries thereafter!) that the majority of people could not read or write. Yet by the end of the

last century universal literacy had become an accepted goal of public education, and illiterates were

at a distinct vocational and social disadvantage.

Luehrmann argues that those who have computer skills already enjoy several benefits: 1) vocational and professional advancement; 2) intellectual

payoffs—new ways to represent or express ideas;

3) facilitation of problem solving, particularly in

mathematics; and 4) a desirable skill or proficiency valued by colleges, These arguments reflect the

underlying rationale for Novato’s programs.

Students in the district are highly motivated in

the courses and computer units. Even when visitors come into their classrooms, students ignore

them, fully involved with the computer. “We can’t

keep the kids off the machines, ” stated one teacher. Novato also boasts of its computer whiz kids—

students now in high schools and in their first year

of college who have incredible programing skills.

Some students sell programs on the side and find

computer-related work in the summer. One student, Casey Kosak, has received national recognition and has been featured in an article in Datamation.

Problems remain, however. Keeping up with the

advances in technology is one major concern.

There is already a need to upgrade several of the

PETs that were purchased several years ago. Officials know that new hardware may make their

current inventory obsolete in a few years, but they

have no easy choices, especially when funds are

limited. Another area of concern is the impact that

computer electives will have on other areas of the

curriculum. Computer courses fill up immediately

while industrial arts courses are underenrolled.

Moreover, teachers cannot easily be transferred

from one course area to another. To complicate

matters, the options to take electives may be reduced as the school day is shortened to save money for the district. The high schools have already

reduced schedules from a full 6-period day to 5%.

There is still the problem of reaching all of the

student population, particularly in the high school

classes. Courses are still tied to the math department, but Joseph hopes this will soon change. Finally the relationships among programs and the

competition for resources causes concern. So far,

“we’ve been able to maintain a delicate balance, ”

says Joseph. But she worries what will happen

when more schools are closed and staff positions

reduced. There is also some concern

mentation of phase 3 (a second Apple

delayed, as well.

that implelab) maybe

The Future

Integration of computers into the curriculum is

a major objective for the future. There is already

some interest among secondary teachers in English, social studies, business, foreign languages,

and science. If the computer labs or clusters are

used every period for computer literacy and programing courses, this may not be feasible.

There is also an interest in exploring administrative uses of microcomputers in individual schools,

particularly to retrieve and handle information.

Melendy expressed his concern about the disproportionate amount of time spent in looking up records, in gathering data for reports, and in other

clerical tasks: “We’re still working at the quill

level, when we have the technology to do otherwise. ”

Contact and interaction with the State Department of Education and other districts in the county are increasing. The county teachers’ center has

become an important broker. When the State Commissioner came to Marin County in spring 1982

to focus on computers in education, he met with

local district leaders and others at the center and

nearby universities.

Novato elementary schools may participate in

a LOGO project currently being developed by the

Marin Community College, the Marin Computer

Center, and the Teacher Learning Cooperative

under a grant from the Buck Foundation. The

Buck Foundation (administered by the San Francisco Foundation), funds are restricted to use only

in Marin County. Currently several proposals for

support of computing in county schools—including

a mobile computer education van and a series of

workshops for teachers are being examined.

Joseph would like to see a Marin County symposium of national experts and local educators to

measure the impact of programs. She feels it is

time to reflect, to examine current programs objectively, and to identify limitations and unanswered questions. According to Joseph, “This

is needed not just here, but all across the Nation. ”
200 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Cupertino Union School

District, Cupertino, Calif.

The Setting

Situated in California’s “Silicon Valley, ” where

apricot groves turn into computer factories overnight, the Cupertino Union School District (K-8)

serves a population of 50,000. School population

is 86-percent white, 8-percent Asian, 4-percent

Hispanic, and 2-percent black. Although the population growth rate is one of the highest in the

United States, an acute housing shortage and inflated costs have resulted in a decade of declining

enrollment. Fifteen schools have been closed. The

12,150 students, half of peak enrollments in 1969,

attend 4 junior high and 20 elementary schools.

District boundaries cut across six municipal jurisdictions. Parents support the schools, but officials

point out that only 25 percent of the area’s suburban population have children in public schools.

Major industries in the area are aerospace- and

computer-related. Many of the companies are

small and relatively young. This is a high-tech,

middle socioeconomic community with high educational expectations. There is interest from the Industry/Education Council and the Chambers of

Commerce and service clubs as the schools respond to computer-related, entry-level job needs.

Cupertino has a mature, experienced teaching

staff whose average age is 47. Ninety-two percent

of the teachers are in the top range of the salary

scale. Declining enrollments and reduced staff

positions make it difficult to maintain high morale,

however. Officials note that the district’s staff development and incentive programs and its computer project are “our most powerful weapon” in

maintaining enthusiasm and quality education.

With an annual budget of $30 million, 70 percent of funding now comes from the State, reversing almost exactly the ratio that existed before the

passage of Proposition 13. Educators feel local

control of education has eroded. The one benefit

of declining enrollments has been the sale of excess property. Because of high land values, these

sales have resulted in significant capital reserves

which can be used for equipment and capital improvements only.

District Programs

Cupertino is the home of the Apple Computer

Co.: “the boys that designed the Apple grew up

here, ” relate Cupertino educators, “ . . . and when

they had put together their first Apple II prototype, they showed it to us. ” Associate Superintendent William Zachmeier and computer specialist/teacher Bobby Goodson remember the day

clearly. They were amazed and excited with what

they saw.

Several months later, when the district’s IVC

proposal for a math program to the State was

turned down, Zachmeier urged Goodson to try

again, but this time to try something with computers. With active support from the administration, another proposal was written. Funded by

ESEA title IVC for 2 years, the junior high school

project provided for a full-time director, but no

equipment. In addition, IVB money was allocated

to purchase three 16K Apples; old black-and-white

TV monitors were located. Goodson learned by

talking to people; attending meetings, and worked

with students and small groups of teachers—a

school at a time.

For the 2 years of the projects, says Goodson,

“we felt our way around and ‘nickeled and dimed’

our way. ” Approximately three dozen computers

were purchased with IVB funds, MGM State

funds, and parent donations. After IVC funding

ended, Goodson’s position was supported by the

local district. The approach was “to learn by trying out various approaches so that when we went

to the board for their support of a total district

program, we knew what we wanted. ”

In spring of 1981, the superintendent made the

district proposal to place computer labs in each

junior high school, and labs or clusters in half of

the elementary schools, at a total expenditure of

$299,337. On the night of the presentation, the

board room was packed with teachers, administrators, students, and parents. “One by one they got

up and told the board why they wanted computers,” remembers Zachmeier. “And the board gave

us everything we asked for, ” says Goodson.

Computer Literacy Curriculum

The computer literacy program was developed

by teachers using computers in their classrooms.

The program focuses first on computer awareness,

and then on computer use.

The goals is that by the end of grade 6, all Cupertino students be fully “aware” of computers. By

the end of grade 8, all students should have had

the opportunity to use the computer as a tool and

to be introduced to the idea of programing.

Inservice Training and Staff Development. The

district has a long tradition of inservice. Staff can

earn credit toward salary increments, in exchange

for released time, for conference registration fees,
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 201

for instructional supplies, or for university course

work. Extensive computer inservice courses were

developed and taught at first by Goodson. In time,

those she trained taught others; the cadre of resource people continues to grow. The introductory

course begins with three short modules of two

2-hour sessions, each followed by optional strands

in programing (BASIC, PILOT, LOGO) and software evaluation and design. Courses for parent

aides, secretaries, and others have also been

developed.

Approximately 80 percent of the teaching staff

have participated in at least one course. Moreover,

all principals and administrative staff attended a

l-day workshop in the summer of 1981, led by

Richard Pugh, JHS computer teacher; Judy

Chamberlain, teacher of the gifted and talented; and

Bobby Goodson.

Installation of the labs is to proceed in stages

to provide adequate time for schoolwide planning

by each faculty and for support of the program by

the computer resource teacher. Three labs were

completed by fall 1981. By 1982-83 all junior highs

will have labs. Each computer lab will have a total

of 15 student stations and a teacher demonstration station which includes a large screen TV and

a printer. Two of the labs will be equipped with

Apples and two will be equipped with Ataris.

All but two elementary schools have at least one

computer as well, and there are at least three different systems in the schools. Diversity of hardware at the elementary school level, where computers are used in a variety of ways in classrooms and

in the media centers, presents no problems. In the

long run, district officials now think that this diversity will be an advantage.

Sample Programs

The computer lab at Hyde Junior High School

is a large room that accommodates the student

microcomputer stations comfortably around three

sides of its perimeter. Small round tables cluster

in the middle, where students come for discussion,

instruction, and collaborative work. But most of

the time it is the computers that are busy. While

they input data and compose print statements, articles and pictures on the classroom walls remind

them of the history of computers and where and

how computers are used today. Students all seem

to be working on their own assignment. While one

student writes a program to calculate his gradepoint average, another designs a simple game, and

still another runs a preset program. Meanwhile,

students at Kennedy Junior High School generate

graphics on the computer, while elementary school

students in the gifted and talented program at the

Wilson Exploration Center develop new thinking

skills using the computer, and then debug their

original programs.

At Muir Elementary School, computers can be

checked out to parents and teachers; every weekend they are all checked out. Because the computer

in the library is used nonstop, access for many

students is a problem. At the parents’ insistence,

two introductory workshops were offered to parents. The school plans to use parent volunteers to

teach computer literacy curriculum activities during alternate library periods. In this school,

parents will become a major force as volunteers

in the program.

At the West Valley Elementary School one such

parent, Cheryl Turner, became a catalyst and

prime mover in establishing the school’s computer

literacy program. The program began with enthusiastic teacher and student response to Turner’s

demonstration of a computer she had made from

a kit. With strong support from the principal,

microcomputers were installed in the library media

center and Turner was hired as an aide to teach

computer literacy. Funding for the microcomputers came from the PTA, a grant from the

INTEL Corp., and MGM funds. A parent, an Atari

executive, arranged for a loan of an Atari to the

school. All but two teachers want their students

to participate in the program. Turner, who has

“had a fascination with computers for 20 years, ”

enjoys being a role model for the students and

demonstrating, especially to the girls, “that it’s

okay to enjoy electronics and run around with a

screwdriver in your purse. ”

Impact s

The computer literacy program has energized

both teachers and their students. Individual parents have been tremendously supportive, although

by and large Cupertino does not benefit directly

from proximity to the corporate world and Silicon

Valley industries.

More than 65 percent of the district’s teachers

have received literacy training. Goodson sees the

benefits especially for those in dead-end jobs. Negative feelings have been turned around, and new

life has been put into the educational process.

Many are convinced that it is the opportunity to

become a learner and “be in control” that is the

irresistable appeal of the program.

Many students “turned off” by school have also

been motivated by the program. Many are those
202 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

whose interest and aptitude could not have been

predicted. The problem now is getting them to go

home from school.

The program has problems, but they do not appear serious. There are teachers who want to be

involved in computing but who receive little support, or no access to the computers in their

buildings. The inequity between some of the elementary schools continues to grow. There is also

recognition that the lab arrangements do not accommodate the needs of the science teacher who

wants a computer in class, nor the librarian who

wants one in the library, nor the principal who

wants one in the office. Additional funds may be

allocated or alternate arrangements developed to

serve these various needs.

Finally, until recently, there has been no integration of computing programs in the junior high

school with programs offered in the high school.

Students are frustrated in cases where there are

no courses or when courses are outdated and

equipment is obsolete.

Implications

The district goal is that all schools will have computer laboratories by 1984. Training opportunities

will be expanded, and new uses for the computer

in the classroom will be explored. Cupertino educators hope that there will be articulation and coordination between the secondary school systems.

Beyond the new courses and expanded efforts

at the secondary level, Associate Superintendent

Zachmeier’s ultimate goal is to give every youngster a computer some time in elementary school

because:

There will be a need for new skills and new attitudes. It’s our job to prepare students for the kind

of world that will become not the world that was.

We will have kids who leave Cupertino . . . who will

be fully computer-literate, discriminating buyers

and users. And rather than being prisoners of technology, they will be masters of it.

*The9e fkst activitie9 provided access to students in the

Junior High School GATE program and were supported by

State MGM (mentally gifted minor) funds. *A9 more eq~pment is pwcha~, the district ~ Shift h~dware to have uniform equipment in the junior high labs, where

programing is taught.

Resources

Persons interviewed:

Novato Unified School District, Novato, Calif.

Helen Joseph, Computer Resource Teacher and Coordinator

Ronald E. Franklin, Superintendent

Richard Melendy, Principal

Jack O. Rothe, Director of Instruction

Arthur Luehrmann Former Director, Computer Project,

Lawrence Hall of Science

Joyce Hakansson, Former Education Program Coordinator, Lawrence Hall of Science

Cupertino Union School District, Cupertino, Calif.

William Zachmeier, Associate Superintendent

Jerry Prizant, Coordinator of Media Services

Bobby Goodson, Teacher, Hyde Junior High School,

Computer Literacy Lab and Coordinator, Computer

Programs

Frank Clark, Principal, Kennedy Junior High School

Richard Pugh, Teacher, Computer Literacy Lab

Ron LaMar, Principal, Hyde Junior High School

Harvey Barnett, Principal, West Valley Elementary

School

Cheryl Turner, Aide, West Valley Elementary School

K. A. Fisk, Principal, Muir Elementary School

Judy Chamberlin, Teacher, Gifted and Talented Program Wilson Center

Computer-Using Educators - CUE Monthly

Board Meeting, Palo Alto, Calif., Jan. 22, 1982.

Bobby Goodson, President, CUE, and computer

resource specialist Cupertino Union School District

Jose Gutierez, Vice President, CUE, and faculty

member, San Francisco State University

Ann Lathrop, library coordinator, San Mateo County

Board of Education

Helen Joseph resource teacher-math, science, and computers, Novato Unified School District

William Sandy Wagner, computer coordinator, Santa

Clara County

Glenn Fisher, computer coordinator, Alameda County

Le Roy Finkel, computer coordinator, San Mateo Office

of Education

Karen Kent, director, Teachers Learning Cooperative,

Marin County Office of Education

Don McKell, teacher, Independence High School, San

Jose

Brian Sakai, computer teacher, San Carlos High School

Russ Bailey, computer district coordinator, San Mateo

City Schools

Bob Enenstein, teacher, Carlmont High School, Belmont

Steve King, computer teacher, Crittendon Middle

School, Mountain View

Bibliography

Lathrop, Ann, and Goodson, Bobby, “How to Start a

Software Exchange,” Recreational Computing, issue

53, October 1981.

Wagner, William J., “The Story of Computer-Using

Educators, ” Recreational Computing, issue 48.

Computer-Using Educators Newsletter, vol. 3, No. 6,

May 15, 1981; vol. 4, No. 2,3, Oct. 23, 1981; vol. 4,

No. 1, Aug. 15, 1981. The newsletter is published six

times a year and mailed to CUE members.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of /formation Technologies . 203

San Mateo County Office of Education and Computer-Using Educators, Microcomputer Center

Reports 1980-81.

Joseph, Helen, “Report to the Board of Trustees: Computer Education Project, ” October 1981, Novato Unified School District.

Luehrmann, Arthur, Cpmputer Education in the Novato

Unified School District: A Needs Assessment, M ay

1980.

Goodson, Bobby, “Computer Literacy in the Elementary

School: A District-Wide Program, ” draft, January

1982, Cupertino Union School District.

Computer Literacy Curriculum, Cupertino Union School

District, 1981,

A Listing of District Computer Inservice Classes,

1981-82, Cupertino Union School District.

Technology Education and

Training, Oxford Public

Schools, Oxford, Mass.

Introduction

The technology training and education programs of the Oxford Public Schools were selected

for study because they provide an example of how

a small, rural school district with limited local

funding resources can offer up-to-date education

and training opportunities to its students and

adults in the community through partnerships

with private industry and other rural school districts. This study also provides an example of the

impact of Federal and State grants on the implementation of new programs. Although each grant

was relatively small, “to Oxford they looked like

a Hope Diamond, ” according to the Superintendent.

The Setting

Originally a French Huguenot settlement, Oxford was founded more than 300 years ago in central Massachusetts, approximately 20 miles south

of Worcester. Once the center of a thriving mill industry, Oxford’s economic base seriously declined

as the mills closed. At present only one small mill

operates; it employs five people. No new industries

have been established. Oxford’s population of

11,450 is primarily blue-collar. In 1980, Oxford’s

annual per capita income was $6,582. Of the adult

working population living in Oxford and surrounding similar communities, 60 percent are semiskilled

or unskilled workers and 11 percent hold professional or managerial positions.

A special program at the Oxford High School District

introduces students to the world of computer maintenance

and electronics fabrication. This student credits her graduation from Oxford High School to the engaging qualities of

the curriculum, which, she said, kept her in school after she

had become disenchanted with the regular academic program

The Oxford Public Schools serve 2,460 students

in grades K-12 who attend three elementary, one

middle, and one high school. Almost all students

are white; fewer than 1 percent are black, and fewer than 1 percent Hispanic. Of the high school

graduates, 30 percent attend 4-year colleges, while

another 30 percent go on to community college and

vocational training institutes.

In this rural community, according to its superintendent, there is strong support for education

with local taxes, although Proposition 21⁄2 now limits that revenue source. The 1981-82 budget of $4.2

million results in an expenditure of $1,945 per

pupil. Many of the teachers are from the local or

neighboring areas, and there are common bonds

between the educators and the school board. Even

with declining resources, administrators and

teachers feel that there is support from the board
204 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

and community and that their efforts in behalf of

the students are appreciated.

Building New Partnerships to

Link Education and Technology

Training

History. Francis Driscoll, superintendent of this

small, rural school district with almost no local industrial base, searched for ways to meet his students’ diverse needs. Although the district was

small, it had students who could not function in

regular classrooms because of emotional and learning handicaps, whose abilities were seriously underchallenged, and whose interests weren’t being

met. The solution he developed, late in the 1970’s,

was to form a loose federation of similar districts

near Oxford, to develop programs that they all

needed.

Driscoll reasoned that by regionalizing programs and services through the federation and

other similar cooperative efforts, he could create

the equivalent of a small-sized city and the critical

mass needed. By joining Oxford to Auburn, Leicester, Charlton, Dudley, Webster, and then

Southbridge, the combined federation involved

35,000 students, 1,200 teachers, and 62 members

of local boards of education.

The Oxford School Board and administration

agreed that they would serve as fiscal agents for

any cooperative projects. Proposals were developed and funded. One Project-COFFEE (Cooperative Federation for Educational Experiences)—

provided occupational training and education for

students with special needs, and was funded by

the Massachusetts State Department of Education in 1979. A second proposal for a regional

teacher training consortium, the French River

Teacher Center, was funded by the U.S. Department of Education from 1978 to 1981. Both projects are housed in Oxford, with COFFEE in a portable building next to the high school. The teacher

center was built from surplus motel shells, moved

to school land, and assembled and finished with

professional contractors and students from the

vocational training programs.

As district educators looked at the State’s burgeoning high-technology industries and the growing relationship between education and training,

it was clear to them that high technology was not

just for elite students. Informal data gathered

from Worcester and Boston area industries revealed that entry-level high-tech jobs were underfilled and that 80 percent of those jobs did not require college training. It was also clear that partnerships with private industry had to be developed.

John Philippe, the program director of Project

COFFEE, and Rob Richardson, the director of the

French River Teacher Center, became involved

with the local industry councils and the State High

Technology Commission. Serving on committees

and attending meetings, they made direct contacts

with individuals from electronics and computer industries located in the Worcester and Boston

areas.

Mike Odom, DEC Executive on loan to the

Humphrey Occupational Center, notes that the

Oxford educators were unusual–“they sought our

advice, and they listened. ” Similarly, the superintendent proposed to the school board that the district develop a working relationship between education and industry. The school board, remembers

Chairman Schur, said, “Go ahead, you have our

blessing.”

The district efforts focused on computer technology, an area that both the special needs training

program and the teachers were interested in. Eventually, several paths led to one of Massachusetts’

largest computer corporations, Digital Equipment

Co. (DEC). Early contacts were with salespersonnel and then, Mary Ann Burek of the Corporate

Contribution Division, who put the district in

touch with Del Lippert, Corporate Manager of

Educational Services.

Current Programs

Project COFFEE. COFFEE is an alternative occupational education program for the specialneeds, disadvantaged, and handicapped students

of a six-community cooperative school federation.

The program includes life-coping skills education,

as well as an occupational educational experience

in an adult-like work environment. The high-technology training components provide the student

with job entry skills, job placement skills, cooperative job experiences, shadowing experiences (job

observation), and a related work study program.

In the electronic assembly component, students

read and interpret schematic diagrams and mechanical drawings and gain experiences in layout,

manufacturing, and assembly of printed circuits

and electronic components. Students test and inspect electronic components, circuits, and assemblies. They are trained for entry-level employment

as: electromechanical assemblers, electronic maintenance workers, drafting assistants (electronics),

electronics utility workers, electronics inspectors,

electronics mechanics, electronic testers, and elec-
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of information Technologies ● 205

tronics assemblers. Many of the assembly tools

and testing devices and most of the hardware,

components, and circuitry used for hands-on instruction was donated to the program as a result

of individual, personal contacts with electronics

companies.

After a year of operation, the Project COFFEE

director, John Phillipo, and Superintendent Driscoll planned a new component that would involve

use of state-of-the-art computer hardware. Contacts with DEC were made, and the company contributed $22,800. In the data-processing component, started in September 1980, students use

state-of-the-art computer hardware and software

techniques in the computer center and an automated office. The instructor assumes the role of

data-processing manager, and students learn by

hands-on experience in hardware operation and

maintenance, computer awareness, and use of

BASIC. They are trained for entry-level employment as junior programers, console operators,

computer service technicians, data typists, printer

operators, control clerks, and computer aides.

Project COFFEE was funded through a statewide competitive grant process utilizing Federal

occupational education and special education

moneys authorized under Public Laws 94-482 and

94-142, a total of $557,402 for September 1, 1979,

through June 30, 1982. In cost breakdowns by program areas, a total of $167,050 was expended for

the two technology components for more than 100

students over the 3 years. The students in these

high-technology components use facilities in the

Oxford district, while students in the distributive

education component run and operate The Grand

Illusion Printing Co. in Auburn, and students in

the buildings and grounds component work in

Webster. The program is continuing tenuously on

local support, but long-term commitments have

not yet been obtained.

Project KING-By Tech. In the fall of 1980, the

Governor of Massachusetts created the Bay State

Skills Commission to fund projects that would address the needs of the State’s computer industries

for trained workers. Superintendent Driscoll

formed a planning group that involved local educators and representatives from industry, colleges,

the French River Teacher Center, the Worcester

Chamber of Commerce’s Career Education Consortium, and the Central Region Private Industry

Council. The key to funding was the stipulation

that 50 percent of financial support come from private industry and that the other 50 percent be

available from the Skills Commission.

Late in the fall, Driscoll initiated direct contact

with Del Lippert, Corporate Manager of Educational Training and Services at DEC’s headquarters in Bedford. Recounts Lippert: “Driscoll had

an idea and the Governor had a half million in discretionary funds. ” It was, according to many in

Oxford, “a meeting of kindred spirits-both want

to make things better for education. ”

Project KING-By Tech (Key Industrial Needs

Gapped by Technology) was funded in January

1981 to provide underemployed and unemployed

adults training opportunities in word processing,

office automation, electronic assembly, programing, and program application. A total of 110 students were served with $46,015 from the Bay State

Skill’s Commission, $43,015 from DEC, and $3,000

from Quinsigamond Community College for instructors. As a result, the district’s inventory of

computer center hardware was increased, two

teachers received training from DEC, and the

working relationship with DEC was well established. DEC’s Lippert explained that his company

was interested in working with schools “who want

to work with us, want to make something happen. ” In the case of Oxford, there was a sense that

the social and manpower views of the district tied

into those of the company. Furthermore, Lippert

felt that Driscoll conveyed a commitment and enthusiasm that was unique.

French River Teachers Center. Through the

French River Teacher Center, 30 guidance counselors from Central Massachusetts high schools are

learning about high-technology career opportunities (Project CHANCE). Sixteen sessions (begun

in January 1982) included field trips to computer

companies and companies that use high-tech tools,

as well as discussion forums with representatives

from nearby industries. Audiovisual, self-instructional materials on technology career donated by

DEC will also be used. This project grew out of

activities with the high-technology industry representatives from Unitrode in Lexington, Prime

Computer in Natick, and Micro Networks in Worcester.

The Teacher Center, federally funded through

September 1981, has continued to operate with a

director arid a part-time secretary. Its continued

existence depends on the director’s ability to broker new relationships, such as the counselor’s project and other activities with the district technology and training-related programs. For example,

in February 1981, again through occupational education moneys, the Teacher Center provided training for 30 surplus teachers and other unemployed
206 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

adults in computer programming (COBOL), word

processing, and electronic test technology and

assembly. The $54,080 project received $39,742

from the State, $8,640 from DEC, and $5,698 in

contributions from the district. Several teachers

trained in the program were able to find new jobs

in the industry.

A mobile computer bus with $100,000 worth of

equipment was loaned to the French River Teacher

Center for use by area teachers and students in

the spring of 1982. The bus was equipped with a

PDP 11-34A computer and two video terminals,

one magnetic tape card reader, two hard-copy terminals, and several self-paced instructional stations. Owned by DEC, the bus had previously been

operated by the Commonwealth Center in Cambridge.

The Teacher Center will share use of the bus

with the Humphrey Occupational Resource Center

in Boston. Present plans are to find minimal funding so that a technician can take the bus from

school to school, giving youngsters the opportunity to have hands-on experience. The loan of the bus

was first discussed during a l-day teacher center

seminar on computer technology held December

8, 1980, and attended by representatives of 11

school districts, 3 colleges, and private industry.

A loose “consortium of computer teachers” was

formed and has met several times.

The center has arranged for teacher workshops

and courses on computers and microcomputers,

collaborating with the Commonwealth Inservice

Institute (funded by an IVC grant through the

Massachusetts State Department of Education).

Area teachers have learned BASIC programing

languages, explored a variety of software applications, and examined computer applications and impacts. The center also organized a technology conference with the New England Teachers’ Center

Cluster, held this May in Worcester. Director Rob

Richardson’s contacts with DEC and other hightech industries will enable him to schedule field

trips, speakers, and presentations.

Impacts

Impacts on the School System. As far as principal Roger Bacon is concerned, the benefits outweigh the problems. The district has equipment

worth a half million dollars that could not have

been obtained any other way (see table A-l). Furthermore this state-of-the-art hardware is supported by DEC training and software. The two Oxford teachers trained at DEC have acquired the

most current information and skills, and they immediately draw on these skills in working with

their students. The collaborative partnership with

industry goes far beyond the benefits received

thus far. It is clear to Oxford’s superintendent and

his technology teachers that this working relationship is critical in enabling the district to keep up

with the rapid changes in high technology.

Furthermore, DEC’s expertise is recognized and

relied on as program additions or revisions are considered. Other nearby companies directly concerned with the high-technology training programs are also continually contacted and utilized

as resources. These close ties to industry, argue

Oxford educators, make their programs more effective and unique.

Impacts on Teachers. Through the French River

Teacher Center, Oxford teachers and those of the

surrounding districts have participated in workshops, forums, courses, and visits to high-tech

companies. Although no formal assessment of

these efforts has been made, teachers indicate that

they are better informed, more comfortable with

technology, and would like to have more opportunities for training.

Impacts on Students. The Federal and State

funded programs have reached numerous students. Project COFFEE students recognize that

they now have skills, and they feel good about

themselves and their program:

. . . I’m an electronic assembler, I have a trade.

. . . I can build you a stereo; before, I only knew how

to push the buttons. . . . There are regular kids

(taking the electronics assembly course) . . . and

they need our help. They can’t do the things we can.

. . . If the program wasn’t here, I’d be out of school

we have teachers who understand us.

In assessments of student progress in entry-level

high-technology training skills, based on a series

of competency tests developed by the project staff

and 16 industry/business representatives, 82 percent passed electronic assembly and 77 percent

passed computer technology. The success of these

special students is related to many factors. Technology skills, special counseling, and basic educational programs have all played a part. For the

high school principal, the important result is that

these students are turned around: “When these

seniors graduate this spring and I get to shake

their hands . . . I feel that this is what education

is all about. ”

In addition to the COFFEE students, other students from Oxford High School have also made

significant gains in computer programing courses

and in independent study projects under the direc-
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 207

Table A-1 .–Sources of Funds for Computer Hardware and Software, 1980.81

Direct market Digital Equipment State/Federal Oxford School

Description value Corp. grants Department Total

1 PDP 11/34 central processing unit . . . . .

1 16-line multiplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 LA 34 decwriters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 285 LPM printer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 VT 100 video terminal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 modem cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 200 CPM card reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Systems management training. . . . . . . . . .

Data-processing renovation/installation . .

3 W3 78 word-processing units . . . . . . . . .

Electronics assembly training . . . . . . . . . .

1 TS-11 tape drive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 VT-1OO video terminals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 LA 34 decwriters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 LA 34 decwriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 VT 100 video terminals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 RL02 disk drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 RL02 disk cartridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14 self-paced audiovisual instructional

programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94 hours, level I consultants . . . . . . . . . . .

Instructional supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Software programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

$41,500.00

4,100.00

2,900.00

7,800.00

2,050.00

177.00

4,100.00

2,100.00

9,150.00

28,500.00

3,200.00

15,400.00

6,150.00

5,100.00

1,700.00

8,200.00

5,911.00

975.00

15,320.00

5,160.00

14,130.00

81,000.00

$264.623.00

$23,530.00

2,100.00

3,000.00

14,250.00

3,085.00

13,325.00

4,290.00

8,494.00

15,320.00

2,560.00

3,150.00

52,000.00

$145,104.00

SOURCE” Oxford Publ!c Schools, Oxford, Mass

tion of the computer center director, Al Jones. “In

this kind of an environment, you don’t have to

push them, you just have to keep up with them . . .

The interest, the turn-around, the growth, of these

youngsters is incredible. ”

As in many other districts, these computer whiz

kids are at the center early in the morning and late

in the evening until Jones locks the door. Several

students—presently three or four—will have the

equivalent of 2 years of college-level computing

when they graduate high school. Another 30 or 40

will have 2 years of programing experience, not

just in BASIC, but also in Pascal and in WATBOL

(the University of Waterloo, Canada, educational

version of COBOL). Students learn to operate all

phases of the system, and their understanding and

experiences are intentionally geared to the real

world.

Jones talks about one of his students, a junior,

who has written a “wonderfully sophisticated program to chart and analyze students’ chronobiological rhythms. ” Jones says this program “is better

than the $20,000 software package we bought for

principals. ” Another student recently went to help

a nearby school district that was having major

$39,097.00

-o6,150.00

1,250.00

13,000.00

115.00

2,035.00

7,000.00

8,292.00

-o-

-o2,000.00

600.00

4,200.00

4,830.00

1,950.00

29,000.00

$119,519.00

-o-

-o-

-o-

-o-

-o-

-o-

-o-

-o-

-o-

-o-

$62,627.00

2,100.00

9,150.00

28,500.00

3,200.00

26,650.00

16,786.00

15,320.00

5,160.00

14,130.00

81,000.00

$264,623.00

problems with its DEC system. In 3 hours he had

solved many of the problems.

Only a few problems remain. One is that, on

occasion, security of school records is a problem

because both instruction and management functions are together. Also, there is a growing demand

for courses and computer access, and demand may

outpace resources. Finally, there are some who

question the district’s growing emphasis on technology and programs for special students. They

worry that other areas will be shortchanged.

Impacts on the Community. According to school

board members, parents and students say again

and again, “What a difference the technology programs have made. ” Parents describe changes in

their children and indicate that they are now interested, know what they want to do with their lives,

and have made complete turnarounds. What appears to be most important to the community is

that these students have goals and some have employable skills. High school principal, Bacon explains: “They (parents and students) know that

computers are the ‘in’ thing in Massachusetts. ”

By extending the technology programs to underemployed and unemployed adults and surplus
208 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

teachers, the schools have made maximum use of

the computer center and have provided benefits

to the community. The absence of continuing

financial support, however, may limit the

long-term.

When the community parents, school board

members, teachers, and administrators are asked

why it has been possible to bring technology training and education to Oxford, they point to the following:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

an aggressive, energetic superintendent willing to chart unknown waters and take risks

in starting programs without the security of

long-term funding;

a willingness by the school board and the administration to serve as the fiscal agents for

the projects: to write the proposals; to negotiate with State and Federal funding agencies;

and to contact the private sector;

the commitment and ability to work together

—administration, professional staff, school

board, other districts, the private sector–to

“get what we need for our students;”

the availability of Federal and State funds,

without which none of the programs could

have been initiated;

an ability to find resources when they aren’t

there: assembling a teacher center from surplus concrete motel shells transported to the

site; or scavenging cartons of printout paper

used on only one side, which become perfectly appropriate for the student’s output; or

scrounging obsolete electronic equipment,

which became the instructional cadavers in

the assembly labs;

the use of professionally supervised students

to reduce building assembly and finishing

costs and, at the same time, meet the student

need for on-the-job training; and

a belief that “everything we do can lead to

something else. ”

Finally, they single out the superintendent’s leadership and skill in unifying all of the participants,

forging private sector partnerships on a personal

one-to-one basis, convincing State officials from

various departments to fund programs jointly, and

utilizing public schools and community college facilities to expand technical educational opportunities.

Future

How will programs that have been developed

continue to be supported? “Will the benefits and

the progress made . . . that we are so proud

of . . . now be emasculated because of financial constraints?” worries the school board chairman.

With increasing costs, a reduced budget from

Proposition 2%, and fewer Federal dollars for education, school officials and the community are concerned. There is some hope that the maintenance

costs for these programs will be lower than the

startup costs. Furthermore, it is hoped that the

other districts will be able to find a way to pick

up local costs.

Finally, Oxford has submitted Project COFFEE

for validation by the Joint Dissemination Review

Board of the U.S. Department of Education so

that the Project could be eligible for National Diffusion Network Funding. Superintendent Driscoll

hasn’t given upon the State Department of Education, either.

Then there is further collaboration with the private sector. Educators argue that turning out

trained, qualified people is the best selling point

they have. The industry needs their graduates.

When Project COFFEE students completed the

wiring for the computer center, they proved they

were capable of technically demanding work, and

they saved the district $2,000.

Driscoll’s dream for his schools and for his community goes even further. He wants to bring a

major high-technology company manufacturing

plant to Oxford. He feels this would strengthen

the town’s economic base and provide the longterm support the educational system needs.

Others in the community support this idea and are

hopeful that the district’s technology training programs will be a strong selling point.

Resources

Case study interviews:

Francis G. Driscoll, Superintendent

Roger Bacon, Principal, Oxford High School

John Phillipo, Director, Project COFFEE

Allen Jones, Director, Computer Center and Teacher

Rob Richardson, Director, French River Teacher Center

Pat Ferreira, former teacher, Oxford High School

Elaine Birchard, student

Gary Bigelow, student

Paul Winiarski, student

Kenny Gatze, student

Walter Schur, Chairman, School Board

Patricia Troy, School Board Member

Del Lippert, Corporate Manager, Educational Services,

Digital Equipment Co., Bedford, Mass.

Michael Odom, Digital Equipment Co., Executive-onLoan, Humphrey Occupational Center, Boston
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 209

Bibliography

Oxford Public Schools, Proposals to the Bay State Skills

Commission: Key Industrial Needs Gapped By Technology, November 1980.

Oxford Public Schools, Proposal to the Division of Occupational Education and the Division of Special

Education, Massachusetts Department of Education,

Cooperative Federation for Educational Experience,

July 1979 and April 1980.

Oxford Public Schools, A Report of French River

Teacher Center Activities Related to High Technology In Collaboration With Digital Equipment Corporation, February 1982.

Computer Literacy Program :

Lyons Township Secondar y

School District, LaGrange, Ill.

Lyons Township’s computer program was selected for study because it exemplifies a systemwide application of computing that involves and

affects the district entire student population and

more than 90 percent of the district professional

staff in all curricular areas. This site provides an

example of how a major infusion of computer hardware facilitates its widespread use and within a

school system access, Local funds support the purchase of hardware, training of teachers, and development of software. Furthermore, it shows the

critical role played by the local superintendent in

conceptualizing the program, initiating action, and

supporting ongoing activities.

The Setting

Located in the southwest suburbs of Chicago,

the two campuses of the Lyons Township High

School’s (LTHS)–in LaGrange and Western

Springs–enroll a total of 4,000 students. The

school population is drawn from six suburban

areas that are primarily middle-class, bedroom

communities of Chicago. Approximately 90 percent of the students are white; 3 to 4 percent are

black; 3 to 4 percent are Asian; and 4 percent are

Hispanic. The majority, 75 to 80 percent, of LTHS

graduates go on to college.

The school district’s financial base is stable. Local property tax revenues (which include a strong

industrial base) account for 85 percent of the

budget; the remaining funds come from the State.

The current budget is $19 million; per pupil

expenditure is $2,300. School buildings are wellmaintained-offices, hallways, and classrooms are

pleasant and clean. Facilities appear to be more

than adequate. (The boardroom looked more like

that of a major corporation than of a school

district.)

There is general consensus among the educational and lay communities that the district has been

well, but conservatively, managed to support a

strong, traditional curriculum. Through prudent

management over the past dozen or so years, substantial sums have been placed in reserves—a

unique situation, considering the strained economic condition of most of the Nation’s schools.

Declining enrollments, the major area of concern

for the district, may eventually have a negative

affect on the number of facilities used (one or two

campuses), the variety of programs offered, and

the size of the professional staff. However, the

superintendent argues that these problems can be

resolved, in part, by the district’s effective use of

technology,

On the whole, the district’s problems appear minor in comparison with other districts’ financial

woes, population shifts, student unrest, and staff

reductions. Administrative and teaching staff and

board members acknowledge how fortunate the

district is. For example, teachers’ salaries are at

the top of national pay scales, and a new 3-year

contract is in place. The major focus of the

students and faculty is education, where learning

is viewed as a serious endeavor.

Computer Applications in

the District

The district’s use of computers goes back to the

late 1960’s, when its first mainframe computer was

purchased for the district management and business operations. As in other districts, instructional

opportunities for students were limited to a few

highly specialized courses in the business and

math departments. Approximately 2 years ago, it

became apparent that the district computer was

outdated and would need to be replaced. In addition, there was a growing interest in expanding instructional computing activities and a general feeling that computer Literacy was important. The initial approach, according to a member of the school

board, was to expand the large computer system

to accommodate both needs.

At the same time, the board was interviewing

prospective candidates for superintendent. John

Bristol was the board’s choice, in part because he

already had experience with computers and instructional applications and had started one of the

earliest computer literacy programs in Minnesota.

Bristol convinced the board that student uses of

computers ought to be considered separately, and
210 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

that microcomputers provided a viable option to

a mainframe computer with terminals. With

strong support from the board, Bristol came to

LaGrange ready to revise and expand the district’s

computer programs.

Planning

The superintendent’s first objective was to develop a plan. From the outset, all the curriculum

areas were involved. Decisionmaking was not limited to computer experts; building principals,

department chairmen, and interested teachers

were involved. A basic assumption of the plan was

to provide computer experiences for all students:

“the use of the computer should not be reserved

for the gifted and/or mathematically oriented student. The computer needs to and can be utilized

by students of all ability levels, including those

with limited learning capabilities. ” Three major

applications were designated:

Instruction

Literacy

Competency

Speciality

Instructional support

Tutorial work

Drill and practice

Problem solving

Simulation

Instructional games

Instructional management

Success prediction

Monitoring student progress

Vocational guidance

College information

Hardware Selection

Another component of the planning activities

was the selection of hardware. Not surprisingly,

the most important criterion was “to obtain the

maximum number of microcomputers for the dollars available. ” Local maintenance and repair

capability of the hardware vendor was also important. The planners agreed that highly sophisticated microcomputers with sound and color

capabilities were not needed for this initial phase

(computer literacy). However, networking capability was considered highly desirable and, networking in the laboratory setting is envisioned.

Hardware for the laboratories use a networked

Radio Shack TRS-80, Model III Configuration:

one 48K, twin-disk microcomputer, 26 16K, tape

microcomputers, two networks, and one printer.

Eight laboratories—four in each campus of the

high school–are installed, with a total of 208

terminals for student use. The cost breakdown

over a 5-year period is shown in table A-2. The

superintendent maintains that these costs are

reasonable.

In an interview with the Chicago Tribune, 1

Superintendent Bristol justified the district’s large

purchase:

Some schools are reluctant to buy (microcomputers). They say that tomorrow there will be a faster

or cheaper model. But how many tomorrows do you

wait for? What is the value to get our students to

have computer literacy now?

Computer Literacy for

All Student s

With the installation of over 200 microcomputers in eight laboratory settings, students at Lyons

Township High School interact with technology

first-hand. During the school day, the laboratories

are busy with students and their teachers in a variety of subject areas. English students are refining their understanding of paragraphing with a

tutorial program; consumer education students

develop budgets using the number-handling capabilities of the computer; juniors in social studies

master the facts required by the statewide constitution test in a series of drill and practice exercises;

biology students solve problems using the computer as a powerful tool for analysis; and special

education students expand their world history vocabulary in a series of drills, with opportunity for

extended practice with an infinitely patient

teacher.

IChicago Zlibune, Sunday, June 7, 1981.

Table A-2.--Five-Year Breakdown of

Computer Hardware Costs

Each Total

Hardware (Networked Radio-Shack TRS-80, Model Ill)

1 48K, twin disk ... ... ... ... ... . $1,946.10 $1,946.10

26 16K, tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779.22 20,259.72

2 networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389.22 778.44

1 printer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904.80 904.80

Total per classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . $23,689.06

Total for 8 classrooms . . . . . . . . . . x 8 = $191,112.48

Cost extension

5-year life

400 students per year

Cost per student for literacy per year

(Total cost ÷ 5 years ÷ (4,000 students + 4,000)

$191,112.48 ÷ 5 ÷ 8,000 = $4.78/student/year

SOURCE: Lyons Township Secondary School District,
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 211

These computer-related activities are part of the

program aimed at schoolwide computer literacy.

In increasing numbers, students use the terminals

before and after school. According to Bristol:

My computers are used all the time. It’s the bestused activity I have. To think that we were nowhere

last spring and (look at) where we are today, I would

have to say we’ve made a significant step forward.

A further step was taken in the spring of 1982,

when all students completed a 5-hour “literacy

package” that included lectures, films, group discussions, and hands-on activities. The package:

1) provided information about how computers

work; 2) promoted keyboard familiarity; 3) promoted knowledge of BASIC language components; 4) facilitated programing activities; and

5) focused on future technology developments and

their impacts on society. Current plans are to implement this package during second-period classes

–1 day a week for 5 weeks, on a staggered schedule—thereby reaching all students with minimal

disruption of ongoing classes.

The subject area applications and the special

5-hour computer literacy package were based on

curriculum objectives originally developed by the

Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium

and adapted by the Lyons Township teachers to

fit local needs.

Other Computer Applications

Six different computer specialty courses are now

offered through business education and mathematics. These courses include data processing,

programing languages (BASIC, COBOL, RPG),

and systems analysis. Approximately 10 students

complete the entire range of courses. However,

within the last year, an extra section of the introductory BASIC course was added to the north

campus schedule, and two additional sections were

added to the south campus schedule. According

to one of the computer course teachers in business

education, there is a “growing interest from one

semester to the next . . . that is a result of the

literacy program. ”

Teacher Training and

Staff Development

The goal of computer literacy for all students

and the objective of providing hands-on experience

with computers in all subject areas made systemwide teacher training not only desirable but absolutely essential. Since the district could not count

on hiring new staff, particularly as enrollments

continued to decline, the superintendent’s strategy

was to reach out to all faculty members to build

their awareness of the potential for computers in

education, to cultivate their support for the program by involving them in the planning of workshops and computer software curricula, and to develop their computer literacy through training

workshops and other staff development activities.

Costs for most inservice training activities (e.g.,

substitutes, consultants, payment for additional

working hours) were absorbed by the district operating budget. A separate allocation for the summer software development activities was approved

by the school board. By relying primarily on local

district resources and scheduling activities during

school hours, the district reduced training costs.

At the same time, this approach widened the base

of support and ensured districtwide commitment

to implementation of the computer applications.

According to Esther Gahala, director of curriculum, there appeared to be a strong sense of learning by doing; the staff response was largely positive. Participation in the 8-hour fall workshops was

voluntary, although some staff felt pressure from

the administration. Gahala felt: “the value of these

(staff development activities) was in finding out

what not to do with teachers and students as well

as what to do. Each experience refined our judgment and helped us in planning the next phase.

Even more important to Gahala--who points out

that she was unprepared to and, at first, totally

overwhelmed by the thought of implementing

computers in education—was the emergence of a

cadre of 45 to 50 teachers who could advise, evaluate, and be a strong support system for the rest

of the faculty.

Software Development

It is not clear whether software development

was part of the superintendent’s original plan.

However, once the curriculum committee and advisory groups examined available software, there

was a growing consensus that the district would

need to develop its own. Proposals for computer

applications were solicited and 47 proposals from

16 departments were accepted. Among the proposals were:

●

●

●

Reinforce the spelling of words English teachers believe all students should know.

Test the effects of alcohol on parts of the

body, using statistical information, for a

health course unit on alcohol abuse.

Determine the gross national product of a

country after being given certain characteristics.
212 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

● Drill basic chord fingering for learning how to

play the guitar.

● Recognize grammatical errors in sentences for

an English course.

● Determine appropriate calorie intake based on

individual physical characteristics, physical

activity, and weight goals for a unit on nutrition in a home economics course.

The superintendent wanted to involve teachers

in the ongoing development process and, at the

same time, use computer programers to write the

software. To bridge the gap between the teacherauthors and the programers, the superintendent

selected teacher-consultants from the staff who

had both curriculum and programing expertise to

function as supervisors. These supervisors played

a pivotal role in software development by helping

teachers understand how their teaching ideas

could be translated into interactive computer formats and by helping programers design routines

that were educationally sound.

Over the summer three software development

teams (fig. A-1) produced more than 108 different

program packets at a cost of $87,000. Originally,

Bristol projected that 60 packages would be completed at a maximum total cost of $90,000. By hiring three local college student computer science

majors as programers, the district used local resources and paid them at a rate of $10 per hour.

However, without the expertise of the three teacher-supervisors (one of the three was described as

a computer genius, able to solve problems and

make the programs run for even the most novice

user), the efficiency of the programers might have

been reduced.

Impact s

It may be too early to assess the impact of the

recent computer-related activities in the Lyons

Township Secondary School District. However,

there is evidence to suggest that both students

and teachers have benefited.

Access to Computer s

Students in this district do have opportunities

to use computers during their regularly scheduled

class time and before and after school. Some students interviewed carry their own floppy disks

with their books from class to class. Some of the

disks contain games; others hold student programs and ongoing projects. The district does not

yet have data on the number of computer-related

activities completed by students. However, it can

be reasonably assumed that these students are interacting with the technology far more than students in other high schools where the number of

terminals is far less.

Teachers in the district also appear to have significantly more access to computers. Several

teachers indicated that they regularly work with

the computers on their own time. Some even take

microcomputers home over the weekend.

Interest and Motivation

There is ample evidence to conclude that teachers and students alike have been stimulated by the

programs. A student reflected: “I was here this

summer . . . and teachers were asking—are the

computers here today? Each day (the teachers)

were learning new things. It really got me geared

up—excited about the computer course this fall. ”

An unanticipated benefit has been the opportunity for both students and their teachers to share

learning experiences.

Teachers comment repeatedly about the intrinsic motivation of the computer. Some applications

are more interesting and effective than others. The

Figure

Teacher planners

A-1.—Software Development Model

Teacher -

Teacher

consultant consultant

SOURCE Lyons Township Secondary School Dlstnct, La Grange, Ill
..——

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 213

degree of meaningful interaction is a key factor,

according to Julie McGee, an English teacher. To

maintain student interest, programs must be cleverly and creatively designed, “we can’t just put

our lecture notes on the computer. ” All indications

suggest that interest and enthusiasm will continue. However, cautions a student, not all students

react the same way: “too much review and testing,

large amounts of text (sic too much writing, not

enough graphics), mandatory classes may turn the

kids off. ” For the teachers, “time, money, experience, vision” and a willingness on the part of the

administration to revise plans to fit needs will be

critical.

Curriculum and Instruction. So far, impacts on

the curriculum have been limited to computer literacy activities. The strategy of building applications into existing courses appears to be working.

One problem, however, is the uneven development

of software. Some subjects have many applications (English, home economics) while others have

only a few. Drill and practice formats predominate.

Only a few simulations and tutorials exist,

Instructional effectiveness of the computer

packages and related activities has not been formally assessed. As students and their teachers use

the materials, they indicate that most are working. According to the director of curriculum, “we

have the overwhelming feeling that what we are

doing is worthwhile. ” However, there is a need to

analyze the appropriateness and effectiveness of

the materials, not only to improve them, but also

to move ahead.

Some questions remain: Are the students learning skills and content more effectively? Will all

second-period teachers adequately cover the computer literacy activities? Do the activities result

in student comfort and skill with computers? Is

the computer’s potential being realized? How well

do computer programing courses mesh with postsecondary academic programs and vocational

training? There is some frustration over not being

able to tackle all of these questions at once.

Professional Growth and

Development

Estimates vary on the extent to which Lyons

Township High School teachers have become

computer-literate. For many, the workshops introduced a welcomed new skill. For others, the

groups were too large, the keyboard and computers were too alien, and the fear of failure was

a barrier. Continued meetings and support activities have gotten and kept many teachers involved, but a few holdouts remain,

On the whole there is ample evidence to suggest

that the majority of the high school faculty has

strongly supported the program. Direct involvement of teachers in planning, training, and software development resulted in strong feelings of

pride and ownership. The district strong support

of professional development appears to be paying

off: 108 software packages are in use; new ideas

are continually being developed; and many teachers are expanding computer knowledge and expertise on their own time—taking courses, learning

from more knowledgeable colleagues, and teaching

themselves. Opportunities for new role as teacherprogramers are invigorating and rejuvenating this

mature, highly experienced faculty.

The Future

In the immediate future, the superintendent and

his staff expect to implement the computer

literacy program fully. At summer’s end, all

students will have taken the 5-hour course, and the

remaining software packages will have been completed.

The next steps will focus on developing a comprehensive plan for computer competency and specialization. Full integration of the computer for

computer-assisted and computer-managed instruction is expected within the next 5 years. The latter will depend on continued local software development and the availability of commercial courseware, In addition, with the major infusion of hardware, a corps of teacher experts, and an on-going

program, the superintendent believes the district

is ready for research and development. The opportunities for working collaboratively with hardware

vendors, software publishers, university researchers, and other districts are beginning to be explored. There are tentative plans to hold a software

development conference involving educators and

developers statewide, perhaps nationwide. Plans

already exist to field test new hardware components for the Radio Shack computers.

At the heart of future plans are the teachers and

staff in the district. Bristol is convinced that the

full potential for retraining, for new roles, and for

continued purposeful activity has barely been

tapped. It is likely that funds for continued staff

development and for computer activities will be

available as long as the school board, community,

and educators support the various computer activities.
214 c Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Resources

Case study interviews:

John Bristol, Superintendent

Esther Gahala, Director of Curriculum and Instruction

Julie McGee, English Teacher

John Gentry, Business Education Teacher

Bill Mchalski, student

Janet Kaski, student

Mark Nelly, student

Kim Firestone, student

Tric Coates, student

Doug Hammer, student

Jean Donnelly, President of the School Board

Bibliography

“Computer Literacy–A Comprehensive Program at

Lyons Township High School” Lyons Township Secondary School District, LaGrange, Ill.

“LT Reports: Computer Literacy” Lyons Township Secondary School District, LaGrange, Ill.

Chicago Tribune, June 7, 1981, “School Puts Learning

on Line”

Omaha World Herald, June 30, 1981, “School is Putting

Computer Up Front”

Boston Sunday Globe, July 5, 1981, “Bye-bye Blackboard”

Chicago Tribune, Oct. 11, 1981, “Computers for Kids”

More Than Math–Computers Meet Curriculum, ” 80

Microcomputing, September 1981.

Minnesota Schools and the

Minnesota Educational

Computing Consortium

The decision to visit selected Minnesota schools

and focus on the activities and impact of the

Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium

(MECC) was based on evidence that Minnesota

leads the Nation in computing activities in its

educational system. This case study deals with a

State education agency that provides a centralized

system for computing and support services. With

a computer inventory of approximately $44 million’ and estimates that 1 to 11⁄2 percent of annual

school budgets will be used for hardware purchases, Minnesota classrooms are expected to

have 10,000 instructional computing stations by

1984.

‘Data Newsletter, Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium,

January/February 1981.

The Setting

Minnesota is the “Land of 10,000 lakes, ” and

almost as many computers. Most of the State is

rural. Fifty percent of the its population of

3,804,971 is concentrated in the Twin Cities of

Minneapolis and St. Paul. There are 437 school

districts and a median district size of 722 students.

Major industries are agriculture, mining, and

computer-related technologies.

Minnesota has provided strong support for public elementary, secondary, vocational, and higher

education. Its education budget has one of the

highest per capita education expenditures in the

Midwest. This support has been matched with a

commitment to innovation and educational improvement. Over the last decade, the State has

provided funding through the Council on Quality

Education (CQE) and title IVC Federal moneys for

research and development of instructional computing applications. Projects have focused on instruction in all subjects, as well as piloted new

ways to deliver instruction. Projects such as the

Hopkins computer-assisted management system,

the computer learning center in Littlefork, and the

Robbinsdale computer software development, provided working models of technology applications

and a foundation for statewide activity.

Many Minnesota school districts are sought out

for their computer expertise. The plans of the Minneapolis public schools demonstrate the extent of

this expertise. Within the last year, the State’s

financial picture has changed, significantly. In

struggling with an $850 million deficit, the

legislature has begun cutting the $2 billion (2-year)

education budget. The cuts, an estimated $l20 million, are expected to take effect in 1982-83. Educators across the State are concerned that these

reductions will affect teaching positions and

programs.

MECC: A Stat e

Computing Agency

Presently in its ninth year of operation, MECC

operates the world’s largest general-purpose, educational, time-sharing system. An estimated 96

percent of Minnesota’s students have access to

this time-share system, which is available to its

users from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m. daily. While timesharing access has remained fairly constant, with

a slight increase in off-hour use, the acquisition of

microcomputers in the State has accelerated,

resulting in a significant increase in computing activities available to students.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 215

Histor y

In 1972, concern about computing and education

led to discussions among the Governor, the chancellor of the community college system, the State

commissioner of education, key State legislators,

and private citizens. As a result, remembers John

Haugo, former executive director of MECC, a task

force was established by then Governor Wendell

Anderson. Haugo was hired to head the planning

effort, which resulted in a report that was essentially the plan for MECC. In retrospect, several

factors were critical in initiating a major statewide

educational computing effort that involved elementary, secondary, and higher public education.

First, the computer industries based in Minnesota (3M, Univac, Honeywell, and Control Data

Corp.), created interest in, and awareness of, computing. These corporations also provided many

computer resource personnel. Second, instructional computing was beginning to catch on, and

educators were concerned that if they failed to

take an active role, it would develop without their

input and direction; there was concern that noneducational agencies would take charge. Third,

there were examples of successful, cooperative, instructional computing ventures principally among

the Suburban Minneapolis schools, the Total Instructional Education Service (TIES) consortium,

and evidence that technology could deliver instructional services. With this was also a growing interest in cooperation and sharing of resources.

Fourth, there was concern about the increased demand for computing services and the proliferation

of hardware systems in various educational institutions. Fifth, there was recognition that educational funding constraints would limit operations,

while a consortium would not be so limited. However, the most important factor, as far as the

legislators were concerned, was equality of educational opportunity. The legislature was sold on the

notion that computing opportunities ought to be

available in all parts of the State.

The plan, therefore, was to provide access to the

central computer through a telecommunications

network. The State would subsidize the telecommunications cost to provide equal opportunity to

all systems, even those most distant from the central system. Funding for the system and specific

services to users would be contracted annually.

Each school district or agency determined what

they needed. The budget requests were developed

and sent to the legislature.

Getting the time-share system to work was no

easy task. In fact, there were many problems with

hardware, telecommunications lines, and software

systems. It took at least a year before the system

was operating.

MECC Organization and

Functions

MECC was established in July 1973 to provide

computer services to students, teachers, and

educational administrators. Organized under the

Minnesota Joint Powers Law, its member systems

include:

● State Department of Education (433 school

districts);

● Minnesota State University System (7 campuses);

● University of Minnesota (5 campuses);

● Minnesota Community College System (18

campuses); and

● State Department of Administration (statutory authority for State University and Community College Systems).

MECC is responsible for coordination and planning—maintaining a long-range master plan for

educational computing and developing biennial

plans, providing technical reviews of proposals for

facilities and services, and reporting on what is

being done with computers by all of public education. MECC is also responsible for services to

members, and it is this role that is being expanded

(by the revised Joint Powers Agreement, August

1981), while the organization’s policymaking role

and its role in approving major computer acquisitions is being reduced. The latter activities will be

determined by the State Board of Education with

the Commissioner of Education.

Instructional Services Division

Operating the Time-Sharing System. The Instructional Services Division (ISD) runs the

world’s largest educational time-share system. It

works reliably, and is “up” 99 percent of the time.

Its Control Data Cyber 73 System, with 448 user

ports, is currently accessed by more than 2,000 terminals located across the State in most public

schools, all community colleges and public universities, and many of Minnesota’s private schools.

A multiplexing communications network with 23

hubs provides access to the computer.2 ISD is also

responsible for the communications network—its

installation, maintenance, and coordination with

local telephone companies.

‘Instructional Microcomputing and Timesharing: A Minnesota Perspective, MECC Instructional Services Long Range Planning Project,

1981, p. 39.

.—
216 c Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

An extensive library of programs supports a

range of activities from drill and practice to

mathematics problem generators, office management, and career guidance information. Thirteen

different computing languages and programs are

available to users. Software is continually maintained and improved.

Technical Assistance and Training. Through

ISD, instructional computing coordinators are located throughout the State in each of the regions.

These regional coordinators work with teachers

who in turn serve as local coordinators for the

school district or education agency. According to

Will Jokela, MECC Instructional Coordinator for

Central Minnesota, these local coordinates are crucial to the program. “They make things happen

and are part of the whole planning and implementation process. ”

For example, when Jokela conducts workshops

across his region, he often uses local coordinators

as resources. Jokela also holds sessions to demonstrate new programs for local coordinators, and

these are often times when they share programs

developed locally and duplicate MECC microcomputer programs. He keeps up with computing activities through the electronic mail system (also

part of time share) and through visits to local

schools and colleges. The regional coordinators

help in disseminating information in the newsletters, through conferences, and through the electronic mail system.

At the same time, Jokela and others in his role

became the link in continuing advances and

changes. Soon after the MECC inexpensive computer contract was awarded, Jokela was “trying

out the Atari” and getting ready to demonstrate

its use to interested educators. He also delivered

and installed the Apples purchased through

MECC, and literally carted Apples across central

Minnesota. Of his 73 public school districts in

Region III, all have Apples and 62 used the timeshare system in 1981-82.

Since the first purchase of Apple microcomputers in 1977, increasing amounts of the coordinators’ time have gone into supporting microcomputers. Marcia Horn, an instructional coordinator in the Twin Cities area, points out that as

soon as a workshop is announced, it is filled. Horn

is impressed with the eagerness to learn and the

excitement of those who attend her MECC introductory courses. In the sessions, technology is

manipulated, not just talked about. That participants recognize the need for hands-on experiences is indicated, in part, by their willingness

to bring all the equipment to class. Microcomputers and diskettes replace books, paper, and pencils, as learning tools. Principals, teachers, and

librarians learn about and learn with the technology, in much the same way as do their students.

Developing Instructional Computing Software

and Support Materials; Dissemination and Distribution. Software that has been designed and

developed includes operating system manuals,

computer literacy courses, and a range of supplementary instructional materials and management aids. Development is directly linked to the

users (through the creation of software at the local

level), to field testing and revision, and to implementation. Networking, originally begun

through the time-sharing system, has been extended through the State instructional computing

conference, regional meetings, the newsletters, and

the other user activities.

What is clear is the value of sharing ideas, of providing a vehicle for development, and of disseminating this new information to users. Individual

teachers, school districts, and regional organizations contribute software. MECC staff work with

the developers to obtain rights to the material,

then they document and standardize it so that

other schools can use it. All software and support

materials are available to Minnesota users (for

copying) free or at nominal cost.

In October 1980, institutional memberships

were offered to nonprofit educational institutions

outside of Minnesota. Presently, there are 51 members in 23 States, Canada, Australia, England,

Kenya, Saudi Arabia, Scotland, and Switzerland.

In addition, software reproduction and distribution rights are arranged with commercial vendors

under a royalty agreement. The income from these

agreements and sales goes directly back into software development.

Management Information

Services Division

Management Information Services supports a

range of administrative management functions.

Every school district in the State is required to use

the finance reporting system developed by MECC.

This division has also developed a student support

system that handles student data, attendance,

scheduling, reporting, and history. The personnel/payroll system is used by half of the districts

in the State.
.

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 217

Special Projects Division

The Special Projects Division carries out research projects, developments of new applications,

and evaluation. With funding from the National

Science Foundation (NSF), computer literacy curriculum modules and support materials are being

developed. An interactive video disk/microcomputer course in economics is under way with support from private foundations.

Impact s

Providing Access to Computing: Instructional

Time Sharing and Microcomputing. Not only access but equal access has been Minnesota’s goal

for all students. From the very start, it was recognized that there was a need to achieve economy

of scale in computer hardware acquisition, to

create a cost-effective communications network to

minimize the systems design and development

Figure A-2. —MECC Timesharing System

400

300

200

100

0

costs, to share expertise and applications, to have

uniformity and compatibility of data (administration), and to train educators.

The use of the timesharing system has been fairly consistent in time of the number of ports purchased by users and the increase of log-ins and connect time, which increased by approximately onethird during 1978-81 (see fig. A-2). Of the elementary, secondary, and vocational school districts,

75 percent used the time-sharing system, a slight

reduction in use. At the same time, however, microcomputer use rose from 57 percent the year

before to 85 percent of all districts.

The major use of the time-share system is for

programing-up to 45 percent–with students

from all over the State having access to almost a

dozen different programing languages. The impact

of these opportunities is not readily assessed

through numbers, but clearly many of these student users have become outstanding programers.

Winners of the MECC annual student software

Port Distribution by User System, 1975-81

—

3 3

2 2

1

3 2

2

1 1

—

1

—

3

2

1

—

2

1

1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-1980 1980-81

School year

Key:

1 = Elementary/secondary/vocational

2 = State universities

3 = Community colleges

4 = University of Minnesota

5 = Nonmember institutions

SOURCE /m frucf/ona/ M/crocompuf/ng and T/rneshar/ng A A4/nnesofa Perspecflve, Report of the Instructional Services

Long Range Plannlng Project, Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, June 1, 1981
218 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

competition develop creative and impressive products. “Many of the future technology leaders will

come from Minnesota, ” notes Brumbaugh, “having had 8 to 10 years of computing opportunities

in the public schools as well as training at the

University of Minnesota’s world-renowned computer sciences programs. ” Minnesota benefits

directly, since many of these high school and college students are hired as part-time programers

at MECC and many enter Minnesota-based industries.

The impact on increased access by MECC’s

early entry into microcomputing with the award

of the State contract to the Apple Computer Co.

is clear. The decision to standardize hardware to

one system was based on the belief that standardization was necessary in order to be able to support that system with software and training, thereby indirectly affecting access. (By early 1982, total

Apple sales reached 2,863.) Most of the purchasers

of these microcomputers are elementary, secondary, and vocational schools.

In 1981, MECC developed a second set of specifications for a low-cost microcomputer. The State

contract was awarded to Atari, which agreed to

pay MECC to convert at least 75 of existing

MECC/Apple programs. In the first 3 months of

the Atari contract, 230 microcomputers had been

purchased.

A major reason that districts are purchasing microcomputers is to provide greater access. The

high school in Maple Lake, a small rural district,

has three Apples, one TRS-80, and one time-sharing port. Before the microcomputers, the 500 students had limited computing experience through

time sharing. Even though four microcomputers

aren’t enough, they make a big difference to Mary

James, a teacher and the district’s computer coordinator. James is adamant about reaching every

Maple Lake youngster:

By the time they are 35 they all will have

computers—many for their farm businesses—

others in technical work (if they leave Maple

Lake)--and for recreation . . . if most families

have three snowmobiles sitting in their driveways now, they’ll soon have computers, too.

It’s not just the hardware that makes a difference, it’s the support James gets from the range

of MECC services. In this rural district, with an

operating budget of $2.5 million for 1,320 students, the opportunity to use computers for instruction and to provide computer literacy courses

and independent study, is due in large measure to

MECC and to local administrative and school

board support. James says:

If MECC drops the time share we’d feel it . . .

the larger city districts will continue. If I lose

the port, I can stand it. If I lose the support

of MECC, the whole program goes.

Developing Software and Making It Available

to Users. Software and support materials have

been steadily developed and revised to support the

time-share system, the Apple microcomputer, and

the Atari microcomputer. On the time-share system there is a library of more than 950 programs

used at all levels. More than 200 microcomputer

programs have been developed, and the number

of new programs continues to expand at a rate of

8 to 10 new programs each month.

Although software development has been focused on Minnesota users, in the case of materials

for the Apple (and now the Atari), two-thirds of

the software distribution (primarily for the microcomputer) is outside the State. Single-item sales,

institutional licensing agreements, and distribution arrangements with commercial vendors have

increased significantly over the last 2 years.

MECC officials point out that all of the income

from software sales goes back into development.

The current budget for development has tripled,

with only 5 percent of the funding for software

development coming from Minnesota. According

to Brumbaugh:

The amount of resources invested in instructional computing material development continues to grow, without any reduction in sight

. . . It’s estimated that 250,000 copies of MECC

diskettes have been distributed or sold to computer users throughout the world. Software

sales this year are expected to reach one million

dollars.

Software development has been effective because it has been tied to what teachers want. Actually begun by teachers sharing ideas through the

time-share system, it has continued to build on

teacher ideas. Much of the software has primarily

been cleaned-up, field-tested, documented, and

made available to users by MECC. Another reason

for success, many argue, was the decision to develop software for one microcomputer system.

This decision provided an opportunity to refine

authoring procedures, understand the capabilities

of the machine, and develop more programs (e.g.,

instead of three programs for three machines, nine

programs for one machine). After the award of the

second computer contract, it was not difficult to

convert many Apple programs for the Atari. The

need and demand for microcomputer courseware

in Minnesota continues, however. In MECC’s 1981

Computing Opinion Survey, “Schools want mate-
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 219

rials in all subject areas-with the highest

priorities given to computer science, business

education, mathematics, science, and special

education, ” with less need for drill and practice

and games and more need for problem solving,

tutorial, and simulations.3

Local districts will continue to develop their own

software and will also continue to purchase commercial software. For the latter, it may be desirable to provide help to schools by developing statewide purchase contracts for software, as has been

done for hardware. Finally, as the market for software enlarges, there will be an increase in development in the private sector, argues Haugo, now

president of a software development company.

Impacts of Information

Technology

Professional Development and Training. Professional development and training is cited frequently

as a major area of need that must be addressed

if education is to take advantage of computer technology. Over a 6-year period (1974-80), MECC has

provided significant development and training activities: 3,572 visitations by MECC staff to

districts and campuses; 1,639 informal presentations; 1,756 workshops with a total attendance of

26,340; and 623 meetings for local computer coordinators. As impressive as these figures are,

MECC officials point out that the demand for

training exceeds capacity. Brumbaugh notes: “For

every request for service that we fill, we turn one

down. ” Although many local districts provide additional training activities—the educational service unit or area vocational technical institutes and

colleges and universities are offering an increasing number of courses—the needs for training are

not fully met.

Furthermore, as State funding resources diminish, continuing to provide the current level of services will become a problem. According to Brumbaugh, there has to be a way to deal with teacher

turn-over (trends show that the more highly technologically trained teachers leave), with new

teachers as they enter the system, and with maintaining training for those who want to stay abreast

of technological advances. When asked who should

do inservice training for instructional computing,

teachers and administrators ranked MECC staff

as the most desirable-followed by local staff, then

regional service centers, and finally colleges and

universities. Data suggests that local staff will be

——able to assume most introductory demonstrations,

’198 1 MECC Computer Opinion Survey, User Opinion on Training,

but more advanced topics and courseware authorizing and design will require MECC staff.

Close Ties With Local Districts, Using Local Expertise. The superintendent of the Alexandria Public Schools, Clayton Hovda, attributes his district’s early involvement with computers to the opportunity to be part of the statewide time-share

system, as well as to the fact that MECC from the

very start had key people “who came through the

educational process, who knew how schools

worked because they were school-based. ” There

was and continues to be a symbiotic relationship

between the schools and MECC.

For example, the Alexandria schools shared

computing and time-sharing facilities with the

Area Vocational Technical Institute (AVTI). That

experience, along with other examples (TIES), provided a model for extending the time-share concept across the State. A further example of this

symbiotic relationship can be seen in the role of

the local computer coordinators. According to Bill

French of Alexandria, this role is strongly supported by MECC; the fact that most districts have

a computer coordinator can be credited to MECC’s

efforts.

Providing Leadership. There is no question

about MECC’s leadership in providing hardware

standardization, software development, and training. However, several school districts and regional

agencies are leaders as well; and districts such as

Hopkins and Robbinsdale have received national

recognition for their computing activities. It is apparent that MECC walks a fine line: local autonomy of programs is highly valued, yet service and

assistance are welcomed. The revised Joint Powers

Agreement puts MECC squarely in a service role.

It is also agreed that there is a need for leadership

and coordination to maintain and advance computing applications; in this regard MECC, as the

State’s computer agency, plays a key role.

School districts outside the State, and even

other nations concerned with educational computing, have turned to MECC for advice, technical

assistance, and resources. For example, the first

computer contract specifications developed by

MECC became the model for the bids developed

by the Region IV Education Services Center in

Texas and for those prepared by school districts

and several States including Florida, North

Carolina, and British Columbia. A recent article

which surveyed all statewide computing activities

ranked Minnesota as the clear leader.4 “No other

State education agency comes close to achieving

“’Survey of State Governments and the New Technologies, ” Electronic Learnkg, November/December 1981.
220 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

the level of commitment and organization achieved

by MECC. But many State officials are now realizing that it may be their responsibility to move in

that direction. ”

The Future

With reductions of the State subsidy for telecommunications, increased local costs pose a real

barrier to time sharing, especially to the smaller,

rural districts further away from the Twin Cities.

Although much of the instructional activities can

and will be shifted to the microcomputers, a real

loss may well be the availability of advanced programing languages and the communications activities and the electronic mail system which tied so

many of the districts to one another. Richard

Pollack, Director of Special Projects, describes the

time-share system as “the glue that brought it all

together. ”

A spate of news stories have highlighted Minnesota’s financial difficulties. “What the rest of

the Nation’s schools have been facing has finally

caught up with us, ” one of the educators remarked. Many districts have begun to tighten

their belts by laying off teachers and increasing

pupil-teacher ratios. However, many districts, like

Alexandria, plan to go ahead with plans for their

computer programs. Bill French, teacher and computing coordinator comments: “I can see us buying 4 to 6 Atari’s for each elementary school . . .

What’s $500 when we pay $2,000 for a typewriter

or an Apple?” The additional costs for training and

software are, in a sense, covered through the services provided by MECC. Although MECC has already had budget cuts and expects more in the

future, increasing revenues from software sales

will lessen the impact.

Superintendent Arthur Bruning, of the Hopkins

School District, a Twin Cities suburb, also expects

to expand his program using the low-cost computers. He sees technology bridging home and

school, with the computers going home for extended activities. In this district, with an $18

million annual budget, he argues, “We will need

to set aside resources for technology-for there is

going to be a change (in the way we educate youngsters) and the pupil/teacher ratio will increase because of economics.”

Brumbaugh is optimistic. He sees opportunities

for expansion of software and new technological

advances that will make a difference in instructional computing. One example of these advances

is an interface that allows microcomputers to be

networked or clustered together. Once clustered,

software maintenance is reduced, recordkeeping

and management functions are simplified, and centralized printing is feasible. MECC is designing its

own interfaces and networks. By fall of 1982, these

networks will be field-tested in selected Minnesota

schools. In addition, MECC’s long-range planners

estimate that the number of instructional computing stations in classrooms in Minnesota’s schools,

colleges, and universities will reach 10,000 by

1984.

Minnesota computer educators also confidently predict continuing developments in instructional computing, pointing to present programs—

the result of more than 8 years of experience. The

MECC software and materials, training activities,

and the range of successful applications in computing, were possible because funding was sustained over a long enough period of time and over

a critical mass of educational institutions and

users. MECC’s accomplishments, the computing

activity in Minnesota schools, and the significant

number of students with access to these programs

is the result of the State’s vision and its long-term

commitment.

Resources

Case study interviews:

Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, St.

Paul, Minn.

Dale L. Schneiderhan, Acting Executive Director

Kenneth E. Brumbaugh, Director, Instructional Services, and Deputy Executive Director

Douglas P. LaChance, Acting Director, Management Information Services

Richard Pollak, Director, Special Projects

Marge Kosel, Manager, Instructional Systems Development

Marcia Horn, Instructional Coordinator

Kasey Mork, Instructional Coordinator

Willis Jokela, Instructional Coordinator

Minneapolis Public Schools, Minneapolis, Minn.

Paul Dillenberger, Math Resource Teacher

Hopkins Public Schools, Hopkins, Minn.

Arthur Bruning, Superintendent

Ken Corens, Computing Coordinator

Don Sension, Computer Center

Maple Lake Public Schools, Maple Lake, Minn.

Mary James, Teacher, Maple Lake High School, and

Computing Coordinator

Eagle Bend Public Schools, Eagle Bend, Minn.

Wilbur James, Superintendent

Richard Lundgren, Communicasting Project Director

Alexandria Public Schools, Alexandria, Minn.

Bill French, High School Teacher and Computing

Coordinator

Clayton Hovda, Superintendent
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 221

John Haugo, former Executive Director, MECC

1973-1981, presently President, Edu Systems, Inc.,

St. Paul, Minn.

Bibliography

Ahl, David H., “Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, ” Creative Computing, March 1981.

Calkins, Andrew, “A Survey on State Governments and

the New Technologies, ” Electronic Learning,

November/December 1981.

“Computers in the Schools, ” a message from the Commissioner of Education (undated—estimated date fall

1980).

Cost-Effective Educational Innovations in Minnesota:

A Report of Projects, Minnesota Council on Quality

Education, Division of Special Services, Minnesota

Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn.

Data Newsletter, Minnesota Educational Computing

Consortium, January/February 1981.

Instructional Microcomputing and Timesharing: A Minnesota Perspective. The report of the MECC Instructional Services Long Range Planning Project, Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, St. Paul,

Minn., June 1, 1981.

1979-1980 Annual Report, Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, June 30, 1980,

198081 Annual Report, Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, June 30, 1981.

PACE: Projects to Advance Creativity in Education, 5th

cd., ESEA title IV, pt, C in Minnesota, Minnesota Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn.

“The Minnesota Connection, ” an interview with John

Haugo, Classroom Computer News, fall 1980.

Instructional Computin g

Houston Independent Schoo l

District, Houston, Tex .

The Houston Independent School District

(HI SD) was selected for study because it is a recognized leader in urban education, in developing

innovative programs such as magnet schools and

in implementing cooperative efforts with industry

and the business community. It has successfully

halted declining pupil achievement, a major problem for urban school districts. The district also

provides examples of how technology can be used

to support and deliver basic skill instruction, to

communicate with parents, to assist teachers, and

to become the basis for technological understanding and computer literacy.

Moreover, it provides an example of districtwide

leadership and coordination through a newly created department of technology and the Nation’s

first associate superintendent for technology.

With a growing minority student population, the

district has engaged in a planning effort to address

equity and access to ensure that all students acquire basic skills and technological competence. As

one of the largest school districts in the Nation,

Houston also shows how economies of scale, critical mass, and volume purchasing power can be

used to implement new programs and produce

software/curriculum materials.

The Setting

The Houston metropolitan area population in

1981 was 2.4 million. It is a highly mobile population with a high growth rate for Hispanics and

Asians. A total of 193,702 pupils attend 169 elementary and 70 secondary schools. Over the last

10 years the ethnic makeup of the student body

population has shifted from an almost all-white

population to one that is 23 percent white, 44 percent black, 30 percent Hispanic, and 3 percent

Asian. Approximately 62 percent of the high

school graduates attend college.

Houston is at the center of a booming industrial

area. Its major industries are oil and gas, banking, construction, and chemicals. There are strong

ties between HISD and area industries, the chamber of commerce, and the other business organizations. This relationship has been cultivated by

Houston’s superintendent, Billy Reagan, over a

7-year period. Through cooperative business/

school arrangements, the district’s pupils and programs have benefited. For example, magnet

schools receive hundreds of thousands of dollars

for equipment and scholarships from companies

such as Exxon, IBM, DuPont, and others. There

is evidence that the district focus on technology

utilization, academic achievement, and career

training programs has been positively received by

the business community.

The annual budget of $507 million supports a

wide array of educational programs for this district’s diverse population. The district currently

receives $13 million in Federal title I moneys.

Houston administrators expect to feel only a slight

impact from cutbacks in Federal funds, since most

of their revenues are locally generated. Unlike

many urban districts, Houston’s financial base is

thriving and its financial future appears secure.

The following issues facing the district affect

educational programs and educational quality:

● The shift from an emphasis on desegregation,

to an emphasis on quality integrated education (mid-1970’s), to the current emphasis on

the prevention of resegregation.
222 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Changes in family needs (dual wage earners)

and an increasing number of single-parent

families.

An increase in the Hispanic population and

enrollment, with a critical shortage of Spanish

bilingual teachers.

The shortage of math, science, and computer

science teachers; a high teacher turnover rate

in critical areas; and difficulty in retaining topquality teachers.

The increased computer use in all aspects of

society and in the district.

The increase in community support from parents, patrons, religious organizations, and

businesses and professional organizations.

The increase in student achievement since an

all-time low in 1975, and the desire to maintain these achievement gains at all levels.

The major challenges, feels Superintendent

Regan, are “continuing to offer quality education

in an integrated environment to all children, and

attracting and holding nonminority children, both

from within and outside the District. ”

Instructional Computing

In the early 1970’s, the district’s first instructional computing programs were offered through

the Region IV Education Service Center’s computer. By 1972,20 terminals were used for problem

solving, drill and practice, and BASIC programing instruction. Math and data-processing classes

at the secondary level were primary users. Computing activities were limited, points out Patricia

Sturdivant, Associate Superintendent, and there

were problems with inadequately documented

courseware programs and manuals and with high

costs of hardware and associated maintenance

costs. The links through telephone lines were

unreliable, and when the mainframe was down no

instruction was available. Despite these frustrations a small cadre of teachers persevered. These

educators, more often than not, were self-taught.

Few had computer-science college training.

By 1977-78, Houston’s instructional computing

efforts were well established. While computer applications varied, the major emphasis was on increasing pupil achievement in reading and mathematics. Not only was this a major priority for the

district, but Federal title I funds were used to support these high-cost programs. Student gains were

“dramatic,” according to high school principal

Franklin Wesley.

In 1979, the Region IV ESC established a microcomputer task force, to evaluate what was happening in the region’s districts and to prepare

recommendations for action. Task force members

included Superintendent Reagan, superintendents

of the Byran and Orange Cove School Districts,

the director of data processing from Spring

Branch ISD, and Sturdivant, then Region IV ESC

Instructional Computing Coordinator. The task

force found that use of time sharing had leveled

off (after 5 years of steady growth), that interest

in microcomputers was high, and that microcomputers were being purchased with “insufficient

planning, and little understanding of their potentials or limitations. ” After purchase, districts were

faced with inadequately trained teachers, a shortage of software, and a lack of technical support for

hardware operation and maintenance.

The report recommended that hardware be

standardized to facilitate training, maintenance

and software exchange and development, and that

high-volume purchase arrangements be made to

reduce costs. Bid specifications were developed,

and in June 1980, Bell and Howell’s Apple 11

Microcomputer System was selected.

The Region IV Instructional Computing Services Division served as the fiscal agent for school

districts purchasing microcomputers. High-volume purchases resulted in savings close to a

million dollars over a 2-year period. In addition,

the center provided computer literacy training to

area school administrators and teachers, with

more than 3,000 teachers receiving training. The

center also offers a low-cost maintenance service

for computer hardware; publishes a monthly newsletter; coordinates courseware purchase and selection; loans video tapes, films, and other training

materials; and offers special workshops to meet

the needs of individual school districts in the

region. The working relationship between HISD

and the service center is evidenced by Reagan’s

choice of Sturdivant as his new associate superintendent for technology.

Current Programs

By October 1981, the district survey of microcomputers reported 200 microcomputers located

in 47 percent of HISD campuses. The most frequently used system is the Apple II, 48K. Local

funds were used to purchase 45 percent of the

microcomputers in the school buildings, while Federal funds paid for 31 percent. Parent-teacher organizations bought or helped to buy about 4 percent of the systems. Of those reported uses, 44 percent focused on classroom instruction; 29 percent
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 223

were used for classroom management, and only 4

percent were used in school administration.

A year and a half later (March 1982), the estimated number reached 323. While use of the terminals linked to a minicomputer has decreased,

several elementary and secondary campuses continue to operate drill and practice laboratories for

compensatory (title I and SCE) and handicapped

students.

Managing Competency-Based Education. The

Booker T. Washington High School’s competencybased education program for students uses the

school’s PDP-11 to score student tests, monitor

student performance on specific learning objectives, and report progress to teachers. The school’s

principal, Wesley, argues that this approach is

working for this school’s depressed economic community and its predominantly black population of

students who are at the bottom of the academic

scale.

Computer Science/Programing Languages.

Housed on the same campus (Booker T. Washington) is one of the district magnet programs—

the High School for the Engineering Profession.

These students take computer science courses in

BASIC, Fortran, applications, and problem-solving, using terminals connected to the school’s

PDP-11. The school’s computer science teacher

works jointly with an engineer on loan from IBM.

Other secondary schools offer computer science

courses of instruction in several programing

languages on both time-share terminals and microcomputers. In some elementary schools, students

learn programing in mathematics.

Project BASIC. All secondary schools have implemented Project BASIC, a commercially developed program for HISD’s Apple microcomputers

which monitors reading lab students’ progress and

tracks their mastery of reading skills. Before implementing the program, extensive training took

place: first of principals, then reading teachers, and

finally technical aids who input data and retrieve

information on the microcomputer.

Implemented in the 1981-82 school year, the

project required a reorganization of the secondary

reading labs, more than $600,000 (primarily SCE

funds) to purchase hardware, software, and materials to operate the labs, and reallocation of existing operating funds to hire 67 basic skills computer operators, one media equipment maintenance technician, one supervisor, six area reading

specialists, and one systems analyst.

Computer Literacy. A computer literacy curriculum, developed by Region IV ESC, is being

piloted in five elementary schools with language

programs for gifted and talented students. At

Askew Elementary, students learn about computers and their impact on society. Their parents

are also involved, Together, they find microprocessors that they use at home, and they collect and

read newspaper and magazine articles. In class,

students have experiences with the computer in

drill and practice, simulation and tutorial activities. Finally, they learn simple programing

routines. These students seem to enjoy all the activities, notes one of their teachers–particularly

hands-on experiences. “They love it so long as they

have a computer on the end of it. ”

Operation Fail Safe. The district’s computing

power has also been used since 1977 in a unique

parent involvement program, Operation Fail-Safe.

Although not a teaching application, the program

affects the instructional program. It is designed

to reach parents, communicate information about

their children’s achievement, and help parents help

their children (see fig. A-3).

This system-wide program is an example of how

computer technology has been used to provide important data on a timely basis and on a massive

scale, impacting 200,000 pupils, notes Sara Cordray, program director, Using the Region IV twin

CDC Cyber 170 mainframe, HISD profiles each

student’s performance on the Iowa Test of Basic

Skills; generates progress reports listing specific

skill strengths in reading and math; develops individualized reading lists (sent home as a letter to

each parent) based on each students’ interest and

independent reading level from a data base of

12,000 library books; and prepares vocational profiles based on a standardized assessment of each

student. (Accompanying each profile is a printout

of occupational opportunities and education and

training requirements.)

Other current uses (documented in the HISD

Microcomputer User Survey) of the microcomputers vary from school to school. Microcomputers

are used in mathematics, reading, science, language arts, accounting and business education,

special education, computer literacy, and programing activities. Some schools have computer clubs

and some offer classes after school for students

and parents. Some teachers are creating their own

software, and others use commercially prepared

materials.

Impact s

When Houston educators assess the impacts of

technology on education, they point to improved

{.- . —,
224 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Figure A-3.—Sample “Fail Safe” Parent Letter

SOURCE: Houston Independent School District.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 225

student achievement. The profile of HISD elementary students’ mean composite scores from 1971

to 1981 documents the increased basic school performance of a student population who typically are

low achievers (see fig. A-4). In 1980-81, the district

completed its sequential testing program through

grade 12. Although the results at the elementary

level are more impressive, scores in grades 5, 7,

8, 9, 10, and 11 also show a significant improvement in achievement. Although not the sole factor, technology plays a critical role.

When the title I computer-assisted instruction

(CAI) program was evaluated, students in grades

2-6 averaged gains of 1.1 months in reading and

1.2 months in mathematics in 1978-79. Students

in grades 3-7 made similar gains of 1.1 months in

reading, 1.4 months in mathematics, and 1.5

months in language in 1980-81, Of teachers whose

students participated in the CAI labs, 93 percent

felt that student performance improved as a result

of CAI and 63 percent reported that students’

achievement was greater than would be expected

in a traditional instructional program. While

students looked forward to CAI classes, teachers

complained about the disruption to their classes

when students were pulled out. Scheduling was

fixed and inflexible. Moreover, when computers

were down or telephone lines malfunctioned students missed instruction.

Operation Fail Safe was evaluated in 1977-78 to

determine the relationship between parent involvement and student achievement. The level of parent

involvement, determined by the school principal,

was compared with students’ achievement test

scores. At every level—elementary, junior high,

and senior high-a significant positive relationship

was documented. A second study of a pilot parentassist program involved 200 parents of third grade

Figure A-4.– Iowa Tests of Basic Skills,

Mean Composite Scores, HISD, 1971-81

GE

7.0

6.5

6.0

5.5

5.0

4,5

4.0

3.5

t- 1

I

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

SOURCE Houston Independent School District

students in four schools. After students’ reading

skill areas were identified, materials were prepackaged and distributed weekly for parent-child use

at home.

A comparison of these students and a control

group (students not participating in the program)

revealed higher significant gains for pilot students.

Beyond these statistical gains, Operation Fail Safe

has the strong support of the business community. Local businesses and corporations have paid

for a $1 million advertising campaign that highlights parent involvement activities with the message, “Don’t Fail Me–Help Me. ” Seventy-four

percent of elementary school parents and 39 percent of secondary school parents attend the program’s parent-teacher conferences.

HISD and the Region IV ESC have provided

leadership for the 101 local area school districts

and for the State education agency. The Apple

microcomputer bid process and contract had national recognition and was used as a basis for other

district and regional education agency efforts.

Region IV was one of the first to join the

Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium

(MECC) as an institutional member, providing

area schools access to MECC-produced software.

HISD organized a technology conference for the

National Institute of Education’s Urban Superintendents Study Group in December 1981. The

conference brought together educational leaders,

hardware manufactures, and educational publishers to discuss common needs and to work towards

collaborative efforts.

Finally, the district is bombarded with requests

for information and for help–"everything you

know about computers. ” There is a steady stream

of visitors who come to observe programs and see

teachers and students in action.

As HISD moves its technology programs forward, Sturdivant sees the need to help schools to

effectively use the technology that they have. She

believes that, before schools acquire hardware or

add to their inventory, they must plan for their

use. That involves an understanding of the technology’s potential and its limitations, the learning

objectives to be met, and the trained teachers

needed to implement the program. Sturdivant is

also in favor by focusing on a few applications at

a time, so as to give the district leverage for purchasing hardware and software. The major publishers will provide what the district needs “if they

know we will buy, ” The full impact of technology

on HISD will come when “technology is fused to

education . . . to what teachers are doing . . . and

(is) not another add-on to the curriculum. If teach-
226 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

ers can’t be convinced that technology will make

their job easier, they’re not going to buy it. ”

In addition, here will be a concerted effort in

HISD to continue to identify those programs that

are working and to replicate them. The key, states

Associate Superintendent Michael Say, “is to

channel the use of technology and coordinate

it . . . Houston is on the verge of moving ahead in

a significant way. ” The district will fund the

emerging programs out of State and local funds

because “we want to determine our own emphasis

and maintain our own programs. ” Federal funds,

he argues, should be used for innovation and stateof-the-art development.

Future

For HISD, the future is now. Although technology is already a part of the Houston educational

scene, with diverse activities well under way, there

is a pervasive feeling among educational leaders

that hard decisions must be made, innovative actions initiated, and major resources reallocated as

quickly as possible. At the same time, cautions

Say, “We can’t just throw technology out there

and expect it to be used. ” Houston’s efforts will

focus heavily on teacher and administrator computer-literacy training, and on acquisition of hardware and software that is coordinated with

planned program development. Superintendent

Reagan believes technology holds “untold promises . . . not to replace teachers but to become the

full partner of the teacher. ” The district’s future

plans are diverse; several are close to implementation or are already under way. Other plans are

2 to 5 years away from completion.

New Roles for Teachers. The position of teacher

technologist with pay incentives (increased salary

supplements) has been approved. Teacher technologists will teach teachers, parents, and youngsters

and serve as catalysts, planners, and implementers

of computer literacy and other programs on individual school campuses. These teachers will draw

on the small cadre of staff members already implementing programs, as well as on others who are

ready to move into this role. It is hoped that these

new opportunities and increased pay will hold the

district’s trained teachers and attract new recruits,

many of whom are choosing industry for their

careers.

Extensive Staff Development. Through existing

programs offered at the microcomputer center and

through the establishment of additional centers

and demonstration projects in schools involving

teacher technologists, training activities will be

significantly expanded. First priority for awareness and training activities will be school principals. School officials note that the principal is the

key figure in program implementation.

Expanding the Use of Microcomputers as Instructional Delivery Systems in the School and

Home. School officials expect the number of

microcomputers in HISD to increase from the

present 250 to 300 to approximately 1,000 in a

year and to 5,000 to 7,000 in 5 years. A major use

of these machines will be to increase student timeon-task in basic skill areas, especially in title I

schools. Moreover, microcomputers will be made

available to parents who have participated in training sessions and who are willing to help their children increase academic skills at home. Pilot programs will begin in September with schools that

have implemented parent-school training and the

Operation Fail-Safe partnership activities.

Although there is a lack of available, appropriate

software, district leaders believe that there is

enough to begin the programs and that more will

follow as the microcomputers are purchased, and

the district envisions software lending libraries

available to parents who will purchase hardware

on their own. Eventually, Houston’s cable system

will become part of home-school activities, with individual student prescriptions, homework assignments, and a range of learning packages geared

to terminals in the home.

Computer Literacy for Diverse Student Populations. Over the next 4 years, the district plans to

expand and develop magnet elementary and secondary schools located near major government,

business, industry, higher education, and cultural

centers of the city. This in-town consortium of

magnet schools will be linked together by common

program components and a common HISD transportation system. The plan is to integrate diverse

cultural, racial, and socioeconomic student populations by offering a strong academic program that

integrates the use of the computer as an instructional tool in skill development and enrichment

activities.

Educational programs will take advantage of

nearby resources, expanding HISD’s Business

School Partnership Program, which brings volunteers into the schools to tutor, teach minicourses,

and organize field trips. These magnet programs

will also use the resources of libraries, museums,

universities, colleges, and community centers.

With the increased focus on technology, the practical technical expertise of resource people from industry and the business community will play an

even more important role.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 227

Developing Technology-Based Courses. One

way to deal with the district critical shortage of

math, science, and bilingual teachers is to develop

courses that do not require a full-time teacher.

Although not on the district’s immediate horizon,

there is a growing idea that such courses, minicourses, and the like can be developed because of

advances in computer and video disk technologies.

There is also a plan to make better use of the district’s in-house television arid cable capabilities by

designing remote-learning stations with instruction coming from a teacher in one location.

While some educators see these plans as visionary, others point to HISD’s innovations in other

areas and argue that, under Superintendent Reagan’s leadership, these ideas will become reality.

The superintendent is a powerful persuader: “Unless technology -i.e., the microcomputer, the video

disk, and television—is fully developed and exploited to the maximum degree, we will fall further and further behind in Houston in providing

the manpower for industry, for our defense, and

for our future. ”

Resources

Case study interviews:

Houston Independent School District, Houston, Tex.

Billy Reagan, Superintendent

Michael Say, Associate Superintendent for Instruction

Patricia Sturdivant, Associate Superintendent for

Technology

Ronald Veselka, Assistant Superintendent for Research

and Evaluation

Sara Cordray, Program Administrator, Parent Support

Programs

Frank Wesley, Principal, Booker T. Washington High

School

Richard Frazier, Teacher, Booker T. Washington High

School

John Roustenstraugh, Test Engineer on Loan from IBM

and Teacher

Helen Heard, Principal, Askew Elementary School

Two classrooms of gifted and talented students using

microcomputers

Joy Louisa, Principal, River Oaks Elementary School

Susan Otto, Teacher of K-5 computer literacy classes

Madeline Reed, Director of Mathematics

Carol Kukendahl, Director of Reading and Language

Arts

Patsy Rogers, Computer Resources Director, Microcomputer Center for Teachers

Bibliography

Houston Independent School District

3830 Richmond Avenue

Houston, TX 77027

Final Evaluation Report—Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI), Nov. 6, 1981.

Preliminary report on Districtwide Needs Assessment

and Plans for Establishing District goals for the New

Accredition Cycle, Jan. 21, 1982.

Quality Integrated Education: Challenges and Responses, prepared for the Workshop on the Implementation of the Recommendations of the Magnet

School Task Force, Dec. 21, 1981.

Houston Independent School District, packet of information, November 1981.

Factors Affecting Education in HISD and Texas in the

1980’s, February 1981.

Elementary School Profiles, 1980-81, August 1981.

Secondary School Profiles, 1980-81, August 1981.

Approval to Create the Department of Technology,

December 1981.

A Status Report on Microcomputer Developments,

Patricia Sturdivant, Region IV Education Service

Center, October 1979.

Information Technology

and Education in the

State of Alaska

The State of Alaska is providing extensive and

varied applications of computer and communications technology to education. Special geographic,

demographic, sociological, and financial factors

have made the State a forerunner in educational

information technology. Alaska has a population

unusually receptive to change and technology; a

compelling need to apply communications and information technology to education; and the financial capability to invest in capital-intensive

innovations.

Although many of the technical, political, legal,

organizational, and educational issues and problems being addressed in Alaska are common to

other parts of the United States, the special circumstances of Alaska require that any attempt to

generalize from Alaskan experience be done carefully. Given this provision, it seems reasonable to

look to Alaskan experience for useful lessons in the

application of technology to education.

The Setting

Alaska is the largest State in the United States,

covering a land area equal to about 20 percent of

the remaining 49 States. Physically separated

from the contiguous 48 States, it is characterized

by rugged terrain, extremes of climate, low population density, limited land transportation, and

many small isolated communities accessible only
228 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

by sea or air. The total population of 400,000 includes 50,000 native Americans who belong to

seven major and distinct culture and language

groups. Over 50 different native languages and

dialects are spoken in the homes. Alaska’s population overall is relatively young. The frontier character of the region attracts pioneering young

adults, while the rigors of life discourage retirees

from remaining for their later years.

Alaska has about 90,000 school-age children distributed over an area twice the size of Texas.

Alaska’s 450 public schools vary in size from 2,500

students in an Anchorage high school to 8 or 10

students in one-room schools in remote areas.

Although some of the 52 school districts in Alaska

are geographically larger than those in most other

States, they may have only about 1,000 students.

The State is required by court decision to provide

education to students aged 7 through 16 in their

home communities, rather than by sending them

to boarding schools in other communities.

In rural communities, most students are native

Americans who have only brief history of schooling. The educational level of many parents is low,

and the benefits of standard American schooling

are not necessarily valued. Many of the students

have a history of poor academic performance and

a negative view of schools.1

The recent discovery and exploitation of oil in

Alaska has provided the financial capability to invest large sums of capital in education. In addition to the average per pupil expenditure of nearly $7,000, there are special projects–such as $200

million for construction of schools and about

$125,000 for the installation of a satellite receiver

in a rural village. Rural schools are financed totally

by State funds.

It is far beyond the scope of this case study to

trace the general history of communications in

Alaska. But it is important to recognize that the

developments in educational technology in Alaska have occurred in the context of a generally

atypical communications situation.

Communications technology that most Americans take for granted-telephones, radio, and television-have had a very complex and problematic

history in Alaska. Alaska’s long-distance telephone facilities were operated until 1971 by an arm

of the U.S. Air Force. The system, served by highfrequency land radio stations, was unreliable

because of ionospheric disturbances common to

‘William J. Bramble and Ernest E. Polley, “Microcomputer Instruction in Remote Vllages in Alaska, ” Alaska Department of Education,

1981.

the region. In 1971, 142 villages had no telephone

service at all. RCA Alaska Communications

bought the system and was certified by the Alaska

Public Utilities Commission to provide telephone

service.

RCA encountered a variety of difficulties including hindrances by weather, unreliable electric

power, employee problems in coping with village

conditions, and villagers’ lack of sophistication in

dealing with the new system.2 Because of the difficulties of providing communications on a private

industry basis, the Alaska State government has

taken a more active role in providing communications.

By the early 1970’s, it became apparent that satellite technology offered a more promising means

of providing telecommunications services to villages than had any previous technology. Several

projects involving satellites were initiated by the

State government, including an experiment

funded jointly by the U.S. Department of Health,

Education, and Welfare (HEW) and the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration. (Later

transferred to the National Institutes for Education (NIE)).3 HEW and NIE support for this

“ATS-6 experiment” was about $2.5 million.

The ATS-6 experiment involved educational and

biomedical applications of satellite-transmitted

color television and interactive audio to 19 sites

in Alaska. Actual operations lasted only 9 months,

during 1974-75, but planning had begun in 1972.

The experiment was extensively evaluated and reported on.45 6 

While some of these evaluations concluded that

the experiment was not cost-effective, the project

did build a base of technical expertise in the State

with regard to satellite communications technology.7 For example, a great deal was learned about

aA. Hills and M. G. Morgan, “Telecommunications in Alaskan Villages,” Science, vol. 211, January 1981, pp. 241-248.

‘L. Grayson, “Educational Satellites: The ATS-6 Experiments, ” J.

Ed Tech Sys., vol. 3(2), fall 1974.

4B. Cowlan and D. Foote, “A Case Study of the ATS-6 Health, Education and Telecommunications Projects, ” ARC No. 308.3 -C875, EHR-19,

Office of Education and Human Resources, Bureau of Technical Assistance, Agency for International Development, Washington, D. C.,

August 1975.

‘Office of Telecommunications, “Alaska ATS-6 Health/Education Telecommunications Experiment: Alaska Education Experiment Final Re

port, vols. I, II, III and Executive Summary” (Juneau: Office of Telecommunications, Office of the Governor of the State of Alaska,

September 1975).

aPractical Concepts, Inc., Implications of the Alaska Education Satelh”te Communications Demonstration for Telecommunications Poh”cymakers (Washington, D. C.: Practical Concepts, Inc., January 1976).

‘T. S. Pittman and J. Orvik, ATS-6 and State Telecommunications

Policy for Rural Alaska: An Analysis of Recommendations, Center for

Northern Educational Research, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,

Alaska, December 1976.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 229

the use of low-power ground stations.8 Effectively structured audio conferences for adult interaction were found to be effective for educational purposes.’ Institutional issues regarding media began

to be addressed, such as ways of providing for local

(as opposed to State or national) control over

media and methods of providing appropriate programing for rural Alaska.

In 1975, the Alaska State Legislature provided

an appropriation of about $10 million to initiate

construction of more than 100 small Earth stations throughout Alaska that would extend satellite-based long-distance telephone service to

many communities. The following year, the legislature expanded this satellite network to include

television broadcasts for some communities. Since

1977, daytime instructional television (ITV) programs have been broadcast by satellite, and sites

receiving these broadcasts have increased in

number.

In 1978, the Alaska State Department of Education, with joint funding from NIE and the State,

initiated the Educational Telecommunications for

Alaska Project. This project, funded at $6 million,

has developed several of the major educational

technology systems and applications described in

this report, including an electronic mail network,

an information retrieval system, and multimedia

individualized courses.

To help determine the instructional potential of

satellite television, the legislature in 1979 requested that a study be made of the feasibility of

using television for instruction on a statewide

basis. “A Report on the Feasibility of Telecommunications for Instruction in the State of

Alaska” was submitted to the legislative council

in February 1980, In response to the recommendations of this report, the legislature approved an appropriation of $8.6 million to implement the instructional television and audio conferencing systems now known as the LEARN/ALASKA Network. LEARN/ALASKA is managed by the University of Alaska Instructional Telecommunications Consortium (UAITC), a joint organization of

the University and the State Department of Education.

Use of Information Technology

Six major kinds of computer and communications applications are in varying stages of impersonal communication with William Bramble, Alaska State Department of Education, December 1981.

W. S. Pittman, op. cit., p. 15.

plementation and use in Alaska. These include the

following:

● instructional television;

● audio conferencing;

● electronic mail;

● information retrieval;

● individualized study by technology; and

● computer literacy.

Instructional Television. By December 1981,85

Alaskan communities were receiving instructional

television via satellite dish antennas. Additional

communities continue to be added to the LEARN/

ALASKA television network. The statewide instructional television channel broadcasts nearly 18

hours of programing every day for audience levels

ranging from preschool through adult. The programs may be used directly in class or taped for

later use.

Most of the programs are purchased from educational program producers in the contiguous 48

States. However, the State of Alaska is now providing funds for Alaskans to produce programing

tailored to the special needs of its regional and

cultural groups. The Northwest Arctic School

District has received a grant from the State to

develop programing appropriate for the Inupiaq

Eskimos who live in 11 villages scattered throughout the 35,000 -square-mile district (about the size

of Indiana). Students in Kotzebue are producing

ITV programing which can be broadcast live from

Kotzebue’s transmitter.

Despite the large commitment to State instructional television, many problems remain. First,

scheduling of broadcasts to meet user needs is a

problem in a State that spans five time zones.

Local taping of broadcasts for later use can resolve

this problem, but there are copyright issues involved and not all programs can legally be copied.

Second, the high cost of developing the needed programs can not be amortized over a large audience

due to the sparse populations. Moreover, programing aimed at adults in the home is often ineffective when the home environment is crowded and

not a suitable learning environment. Finally, political problems arise when the State-run network

is perceived by local cable TV operators to be in

competition with private industry.

The cultural impact of television has been an

issue of considerable interest since the State first

took initiatives in this area. Mechanisms for providing native consumer control over programing,

scheduling, and operations have been of major concern since the earliest experiments. For example,

James Orvik of the Center for Northern Educational Research observed, “Depending on how the
230 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

development of a system is managed, early reliance on satellites as the principal means of delivery

could be an open invitation to begin centralizing

and homogenizing the entire process of media delivery and media use. To the extent such a trend

would erode the emergence of local and regional

systems, there is cause for concern."10

One of the strategies that has been adopted

to ensure local and regional control for the

LEARN/ALASKA network is the provision for

regional programing facilities and the establishment of local capability to develop programs.

Audio Conferencing. In addition to instructional

television, the LEARN/ALASKA network provides the hardware and the communications capability for audio conferences, which cost about $64

per line per hour to operate. In December 1981,

the network had 59 audio conferencing sites; 104

are planned by September 1982. At each community audio conference center a coordinator helps

users with the technical and administrative aspects of setting up and conducting a conference.

A guide assists users in conducting effective

teleconferences.

The University of Alaska has been an early user

of this system for education. Students at many of

the remote university campuses can join together

in class discussions through the audio conferencing system. Some faculty members are beginning

to develop expertise in the use of this technology,

which, although powerful, requires a considerable

amount of administrative time to implement. According to one professor, a faculty member must

spend about four times more time administering

a course that operates via audio or computer conference than he spends for a similar conventional

course. These pioneering faculty are developing expertise in the appropriate structuring, management, and coordination of audio conferences.

Another major application of audio conferencing is for teacher inservice training. This method

is highly cost effective in this State, where travel

costs are very high.

Electronic Mail. Certain characteristics of an

electronic mail system (EMS) make it an ideal technology for overcoming cultural, geographic, and

scheduling barriers to education. Through EMS,

students with different cultural backgrounds,

located in distant places in different time zones,

engage in seminar-type discussions with one other

and with their professors. Even when all the students in a particular class are physically located

10J. Omik, “ESCD/Alaska: An Educational Demonstration, ’ J. ~mmunication, vol. 27:4, autumn 1977.

at the main campus, they have more interaction

with each other and with their professor through

the system than they would be able to have in a

typical classroom. This is particularly true for

native Americans whose minority culture background often results in little class participation.

The asking and answering of direct questions in

a face-to-face setting is often in opposition to

culturally accepted modes of interacting.11 In

Alaska two EMSs serve educational users: the

University of Alaska computer network and an

EMS operated by the State Department of Education.

The University network is by far the largest,

serving 7,000 users at campuses and agencies

throughout the State. In the month of November

1981, 104,000 messages were transmitted on this

system. Used in innovative ways for learning and

teaching, the University’s system made it possible throughout the winter for high school students

in Nome, Anchorage, Juneau, Kenai, Fairbanks,

and Petersburg to participate in an honors program managed by a professor in the mathematics

department of the University of Fairbanks. The

students received assignments, collaborated with

each other, and transmitted their work to the professor through the system.12 Problems encountered in using the University network for classroom interaction have included: lack of visual

material; lack of cross referencing of messages; too

many simultaneous threads of conversation; too

high a reading level in messages; inability to control negative messages; and student inability to

digest unrelated topics.

EMS operated by the State Department of Education was developed by the Educational Telecommunications for Alaska (ETA) project. This

network links administrators of the 52 school

districts with each other and with the State

Department of Education at Juneau. The system

is directly accessible only to district administrators, not to school personnel, since the

district offices are distant from rural schools. In

November 1981, the system transmitted about

3,500 messages. The primary benefit of this

system is for State and district administration.

There is no physical interface between the

university network and the State EMS. The most

commonly cited reason for this is security.

Information Retrieval. The Alaska Knowledge

Base, developed as a part of the ETA project, is

llPWSon~ co~~cation with Ronald Scollen at the ~ntar for @ss

Cultural Studies, University of Alaska, December 1981.

l~person~ communication with Dr. van Veldhausen, Department Of

Mathematics, University of Alaska, December 1981.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies . 231

a computerized guide to help Alaskan educators

find current information about curriculum materials, successful classroom programs, and resource

people willing to serve in the schools. Users access

the knowledge base through the computer terminals located in the administrative offices of the

52 school districts and the department of education. During a 3-month period in 1981, about half

the school districts used the system, retrieving

about 3,500 items of information from this knowledge base.

Individualized Study by Technology (1ST). A

major product of the ETA project is a series of 1ST

courses for high school students in remote schools.

These courses are designed to provide instruction

that would allow the small, isolated schools to offer

a variety of high-quality courses at the secondary

level without increasing the staff size and without

transporting students to schools in large population centers. When a school adopts 1ST courses,

it acquires an Apple computer. The computer is

also used for a variety of other applications such

as high school accounting courses, computer

science and data processing training, and drills in

basic skills.

Six 1ST courses have been developed: Alaska

history, English, developmental reading, general

mathematics, general science, and U.S. history.

The course packages include student reading materials, lab guides, audio cassettes, teacher guides,

text and reference materials, and computer-based

exercises and tests. The computer materials operate on stand-alone microcomputers (Apple II). An

important component of the course design, computer-based activities provide a high degree of interaction with the student. In pilot tests of the

courses the computer exercises were the mode of

instruction most preferred by 74 percent of the

students. Audio tapes were liked the least.

As typical of technology-based instructional systems, the pilot test evaluations indicate that revisions are needed.13 “The lack of an overall model

for what and how to teach in 1ST courses has contributed to some of the problems with course design, such as the lack of higher cognitive level

tasks, high levels of reading difficulty, and problems with use of audio tapes.”14 Nevertheless, the

adoption rate in 1981 far exceeded expectations.

As of December 1981,95 schools had adopted one

‘SM. Howe, et al., “ Individualized Study by Telecommunications Pilot

Test Final Evaluation Report, ” Alaska Department of Education, June

1980.

l~Education~ Skills K)evdoprnent, Inc., “Final Report Evaluation of

1ST Courses FY 81 Pilot Study, ” Alaska Department of Education,

November 1981.

or more of the courses. Apparent benefits of the

1ST courses include the following:

the courses work well for students whose attendance at school is irregular or seasonal,

which is the case in many rural Alaskan

schools;

the courses provide more educational options

within a small school;

the computer component is motivating, and

the equipment has other applications in the

school;

the courses are complete and self-contained,

and are not dependent on local material resources or teacher knowledge of content;

the courses provide continuity of curriculum

in schools where teacher turnover is high.

Availability of the initial 1ST courses has provided Alaskan educators with an example of what

is possible through technology. Demand for additional courses is building, particularly for high

school mathematics and science courses. However,

it is not clear at this point how development of

such courses will be funded, or even how revision

and maintenance of the initial courses will be

supported.

The cost per student of 1ST courses will depend

on the overall number of students using the

courses, the number of students per course per

school, and the lifespan of the materials and programs. It appears that the cost per student per

course of about $900 will be less than the average

Alaskan rural conventional course cost per student

(about $7,000). One major cost component for 1ST

is teacher training. In fiscal year 1981, the cost per

teacher for training was about $1,500. Travel and

per diem expenses accounted for a large proportion of these teacher training costs.

Computer Literacy. In Alaska, as in other

States, the availability of low-cost microcomputers

has generated considerable interest by educators

in computer-related skills that should become part

of the curriculum. Several hundred microcomputers are now available for student use in schools,

and the number is growing rapidly. The Alaska

Association of Computer Using Educators has

been formed with the help of the State Department

of Education. The department also publishes a

newsletter for the association.

By providing teacher inservice workshops in

computer literacy and by providing information

to educators on available software, the State

Department of Education assumes a leadership

role in promoting computer literacy. In an arrangement with the Minnesota Educational Computing

Consortium (MECC) the department provides cop-
232 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

ies of MECC educational software free of charge

to the schools. It is now establishing a process for

evaluating commercially available courseware and

will seek to make arrangements with publishers

to license distribution of courseware in the State.

Computers and Culture. In 1971, the Computer

Center Director of the University of Alaska began

a series of educational experiments in Alaskan

high schools. He hypothesized that the use of computer technology could assist Alaskan natives in

overcoming cultural barriers to learning in the

classroom. He found that Eskimo children in

Nome broke through cultural isolation through the

use of Fortran programing; that a teacher could

interact with Indian children through computer

terminals when they would not interact with him

face-to-face; and that Eskimo children gained an

understanding of arithmetic through the use of

handheld calculators.15

Impact on the Use of Information

Technology

The LEARN/ALASKA network and the ETA

projects have been implemented in the past 2

years and are just now beginning to be used operationally. The impact of these systems on education will not be observable for some time. There

appear to be no plans by the agencies involved to

monitor or evaluate the impact of these systems.

Knowledgeable persons in Alaska make the following kinds of predictions of the impacts of computer and communications technologies on education:

●

●

●

●

●

●

curricula of small schools will become more

standardized through use of the 1ST courses;

nonschool-based education, such as correspondence courses, will become more important;

individual schools, as opposed to school districts, will assume greater decisionmaking

control;

previously isolated cultures will become more

socially sophisticated;

native languages will disappear; and

cultural barriers to educational progress will

be overcome.

The increasing use of audio conferencing is rendering obsolete some institutional mechanisms

and jurisdictional boundaries. Communications

networks cut across school district and State lines,

“E. J. Gauss, “Computer Enhancement of Cultural Transition, ” proceedings of the 1979 National Educational Computing Consortium,

Iowa City, June 1979.

raising issues about institutional jurisdictions over

accreditation of courses, tuition payments, school

schedules, and the like.

Through their varied experiences in the implementation of computer and communications technology in education, Alaskans have addressed

issues of design, implementation, and public policy

that very likely all Americans will eventually have

to address. By no means have all these issues been

resolved in Alaska, but there is a more mature understanding of them now than 10 years ago.

What are the risks involved in technological

innovation, and how might they be minimized? According to a model being developed

at the Center for Cross-Cultural Studies at the

University of Alaska, the risks of wasted capital investment and undesirable cultural side

effects can only be minimized if systems

evolve with a high degree of user control over

growth rate and direction.

Should the cultural and other impacts of innovation be monitored and, if so, how? There

is no formal mechanism for monitoring impacts and outcomes in Alaska. Some believe

there is no point in it; others are concerned

over our lack of understanding of impacts.

What is the appropriate role of State government in delivering instruction-e. g., via television or computer-assisted instruction?

By what mechanisms can educational needs

be taken into account in the processes of establishing policies and regulations regarding

telecommunications?

How can educators and users drive the design

of innovations?

How can development of high-quality, userrelevant programing be financed? -

The Future

Increasing use of computer-assisted instruction

is highly likely in Alaska. The Report of the Governor’s Task Force on Effective Schooling recommends “computer-assisted instruction as a viable

means of enhancing schooling with respect to the

development of skills and acquisition of content.”16

Application of video disk technology, combined

with microcomputers, is planned. The Office of

Planning and Research in the State Department

of Education has established a design team to analyze authoring systems, assess feasibility of group

1eGovernor’g Task Force on Effective Schooling, ‘‘Effective Schooling Practices, ” State of Alaska, December 1981.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 233

interactive video disk systems, and prepare recommendations for applications to instruction.

Audio conferencing will be combined with instructional television to provide interactive

courses. Students watching an instructional television program will be electronically linked together

and to the instructor, thus providing a technologically advanced kind of correspondence course.

University students in Alaska will have increasing access to courses at out-of-state institutions

via computer and audio conferencing systems.

EDUCO M

EDUCOM was founded in 1964 as a nonprofit

organization for colleges, universities, and other

nonprofit institutions of higher education. Its current membership includes over 360 university and

college campuses in the United States and abroad.

The goal is to help its members make better use

of computing and information technology. Areas

of application are academic instruction and research, college and university administration, and

library and information dissemination. EDUCOM

provides the following types of services and activities:

●

●

●

●

●

sharing and exchange of specialized computer and information resources;

consulting on the management and use of

computer technology;

maintenance and dissemination of a financial

modeling system;

conferences, seminars, workshops, and publications; and

research and specialized software.

Services and Membership Activities

1. EDUCOM Bulletin. The EDUCOM Bulletin is

published quarterly, with a circulation of about

10,000. The bulletin reports on presentations,

research projects, applications of information

technology to higher education, and systems of

interest to the education community.

2. Annual Conference. Annual conferences address

resource sharing, computer networking, the development of information systems, and other

topics of current interest to member institutions.

3. Seminars. Seminars in 1981 included, “Managing Microcomputers on Campus, ” and “EFPM:

The EDUCOM Financial Planning Model. ”

4.

5.

6.

7.

Research Reports and Monographs. For example, the report of a 2-year, NSF-funded study of

factors affecting the sharing of computer-based

resources.

Informal Communications. These include letters

to presidents, memoranda, and other mailings

relating to the sharing of resources and the use

of computing and other technologies in higher

education.

Discounts. EDUCOM provides for discounts on

the purchase or lease of computing equipment

and related materials and services from selected

vendors.

Task Forces. Task forces are designated to

study special issues of interest to members.

Special Activities

EDUCOM provides specialized services through

the activities of EDUNET, the EDUCOM Consulting Group, the EDUCOM Financial Planning

Model (EFPM), and research and development.

EDUNET. This is an international computing

network for higher education and research.

EDUNET itself neither owns nor operates any

computing facilities. Rather, it acts as a broker,

linking using institutions who have unusual computing requirements with 1 of 16 institutional suppliers. Connecting links are established through

commercial communications networks, provided

by networks such as Telenet and TYMNET. Typical communications charges are $4 to $6 per hour.

All arrangements, including billing, are handled

centrally by EDUNET.

Planning for EDUNET was initiated in 1966

under partial sponsorship of NSF. Several studies

and experiments followed, and a full network was

established in 1979. On July 1, 1979, EDUNET

became a permanent and self-sustaining activity

of EDUCOM.

Membership in EDUNET in June 1981 included

168 institutions. Local access is provided in 250

U.S. cities, 50 Canadian cities, and 30 foreign countries. Resources available from EDUNET supplier

institutions include:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

electronic mail and conferencing systems,

tutorial programs,

CAI authoring languages,

statistical packages,

subroutine libraries,

planning and analysis models,

simulation languages and games,

data bases,

data-base management systems,
234 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

c information storage and retrieval systems,

● programs for textual analysis,

“ graphics software, and

c text editors.

EDUNET services also include a hotline, the

quarterly EDUNET News, the informal

EDUNOTE, a Member’s Guide, electronic mail

and conferencing, training workshops and introductory seminars, an on-line catalog of resources available from suppliers, and searches

tailored to special requirements. EDUNET has

developed special software so that microcomputers such as the Apple II can access the large

computers used by EDUNET suppliers.

EDUCOM Consulting Group. EDUCOM Consulting Group was formed in 1972 as a source of

impartial advice on the use of computing and information technology in higher education. Consulting is available in four areas:

1. System Performance Evaluation.

2. Strategic Resource Planning.

3. Organization Planning.

4. Management Systems Implementation.

In 1978, with a grant from Eli Lilly, & Co.,

EDUCOM built the EDUCOM Financial PIarming

Model (EFPM). Users can build and operate

budget models through a question-and-answer

routine that requires no computer sophistication;

access is via the EDUNET dial-in network.

EFPM now resides on a Cornell University computer. It is used by over 120 institutions. As of

August 1981, it cost $2,000 per year ($1,750 for

EDUNET members), plus $2,250 startup consulting ($2,000 for EDUCOM members), and from

$8 to $20 per terminal hour. It is supported by user

fees and grants. EDUCOM supports an EFPM

Users’ Group through a monthly newsletter and

periodic meetings. Recent applications have been

made in foreign higher education, in noneducational settings (the New York Public Library), and

in the development of linkages for access by microcomputer.

Research and Development. Previous studies

have addressed EFPM (described above), computing in small colleges, and the role of technology

in library resource sharing. Of special interest is

a 2-year study, completed in April 1981 for NSF,

to identify factors affecting individual and institutional sharing of computer-based resources.

Budgets and Financing

The financing of EDUCOM is like that of other

typical regional service organizations (RSOs).

The typical RSO functions on a very tight budget

with virtually no discretionary funds, and some proportion of continuing income derived from external funding agencies. With a tight budget, a small

staff, and high reliance on volunteer efforts, the

typical RSO is in a precarious financial situation.

In order to offset financial instability, most RSOs

rely on a mixture of revenue that includes membership fees and fees-for-service, as well as external

funding.’

EDUCOM was incorporated with $1,000 privately donated by five faculty from five different

medical schools. No public moneys were involved.

It operated entirely on the basis of membership

dues, fees for service, and volunteerism until 1972.

Then, in the early 1970’s, NSF sponsored three

seminars and the development of a network simulation model. This led to the establishment of the

Planning Council on Computing Education and

Research. The council’s activities were funded by

grants from 20 EDUCOM institutions, with

matching grants from the Ford, Carnegie, and

Exxon Foundations. This funding was restricted

to special activities and did not support day-to-day

computing. In 1979, the council disbanded with

the launching of EDUNET.

Additional funds have been granted by the Lilly

Foundation to develop and maintain EFPM and

by the Exxon Foundation to support computing

relating to the law. Over the last 10 years,

EDUCOM’s total budget has changed, however,

from over 50 percent reliance on outside grants to

less than 10 percent. Membership dues and fees

for service provide the large majority of its income.

A tiny fraction is generated by TELENET discounts. Residual requirements are met by the current Lilly grant.

Future requirements for external support are expected to run between $50,000 and $100,000 per

year. Thus, although EDUCOM has made significant progress toward self-sufficiency, its financial

future is not yet secure. For example, EDUNET

can balance its books only by drawing on a reserve

fund established at its inception.

EDUCOM expects to receive progressively less

support from the Federal Government, in part

because of current Federal attitudes and in part

because EDUCOM’s own goals rarely match precisely the program interests of specific agencies.

One successful strategy has been the solicitation

of matching funds, preferably from private foundations. This approach assures consensus and

‘D. D. Mebane, “Computer-Based Resources Sharing in Higher Education, ” EDUCOM Bulletin, vol. 16, No. 3, fall 1981, pp. 27-32.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies “ 235

commitment on the part of EDUCOM users, a

sharing of the financial load, and isomorphism between EDUCOM goals and resources.

Industry-Based Training and

Education Programs

The following discussions describe applications

of educational technology in the corporate instructional programs of three companies. Examples

have been drawn from the airline, high technology

and tobacco products industries. Forms of information technology utilized by these companies include computer-assisted instruction (CAI), computer-managed instruction, computer-based simulation, video disk and teleconferencing.

High Technology

CAI is put to extensive use by a high-technology

firm with corporate headquarters in the Northeast.

The company has a large internal education group

and an executive team that views training and

education as an integral part of the product development and manufacturing process. Management

instruction, technical training, and customer

education curricula are developed centrally by the

staff within this unit, but instruction is highly

decentralized. Field training centers located in

areas of good market potential, are the sites of

most training for staff and clients. Computerbased instructional packages developed for use at

these centers, are often distributed directly to corporate field offices for initial and refresher staff

training.

Over the past few years, the company has experienced a severe shortage of college-educated

generalists, a type of individual it had previously

recruited to fill field-service engineering positions.

Formerly, these individuals were given instruction

in total systems design and, with access to engineering specifications, were expected to be fairly

self-sufficient on field service calls. However, as

the company’s product line became more and more

diversified, this approach to training and maintenance became unworkable.

At about the same time, the problems presented

by classroom training on a fixed schedule, plus the

ever-increasing travel and salary costs incurred

while staff were receiving instruction, began to

have impacts. Responding to these conditions, the

company decided to revamp its recruiting program

and training system for field-service engineers. A

job analysis led to the development of three separate types of task-related instruction for three

distinct types of hardware:

● terminals,

c small computer systems, and

● larger computer systems.

Having made the divisions, it was possible to

lower educational recruitment criteria far below

the bachelor’s degree level for those to be trained

to service terminals and small computer systems.

(This was a major breakthrough, since the company employs some 16,000 field-service engineers

worldwide.) CA I packages were developed in-house

to reduce travel and salary expenditures of classroom training at the field-education centers. Fielddiagnostic centers were established as backups to

the new field-service structure, so that customers

could contact experts knowledgeable in hardware

and software design to diagnose the specific equipment malfunctions they were experiencing and to

recommend their remediation.

This new training and maintenance system is

paying off in a number of ways. The CAI system

has proven to be very cost effective. It has enabled

managers to weave training into existing work

schedules, and has been more responsive to individual learning requirements. The new fieldservice organization has enabled the firm to overcome what was a severe personnel shortage and

to keep customer service charges to a minimum.

However, a technical education representative

stated that the firm must continue to be aware of

the limitations of CAI in that” . . . people can only

use a linear system for so long before the learning

curve is affected; they need contact with other individuals. ” He urges managers of individual installations to use the system with groups of trainees in a classroom setting for maximum effectiveness.

At present, no other forms of information technology are used in the staff education program. In

the near future, there are plans to use video disk

integrated with a microcomputer. Cable television

and satellite communications may also be used in

the technical education programs.

Tobacco Products Co.

As an outgrowth of technological change, a

major tobacco products firm has established a unit

within its information systems group charged with

analyzing the potential uses of newly available

technologies in production and support activities

of the corporation, including training. As a result

of this program, a project on applications of synthetic speech and voice recognition is under way;
236 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Hughes Aircraft Co. ’s Training and Maintenance

Information System (TMIS) is being used for the

first time on a corporate production line; CAI is

being extensively employed; and, within the next

few months, a teleconferencing network will be

established.

At one time, TMIS was being used as a training and maintenance aid for the U.S. Army’s tank

maintenance technicians. Under contract to the

Army, Hughes Aircraft had developed the device,

which consists of a video disk unit integrated with

a microcomputer. Its cathrode ray tube (CRT) is

used to present text and digital graphics-often

simultaneously. After seeing a demonstration of

the system in the company’s corporate training

center and conducting a formal evaluation of its

potential in the factory environment, the tobacco

firm decided to contract with Hughes to develop

two prototype units to train employees to maintain and repair cigarette packaging equipment

(both mechanical and electronic maintenance). The

two devices—approximately 41⁄2 ft high, 2 ft wide,

and 2 ft deep—were installed in 1978.

Initially, the company saw two distinct applications for TMIS. They planned to develop a training software package for classroom use together

with one designed to run in the plant on the production line, where several units would be installed, to assist maintenance/repair personnel on

an ongoing basis. They soon discovered that one

maintenance/repair software package with “imbedded training" would work in both settings, but

in practice still-motion mode (single frames) would

be used in the factory.

An evaluation of the prototype units in the training center was conducted in 1979. The results were

dramatic in terms of the time and money saved

as compared with traditional classroom instruction. As a result, three devices that had been

specifically constructed for placement in the industrial environment were ordered from Hughes.

Installation of the prototype in the plant is now

in progress and will be followed by an evaluation

of actual production-line use.

Because of the successful use of TM IS, the company is now considering the use of video disk to

archive office records and to create an electronic

parts catalog containing simulations of equipment.

Users would be able to walk around a particular

item, focus on its component parts, and then—

using the same system—ascertain the number and

availability of the part. Recommendations have

also been made to use video disks for management

training.

Many uses of CAI may be observed throughout

the company. For the past 3 years the company

has used PLATO basic engineering and computer

science skills to train factory and office personnel.

It uses Apple computers to teach task-specific

skills, such as those entailed in learning machine

operations, where simulation can be a particularly useful learning device. Approximately 35 percent of all training is devoted to the retraining of

existing personnel, a process necessitated by continual modernization and modification of factory

equipment.

A considerable amount of new construction and

expansion of existing plants is now under way, and

a teleconferencing system designed to link these

facilities with corporate headquarters is about to

be installed. The company is already examining

how this technology, although originally designed

to monitor construction progress, can be applied

to training.

Airline Industry

A major commercial airline has an elaborate

training development system that consists of:

● a corporate headquarters-based program for

sales, instructor, and management training;

● a corporate headquarters-based computer division training activity;

● a centralized flight training center, located at

a major airport away from corporate headquarters; and

. a centralized maintenance training center, located at another major airport some distance

from corporate headquarters.

Once the design phase is complete, sales, instructor, and management training may be delivered

centrally (corporate headquarters) or at individual

airports or ticket offices. A CAI group develops

courses that are then used by airline staff via existing terminals to book reservations and related

activities. Wherever possible, CAI is used for

“straight knowledge transfer. ” For example, CAI

development staff have devised courses on how to

book reservations, compute fares, and carry out

other tasks that are necessary in occupations such

as that of a reservations agent, a passenger service agent, a storekeeper (airline supplies), a flight

attendant, and airport operations personnel. Each

time the airline’s computer division develops anew

application, lessons are developed centrally, and

notices of their availability are distributed to all

airports, ticket offices, and other locations, where

management uses them to the extent that they
——

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 237

apply to entry-level training and/or instruction of

existing staff.

The airline would like to use the PLATO system

in its management training program, but found it

too expensive. Uses of satellite technology and

telecommunications systems have been investigated, but costs have also precluded their use even

though it is recognized that they are cost effective

in the long run. Video disk technology has not been

employed, nor are there any plans to use it in the

future. Video cassettes are frequently used in management training to enhance traditional methods

carrying out role-playing exercises.

Computer Division Training

The Deltac self-instructional video-cassette

system is used by the computer division to provide technical training to programers, not for initial instruction but for professional development

and upgrading. No other forms of information

technology are currently being used.

Flight Training

Many applications of the PLATO system may

be seen at the airline’s Flight Training Center. A

program for Initial First Officer training has been

designed and tested, but little or no use has been

made of it as yet due to current economic conditions within the industry. The company has also

used PLATO in pilot training, and is now moving

ahead with a Boeing 767 pilot training program

to be developed entirely on PLATO. For the first

time, this system will be used in lieu of flight

simulators. Simulating various types of cockpit

equipment, PLATO will give 767 pilot trainees a

way to master these individual systems that is less

expensive than using them in combination. Up to

now, PLATO has only been used to substitute for

the cockpit procedures trainer, a device that allows

participants to practice certain processes after

classroom instruction, but before flight simulator

training.

The airline has also been investigating the use

of video disks in conjunction with PLATO for

flight training of visual effects and it may incorporate their use into the instructional package by

the end of this year. Teleconferencing is being used

to keep 767 course developers in daily contact with

Boeing Aircraft engineers so that training designs

may proceed in advance of actual aircraft delivery.

(The airline also used teleconferencing for Boeing

747 design conferences.) While there are no plans

to use satellite technology, a complete video tape

production facility has just been installed at the

Flight Training Center, which the manager of

flight training hopes to use to develop instructional tapes for distribution to field operations at

airports across the country.

Maintenance Training Cente r

All airline personnel engaged in maintaining airplanes and ground equipment either receive instruction at the Maintenance Training Center or

are trained by means of video tapes that are produced there and then shipped to 56 maintenance

stations (located at major airports). This is the

third year that the airline has utilized video tape

in developing maintenance training packages, at

a rate of about 40 packages per year.

The manager of Training Support Services

stated that the bulk of maintenance training is still

carried out in the classroom by an instructor,

Overhead projectors are used, as are slide-tape

presentations that are developed by in-house curriculum specialists. Over the years, the airline has

developed a number of computerized simulators

for use in training airplane maintenance personnel, but high cost of simulators cannot be justified

by the amount of use they get prior to delivery of

a new line of equipment. After the planes are received, there is always sufficient “ground time”

available for training.

Computer graphics are being investigated, since

engineering drawings produced in the design

phase are made available by airplane manufacturers on magnetic tape and their volume makes

the use of manuals very difficult. However, cost

may turn out to be the key obstacle here. The use

of video disk technology has also been explored,

but the manager of Training Support Services

found it to be “ . . . too costly to make that first

disk . . . ,“ since his distribution network consists

of only 56 maintenance stations. The cost of converting video tape to video disk is also a major prohibiting factor.

Information Technology

and Libraries

The library-an institution that acquires, manages, and disseminates information—both provides educational services and serves as an educational resource. Information technologies offer libraries unique opportunities and capabilities for

enhancing their current services and for extending

them to new areas-particularly if, “The task of
238 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

the library is to consider itself an institution for

allowing people to utilize information.”] Consequently, the advent of the information revolution

could alter both the way libraries operate and their

role in society.

Findings

Information technology has changed the operation and user information programs of public,

special, and academic libraries.

Utilizing information technologies for operational programs can make libraries more productive and efficient and allow them to devote more

resources to other programs-e. g., user services.

Information technologies permit a library

(sometimes called an information center) to

greatly expand its resources. Networks, on-line

information services, and cable services permit

the sharing of materials and provide access to

information in a way that was not previously

possible.

Libraries may be the only way that certain

members of society can gain access to information technologies and to the information that

these technologies provide.

Libraries that fail to adopt these new technologies for information services many risk becoming irrelevant.

Libraries and Information

Technologies

Use of information and communication technologies has affected all aspects of library services.

Software is now commercially available for practically all aspects of library operations: circulation,

inventory, acquisitions, periodicals, cataloging,

and reserves. The use of the technologies for information user services has resulted in the formation

of library networks and in the ability to access national data bases, thus allowing faster and more

efficient access to information.

Programs oriented both to operation of the library and to user needs are critical for fulfilling

a library’s mission. For instance, an on-line acquisition system can reduce the ordering and receiving

time for a new library purchase, thus providing

patrons with the desired material in a shorter time.

Circulation, cataloging, and other automated library systems offer similar benefits. One example

of a commercially available system for library

IM. Turoff and M. Spector, “Libraries and the Implications of Computer Technology, ” proceedings of the AFIPS National Computer Conference, vol. 45, 1976.

operations is the Automated Library Information

System. This system can support many of the

operational procedures in a library and is fully

integrated. * Its many uses range from charge and

discharge functions to cataloging and the maintenance of master holdings.

Networks

Two or more libraries may form communication

networks utilizing information technologies to

enhance the exchange of materials, information,

or similar services. The formation of local, regional,

and national networks has already significantly altered the operation of libraries.

The IRVING Network. When fully operational,

the IRVING network in the Denver-Boulder,

Colo., area will use communications technologies

to link the library systems of Aurora, Boulder, Littleton, Denver, and Jefferson County in order to

enhance their current capabilities. Each of the library systems employs different automated systems and in some cases different library operations

procedures. Connecting these heterogeneous data

bases, this new communication link will allow

shared cataloging, more efficient interlibrary

loans, shared acquisition, enhanced development

of special collections, circulation within the entire

system, an electronic message service, a reference

information service, access to administrative data,

and increased access to special collections (e.g.,

Denver’s Western collection and Jefferson County’s Asian collection.)

To date, no such system exists anywhere in the

United States. This network, designed to expand

beyond the current five systems to accommodate

up to 30 other libraries, could serve as the foundation for the larger, automated, statewide network

now under consideration.

The planning for IRVING was made possible

through a Library Services Construction Act

(LSCA) grant, and its implementation was funded

by the Colorado Board of Education. Studies identified a distributive configuration as the most effective system for transmitting electronic data

among the libraries in an interactive, on-line mode.

Conventional analog service from Mountain Bell

was chosen as the transmission media. The distributive option will require a smaller investment initially than would other alternatives (e.g., the use

of public packet switching using public networks

accessed via telephone links). Moreover, software

*A system which is fully integrated is one in which the individual

procedures operate in support of the other system procedures.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies . 239

for such a system will be easier to develop and

maintain. This approach also permits the separation of the operation and the control of the network by allowing each participating library to be

responsible for the operation of its own system.2

The CARL Network. Through the Colorado Alliance of Research Libraries (CARL) network, seven

research libraries will share an on-line public access catalog reflecting the holdings of all institutions. Six of the CARL members are academic libraries; the seventh is the Denver Public Library,

which, as members of both IRVING and CARL,

expands the network. The holdings of these libraries represent 47 percent of the total collections

and over 90 percent of the unique items in the

State. Once these holdings are on-line, a user will

have to search only a single public catalog rather

than seven. Creating a single on-line catalog for

these institutions will require modifying many

operating procedures to comply with common formats, common records, and a common data base.

The University of Colorado at Boulder, the Colorado State University, the University of Northern

Colorado, the Colorado School of Mines, the Auraria Complex, the University of Denver, and the

Denver public Library have established a nonprofit organization to create this new research resource

within the State.

As in the IRVING Project, LSCA funds were

used for the initial planning efforts. Currently,

moneys from the seven institutions; DataPhase

Systems, Inc.; and Tandem are being used to complete the project. Two-thirds of CARL is now complete. Testing will begin by the summer of 1982;

implementation is scheduled for the following fall.

Once the public-access on-line catalog is in operation, member libraries intend to investigate electronic delivery of materials between their institutions.3

The OCLC Network. On-line College Library

Center (OCLC) network is an example of a major

computer-based cooperative network that is employed by all types of libraries nationally and internationally. The OCLC network allows libraries

to acquire and catalog materials, order customprinted catalog cards, initiate interlibrary loans,

and locate materials in member libraries (2,500)

and more. Through dedicated, leased telephone

lines, members access OCLC services on specially

designed terminals, through dial- access terminals

utilizing the TYMNET telecommunications net2S. Hartman, IRVING Coordinator, Boulder Public Library, Boulder,

Colo., February 1982.

‘W, Shaw, Executive Director, CARL, January 1982.

work, or by direct dial. The OCLC On-line Union

Catalog contains over 7.4 million bibliographic

records in MARC (Machine Readable Cataloging

Format). If a library identifies an item of interest,

OCLC produces presorted catalog cards. Also

available are accession lists of newly cataloged

materials for microform catalogs, circulation

records, and selected dissemination of information

(SDI).*

On-line Information Services. The increasing inventory of literature and information is making it

almost impossible for a user to keep up, let alone

to catch up. An example of the explosive rate of

information growth can be seen in the areas of

chemistry and chemical engineering, where the

rate of literature growth can be tracked by the

number of papers abstracted in the publication,

Chemical Abstracts. For the 10-year period from

1961 through 1970, the rate of increase was 8.4

percent; during the 5-year period from 1971

through 1975 it more than doubled, to 16.9 percent. The recent increase has been even more dramatic—4.6 percent annually from 1976 through

1980.4 This rapid expansion of information has also

taken place in many other fields, such as medicine,

law, and computer science.

On-line services such as national bibliographic

data bases (e.g., DIALOG and BRS)–which are

computerized retrieval systems covering a wide array of continually expanded subject areas-will

make it possible for libraries to offer their patrons

rapid access to a variety of information sources at

relatively low cost. For example, PATSEARCH/

Video PATSEARCH, contains information on

800,000 patents heretofore available only in the

U.S. Patent and Trademark Office files in Washington, D. C., on microfilm, or piecemeal through

other data bases. The advantages of on-line services are listed in table A-3.

Maggie’s Place: Pikes Peak Regional Library

District. On-line community information and referral programs are being explored and instituted by

some libraries as a concomitant of their access to

national information sources and the resources of

other libraries and information services. The Pikes

Peak Regional Library District in Colorado, for example, has developed Maggie Place, a community information resource, which consists of computerized local and regional information of interest to

its patrons. Users can access on-line all of the career and recreational adult educational courses

*SDI is the selection and dissemination of information of specific interest to a library patron.

‘D. B. Baker, “Recent Trends in Chemical Literature Growth, ” C&E

News 59(22):29, June 1, 1981,

,— .—
240 w Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Table A-3.—Advantages of On-Line Services

Advantages of on-line services:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

Produce results very quickly

Are cost effective

Can be used for most types of searchers

Can search fields (or data categories) for which there is

no printed index

Have the capability for searching very complex and

elaborate strategies

Offer the opportunity for increasing completeness of

coverage through searching of multiple sources

May contain information more current than available in

the corresponding printed index

Can be easily updated on demand or at regular intervals

Permit any amount of strategy broadening, narrowing,

or changing

Causes less fatigue per search and reduces searcher’s

errors

Require very little space for operation

Save staff time

Some kinds of data are retrievable only on a computer

system

Many more types of information can be searched on-line

than in a manual system

Material can be ordered with a simple command and

charged to an account—a copy on demand service

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment.

available in the region through this program. Similarly, information is available about day-care centers, clubs and other community organizations,

social services, and a matching carpool data base.

The files are available both in the library and to

approximately 500 members of the community

and businesses with access to terminals.

Programs developed and in use at Maggie’s

Place include those for library resources, networking, and community resources. The library resource files are automated programs that relate to

the operational needs of the library such as circulation, reserves, and acquisitions. Networking files

give the user access to State and national information resources, such as DIALOG, BRS, ORBIT,

RLIN, GIS, COCIS, and The Source.5 The community resource files contain on-line information of

interest to members of the Colorado Springs community. Currently, they include five files: calendar,

day care, clubs, courses, and carpool. All of these

are available for use in the library or in homes or

businesses via telephone lines.6

Maggie’s Place, compared with other public libraries, has a number of unique features. First, the

amount of automation is unusual. A substantial

5DIALOG: Lockheed Missiles and Space Co., Inc.; BRS: Bibliographic

Retrieval Service, Inc.; ORBIT: System Development Corp.; COCIS:

Colorado Career and Occupational Information System; RLIN:

Research Libraries Information Network; GIS: Time Share Corp.

‘K. Dowlin, Director, Pikes Peak Regional Library District, February

1982.

investment has been made by the library district

for this effort (almost $400,000 since 1976). Yet,

despite the initial large investment, savings have

been high-over $500,000. Second, the community

resource files are the only such files in the Nation.

Beneficial to librarian and user alike, they are a

central and easily accessible source of the kind of

information frequently requested. They demonstrate that information technology can assist both

the operational needs of the library and the resource needs of the patrons.

Third, by making the library’s programs accessible to outside users (over 500 presently), the library has expanded its capabilities for community

use and utilized the information technology to its

best advantage. And last, through the use of the

technology, Maggie’s Place offers all users access

to information resources.

Microcomputers in the Library. Many libraries

are considering installing a microcomputer on a

coin-operated basis. Recently, several firms have

begun to actively market such services to public

libraries across the country. For example, in a contractual arrangement with Copy Systems, Inc.,

and CompuVend, a TRS-80 was installed in the

Tredyffrin Public Library near Philadelphia. The

computer is available for patron use at a cost of

$0.50 per 15 minutes. The company is responsible

for the operation and the maintenance of the equipment and has provided 24 Radio Shack program

tapes, manuals, and workbooks on BASIC language and programing.

Library patrons may use the terminal for homework, statistical manipulation, learning how to

program, playing games, and work. Children and

teenagers appear to be the predominant users (65

percent), although this is expected to change in the

near future. Average use of the microcomputer has

been 2 to 4 hours per day, 7 days a week. Based

on such community response, a computer with a

larger capacity will be installed shortly. The new

system will provide access to The Source and will

attempt to satisfy the computing capacity require

ments of the local business community. New program tapes such as Visicalc will be supplied.

With this arrangement the library uses the technology as an informational and educational resource. In addition, the library makes it possible

for all those who do not have access to this technology in their homes or in their businesses to become familiar with computers and to have access

to the valuable information resources they provide. The library also benefits in a number of ways:

limited staff time is involved; the library is not

responsible for operation and maintenance of the
—

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 241

equipment; no financial burden is placed on the

library (e.g., purchase of the equipment); the equipment will be updated to reflect changes in the technology and to reflect market needs in the community; step-by-step instructions allow the user to

use the microcomputer with little, if any, assistance from a professional; and, thus, no extra staff

training is necessary.

Other examples of microcomputer use include

the following:

● The Clinton-Essex-Franklin Library System

in upstate New York has installed a microcomputer for use by patrons. The decision was

prompted by concern on the part of the librarian that patrons, particularly children, were

neither familiar with computers nor had access to the technology. Although the microcomputer was installed in the Children’s

Room, it is available to adults as well. Volunteers have been teaching computer programing, and librarians believe that, based on its

usage, the overall program is an overwhelming success.

● A cooperative effort has been initiated between the San Bernardino City School District, Calif., and the public library to assist

students in preparing for proficiency tests.

Microcomputers in three of the city’s library

branches provide CAI in mathematics and in

the language arts. A queuing system allows

high school students to be first-priority users

through June 30, 1982. Other library patrons

have access to the terminals that are not being used by students.

● The public library in Providence, R. I., has installed INFORM, a system whose uses range

from bibliographic instruction to the use of

audiovisual equipment. INFORM is regarded

as an on-line library guide or handbook that

also includes updated information on community events and agencies. Its touch-sensitive

terminals are available with graphic and textual capabilities.

● Groups of school librarians in the St. Louis,

Me., area have developed a series of selfinstructional programs for the Apple 11 that

are user guides for periodical indexes and

almanacs, Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations,

Current Biography, and poetry indexes. The

programs are aimed at the secondary school

to adult levels.

● The St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Library in Missouri has instituted a wide range

of programs on an Apple 11 Plus computer.

Current programs include, among others: recordkeeping and reporting for nurses, continuing education classes, an “intelligent’ terminal for on-line searching, nutritional assessment of intensive-care newborns, audiovisual

inventory listing, and the logging and analysis of on-line searching records.

The provision of such services raises new questions for participating libraries. Where should the

terminals be located. Should provisions be made

for privacy? What type, if any, of collection development should the library engage in? Should the

library sell disks for patron use’! Should there be

a scheduling or reservation system or should patrons use the computer on a first-come first-served

basis?

Cable Services and Video Facilities. With the expansion of cable franchises nationwide, an increasing number of libraries are exploring the potential

of cable for delivering library services. Many libraries have employed video capabilities for years,

but the addition of cable services in a community

has expanded the library’s resource base. The

most extensive users of cable and video are junior

and community colleges and public libraries. The

former rely on cable services as a means of delivery, production, and housing of course materials;

and the latter, for expanding the library’s role as

a community information resource center.

Generally, junior and community colleges, because they are relative newcomers to the academic

scene, are most actively involved in video programing and cable services. Many colleges constructed during the 1960’s and early 1970’s incorporated video capabilities in their library facility

or plan. Older research institutions and libraries,

on the other hand, generally cannot afford to invest in video facilities nor to adopt their current

structures to include such facilities.

The Division of Learning Resources at the

Greenfield Community College in Massachusetts

is an example of a community college library that

has integrated video capabilities with local cable

services. The library houses both commercially

available video tapes and faculty/student-produced products. Students in conjunction with the

Learning Resources Center and the local cable

franchise produce weekly cablecasts for the community.

The Monroe County Public Library in Bloomington, Ind., is an example of a local public library

actively involved in all aspects of cable and video

services. The library has cablecast 3,000 to 4,000

programs a year (or 60 to 64 hours of programing
242 “ Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

per week) to the community on Community Access

Channel Three. Half of the local subscribers

(90,000) watch programs on Channel Three. Also

38 percent of the subscribers noted that local programing was a primary reason for initiating cable

services.

A wide range of programs are offered and produced by the library. Some programs, such as

“Kids Alive,” are produced by children with assistance from the library staff. Local teachers, trained

by library staff, allow the equipment to be used

for many school activities. City council meetings

are regularly cablecast; and special-issue programs, about housing and the elderly, for example, are presented.

Because of its active involvement in cablecasting, the library and Channel Three have been

asked to participate in the refranchisement process. Library involvement in this process is common and occurs frequently. In fact, in franchise

proposals library needs and desires are solicited

by the bidders. Some of the programs developed

at Maggie’s Place will be used at other libraries

as a result of cable awards.

Implications of Library Technology. Approximately 10 percent of the libraries of the United

States have some form of automated capabilities,

and an increasing number of libraries are exploring the possibilities of these technologies. On-line

information retrieval services and provision of information technologies enhance the traditional

services provided by libraries but also raise important questions of cost. For example, can a library

afford to run searches for patrons on DIALOG

free of charge? Can it afford to use these national

bibliographic data bases, which require trained

searchers, and entail cost ranging from $10 to $150

per hour? Such costs place an added financial burden on public as well as on academic and special

libraries. For some libraries faced with reduced

funding from State, Federal, and local sources, the

price of the technology may be particularly burdensome. However, by not providing these services, libraries may prevent people from finding and

utilizing the information, a situation contrary to

the traditional role of libraries in society. (Furthermore, it has been suggested that when libraries

provide these services and develop community resource files they become competitive with private

information vendors. )

Such concerns are particularly relevant to a reconsideration of the role of public libraries in an

information society. At present, libraries provide

access to information and knowledge to all users

free of charge, but it is questionable whether they

will be able to continue to do so. One role proposed

for libraries incorporates and reflects societal

change. This role would entail:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

providing access to complicated or seldom

used data bases;

providing community conferencing and message center programs;

providing on-line access to information or library resources;

providing access to community data and community information locations for referrals;

providing access to resources in other libraries

via networking;

providing access to high-demand information

and materials via computer or video disks;

and

providing access to electronic resources for

those who cannot afford home computers or

terminals.7

Museum s

Findings

● More and more museums are incorporating information technology, particularly computers,

into both their exhibits and their educational

programs. The technology is used for operational purposes and to provide computer literacy

and related courses.

. The introduction of the technology to museums

is altering the role of these institutions. This

change is especially evident in the recent establishment and success of childrens’ museums

across the country.

Museums, like libraries, provide important educational services. Since the establishment of the

first public museum in 1743, museums have exerted a strong influence on U.S. culture. They function as repositories for conserving the world’s culture and for relaying it to present and future generations.

Beyond the overall educational nature of their

exhibits, most museums conduct and provide additional educational services. Recently, more and

more have incorporated information technology,

particularly computers, into both their exhibits

and their educational programs. They are used

generally for operational purposes and to provide

computer literacy and related courses. The delay

in acquiring information technology until only re71bid.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 243

cently, has been primarily due to the fiscal constraints common to most museums, which operate

on a limited budget and depend on donations that

can fluctuate from year to year.1

The Use of Computers

Computers are generally used for four purposes:

for interactive exhibit devices, for exhibit control,

for administration, and for education programs.

All have educational applications.

Interactive Exhibit Devices. Museums use computers and related technologies to increase the attention span and alter the traditional experience

of the typical patron. It is possible, for example,

to increase a viewer’s attention span from 10 seconds to 3 to 10 minutes, a significant improvement

that has enormous implications for how a museum

can present information. Examples of exhibits

range from instruction on how to use a computer

to using a computer to calculate quickly the nutritional value of a meal. Simulation programs are

widely utilized, although these are also the most

difficult to create.

Incorporating computers into an exhibit presents some special problems not generally encountered with other media. The exhibits must be appealing in order to attract users, but the programs

must be relatively simple, since most users are unfamiliar with the technology. Furthermore, such

programs must be able to contend with repeated

mistakes, constant use, and even abandonment by

the patron. ’ Thus, developing programs suitable

for a museum environment involves considerable

skill.

Exhibit Control. The control of exhibits by computers has a number of advantages: 1) cost and

maintenance are reduced because of fewer components; 2) additional features can be added at minimum cost; 3) control devices can be standardized

from exhibit to exhibit; 4) the potential exists to

customize a patron’s experience; and 5) computers

permit greater flexibility in altering an exhibit at

relatively low cost.3

Administrative Uses. Computers are largely

used for such standard purposes as word processing, accounting, updating mailing lists, recordkeeping, collection management, and inventory.

i R. King, Director of Exhibits, Boston Museum of Science, February

1982.

‘D. Taylor and D. Rhees (eds. ), Survey of Computer Use in ScienceTechnoJogy Museums (Washington, D. C.: Association of Science-Technology Centers, 1981).

‘Ibid.

Education Uses. During the past 10 years several museums have introduced computer literacy

programs and computer labs. Offering these

courses is a natural extension of previous and

ongoing educational activities within museums.

And, as with libraries, the availability of such programs makes it possible for users to become acquainted with this technology in a nonthreatening environment in which there is no pressure to

succeed or fail.4

The Hands-On Approach

The Lawrence Hall of Science. In general, museums that provide programs in computer literacy

have adopted a hands-on philosophy. This principle was first initiated at the Lawrence Hall of Science in Berkeley, Calif., in 1972, when an exhibit

entitled “Creative Play With Computers” was introduced. The exhibit used the university’s timesharing system and teletypes. Since then, this program has been expanded to include a computer laboratory, and computer technology is used extensively throughout the exhibits. The computer laboratory has 30 microcomputers that can be used

for computer literacy programs or individual programing by anyone 8 years or older. The Hall of

Science also operates the Science Shuttle, which

transports microcomputers to local schools for

computer literacy and related classes. The Science

Shuttle has greatly increased the access to computer technology by local school-age children.

The Capitol Children’s Museum. Newly established in Washington, D. C., the Capitol Children’s

Museum is a learning center with a strong emphasis on communication. The most recent addition

to the facility, the communications wing, traces

the growth and development of communication

throughout human history. Like the Lawrence

Hall of Science the museum uses the hands-on approach in all of its exhibits. Similarly, the museum has a computer classroom, the Future Center,

with 20 microcomputers.

A visitor to the museum’s communications wing

is introduced to communication through a sound

and light show held in a model of a 30,000-year-old

cave. The cave depicts the earliest type of communication: drawings of man’s experience with hunting and tools. Further developments in the forms

and means of communication are shown through

a wide range of exhibits: torches used by the

Greeks to relay messages, drums used by African

4P. Hirschberg, Coordinator, Communication, Capital Children’s Museum, April 1982.
244 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

tribes to relay messages via different sound patterns, and a variety of written forms—alphabets

and hieroglyphics. In addition, other ways to communicate such as Braille, Morse code, pig latin,

and sign language are shown. Many of the more

recent types are demonstrated by means of video

tape players or microcomputers.

The wing also contains telecommunication devices. For instance, there is a fully equipped radio

studio available for use where children can produce

and tape messages for their own use. There are

future plans for a comparably equipped television

studio. Also, there is a scale model of a satellite

dish inside the museum that replicates the museum’s communication satellite dish which can receive up to 40 cable channels.5

The Future Center is a classroom equipped with

20 Atari 800 microcomputers complete with printers, disk drives, and color monitors. Its purpose

‘Ibid.

is to introduce new users to microcomputers and

to allow previous users access to the technology.

The center thus makes available to everyone both

the technology and the skills and information it

provides. The courses offered range from those

designed to assist teachers who are unfamiliar

with the technology to become computer-literate

to those to introduce children to the technology.

Schools that do not have microcomputers can

schedule class visits on a regular basis.

The courseware are combinations of programs

developed by the museum staff and software donated by Atari. For example, PAINT, a software

and book package, allows the user to create paintings on the Atari, while using a variety of learning skills as well as learning about and exploring

the microcomputer. For more experienced users

there are courses in programing BASIC. Because

obtaining quality software is a major problem, the

staff of the museum is actively engaged in designIn the Capitol Children’s Museum, Washington, D. C., a visiting primary school teacher works with her students as

they become computer-literate. Schools from throughout the Washington area utilize this facility to introduce their

students to the world of computers. Many schools enroll their students in a special series of classes designed to

enhance their primary and secondary education
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 245

ing and developing software for the Future Center’s constantly growing and enthusiastic clientele.

As a nonprofit institution, the Capitol Children’s

Museum relies on corporate donations and grants

to continue its operations and to develop new exhibits and educational services. The majority of

the museum’s equipment has been donated by private companies; e.g., the satellite dish by Scientific Atlanta, the microcomputers from Atari, and

a PDP 11/70 and supporting hardware (printer,

video terminal, and disk pack) from the Digital

Equipment Corp. (DEC), to name just a few.

The recent gift of a minicomputer by DEC represents a significant contribution to current museum

services, but more importantly to future potential.

Once operational, the PDP 11/70 will be able to interconnect all of the museum’s exhibits, thereby

increasing the control over their use. It will also

provide an internal tracking and information system of exhibit users—how many visitors utilize

what exhibit for how long, and so forth.

In the long term, the computer will be the basis

for Kid Net, a time-sharing system that will be

both an internal and external network. Internally,

the system will facilitate such activities as electronic mail, games, and demonstrations. Externally, the network will be connected with other Washington-based institutions such as local schools and

Congress and will possibly tie in with other

children’s museums such as the one in Boston.

Other long-term possibilities include a national

electronic newsletter. G

The Use of Video Disks

Several museums are experimenting with video

disks for storing and preserving collections. Because they are both very new and very costly, few

museums, have employed this technology. However, the video disk’s features make it uniquely

suited for collection management: large amounts

of material can be sorted; materials don’t

deteriorate; researchers are not dependent on

original materials; and the content of a museum’s

collection of photos, slides, or art can be sent for

viewing to other institutions around the world.

The Smithsonian Museum of American History

is placing some of its collection of (30,000 to

38,000) slides and photographs on a video disk.

This measure will ensure the life of this combination of materials since most of it is fragile and subject to damage from repeated use.’ In a similar

‘Ibid.

‘J. Wallace, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian,

May 1982.

project, the National Air and Space Museum is

placing some of its photograph collection on video

disks and interfacing the disks with the museum’s

computer. The museum also has an interactive

video disk which allows patrons to design an

aircraft. s

The National Park Service (NPS) of the Department of the Interior also uses video disk technology. NPS originally used video tape players at

many of its visitor centers. However, the initial

high cost of purchasing the equipment, plus the

high rate of failure, maintenance costs, and tape

breakage, led to initiating trials of video disk technology. Several video tape players have since been

replaced by video disks. NPS is also considering

video disks for use in collection management for

reasons similar to those of the Smithsonian American History Museum. If collection management of

selected projects at NPS is implemented, the disk

would provide access to a variety of educational

materials.

Military Uses of Information

Technology

Findings

All branches of the military have made substantial investments in research and development

(R&D) on applications of information technology to education.

The Department of Defense will likely be the

only Federal agency likely to make major investments in R&D projects with educational applications.

Educational uses of information technology

have focused on two areas: training and basic

skills.

The need for a very large investment in basic

skills training by the military, $56 million in

1979, is an indication to some that the public

schools are not providing an adequate education.

Many of the projects initiated by the armed

services could be transferable to the civilian sector, although there may be barriers to transfer.

Considering the large investment made by the

armed forces in information technology R&D,

it would be useful to establish a mechanism

whereby potentially transferable projects could

be identified and barriers to transfer removed.

‘H. Otano, Chief, Audio-Visual Systems, National Air and Space

Museum, Smithsonian Institution, May 26, 1982.
246 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Fort Gordon Signal Corps Training Center, Fort Gordon, Ga.—in former days, Ft. Gordon students would get 12 minutes

of “hands on” instruction at this $7 million satellite down-station. The rest of the classroom time was spent in costly

waiting. But with the new information technologies, instructional time has increased fivefold

The military has been a leader in the development and use of instructional delivery systems

having used high technology for many years. Its

great need for technical skill training, together

with the critical nature of its national security mission and its nonprofit orientation, has led to a

training technology revolution and a good market

for state-of-the-art technology in military education and training.

Interested in new methods of training that improve efficiency, reduce training costs, and increase the effectiveness of training, the military

has turned to information technology for solutions

to some of its educational and training problems.

The armed services need people in operational assignments. By advancing and applying state-ofthe-art technology in training, they hope to turn

out quality individuals sooner for operational job

assignments.

In addition to supporting improved general and

specific military skill training, the armed services

also support basic skills training. Military jobs demand basic skills equal to or greater than those

of civilian jobs.1 Many current recruits lack competency in basic skills, a situation that has important implications for the operation of sophisticated

technology and that has led to plans to increase,

improve, and automate technology training programs. Anticipated manpower shortages undoubtedly will necessitate the enlistment and subsequent training of individuals of less aptitude, thus

placing even greater emphasis on programs for instruction in basic skills.

‘G. Sticht, Basic Skills in Bfense (Alexandria, Va.: Human Resources

Research Organization, Final Draft Report, November 1981).

As the largest education and training institution

in the Nation, the military constitutes a large and

viable market for training equipment, programs,

and services. In fiscal year 1982, for example, approximately $10.5 billion will be spent on individual training. The training of individual officers and

enlistees is differentiated from the training of operational combat units, and individual training can

be broken down into a number of categories. Indoctrination and basic training for approximately 338,000 students will cost $822 million, while

approximately 709,000 students will receive specialized skill training for military jobs at a cost of

$2.4 billion.’ (See table A-4.) In fiscal year 1982,

approximately 236,500 student man-years will be

spent at training schools.

The Department of Defense (DOD) now spends

about $267 million for R&D on training and personnel systems technology, with $181 million or

68 percent of this for R&Don simulation and training devices and education and training. 3 (See table

A-5.) The three service laboratories primarily responsible for military education and training research are: The Army Research Institute for the

Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI); the Navy

Personnel Research and Development Center

(NPRDC); and the Air Force Human Resources

Laboratory (AFHRL). The number of instructional

technology R&D work units by major categories

in operation as of April 1981 is estimated in table

A-6. While all of the categories listed receive ongo-

‘J. Orlansky, “Techniques for the Marketing of R&D Products in

Training, ” paper presented at the Society for Applied Learning Technology, Warrenton, Va., February 1981.

‘Ibid.
-.————

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 247

Table A-4.—Number of Students and Cost of Various Types

of Individual Training, Fiscal Year 1982

Approximate

Number of students Cost in in thousands

Type of training in thousands miIIions per study

Recruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 $822 $2.4K

One-station unit training (Army) . . . . . . . . . . . 104 322 3.1

Officer acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 313 19.4

Specialized skill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 2,382 3.4

Flight training (basic flying skills) . . . . . . . . . 6 1,458 229.7

Professional development education

(e.g., military science, engineering,

management) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 330 10.2

Medical training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 276 —

Support, management, travel, pay . . . . . . . . . — 4,618 —

$10,521 M

SOURCE M!lltary Manpower Train!ng Report for Fiscal Year 1982

Table A-5.—Cost of R&D in Training and

Personnel Systems Technology,

in Thousands of Dollars, Fiscal Year 1982

Army Navy Air Force Tota l

Human factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $17.6 $ 14.1 $14,4 $ 46,1

Simulation and training devices. 24.2 107. 1 17,5 148,9

Education and training . . . . . . . . . 13.4 11.8 6.6 31.8

Manpower and personnel . . . . . . 9.0 19.0 12.0 40,0

Totals ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $64.2 $152.0 $50.6 $266.8

SOURCE” J Orlansky, “Techniques for the Marketing of R&D Products in Training, ” paper presented at the Society for Applied Learning Technology

Warrenton, Va , February 1981

Table A-6.—Number of Ongoing Instructional

Technology R&D Work Units By Service and

Department of Defense Total, April 1981

Service

Technology Army Navy Air Force Total

Simulation/games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 49 68 143

Instructional system development . . . 51 59 25 135

Training management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 14 10 50

Learning theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 18 11 42

Computer-based education . . . . . . . 13 16 9 38

Basic skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 — 6

Voice technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 3 — 3

Video disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 2 — 2

Artificial intelligence. . . . . . . . — 1 1 2

NOTE’ Inclusion of work units into the categories in the table are fairly arbitrary

and are based on work unit titles The absolute numbers of work units

Iisted are approximations of service R&D efforts as of the date of directory publication It should be noted that this enumeration does not consider size of the work units, only number of work units cited

SOURCE: Directory of Researchers for Human Research and Development Projects (Washington, D C Office of the Under Secretary of Defense, Research and Engineering), pp. 7-43.

ing support, high-technology simulation and the

development of instructional systems and capabilities for more efficient and effective training appear to receive the most emphasis.

Interservice coordination shows potential for

minimizing duplication of research efforts and

funds. The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering is currently

building a management information system that

will document all of DOD’s training research to include funding levels. This system, Manpower and

Training Research Information System (MATRIS),

will be fed into the Defense Technical Information

Center (DTIC).

Comparison of Military and

Civilian Education

In considering educational needs, distinctions

can be made between the civilian and military education sectors, differences which influence the nature of education programs introduced. Some of

the similarities and differences between military

and civilian education and training are:

● The military educates and trains personnel

within a more restricted age, sex, and range

of ability; typically, military enlisted trainees

are 18- to 21-year-old males with a high school

education.

. Military personnel are paid their salaries while

in training. Thus, instructional procedures

that reduce training time and increase opera-
248 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

tional assignment time can assist in reducing

training costs.

Within the civilian sector, vocational education, job training for business or industry, and

nonmilitary Government training are generally more similar to the military’s educational

goals and priorities than is education in elementary and secondary school systems.

Measures of effectiveness may vary between

the military and civilian institutions. Military

research on computer-based instruction, for

example, has emphasized saving student

training time while maintaining constant

achievement. Nonmilitary research generally

emphasizes increasing the amount of achievement while keeping the length of courses constant.

Computer-Managed

Instruction

In computer-managed instruction (CM I), learning takes place away from the computer. The computer scores tests, interprets results, advises the

student what to do next, and manages student records and administrative information.

Advanced Instructional System. The Air

Force’s Advanced Instructional System (AIS) is

an example of a military CMI system. It is a largescale, prototypical computer-based education system installed at the Air Force Technical Training

Center, Lowry AFB, Denver, Colo. The present

version consists of 50 student terminals, 11 management terminals, and a CDC CYBER 73-16 computer that can support up to 3,000 students a day

in four courses: inventory management, material

facilities, precision measuring equipment, and

weapons mechanics. These courses were selected

to represent a cross-section of the technical training courses at Lowry, and they serve about 25 percent of the base’s student body. Management terminals provide computer-assisted instruction

(CAI) services for use by instructors (for developing or revising lessons and for retrieving data collected by the system). The system could be expanded to provided CAI services to students.

The AIS was designed with two objectives in

mind: 1) to develop and implement an individualized, computer-based training system in an operational military training environment; and 2) to provide a testbed for computer-based educational

R&D. It includes over 700 student carrels and 500

media devices that permit the instructional delivery device (sound-slide, filmstrip, programed text,

etc.) to be adapted to the individual student. For

example, a slow reader might learn more efficiently

via audiovisual presentation rather than via

printed text. With instructional content duplicated

across delivery media, the computer assigns material and devices according to student aptitudes

and preferences, as well as by resource availability. The actual allocation of media in the AIS is

55 percent printed materials, 35 percent audiovisual presentation, and 10 percent CAI.

The AIS computer provides three main support

functions: 1) administration and management (resource allocation, materials development, recordkeeping, and report/roster generation); 2) instruction (student predictions, individual and team lesson assignment, test scoring, and delivery of instruction); and 3) data analysis/research (automatic data accumulation, sampling capability for statistical analysis, and standard statistical analysis

programs). The computer thus takes over the majority of the managerial functions of the instructors, permitting them to concentrate on individual

student instruction.

Many measures were used to evaluate the A IS,

including costs, student and instructor attitudes,

attrition rates, and the ratings of AIS students in

their post-school jobs. In most cases, comparisons

were made between AIS students and pre-AIS students in the same courses. Cost savings estimates

were made by the Air Training Command manpower accounting personnel.

AIS results have been documented in several

technical reports issued by the Air Force Human

Resources Laboratory. In general, AIS students’

achievement have been equal to or greater than

non-AIS students-with net time savings of 15 to

40 percent, depending on the course evaluated.

Maximum savings have been achieved in the lower-level, routine courses. Overall cost analysis

shows that the system was totally amortized by

January 1979, in a period of only 21⁄2 years. This

complete recovery of costs through savings in student instructional time is particularly noteworthy

considering the extensive R&D costs included for

research purposes. The AIS suggests that largescale implementations of CMI would be cost effective.

Student attitudes were clearly very positive. The

students felt that they had more opportunity to

talk individually with their instructors than in conventional courses (61 percent), that the self-paced

instruction was a good use of their time (77 percent), that they preferred AIS instructions to lectures (55 percent), and that the instructors were

available whenever they needed them (73 percent).
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 249

Instructor attitudes, on the other hand, tended

to be negative in general. They felt threatened and

missed the ego-bolstering lecture method. Course

attrition rates overall tended to rise slightly

through the first 5 years of A IS implementation

from a pre-AIS baseline of about 4 percent in 1974

to slightly over 5 percent through 1978. Attrition

rates, it should be noted, are very sensitive to policy changes. The supervisors of A IS graduates reported satisfaction with their performance. The

ratings of AID graduates were significantly higher

than comparable ratings of pre-AIS students. A

sample of 199 supervisors rated the performance

of their AIS graduates as follows:

Excellent. ... ., ., . . . . . . . . 25 percent

Very Satisfactory . . . . . . . 34 percent

Satisfactory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 percent

Marginal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 percent

Unsatisfactory . . . . . . . . . . . 0 percent

Overall, the AIS appears to be a successful,

large-scale implementation of CMI. McDonnell

Douglas Corp. is currently modifying the system

to be transportable, to operate on smaller computers, and to be marketable to the Canadian armed

services and to U.S. civilians.

Job-Oriented Basic Skills

Training

Schools traditionally have 12 years to equip students with the level of skills necessary for them

to function as adults in jobs or in further education. For the most part, schools are successful in

their approach to imparting necessary basic skills

for adult life. Fewer than 10 percent of those who

have completed 12 or more years of schooling are

severely deficient in their application of skills to

practical tasks, as estimated by a 1975 adult performance level study.4

However, a substantial number of people either

do not complete 12 years of school, or do so without gaining the requisite mastery of necessary basic skills for adult life or career performance. The

services have had to cope with the critical problems presented when large influxes of poor readers entered the armed services, for instance, during Project 100,000. The traditional approach to

remediate the problems of adults with insufficient

basic skills for career success has been a continuation of the school general-literacy program.

However, traditional literacy training by the military has not been demonstrably successful. The

‘Adult Performance Level Project Staff, Adult Functional Competency: A Summary (Austin, Tex.: University of Texas, 1975).

most direct way to ensure that an individual can

cope with specific military skill applications (to

cope with a military career or environment) is to

teach these applications or ones as similar to them

as possible. For these reasons, the military has

sponsored R&D leading to a technology for joboriented basic skills or remedial literacy training.

A considerable investment in basic skills programs has also been made. As indicated in a Department of Defense (DOD) study, during fiscal

year 1979 approximately $56 million and an enrollment of 160,000 were allotted to basic-skills education. 5 The military has a high demand for listening, reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Reading levels of material, for example, average in the

10-13 grade level range. This far exceeds the reading skill levels of many military enlistees as well

as much of the civilian youth population.

Thus, there are a variety of basic skills programs

in DOD and the four services. Pre-enlistment programs, such as referral to civilian adult basic education and English as a second language (ESOL)

programs, are sponsored by DOD for applicants

who do not meet service enlistment requirements.

All of the services have some form of basic-skills

education available from the time the new recruit

enters the service. One such program is the Air

Force PLATO SIP (Skills Improvement Program),

which uses CAI to improve the reading skills of

medical personnel and the math skills of maintenance technicians.

Project FLIT. Project FLIT, a job-oriented, or

functional literacy program, is being developed

under Army support. Work on this program was

started in 1967 and is ongoing. Military job literacy tasks are really quite different from reading

skills applications practiced in traditional schools.

For example, schools emphasize “reading to learn”

while military job tasks involve “reading to do”

(e.g., finding specific information or following directions). While schools test memory for what is

read with closed book tests, military job tasks are

generally performed in the presence of the written

material, which is consulted frequently.

Researchers attempted to estimate the actual literacy demands of military jobs. One product of

this research was the FORECAST readability formula, which was developed using Army job reading material and an adult Army recruit population.

Another product was a “Guidebook for the Devel-

‘Defense Audit Service, Report on the Review of Instailation-Sponsored Education Programs for DOD Personnel (Report No. 81-041, JanUary 1981).
250 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

opment of Army Training Literature."6 This

manual attempted to help Army writers create

performance-oriented training materials written at

an appropriate level for Army readers and oriented

to identified job reading tasks.

Project FLIT provides training in identified

Army reading tasks using actual Army materials.

It was extensively field tested and was found to

result in gains in the performance of the job tasks

trained. The ideas and techniques of the FLIT program were incorporated in a job-oriented reading

program (JORP) for the Air Force, targeted at a

different population and using different materials,

a program also field tested with some success. Expansion of this program to include all “problem”

job fields in the Air Force is being considered. The

Navy JOBS program, a remedial program designed to prepare motivated, but otherwise ineligible, people for technical training is also a product

of this technology. An additional product is a

prototype job reader’s task test developed for the

Army and now being modified and reformed.

PREST Program. In the future, the services

may be forced to enlist a greater number of marginally qualified recruits because of manpower

shortages. In response to this, the Navy is expanding its Academic Remedial Training (ART). The

Chief of Naval Education and Training contracted

for the development and testing of a computerbased approach known as the PerformanceRelated Enabling Skills Training (PREST) program. PREST involves on-line reading and study

skills instruction via the PLATO system, augmented by Navy-related off-line drill and practice.

An automated system such as this was thought

to be an attractive alternative to increasing the

number of instructors.

A 1980 cost analysis showed the automated program to be less cost effective than increasing the

number of military instructors. The usage charge

for PLATO with its centralized mainframe was

found to be the chief reason. This difference in cost

should, however, steadily decline in future years.

Advances in computer technology will make standalone systems more attractive economically than

the centralized mainframe for this type of fixed instruction. In addition to project PREST, Navy

R&D efforts are under way to examine the feasibility of teaching phonics by a computer-driven

voice synthesizer. If this is successful, there are

‘R. P. Kern, T. G. Stichti D. Weltz, and R. N. Hanke, Guidebook for

the Development of Army Training Literature (Arlington, Va.: U.S.

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, November 1976).

plans to computerize vocabulary development,

reading comprehension, and study skills.7

Simulation Programs

Flight training simulations are extremely varied

in scope, purpose, and fidelity of realism. They

save expense and training time because the simulator can be repositioned to some starting point

in flight without taking the actual time and fuel

to fly there. Moreover, simulators provide the opportunity to interrupt the flight at any point to

give the student immediate feedback on particular

aspects of pilot performance. Finally, the simulator can be used for training in emergency maneuvers that are inherently dangerous to actually

attempt.

In 1970, the U.S. Air Force Human Resources

Laboratory’s Advanced Systems Division contracted with the Singer Co. to build the most

sophisticated flight simulator yet devised, the Advanced Simulator for Pilot Training (ASPT). Unlike other simulators, it was intended for research

as well as for flight training, giving it a multipurpose potential for transference of research results

to the civilian sector.

The Army Research Institute for the Behavioral

and Social Sciences (ARI) is engaged in the development of computer-assisted simulation of tactical

communications as part of an overall effort in the

area of simulation-based training systems. This effort will provide the Army with the capability to

simulate battlefield communications between leaders in the field and support personnel, such as artillery fire direction controllers, and the superior and

subordinate commanders. Battlefield communications are typically very structured and stereotyped. For instance, the exchanges between an artillery forward observer in the field and the fire

direction controller are specified in Army regulations.

Training simulations are used to replicate many

military situations—from tank driving to elaborate ship docking. The Army tank driver simulators are fully automatic and include audiovisual

as well as motion cues. Such devices simulate malfunctions such as brake failure or engine shutdown. Many of these procedures and malfunctions

appear more than once throughout the programs,

and thus allow for repeated practice. The device

also simulates such activities as driving up hills

and over obstacles.

‘R. A. Wisher, &mputer-Assikted Literacy hwtruction in Phonics

(NPRDC TR 80-21) San Diego, Calif.: Navy Personnel Research, May

1981.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies “ 251

In maintenance simulation, the Navy through

the NPRDC is developing an Electronic Equipment Maintenance System that will simulate electronic receiver and radar systems, using a microprocessor. This system shows promise in facilitating the management of troubleshooting problems

through electronic equipment. NPRDC has also

developed a program that teaches how to solve

dynamic problems involving the variational analysis of current flow in complex electronic circuits.

The interchangeability of technology transfer is

demonstrated through the Army’s adaptation of

a commercial coin-operated game by Atari called

“Battlezone” to train tank operators. “Battlezone” is a three-dimensional war game in which the

operator moves around the battlefield at will and

shoots at targets as they appear. Because the

game is very realistic, trainees’ reflexes and operating skills are improved with practice. Atari has

redesigned the keyboard to mimic an actual control panel and realistically simulate the actions of

a tank.

Video Disks in Military Training

The military services, particularly the Army,

have been very active in video disk research. Most

of this work has been initiated or coordinated by

the Army Communicative Technology Office

(ACTO) at Fort Eustis, Va. ACTO’s mission is to

get the Army “off paper” and into electronic media for storage and communication. Both the

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

(DARPA) and ARI have also supported a number

of video disk research projects for training purposes.

One of the first ACTO projects was a “Call for

Fire” disk that demonstrated the potential of video disk for packaging multimedia self-study training materials. This disk involved a specially designed computer-controlled video disk system. A

number of different existing training materials

(field manuals, training extension course lessons,

video tapes, films, and skill qualification tests)

used to train forward observer skills were integrated on a single video disk, a good illustration

of the economy of video disk storage. Cost studies

conducted for ACTO around this integrated training package indicated that it would result in savings over the existing materials on the basis of reductions in duplication and distribution costs

alone.

A second innovative use is the SIDE (Soldier Information Delivery Equipment) project, which involves the use of video disk for tank turret maintenance training. This project utilizes a computercontrolled video disk system called TMIS (Training Management Information System). Video disk

is used to store the contents of a large volume (that

is, thousands of pages) of maintenance manuals

and skill performance aids. By means of a 5-inch

cathode ray display tube connected by cable to the

TMIS computer/video disk station, soldiers are

able to use the system while actually doing maintenance inside a tank. With their electronic maintenance manuals, the trainees have more information at their fingertips than would normally be

possible in the confined space of a tank turret.

A third innovative project is the use of video

disk for a satellite communications ground station

repair course (MOS 26Y10) at the U.S. Army Signal Center, Fort Gordon, Ga.8 The satellite communications equipment needed for the course costs

about $12 million, and each repair involves $200

to $2,000 worth of parts. There is a great need to

minimize equipment usage by unskilled students

wherever possible. The video disk provides lowcost hands-on equipment and repair practice without using the actual equipment or parts. A lightpen is used by students to identify switches, select

switch positions, plug in jacks, or indicate faulty

parts to be replaced. In addition to reducing the

need for actual equipment, it is now possible to

measure student performance in accuracy or speed

and to provide feedback while the student is learning.

Yet another innovative effort is the Video Disk

Interpersonal Skills Training and Assessment

(VISTA) project at Fort Benning, Ga. VISTA involves the study of interactive video disk for leadership training and assessment. It is used in a twoscreen paradigm to present conflict scenarios that

might arise between an officer and a subordinate.

The officer trainee or candidate is first presented

with a dynamic, visually simulated situation, including the initial remark of the subordinate on the

screen. The trainee must select a response with the

lightpen from four options presented visually on

the screen control. The trainee then sees the subordinate’s reaction to this response on the color

monitor.

The disk features two modes: an experimental

mode in which the interaction simply proceeds on

the basis of the responses and a pedagogical mode

in which feedback is immediately provided on the

appropriateness of the response selected. A total

of eight disks are planned that will provide over

‘W. D. Ketner, “The Video Disk/Microcomputer for Training, ” Training and Development Journal May 1981.
252 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

100 leadership scenarios. A major use of these

disks is seen to be an effective, objective, and inexpensive assessment of officer candidates.9

A number of other application areas are being

explored by the Army. One area is the use of video

disk for recruiting. The Joint Optical Information

Service (JOINS) allows local recruiters to show visually what type of duties and training are associated with a specific military occupational specialty

(MOS). Currently, some 30 MOSS are available on

JOINS. ’O In the equipment simulation areas,

WICAT, Inc. has developed an electronics troubleshooting video disk for the Hawk missile system.

Perceptronics Inc. has developed a video diskbased simulation for the M60 tank gunnery training. Both of these projects were supported by

DARPA.

A number of video disk projects are also under

way in the basic skills area. The U.S. Army Europe

is supporting the development of functional literacy instruction using a particular job category

(MOS 63, Vehicle Maintenance) as a focus. Also,

DARPA is exploring the use of the video diskbased Spatial Data Management System (SDMS),

originally developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for training in various life-coping skill areas (e.g., spatial orientation, study

skills, listening).

In addition to these application projects, which

have resulted in the development of actual video

disks, the Army and DOD have supported research projects that explore theoretical or procedural aspects of the technology. For example, ARI

has supported studies of how video disk relates to

the standard instructional system development

methods used to develop training materials in the

military. The Navy supported an early study of

video disk authoring approaches.11 ACTO has supported research on the electronic conversion of

print media to video disk and the optional presentation features for electronic delivery systems.

(See table A-7 for a summary of these applications.)

These research projects have all involved interaction between a number of different Army/DOD

agencies and contractors. They have also involved

a variety of different hardware configurations. It

is noteworthy that all of the video disk applications discussed have involved externally programed interactive capability. Although the Army

has conducted a few projects with manual and internally programed interactive video disks (not

discussed here), it appears that the Army believes

the type of interactive capability provided by external microcomputer control is necessary for the

instructional applications involved in military

training. In contrast, industrial training applications have focused on the manual and internally

programed level of interactive video disks, possibly because industry cannot afford the greater

costs of an externally controlled system.

Direct To The Home

All of the information technologies currently

used by schools, the military, libraries, museums,

and industry can also be used in the home. The increasing availability of these technologies coupled

with their rapidly declining cost, presents a unique

opportunity for learning in the home. While most

of the present applications have been directed at

a specific age group, the focus is now shifting to

provide programs for more diverse populations,

‘F. N. Dyer, et al., “Interactive Vidw for Interpersonal Skills Training, ” 1981.

‘OJ. Tice, “Video Disk Could Get Army ‘Off Paper’, ” Army Times,

Aug. 31, 1981, p. 14.

“H. D. Kribs, “Authoring Techniques for Interactive Video Disk, ”

Journal of Educational Technobgy Systems, 8(3), 1980.

Table A-7.—Summary of Military Video Disk Projects

Project Groups involved Hardware involved (player, microcomputer)

Call for fire

SIDE

MOS 26410

VISTA

JOINS

I HAWK

LCP-I

MOS 63

SDMS

ACTO/WICAT Inc.

ACTO/Hughes Aircraft

ACTO/Signal School

ARI/ACTO/TDl Litton-Mellonics

ACTO/Recruiting Cmd.

DARPA/WICAT Inc.

ARI/Perceptronics Inc.

USAEUR/University Utah/

University Maryland

ARI/DARPA/HumRRO

Magnavox, Pascal MicroEngine (custom)

Thompson, Hughes (custom)

DVA 7820, Apple II

DVA 7820, Apple II

DVA 7820, Apple II

DVA 7820, Pascal MicroEngine (custom)

DVA 7820, ? (custom)

DVA 7820, Apple II

DVA 7820, Cromeco (custom)

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment
—

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies . 253

Findings

There has been a dramatic increase of microprocessors, hand-held devices, and information

services provided via cable or public television

in the home.

Educational products and services are increasingly being marketed directly to the home.

In response to market forces, these educational

products and services are targeted predominantly at professionals and families with relatively large disposable incomes.

As with other educational markets, there is a

need for materials that review and evaluate

these products and services.

Adult Marke t

An estimated 37,000 to 73,000 adults participate

in some sort of educational program. Adult programs are offered in a wide variety of institutional

settings—in elementary and secondary schools,

universities, private institutions, businesses, libraries, and museums. Adults, the fastest growing segment of American society, represent a potentially large sector, of the educational market.

However, while many adults might benefit from

continuing education, a large proportion of them

have, as yet, remained uninvolved.

Apart from their number, there are several reasons why adults might be expected to constitute

a growing sector of the educational market:

● Approximately one-third of all American

adults are changing or considering changing

their careers and realize the need for additional education.

● More and more States require additional

educational programs for professionals; e.g.,

for recertification of physicians. Continuing

education has become one condition for license

renewal in many areas.

● Within certain fields, education requirements

are being upgraded, increasing the need for

continued educational

Adult participation in instructional activities

has been limited by situational, dispositional, and

institutional factors. Situational barriers are, for

example, lack of money, insufficient time because

of job and home responsibilities, lack of child care,

and lack of transportation. Attitudes and self-perceptions form the basis of dispositional barriers.

Thus, an aged person may feel incapable of learn-

‘~blic Broadcasting Service, “program Service, Section IV, Exhibit

P-l, ” Washington, D. C., Jan. 6, 1982.

ing or a high school dropout may feel inadequately prepared in basic knowledge to do well in another formal instructional setting. Institutional

barriers are exemplified by high tuition charges,

inconvenient scheduling of courses, and the lack

of student services geared to adult needs. Educational services delivered directly to the home via

both existing and new technologies may overcome

many of these barriers. z

Instructional Television

In an innovative effort to capture this expanding

market, 600 colleges and universities in cooperation with the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)

provide college courses for credit via local public

service stations. These courses are aired nationally by over 200 stations (80 percent of the public

TV stations). Although institutions and stations

can choose from up to nine programs, most offer

two per semester. In the fall of 1981, enrollments

exceeded 20,000. An increase was expected for the

spring semester.

Recognizing the large, virtually untapped home

market, PBS has already designed courses for the

undergraduate student, and, in the near future,

plans to provide informal learning courses as well

as professional and career development programs.

Current courses, such as “The American Short

Story” and “Personal Finance and Money Management, ” are of both general and professional interest. Colleges and universities participating in

the program provide materials and counselors on

campus, and give midterm and final examinations.

They pay PBS a licensing fee and a small charge

per student enrolled. The student pays approximately $150 per course, which covers materials.3

PBS is not alone in providing educational services via television. Community colleges such as

those in the Coast Community College District,

Dallas Community College District, and MiamiDade Community College District have also been

actively involved in instructional television endeavors. Cable television companies also supply

educational materials nationwide. Columbia Cablevision of Westchester Inc., and Qube, in Columbus, Ohio, offer courses with an interactive capability that allow students in the home to answer

‘C. Dede, Potential Clients for Educational Services Delivered bj’ Information Technology, contractor report to OTA, March 1981.

‘Public Broadcasting Service, PTV-3/Adult Programing Department,

Background Paper on the Partnership Between Public Television and

Higher Education to Deliver Adult Learning Cburses, Washington,

D. C., n.d.: and Public Broadcasting Service, Adult Learning I+ograming Schedule Fact Sheet for Colleges and Universities for Fall 1981,

Washington, D. C., n.d.
254 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

questions posed by the instructor in the classroom.

Qube (Warner Amex) currently has 50,000 subscribers, approximately 34,000 of whom receive its

interactive programs. ’ This company offers

courses for credit from four institutions: Ohio

State University, Capital University, Columbus

Technical Institute, and Franklin Institute. Because of its interactive capabilities, the Qube system is educationally unique.

A proposal that could greatly expand educational services in the home is now under consideration

by PBS. The proposed “National Narrowcast

Service” would establish a resource to nationally

distribute educational, professional training, cultural, and information video materials. This service would also alter the local PBS stations’ role,

transforming them into local telecommunications

centers. Using a satellite distribution system to

interconnect local PBS stations, and Instructional

Television Fixed Service (ITFS)* to connect the

stations, colleges, and other users, programing in

the following areas would be available:

Training material in special skills; safety programs; material designed for rehabilitation of the

aged, infirm, or mentally disturbed; clinical studies;

new arts and crafts; material intended to keep professional and semi-professional people abreast of the

state-of-the-art in various fields; in-service training

for teachers; instructional material for purposes of

entertainment or cultural advancement. b

Multimedia Instruction

The School of Management and Strategic Studies of the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute

offers a management program that relies heavily

on information technology. The program is designed for executives in the private and public sectors (Federal and nonprofit). Following a short

study program in LaJolla, Calif., participants continue their studies via on-line services, telephone

conversations, teleconferencing, and electronic

mail. The terminals and other equipment are included in the cost of tuition and are retained by

the user at the conclusion of the formal program.

Participants install the technology in their homes

or offices. This approach has a number of benefits:

the participants continue to work for their sponsoring organization throughout the course of

‘LINK, Survey of Selected U. S Videotexfl%o Way CA TVE1’eletext

@erations (New York: LINK, June 15, 1981).

*lTFS is ~ short rmge multiple distribution technology mowing for

an unlimited number of users in a specific area. PBS is proposing the

use of four ITFS channels in each community served by a public service station.

‘Public Broadcasting Service, op. cit., 1982.

study (thus, no work time is lost); information

gained from the program can be employed immediately in a working environment; the users become

familiar with the technology, which is not usually

the case for most higher level executives; and users

are networking with both members of the program

and with others following completion of the program.’

Electronic Learning Devices

Approximately 18 million electronic devices—

microprocessor games such as “electronic baseball” and hand-held devices such as Speak and

Spell-were sold between 1979 and 1980. Typically, the price for these games ranges from $10 to

$3,000, the cost of a microcomputer. Users of these

devices can be as young as four, or they can be

adults. The growth of this market has been rapid

and impressive. Although these games and learning devices were not introduced until the mid to

late 1970’s, there are a vast number on the market.

While OTA has made no attempt to evaluate their

effectiveness—and particularly the effectiveness

of those designed for learning, their uses in the

home will be briefly described.

Given the relatively low cost of production and

a growing desire by parents for enhanced educational services, the market for microprocessor

games has grown so fast that some major manufacturers been unable to keep up with it. Sales of

nonvideo electronic games have skyrocketed from

$20 million in 1977 to $1 billion in 1980.7 The experience of Texas Instruments in the home market

provides some insight into the development of

learning technologies. One of the early leaders in

this field, Texas Instruments originally sought to

develop a market in schools and not in the home.

Their first product was a Texas Instrument calculator accompanied by a package of instructional

materials that was designed to assist teachers and

students in the classroom. With it the company

hoped to demonstrate the use of the calculator as

a learning device. Although this initial package

was unsuccessful, it led the company to focus on

the home market and to market directly to the individual consumer. Their next product, Little Professor, was a hand-held device that provides a

series of mathematical problems and answers designed to become increasingly difficult. Since the

introduction of Little Professor, Texas Instruments has developed and successfully marketed
—

App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 255

several similar games. One of these, Speak and

Spell, differs from earlier games in that it has a

synthesized voice that helps the user to spell.

Other manufacturers have also introduced mathematical games—e.g., National Semiconductor’s

Quiz Kid. There are also other kinds of hand-held

learning devices such as Coleco’s Quiz Wiz, a

multiple-choice game which asks and provides

answers to 1,001 questions on a wide variety of

subjects such as sports, movies, television, and

history.

Video Disk

Since the video disk is relatively new, there are

very few examples that demonstrate its educational applications in the home. Disks that are available for school use are, however, equally applicable

for use in the home. Some examples of these are

the films of Jacques Cousteau, the National Gallery’s art masterpieces, movies such as “Tom

Sawyer” or “Better Tennis in 30 Minutes. ”

The first video disk designed specifically for children, the “First National Kiddisc, ” is an interactive video disk produced by Optical Programing

Associates. It allows for individually paced instruction. Games on this disk include The Flag

Game, in which the user identifies national flags,

and A Trip to the Zoo, by which the child can learn

to identify 40 animals. Another section of the disk

uses the unique two-channel audio available on the

video disk players to explain pig latin. On one

channel, a child on camera explains in pig latin how

to speak pig latin; on the other channel there is

a voice-over translation. In a section on sign language, the manual alphabet is taught by showing

the sequence in slow motion.

Publishers of educational materials and others

are currently planning new video disk projects.

Walt Disney Production, Children’s Television

Workshop, and Scholastic Productions as well as

encyclopedia publishers are among those who plan

to utilize this new technology.

In addition, Arete Publishing in cooperation

with the International Institute for Applied Technology (II AT) has produced an experimental interactive optical video disk with information from

Arete’s American Academic Encyclopedia. Sound

and films were added to articles and illustrations

chosen from the encyclopedia. The more than 20

segments on the video disk demonstrate the capabilities of the technology. Starting from a general

section on the species of dinosaurs, a user may

branch off to find more information about a

specific type of dinosaur. The segment on Ludwig

von Beethoven presents his biography, illustrations of his life and musical scores, and musical

segments from the composer’s works. Designed to

be experimental, this disk does not yet cover all

21 volumes of the encyclopedia, although ARETE

hopes to put the entire encyclopedia on disk in the

future. Still in the research and development

phase, these disks are not commercially available

for use in the home. When they come on the market, each disk will cost about $500. After purchasing a disk, each year the consumer can exchange

it for an updated version for about $100.8

Impacts of Information

Technology

Of all the information technologies available for

the home, the personal computer is the one that

is expected to have the greatest use and for which

there is expected to be the largest and fastest

growing market. Furthermore, the microcomputer,

in conjunction with other technologies such as the

video disk or two-way interactive cable, appears

to have the greatest potential for home use.

With the increasing use of microcomputers in

the home, the educational applications are growing at a fast pace. The personal computer market

was estimated to be a $1.5 billion to $2 billion industry in 1981. One recent figure notes that the

home market accounts for over $100 million in

sales of both hardware and software.9 The number

of personal computers purchased between 1977

and 1980 was estimated at around 1 million, and

a similar figure was estimated for sales in 1981.

Sales are expected to increase substantially for

several reasons: greater exposure to the technology in the schools or in business, the introduction

of cable services, the availability of information

resources such as The Source and Dow Jones/

Retrieval Service, the development of more consumer-oriented software, and the declining cost of

the microcomputer. 10 Also, manufacturers will be

actively marketing their equipment to the consumer.

Together, these factors will lead to a serge in the

market. Microcomputers are now available for as

little as $100. At this price, the microcomputer can

be used for games or simply to familiarize the user

with the technology. Advertising emphasizing the

‘LINK, Optical Videodisc Applications (New York: LINK, NRM, vol.

3, No. 1, First Quarter, 1982).

‘B. Isgur, W. Paine, and H. Mitchell, personal communications,

January 1982.

‘“LINK, Using Personal Computers (New York: LINK, NRR, vol. 3,

No. 1, Second Quarter, 1982).
256 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

educational applications in the home has increased

enormously. In fact, these commercials recall the

earlier ones of the encyclopedia salesmen, their

sales pitch being that the microcomputer will assist the student in school.’] Moreover, the proliferation of computer stores and the retailing of the

technology through department stores and the like

has given rise to increased purchases. For example, Texas Instruments plans to sell their microcomputers through national chain stores such as

J. C. Penney.

The growing diversity of home applications such

as gaming and word processing, and the development of financial and statistical packages such as

Visicalc and others appeal to a wide range of users.

One indication of this is the formation of a large

number of computer clubs. All of the clubs swap

hardware and software information. Some provide

training sessions; some are affiliated with a specific manufacturer (e.g., Crab Apples and Crab Polishers); and some are directed at specific interests

(e.g., Theater Computer Users in Dallas, Tex., and

the Behavioral Sciences Specialists in Murfreesboro, Term.’2

There are hundreds of software packages available to assist students in all grades and age groups

in many subjects such as mathematics, the sciences, reading, writing, and spelling. The rapid expansion of the personal computer market should

result in a greatly increased volume of educational

software together with a demand for evaluative

materials. As in all other markets for educational

software, there has been very little evaluation of

new software. While there are catalogs for consumers, there are few reviews of most educational

packages. Users must depend for their evaluations

on a limited number of sources: computer newsletters, computer magazines, an underground network, and the few computer manufacturers who

have begun to produce evaluative reports.

Many analysts believe that the market for home

and business microcomputers will be driven by the

need to use the technology to retrieve information

and to perform transactions. The technology allows a user to connect to on-line data bases and

other services via a modem, a device that connects

the microcomputer to a telephone line. Home users

can now connect to services such as The Source,

CompuServe, the Dow Jones News/Retrieval Service, and others. The Source, available through Telenet and Tymnet packet switch networks, offers

“A. Pollack, “price Decline Spurs Sales, ” New York Times, June 17,

1982, pp. D1,6.

IZLI NK, op. cit., 1982.

games, electronic mail, news, the “electronic college,” and other services. The college, although

limited to three courses this year, plans to expand

its listings within the next few years. CompuServe,

very similar to The Source, acts with the Associated Press as the system operator for 13 U.S.

newspapers in an experiment of electronic newspaper delivery. Viewtron, a videotex experiment

in Coral Gables, Fla., offered slightly different

services to home users. Knight-Ridder Newspapers and AT&T sponsored news, shopping, travel,

banking, games, learning aids, consumer advice,

and more to over 700 sites via modified television

sets. Similarly, Cox Cable Communications is developing INDAX for use by its cable franchises.13

The introduction of cable services in the home

will give rise to a large number of new educational

projects. An estimated 28 percent of the homes in

the United States are wired for cable. It is predicted that 38 percent will be wired by 1985 and

50 percent by 1990.14 Educational services such as

those provided by Cox Cable, Qube, and others are

expected to grow quickly.

Information Technology and

Special Education

Technologies that are now being developed may

offer great benefits to individuals that require

special educational services-a group that includes

the gifted and those with learning, physical, and

emotional disabilities. Since special education is

a field, and not an institution, OTA did not fully

explore the uses, impact, and effects of these technologies on special educational services. However,

because the technologies will have a considerable

effect on schools overall, OTA examined some of

their applications for the gifted and handicapped.

Findings

●

●

●

Providing educational services for students with

special needs is costly and requires more effort

than providing for students in general.

Information technologies will be particularly

valuable to students with special needs because

they will reduce the cost of their education and

they will provide them self-paced, individualized

instruction.

Using information technology could ease the

financial and resource burdens placed on the

!3L1NK, Op. cit., 1982.

“LINK Executive Conference, New York City, May 26, 1982.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 257

schools by laws mandating education for the

gifted and handicapped.

c The overall cost of R&D to address the specific

needs of this diverse group is very high, and in

some instances, even prohibitive. Each disability may require a unique technological application. It has been suggested that increased Federal funding is merited to support the R&D efforts needed to encourage the marketing of

these technological applications.

● Although a number of technological applications to help handicapped persons are available,

they have not been marketed because they are

too costly.

“ Information technologies can help train many

handicapped persons for productive work.

Information technologies may offer greater benefits to the gifted and the handicapped than to any

other segment of the education market. These students benefit from specialized individualization, a

capability of many emerging instructional technologies. For example, computer programs can be designed to translate written material into speech

that is understandable to the blind, or to instruct

retarded children on a step-by-step basis. Overall,

such capabilities can help to make handicapped

people more independent. Other types of programs

can help maximize the abilities of gifted students.

Recognition of the special needs of these two

groups have led to the passage of two laws–Public Law 142 and Public Law 80-313. These laws require that, using formula grants and preschool incentive grants, handicapped and gifted children be

provided with special services to be funded in part

by the Federal Government.

Information technologies have several attributes that make them particularly useful for addressing the special needs of gifted and handicapped students.1 Because their individual situations vary significantly from case to case, these

students most often need to have individualized

instruction that can best be provided by highly

specialized personnel. Thus, their education is generally labor intensive, and very costly. The new information technologies can provide self-paced and

individualized instruction at a considerably lower

cost.

The cost and difficulties entailed in developing

these technologies may, however, preclude their

widespread application. Although the overall population of gifted and handicapped students is statistically large, it is very small when measured in

‘C. Dede, Potential Clients for Educational Services Deiivered b-v Information Technology, contractor report to OTA, March 1981.

terms of individual disabilities or needs. When designed to meet the needs of a particular group,

these technologies can be too costly to produce.2

Moreover, the time required from their development to their production may take as long as 20

years.3 For these reasons, it has often been proposed that the Federal Government provide support for research and development in this area.

Technology for Administration

The use of information technology to administer

special education programs is only now in the process of being developed, tested, and evaluated.

There is a large potential for data management applications in this field, particularly given the requirement that each student participate in Individualized Education Programs (IEP). An IEP defines a student’s disability(ies) and appropriate

education program. This exercise is a very timeconsuming process that could be greatly facilitated by the judicious use of information technology. Computerized diagnostic models are now

being developed. One model, developed by Columbia Learning Systems, generates a computerized

IEP based on diagnostic information supplied by

specialists. It contains information about student

needs, their areas of deficiencies and suggested

ideas and material for remedying them. It also

monitors the student’s progress. Other programs

such as these are becoming more and more common.4

The development of diagnostic remedial information technology procedures is relatively new in

the United States. This type of program tracks

students to discover their strengths and weaknesses in specific skills and how they relate to a

student’s approach to a specific problem. This information can then be used to determine a course

of remedial action. Most diagnostic models are for

mathematics, s

Information technologies can also be used to

schedule the handicapped in specialized working

or instructional groups using criteria such as in-

‘V. W. Stern and M. R. Redden, Draft Case Study of Selected Telecommunication Devices for the Deaf contractor report to OTA, December

1981. Much of the work done to develop teletypewriters for the deaf

was done on a volunteer basis, donated by handicapped or concerned

individuals. The present rapid advances in information technology,

along with declining costs, may reduce this developmental time.

‘I bid., p. 11.

4 M. Lindsey, Statt+of-the-.4rt Report; Computers and the Handicapped (Medford, (1-eg.: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory,

August 1981 ), p. 133. There is. for example, the Organized Resource

Bank of IEP Text (ORBIT), and Programing for Individualized Education (PIE).

‘Ibid., p, 133.
258 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

structional needs, student academic levels staffing requirements, and availability of staff and

space.6

Technology As Prosthetic

Devices

By enabling handicapped persons to speak

through video and speech synthesizers, some information systems can serve as prosthetic devices.

For example, the Total Talk Full Speech Computer

Terminal, developed by Maryland Computer Services, converts computer-transmitted data and information into synthetic speech. The system has

an unlimited vocabulary. It uses rules for enunciation, and inflection for clarity. Total Talk, which

costs around $6,000, can provide two-way information. Similar devices, the VS-6 and ML-1 voice synthesizers, developed by the Votrax Division of

Federal Screw Works, produce electronically synthesized speech from a low-speed, digital input.

Both of these systems are designed for persons

with visual impairments, and both enable the users

to work in the areas of computer programing, information processing, and information retrieval.

Many such projects have been successfully introduced through joint efforts between the Federal

Government and the private sector. One example

is the caption decoder, developed under the sponsorship of the Department of Health, Education,

and Welfare (now the Department of Education),

the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, the National Broadcasting Co., and the American Broadcasting Co. When attached to a television set,

these decoders allow deaf viewers to see captions

on selected networks and programs. Costing $269,

they are available through Sears, Roebuck, & C0.

7

Another example is Optacon. This device, designed for the blind, produces images of printed

letters using small, raised, vibrating wires. With

one hand the user guides the pick-up along the

printed page, while the fingers of the other hand

detect the images on a stationary device. The

Kurzweil Reader, also developed for use by the

blind, “reads” a page of text aloud, using electronic voice synthesis. For these projects, Federal

funds were invested in the R&D efforts as well as

in purchasing equipment for the users.8

Technology As Instructional

Aid s

Information technologies have many applications as instructional aids. CAI, for instance, is

used for a number of different handicaps or disabilities. Early use of CAI for the deaf began at the

Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social

Sciences (IMSSS) at Stanford University. Assessments of this work with CA I show general increases in the mathematical skills of 3,000 deaf

students. Nonspeaking autistic children have also

benefited from the use of CAI. Having witnessed

a display of 1,000 different audiovisual experiences

on a television-like screen, 13 out of 17 children

began to use some level of speech. The effectiveness of using a computer to teach extremely mentally retarded children was also demonstrated,

when substantial gains were noted in the reading

ability of 40 children.

In Chicago, students with hearing, visual, mental, or other learning disabilities have participated

in a project sponsored by the South Metropolitan

Association for Low Incidence Handicapped. The

project used CAI programs-in math, reading, and

the language arts-that were prepared by the

Computer Curriculum Corp. Although evaluations

are still underway, student progress has correlated

with the amount of on-line access to programs.

In an ongoing study at Utah State University’s

Exceptional Child Center, computer and video

disks are used with the mentally handicapped. The

technologies allow for self-paced and individualized

instruction. The project programs focus on discrimination between sizes, shapes, and colors; on

telling time; on identification of functional words;

and on the identification of colors. If successful,

this project will not only assist mentally handicapped nonreaders but also those with other disabilities.’

To “encourage research in devising methods to

assist handicapped individuals, ” NSF and Radio

Shack sponsored a contest in the fall of 1981. Its

purpose was to “create a partnership between personal computing and the rehabilitation, educational, and handicapped communities."10 There

were 900 entries in the contest. A few sample projects were:

‘Ibid., p. 134.

‘Department of Education, The Historical Role of the U.S Department of Education in Applying Electronic Technology to Education

(Washington, D. C.: Department of Education, February 1981).

‘Ibid.

‘R. Throkildson, W. K. Bickel and J. G. Williams, “A Microcomputer/

Videodisc CAI System for the Moderately Mentally Retarded, ” Journal of Special Education Technology, vol. II, No. 3, spring 1979.

‘“’’prizes Awarded in Search for Microcomputer Applications to Aid

Handicapped People, ” Electronic Learning, vol. 1, No. 3,

January/February 1982, p. 12.
App. A—Case Studies: Applications of Information Technologies ● 259

●

●

●

A pocket-sized computer to assist deaf people

to communicate over telephone lines-a Radio

Shack pocket computer with a coupler and a

miniprinter.

An “Eye Tracker” to aid severely handicapped individuals to express words via an infrared camera and a computer. The camera

notes the position of the user’s eyes with a

specific word and the computer “speaks” the

word.

A computer that teaches deaf children to read

lips by outlining lips, mouth, and tongue on

a screen and then moving them to pronounce

words.

The entries in the contest used off-the-shelf technology. Most of the projects could be made available immediately and would be of some use to a

disabled person. The contest demonstrated that

there is no immediate need for extensive R&D.

What is needed instead is a way of identifying and

encouraging the reformatting of the technology to

address the diverse needs of the handicapped population.
Index
—

Index

Action for Children’s Television (ACT), 172

Advanced Computer Service (ACS) (see American

Telephone & Telegraph

AFL-CIO, 105, 108

Human Resources Development Institute, 107

Airline industry, 236-237

Alaska, 227-233

Alaskan Public Broadcasting Commission, 42

American College, 130

American Academic Encyclopedia 255

American Federation of Labor (AFL) (see AFL-CIO)

American Federation of Teachers (AFT), 106

American Postal Workers, 108

American Society for Training and Development

(ASTD), 100

American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T), 5, 7

Advanced Computer Service (ACS), 52

and packet switching systems, 40

plan to enter the information business, 21, 49

reorganization of, 40

Anderson, Governor Wendell, 215

Angevine, Martha, 194

Apple Computer Co., 43, 145, 199, 200, 218

Arete Publishing Co., 255

Aristotle, 68

Army Research Institute (ARI), 119

Associated Press, 50

Atari (see Warner Communications Co.)

AT&T (see American Telephone & Telegraph)

Audio conferencing (see electronic conferencing)

Automation, 8, 30

Bacon, Roger, 206, 207, 208

Bailey, Florence, 191

Bailey, Russ, 202

Bank of America, 30

Barnett, Harvey, 202

Basic Education Opportunity Grants, 87, 88

Bigelow, Gary, 208

Birchard, Elaine, 208

Bitzer, Donald, 128

Bloom, Gloria, 190, 194

BLS (see Bureau of Labor Statistics)

Bristol, John, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214

Broadcasting

by direct broadcast satellite (DBS), 41, 47, 164

instructional television fixed services

(ATFS), 163-164

low-power, 37, 41-42

low-power television (LPTV), 164

multipoint distribution services (MDS), 163

operational fixed service, 163

private operational fixed microwave services

(POFMS), 163

Brown, Governor Edmund G., 196

Brumbaugh, Kenneth E., 218, 220

Bruning, Arthur, 220

Buck Foundation, 198

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), 32, 33

Burek, Mary Ann, 204

Capitol Children’s Museum, 243-245

CARL network, 239

Carnegie Foundation, 112, 114

Carter administration, 161

Catholic Church, 153, 154

CBS, 47

Chamberlain, Judy, 202

Chemical Abstracts, 239

Chicago Tribune, 210

Children’s Television Workshop, 56, 112, 121,

126-128

Clapp, Lewis, 194

Clark, Frank, 202

Coates, Tric, 214

Coleman College (LaMesa, Calif.), 90

Commission of Education (U.S.), 156

Commission on New Technological Uses of

Copyrighted Works, 170

Commodore Computers, 145, 189

Communication

accessibility of information, 16

cable, 6, 40-41

computer-enhanced telephone networks, 5, 39-40

of data, 15, 30, 52

decentralization of systems for, 18

employability of individuals skilled in, 30

integration with computers and video, 48-49

local distribution networks, 40-41

quantity of information transferred, 16

by satellites, 5, 6, 37, 38-39

speed of, 16

trends in, 37

two-way cable systems, 37-38

Competition

between banks and computer service bureaus, 7

between IBM and AT&T, 7

between investment houses, retail stores, and

banks, 7

between telephone companies and newspapers, 7, 21

between U.S. Postal Service and

telecommunications firms, 7

CompuServe, 50

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) (see computers,

educational and instructional uses)

Computer conferencing (see electronic conferencing)

Computer Curriculum Corp. (CCC), 133-134

Computers, 15, 42-45

animation techniques with, 56

automation with, 8, 30

in consumer products, 42

data storage technology, 6, 46

in design and manufacturing, 101

desktop, 6, 43-44

educational and instructional uses, 3, 9, 43-44,

263
264 . Informational Technology and its Impact on American Education

56-58, 90-91, 93, 103-104, 112, 122, 128-134,

141-143, 145, 178, 187-259

EDUNET system for sharing programs and

equipment, 40

encouragement of educational use by industry,

43-44

hand-held, 6, 44-45

human interface (input/output) technology, 6, 45-46

information networks for, 7, 40, 42, 50-51

integration with communications and video, 48-49

literacy in, 60

manpower needs for, 32-34

in museums, 243

number installed in schools (table), 44

number of personal (table), 44

in patent searches, 49

personal, 5, 93

PLATO system (see separate entry)

printers for, 45-46

programing languages, 45, 91, 135, 189, 190,

198, 201

software for, 44, 58, 145-147

software protection, 166-173

in telecommunication, 5, 6, 39-40, 49

voice output technology, 46

word processing, 5, 44

COMSAT, 41

CONDUIT, 135

Conference Board, 100

Annual Surveys of Corporate Contributions, 115

Congress

acts of (see legislation)

House Committee on Education and Labor, 4

House Committee on Science and Technology, 4

House Subcommittee on Science, Research, and

Technology, 4

House Subcommittee on Select Education, 4

House Subcommittee on Telecommunications,

Consumer Protection, and Finance, 165

Library of, 160

National Telecommunications Program, 119

policy alternatives for (see policy options)

Senate Commerce Committee, 165

tuition tax credit bill, 77

Congress of Industrial Organizations (C1O)

(see AFL-CIO)

Constitution (U.S.), 7, 162

Contreras, Vince, 195

Control Data Corp. (CDC), 57, 128-129

Corens, Ken, 220

Cordray, Sara, 227

Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB), 56, 165

Cox Cable, 40

Crucible Steel Corp., 107

Cupertino, Calif., 200-203

Dartmouth College, 60

Data banks

DIALOG Information Services, 51

econometric, 51

HARFAX service of Harper and Row, 51

Legis (legal citations), 51

Medline service of the National Library of

Medicine, 51

National Technical Information Service (NTIS), 51

on natural resources, 51

New York Times Information Service, 51

of patent information, 51

Data Resources, Inc., 51

Deafnet Telecommunications Model, 118

Democratic Party, 154

Department of Commerce, 112

Department of Defense

Army Non-System Training Devices Development

Program, 121

funding of educational technology research and

development by, 111-112, 116

Training and Personnel Systems Technology

Program (TPST), 116, 119

Department of Education, 152

Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, 134

Division of Educational Technology, 118, 121

estimates of video disk units in schools, 143

Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary

Education, 119

funding of computer-based mathematics

instruction, 134

funding of educational technology research and

development by, 112, 116, 121, 122

funding of PLATO computer-based instruction

system by, 128

Mathematics Education Using Information

Technology Program, 119

report on science and technology education, 32

Technology Initiative, 146-147

Department of Energy, 51

Department of Health and Human Services, 153

Department of Interior, 152

funding of educational technology research and

development by, 112

Department of Justice, 40

Department of Labor, 108

Department of Treasury, 152

DIALOG Information Services, 51

DiGiammarino, Frank, 189, 191, 194

Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC), 189

entry into desktop computer field, 43

Digital telephone networks, 6, 37, 39-40

use of computer technology by, 48

Dillenberger, Paul, 220

Direct broadcast satellite (see broadcasting)

Donnelly, Jean, 214

Dow Jones, 51

Driscoll, Francis, 204, 205, 208

Economy (U. S.)

changes in, 19-21

educational levels and growth of, 27-28

growth from technological innovation, 25-27
Index ● 2 6 5

service sector predominance in, 19-20

information sector of, 20-21

Education

business, 59

computer-assisted instruction, 3, 43-44, 56-58

cost and effectiveness of technology for, 63-64

the courts and (see litigation)

decentralization of, 101-102

declining achievement levels of students, 30-31

definition used in this report, 4

and economic growth, 25-28

elementary and secondary, 70-77

and employability, 27-28

Federal aid for, 78-79, 87, 88, 89

Federal role in, 3, 151-174

financial problems of colleges and universities,

80-83

governmental control of, 162-164

in the home, 92-94

of information professionals, 32-34

of information scientists, 34

information technology and, 9, 55-64, 143-145,

227-233

interactive instruction, 56-59

as investment in productivity (human capital

theory), 28

land-grant movement, 78-79

legislation, 151-157

medical, 58-59

need to link different information technologies

for, 63

passive instruction, 55-56

private schools, 74-77

productivity growth in, 20

proprietary institutions, 85-92

public schools, 70-74

as a public good, 68-69

research and development in technology for,

111-137

and social change, 67-69

technical, 29

teacher training for educational technology, 9-10

tuition tax credit for private, 77

two-year and community colleges, 83-85

by unions, 105-108

in the United States, 67-108

universities and four-year colleges, 78-83

voucher plan for funding, 76-77

video disks in, 57

in the workplace, 99-105, 235-237

Educational Broadcast Facilities Program, 112

Educational technology

in the airline industry, 236-237

continuing Federal projects in, 119

courseware development, 146-147

courseware industry (table), 144

discontinued and consolidated Federal projects in,

118-119

effect of reduced Government spending on, 115

Federal funding of research and development in,

111-112, 114, 116-118

Federal grants for fiscal year 1982, 121-122

hardware and educational software vendors, 145

industries competing for courseware business

(table), 146

private funding of research and development in,

113-114, 114-116

research and development support by other

nations, 122-125

for special education, 256-259

in Tobacco Products Co., 235-236

EDUCOM, 60, 233-235

EDUNET, 40, 60, 233-234

The Electric Company (children’s television), 56,

112, 121, 126, 127, 128

Electronic conferencing, 7, 51-52

EIS computer conferencing system, 52

in industry-based training, 104

NOTEPAD computer conferencing system, 52

PLANET computer conferencing system, 52

Electronic games, 43, 46

Electronic Learning, 146

Electronic newspapers, 50

Eli Lilly & Co., 234

Enenstein, Bob, 202

Environmental Protection Agency

funding of educational technology research and

development by, 112

FCC (see Federal Communications Commission)

Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 40, 41,

42, 50, 161

and educational telecommunication services,

162-163

Federal Security Agency, 152

Federally Insured Student Loans, 87, 88

Ferreira, Pat, 208

Finkel, Le Roy, 195, 202

Firestone, Kim, 214

Fisher, Glenn, 202

Fisk, K. A., 202

Ford Foundation, 112

Franklin, Ronald, 197, 202

Frazier, Richard, 227

French, Bill, 220

Fund for Improvement of Postsecondary Education

(FIPSE), 135

Gal-da, Esther, 211, 214

Gatze, Kenny, 208

Gentry, John, 214

Ginzberg, Eli, 27

Good, Ed, 194

Goodson, Bobby, 196, 200, 201, 202

Gutierez, Jose, 202

Hakansson, Joyce, 196, 197, 202

Hammer, Doug, 214

HARFAX, 51
266 . Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

Harper and Row, 51

Haugo, John, 215, 221

Heard, Helen, 227

Hewlett Packard Foundation, 114

Horn, Marcia, 220

Houston (Texas) Independent School District,

221-227

Hovda, Clayton, 219, 220

Hughes Aircraft Co., 236

IBM, 5

competition in telecommunications by, 7

entry into desktop computer field, 43

Infomedia, 52

INFORM system, 241

Information

AT&T plan to enter business of, 21

conflicting views of, 8

characteristics of modern systems for collecting

and using, 16-17

history of systems for, 16

as a major sector of the U.S. economy, 5-6, 20-21

networks, 7, 50-51

professional manpower needs, 32-34

Information services, 7, 48-51

advanced business services, 52

Information technology

in administration and management of

instruction, 60

automation and, 30

in broadcasting, 6

in cable systems, 6, 37

case studies on application of, 8-9, 187-259

climate for use in schools, 143-145

in communications, 37

in corporate instruction, 102-105

cost of application to education, 10

cultural effects of, 18

data processing, 30

data storage, 6, 46

decentralizing effect on communications, 18

definition of, 4

dependence on, 15-16

digital telephone networks, 6, 37, 39-40

in distribution of education, 60-62

economic and social impacts of, 16-19

and education in Alaska, 227-233

educational uses of, 55-64

effect on organizational decisionmaking, 18

effect on political process, 18

effect on relationship between individuals and

organizations, 18

factors affecting further application in education,

141-147

Federal role in, 3, 9, 111-112, 114

for the handicapped, 9

in higher education, 81-83

in the home, 252-256

impacts on education and training, 4, 8, 9

impacts on the home, 255-256

impacts on societal institutions, 4, 7-8

institutional barriers to use in education, 9

integration of various technologies, 9, 48-49

the industry for, 5-6

labor unions and, 107-108

in libraries, 237-242

and literacy, 17-18, 19

manpower needs for, 10, 32-34

military uses of, 245-252

potential of, 4

private sector role in, 113, 114-116

in proprietary education, 90-92

protection of software, 166-174

psychological effects of, 4-5, 9, 10, 18

quality of software for education, 10

satellite communications, 6

software needs for education, 10

socioeconomic inequities created by, 10

and special education, 256-259

teacher training in, 9-10

in testing and diagnosis, 62

trends in, 37-52

video technology, 6-7

Institute for the Future, 52

Institute for Museum Services (IMS), 160

INTEL Corp., 201

Internal Revenue Service, 6, 15, 115

International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers

(IBEW), 108

I. P. Sharp Co., 51

IRVING library network, 238-239

James, Mary, 218, 220

James, Wilbur, 220

Japan, 32

Jaquith, Luree, 194

Jennings, William, 194

Johnson administration, 156

Johnson and Wales College (Providence, R.I.), 90

Jokela, Willis, 216, 220

Jones, Allen, 207, 208

Joseph, Helen, 196, 198, 199, 202

Josiassen, Jody, 192, 194

Kaski, Janet, 214

Kent, Karen, 202

King, Steve, 202

Kosak, Casey, 199

Kosel, Marge, 220

Kukendahl, Carol, 227

LaChance, Douglas P., 220

Lathrop, Ann, 193, 202

LaMar, Ron, 202

Lawrence Hall of Science, 243

Lawson, John, 188, 194

Legis (legal citation data bank), 51

Legislation

Blair Bill (1880’s), 153-154
—

Index ● 2 6 7

Communications Act of 1934, 162, 165

Comprehensive Employment and Training Act

(CETA), 106

Computer Software Copyright Act, 171

Cooperative Research Act of 1963, 122

Copyright Act of 1976, 171

Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, 113, 115

Educational Amendments of 1972, 87, 155

Educational Amendments of 1978, 119

Elementary and Secondary Education Act

(ESEA) of 1965, 134, 153, 155, 156, 157, 160

Emergency School Aid Act of 1972, 119

Enabling Acts, 152

General Education Provisions Act, 162

George-Barden Act of 1946, 154

GI Bill, 154

Hatch Act of 1887, 153

Hoar Bill of 1870, 153

Higher Education Act of 1965, 160, 161

Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963, 155

Lanham Act of 1941, 155

Library Services and Construction Act

of 1964, 160

Massachusetts Bay Law (1642), 151, 152

Merrill Act of 1862 (establishing land-grant

colleges), 79, 152

National Defense Education Act (NDEA)

of 1958, 155

New Deal programs, 154

Old Deluder Law (Mass., 1647), 151

Pierce Bill of 1872, 153

Preemption Act of 1841, 152

Public Law 16, 154

Public Law 815, 155

Public Law 874, 155

Public Telecommunications Financing Act, 165

Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944, 154

Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, 154, 157

Social Security Act, 156

Statehood Acts, 151, 152

Technology Education Act of 1982, 145

on telecommunications, 165-166

Vocational Education Act, 89, 155

Lexington, Mass.

computers in public schools of, 187-194

Libraries, 4

as automated information centers, 60

communication networks for, 238-242

computers in, 240

as educational institutions, 94-97

Federal role in, 160-161

impact of information technology on, 7-8, 96-97

information technology in, 237-242

Lippert, Del, 204, 205, 208

Literacy

in different countries, 32

effect of information technology on, 19

need for information literacy, 29-32

Litigation

International News Service v. Associated

Press, 170

Brown v. Topeka Board of Education, 158

on parental right to educate, 158

on religion in the schools, 158

Rodriguez v. San Antonio Independent School

District, 159

on State and local school funding, 158-160

Serrano decision, 159

Universal City Studios v. Sony Corp., 172

Louisa, Joy, 227

Lewd, Beth, 194

Luehrmann, Arthur, 196, 197, 198, 199, 202

Lundgren, Richard, 220

Lyons Township Secondary School District

(LaGrange, Ill.)

computers in public schools of, 209-214

Maggie’s Place: Pikes Peak Regional Library

District, 239-240

Marin Community College (California), 199

Marin Computer Center (California), 199

Marin County (California) Teachers Learning

Cooperative, 198

McGee, Julie, 213, 214

McGraw-Hill, Inc., 91

Mchalski, Bill, 214

McKell, Don, 202

Medline, 51

Melendy, Richard, 202

Microprocessors (see computers)

Mill, John Stuart, 68

Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, 58

and computers in Minnesota schools, 214-221

Mork, Kasey, 220

Museums

as educational institutions, 97-99

Federal role in, 160

impact of information technology on, 4, 99,

244-245

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 112

National Assessment of Educational Progress, 30

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES),

85, 89, 144

National Education Association (NEA), 153

National Education Television, 126

National Home Study Council (NHSC), 91

National Institute of Education (NIE), 112, 118, 119

National Institutes of Health (NIH), 112

National Library of Agriculture, 160

National Library of Medicine, 160

Medline service, 51

National Radio Institute (NRI), 91

National Science Foundation (NSF)

funding of computer-based mathematics

instruction, 134
268 ● Informational Technology and Its Impact on American Education

funding of educational technology research and

development by, 111-112, 114, 116, 121

funding of museum programs, 160

funding of PLATO computer-based instruction

system, 128

Mathematics Education Using Information

Technology Program, 119

Office of Science and Engineering Education, 112,

114, 135

report on science and technology education, 32, 33

sponsorship of research computer network by, 40

National Technical Information Service (NTIS), 51

National Telecommunications Information

Administration, 119

National Youth Administration (NYA), 154

Nelly, Mark, 214

New Jersey Institute of Technology, 52

Newspapers

electronic, 49

fear of competition from AT&T, 21

New York Times Information Service, 51

Ninth Circuit Court (U.S.), 172

Nixon administration

educational voucher plan of, 76-77

policy on library funding, 160-161

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory,

122, 136

Novato, Calif., 197-199

NSF (see National Science Foundation)

OCLC network, 239

Odom, Mike, 204, 208

Office of Education (OE) (see Department of

Education)

Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), 3, 107

case studies by, 8-9

Computer-Based National Information System, 4

findings of this assessment, 4-5, 15-16, 25, 37,

55, 67, 111, 136-137, 238, 245

premises of this assessment, 4

Olney, Dave, 191, 194

On-line information services

BRS, 239, 240

COCIS, 240

DIALOG, 239, 240

Dow Jones/Retrieval Service, 255

GIS, 240

ORBIT, 240

RLIN, 240

The Source, 50, 51, 240, 255

Open University (educational television), 56

Oregon State University, 164

O’Reilly, Jill, 194

Orvik, James, 229

OTA (see Office of Technology Assessment)

Otto, Susan, 227

Oxford, Mass., 203-209

Packet switching, 40

Patent Office (see Patent and Trademark Office)

Patent and Trademark Office, 153, 168, 169

Pergamon Press, 49

Phillipo, John, 204, 205, 208

Pierson, Geoff, 188, 194

Plato, 68

PLATO (computer-based instructional system), 57,

91, 112

use in flight training, 237

use in higher education, 130, 132

use by industry, 130

use in medical education, 133

use by the military, 130, 132

use in public schools, 130-131

use by special populations, 131

use by Tobacco Products Co., 235-236

Policy options

arguments for and against Federal action, 177-179

assumption of Federal leadership in educational

technology, 180-181

direct funding of demonstration projects,

teacher-training, and institutions, 11

direct funding of technology acquisition by

schools, 11

elimination of unintended regulatory barriers, 12

general education policy incorporating information

technology, 11-12, 181-184

subsidies for educational computer hardware, 179

subsidies for educational computer software,

11, 180

support of research and development, 12

tax incentives, 11

Pollak, Richard, 220

Postal Service, 7

Prizant, Jerry, 202

Protestant churches, 154

Public Broadcasting Service, 164

Publishing

impact of information technology on, 7-8

overlap with high technology, 49

Pugh, Richard, 201, 202

Purdue University, 164

Radio Shack (see Tandy Corp.)

Reading (Pennsylvania) Area Community

College, 130

Reagan administration, 161

Reagan, Billy, 221, 222, 227

bed, Madeline, 227

republican Party, 154

Richardson, Rob, 204, 208

Rogers, Patsy, 227

Rothe, Jack O., 202

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 68

Roustenstraugh, John, 227
Index . 269

Sakai, Brian, 202

Satellite Business Systems, 52

Satellites

communication by, 6, 37, 38-39

in industry-based training, 104-105

direct broadcasting from, 41-42

Say, Michael, 226, 227

Schneiderhan, Dale L., 220

Schools

climate for information technology use in, 143-145

elementary and secondary, 70-77

impact of information technology on, 4, 7-8, 19

mathematical, technical, and computer literacy

and, 31-32

private, 74-77

public, 70-74

public perception of, 4

productivity enhancement by information

technology, 11

proprietary, 85-92

two-year and community colleges, 83-85

universities and four-year colleges, 78-83

Schur, Walter, 208

Sension, Don, 220

Serrano decision, 159

Sesame Street (children’s television), 56, 112, 121,

126, 127, 128

Smith, Beverly, 194

Social Security Administration, 15

Sonoma State College, 198

Sony, 47

Southwest Regional Laboratory, 122

Soviet Union, 32

Sputnik 155

Stanford University, 134

Institute for Mathematical Studies, 133

Storm, Bruce, 194

Strategic, Inc., 142, 143

Sturdivant, Patricia, 222, 225, 227

Suppes, Patrick, 133

Supreme Court (U.S.), 172

Rodriguez v. San Antonio Independent School

District, 159

Tandy Corp. (Radio Shack), 43, 145

Telecommunication

effect of Federal regulation and legislation on

education, 161-162

Government control of, 162

Teleconferencing (see Electronic conferencing)

Teletext, 7

American-Canadian demonstration project, 119

principle of, 49

Television (also see video technology)

cable systems, 38

high-resolution, 5, 47

instructional television fixed services (ITFS),

163-164

National Science Foundation funding of

educational, 112

0

passive instructional programing in, 56

satellites in, 39

Texas Instruments, 46

Tobacco Products Co., 235-236

Toqueville, Alexis de, 68

Training and Maintenance Information System, 236

Troy, Patricia, 208

Tucker, Bob, 194

Turner, Cheryl, 201, 202

United Carpenters and Joiners of America, 108

United Press International, 50

United Rubber Workers, 108

United Steelworkers of America, 107

University of Alberta, 133

University of Colorado, 130

University of Delaware, 130

University of Illinois, 57, 112, 128

University of Pittsburgh

Learning Research and Development Center, 122

University of Southern California, 163

University of Wisconsin

Wisconsin Center for Educational Research, 122

University of Quebec, 130

Urban Institute, 114

U.S. Military Academy at West Point, 152

Veselka, Ronald, 227

Veterans Administration, 166

Video conferencing (see electronic conferencing)

Video disks (see video technology)

Video technology, 15

computer animation systems, 56

filmless camera, 7, 47

improved quality of, 47

integration with communications and computers,

48-49

in proprietary education, 90-92

video cassette recorders, 7, 47, 56, 143

video disks, 5, 7, 9, 47-48, 56, 57, 58, 104, 143,

145, 245, 255

video processing computer techniques, 56

videotext system, 7

Videotext, 49-50

VISICALC (computer software), 44, 58

Vojta, George, 27

Wagner, William (Sandy), 195, 202

War on Poverty, 156

Warner Communications Co. (Atari), 43, 46

Wayne State University, 106, 107

Wesley, Franklin, 222, 227

West Germany

technical literacy in, 32

White House Conference on Education (1954), 155

Winiarski, Paul, 208

Xerox, 43

Zachmeier, William, 200, 202