21

st Century

Skills

for

21

st Century

Jobs

A Report of the U.S. Department of Commerce,

U.S. Department of Education, U.S. Department of Labor,

National Institute of Literacy, and the Small Business Administration

January 1999
Acknowledgments

This report was prepared by Lisa Stuart with the assistance of Emily Dahm. In addition,

numerous Federal staff played an important role in its production, including:

High “Skip” Blanco, Joan Givens, Lisa Hudson, Carol Ann Meares, Michael Pilot,

Andrew Hartman, and Gary Reed.

Additional valuable comments and editing assistance were provided by Michelle Peluso,

Cecilia Rouse, Edward Montgomery, Jonathan Schnur, Georgia Katsoulomitis,

Carl Fillichio, Alexander Wohl, Mat Heyman, and Mark Bello.

Special thanks to Wendy Ellison, Norris Dickard, and Alice Johnson, who compiled,

wrote, and edited the section on Promising Partnerships and Programs.

A special debt is owed to the design staff, Karen Coffman and Wanda Foster of Aguirre

International, for their flexibility and grace.

A copy of this publication can be found online at http://www.vpskillsummit.org.

For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office

Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop, SSOP,

Washington, DC 20402-9328
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Table of Contents

i

Contents

Executive Summary .................................................................................................... iii

The Changing Economy............................................................................................... 1

Changing Skill Requirements for Existing Jobs........................................................ 2

Changing Skill Requirements for New Jobs.............................................................. 4

Employers and Workers Benefit from Investing in Education and Training ............ 6

Employers Benefit from a Skilled Workforce ........................................................... 7

Employees Benefit from Education and Training...................................................... 8

Foreshadowing the Challenges............................................................................... 12

Education and Training of the Workforce ................................................................ 13

Providers of Workforce Education and Training..................................................... 14

Educational Institutions ................................................................................... 14

Employers....................................................................................................... 15

Labor Unions................................................................................................... 16

The Public Sector ............................................................................................ 17

Participants in Education and Training ................................................................... 19

Next Steps: Challenges and Opportunities................................................................ 20

Workers................................................................................................................. 20

Employers.............................................................................................................. 21

Educational Institutions.......................................................................................... 21

Promising Partnerships and Programs: Examples from Across the United States.. 23

Endnotes..................................................................................................................... 35

Bibliography............................................................................................................... 41
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Executive Summary

iii

Executive Summary

Global competition, the Internet, and widespread use of technology all suggest that the

economy of the 21st century will create new challenges for employers and workers.

While it is possible to compete in this new global economy by creating low-wage, lowskilled jobs, America has chosen to take full advantage of its labor force and to create

high-performance workplaces. If economic success is to ensure a high quality of life for

all Americans, it will require adopting organizational work systems that allow worker

teams to operate with greater autonomy and accountability. These new forms of

organization and management cannot succeed without additional investments in the skills

of U.S. workers. In the workplace of the 21st century, the Nation’s workers will need to

be better educated to fill new jobs and more flexible to respond to the changing

knowledge and skill requirements of existing jobs. Meeting the challenge of employment

and training will call not only for the best efforts of employers, educators and trainers,

unions, and individual Americans, but also for new forms of cooperation and

collaboration among these groups. Lifelong skills development must become one of the

central pillars of the new economy.

With this responsibility comes enormous opportunity. Not only does a better educated

and trained workforce create significant productivity gains and better bottom line results

for American employers, but the more a worker learns, the more a worker earns. A

multitude of data demonstrate that greater education and training pay. For example:

• Employers that provide formal training for their employees see a 15 to 20 percent

average increase in productivity.

• Workers with more education earn higher wages. On average, college graduates earn

77 percent more than individuals with only a high school degree.

• Workers with more education enjoy greater benefits, experience less unemployment,

and, when dislocated from their jobs, find their way back into the workforce with

much more ease than those with less education. For example, dislocated workers

with a high school diploma spend nearly twice as long to find a new job as a worker

with an associate’s degree.

The good news is that society is responding, and education and training is increasing:

• More than 57 percent of business establishments report that since 1990, the amount

of formal education they provided has increased while only two percent report a

decrease.

• Unions are increasing their commitment to workforce education and training,

increasingly seeking joint union-management training initiatives; and more unions,

district councils, and locals are creating training funds for their members.

• From 1980 to 1995, enrollments at community colleges, which play a special role in

serving the needs of an older, employed student body, increased by 21 percent, due

mostly to part-time students.

• The Federal government has made education and training a top priority, increasing

investments in new programs and public resources, such as Hope Scholarships,
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

iv

Lifetime Learning Tax Credits, expanded Pell Grants, the Workforce Investment Act,

and One-Stop Career Centers. These innovative efforts are designed to make

education and training accessible, affordable, and convenient for all Americans.

But, as a nation, there is still more work to be done to increase lifelong learning and skills

development for all American workers, particularly for those who are starting with less

education or employment experience.

• More than 90 million adult Americans have low levels of literacy. These individuals

are not well-equipped to meet the challenges of the new economy and compete with

workers of nations with higher literacy rates than the United States.

• Those in most need of skills upgrading often go without. Nearly 90 percent of those

with at least a bachelor’s degree receive formal employer-provided training

compared with 60 percent of those who have a high school education or less.

• While the benefits from workforce skills development are clear, there are a variety of

challenges that inhibit a greater investment in skills development. Often the fear of

employee turnover and high training costs, particularly for small firms, serve as

disincentives to employers seeking to invest in workforce education and training.

Additionally, workers face a variety of constraints, such as a lack of time, money and

information which impede their efforts to continue learning throughout their lives.

America is on the verge of a promising — but also challenging — set of new economic

opportunities. In the 21st century, American competitiveness and worker prosperity will

be tied tightly to the education and skill attainment of the workforce. Recognizing that

no one can be left behind, it is incumbent on everyone — employers, educators and

trainers, unions, workers, and the government — to build aggressively and purposefully

upon the Nation’s progress. Dynamic partnerships are essential to ensuring that all

Americans have affordable and convenient access to acquiring skills for the 21st century

economy. The economic health of the Nation and individual well-being rest on the

success of this team effort.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

The Changing Economy

1

The Changing Economy

Although it is often difficult to understand fully the breadth of changes that take place

during one’s lifetime, most Americans have some appreciation of the vast changes in

technology, the workplace, and the economy over the last few decades and are continuing

today. Global competition, the Internet, and widespread use of technology all suggest

that the economy of the 21st century will create new challenges for employers and

workers. For America to compete in this new global economy, it can either create lowwage, low-skilled jobs or take full advantage of the Nation’s labor force and create high

performance workplaces. If economic success is going to ensure a high quality of life for

all Americans, it will require adopting organizational work systems that allow worker

teams to operate with greater responsibility, authority, and accountability. And the

United States has made its choice.

As recently as the 1950s, 20 percent of the workforce was professional, 20 percent was

skilled, and 60 percent was unskilled. In dramatic contrast, by 1997, while professionals

continued to be about 20 percent of the workforce, less than 20 percent are unskilled

workers, while more than 60 percent are skilled workers.1

This great change in the composition of the labor market signals the dramatic shift the

U.S. economy and workforce have been undergoing — a shift that is likely to continue in

the coming years. In order to address these changes, U.S. workers must have the training,

education, and skills necessary to navigate the next millennium.

The U.S. economy is projected to generate nearly 19 million new jobs over the period

from 1996 to 2006. Services will contribute to more job growth than all other industry

divisions combined.2 Despite the popular perception of the services industry as a lowwage, in general, this industry requires above average educational attainment and the

services industry trend alone will require a more highly educated and trained workforce.

Due in part to global competition and communication, as well as rapid advances in

technology, newer and more sophisticated systems of work, new ways to deliver

“In order to have a world class company and workforce,

corporate America must create and foster an environment

where there is continuous learning, training, alignment of

strategic goals, and knowledge-sharing through the

company. In doing so, it helps to create and prepare

workers to assume more responsibilities and solve

problems themselves. They need this to remain

competitive in the industry.”

Michael A. Johnston

Chairman, Merrill Lynch Credit Corporation

1997 Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Winner
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

2

products, and innovative systems of management, the majority of jobs in the 21st century

will require employees to have a broader range and depth of skills.

At the same time, “old” jobs are changing at a rapid pace. As computers and advanced

technology become commonplace features across American workplaces — on factory

floors, in small grocery stores, and in client-service operations — the basic and technical

skill requirements of traditional jobs are changing. And, as American companies embed

more knowledge in their product offerings and explore new, more team-oriented working

models, the average worker will need greater skills.

Changing Skill Requirements for Existing Jobs

The demand for skilled workers is not some “future shock.” American businesses know

that the need for skilled workers increases every day. Fifty-six percent of establishments

report that restructuring and the introduction of new technology has increased the skill

requirements for non-managerial employees.3 Indeed, American employers increasingly

seek employees with a portfolio of basic, technical, organizational, and company-specific

skills. 4 (See figure 1.)

1. Employers Seek a Variety of Skills

Basic Skills: The academic basics of reading, writing, and computation are needed in jobs of

all kinds. Reading skills are essential as most employees increasingly work with information

— on computer terminals, forms, charts, instructions, manuals, and other information

displays. Computation skills are needed to organize data for analysis and problem solving.

Writing is an essential part of communications, conveying guidance to others, and in

establishing a permanent base of information.

Technical Skills: Computer skills are well on their way to becoming baseline requirements

for many jobs. Workers use a growing array of advanced information, telecommunications,

and manufacturing technologies, as employers turn to technology to boost productivity and

efficiency, and to deliver services to customers in new ways. In 1986, business spending on

information technology represented 25 percent of total business equipment investment. By

1996, information technology’s share had risen to 45 percent. For some industries — such as

communications, insurance, and investment brokerages — information technology constitutes

over three-quarters of all equipment investment.5 Forty-two percent of production and nonsupervisory employees in manufacturing and service establishments now use computers.6

Moreover, information technology changes rapidly, requiring workers to frequently upgrade

their skills for competency in successive generations of technology.7

Organizational Skills: New systems of management and organization, as well as employeecustomer interactions, require a portfolio of skills in addition to academic and technical skills.

These include communication skills, analytical skills, problem-solving and creative thinking,

interpersonal skills, the ability to negotiate and influence, and self-management. More than

half of non-managerial employees participated in regularly scheduled meetings to discuss

work-related problems, indicating the need for these skills.8

Company Specific Skills: New technology, market changes, and competition drive companies

to innovate, constantly upgrade products and services, and focus on continuous improvement

of work processes. As a result, employees must frequently acquire new knowledge and skills

specifically relevant to the company's products and services, and their production processes or

service delivery modes.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

The Changing Economy

3

The sources for this demand are many. Certainly, enormous advances in technology are a

significant reason. Many products today incorporate advanced technologies such as

digital circuits and advanced materials. Their manufacture relies on an array of

automated technologies that control production and check quality. Materials delivery and

product distribution also require understanding and applying sophisticated computerized

information systems. Technology and knowledge are used increasingly to raise the value

of services. Wrapping services with extra knowledge-based features for the customer —

such as delivery or financing options, and other forms of customization — can help a

business differentiate its service from that of its competitor and provide an edge in the

marketplace.

At the same time, new forms of workplace organization and management are beginning

to replace hierarchical organizations, chain-of-command communications, as well as

narrow, repetitive jobs with little or no worker discretion. Team-based workplaces, and

decentralized, “flatter” organizations with cross-functional groups are replacing the old,

rigid, “stovepipe” organizations. (See figure 2.) For example, in a world-class

manufacturing plant, work teams may handle decision-making and other responsibilities

such as daily job assignments, materials management, and production scheduling.9

2. Jobs Are Changing Due to Shifts in Organization and Management10

Element Old System New System

Workplace

organization

Hierarchical

Function/specialized

Rigid

Flat

Networks of multi/cross-functional

teams

Flexible

Job design Narrow

Do one job

Repetitive/simplified/standar

dized

Broad

Do many jobs

Multiple responsibilities

Employee skills Specialized Multi/cross-skilled

Workforce

management

Command/control systems Self-management

Communications Top down

Need to know

Widely diffused

Big picture

Decision making

responsibility

Chain of command Decentralized

Direction Standard/fixed operating

procedures

Procedures under constant

change

Worker autonomy Low High

Employee knowledge

of organization

Narrow Broad
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

4

Changing Skill Requirements for New Jobs

Given this fresh focus, it should come as no surprise that the fastest growing jobs require

additional education and training, with the greatest increases in technology-related fields.

Trends in business and technology are placing a competitive premium on education and

training, creating opportunities for workers and workforce entrants who have

postsecondary degrees and who continue to upgrade their skills and knowledge. In this

workplace of today and tomorrow, those workers who have more education will be more

desirable as employees. America’s competitiveness will increasingly depend on what

Americans learn over their lifetimes. As Figure 3 indicates, eight of the ten fastest

growing jobs of the next decade require college education or moderate to long-term

training.

3. Jobs Requiring High Skills Will Experience Fastest Employment Growth

Projected Percent Change in Employment, 1996–200611

Note: The employment growth for all occupations is 14 percent.

Between 1996 and 2006, the U.S. economy is projected to increase employment by 14

percent on average. 12 Jobs requiring a bachelor’s degree will increase 25 percent, nearly

double the predicted national average. In contrast, jobs that do not require postsecondary

degrees will increase at rates that trail the national average.13

Within occupational categories, the message is the same: three out of four workers

currently are employed in occupations that generally require education and training

below the associate degree level — categories that are expected to grow more slowly than

average.14 Employment growth is expected to be fastest for positions that require some

type of formal postsecondary education.

12%

13%

15%

18%

18%

19%

22%

25%

7%

9%

8%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

Postsecondary vocational training

Long-term on-the-job training

Moderate-term on-the-job training

Work experience

Short-term on-the-job training

Master's degree

Work experience, plus bachelor's degree or higher

First professional degree

Doctoral degree

Associate's degree

Bachelor's degree

n Growing faster than the national average

n Growing below the national average
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

The Changing Economy

5

4. Most of the Fastest Growing Jobs Require More Education and Training

Projected Percent Change in Employment from 1996–200615

Of the 10 job categories that are projected to grow the fastest, only two — home health

aides and personal and home care aides — require skills that can be acquired through

short-term, on-the-job training. The three positions that will increase at the highest rates

— database administrators, computer engineers, and systems analysts — all generally

demand college degrees. (See figure 4.)

The facts are clear. As the nation approaches the 21st century, the need for educated and

skilled workers is greater than ever. New jobs will increasingly require a more educated

workforce. Even traditional jobs will require workers with a broader, deeper and more

flexible portfolio of skills.

However, the amount of training American workers need to navigate the new economy is

varied. Many adult Americans lack even basic skills. Ninety million adult Americans are

at the lowest levels of literacy. More than 1 in 5 Americans demonstrate literacy and

numeracy skills at or below the 5th- grade level while another 25–28 percent demonstrate

skills between the 6th- and 8th-grade levels.16 At the same time, other adults need only

small amounts of additional training to meet the skill needs of the new economy. This

begins to paint a picture of the diverse challenges we face in order to increase investment

in the skills and education of the workforce.

74%

76%

79%

85%

103%

109%

118%

69%

71%

74%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

Occupational therapy assistants

Physical therapists

Desktop publishing specialists

Medical assistants

Home health aides

Physical therapy assistants

Personal and home care aides

Systems analysts

Computer engineers

Database administrators, computer support

n Moderate-term on-the-job training or greater

n Short-term on-the-job training
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

6

Employers and Workers Benefit from

Investing in Education and Training

Investing in the education and training of the American workforce yields significant

advantages for individual workers and employers alike, especially given the drive to

create high-performance workplaces that emphasize worker autonomy and flexibility.

Workers with advanced or upgraded skills are one of several key investments for

competitive business performance, which in turn, are essential to raising the standard of

living for all Americns.

For employers, the gains resulting from providing increased education and training are

significant. Company support of further skills development expands the pool of workers

from which employers recruit, hire, and promote, consequently increasing their

productivity, and ultimately, increasing competitiveness and employers’ bottom lines.

For individuals, higher levels of education and training can result in significant benefits,

from higher wages to greater job security. Indeed, the higher the level of education and

training workers have, the higher their average corresponding wages. Additionally,

workers with more education average lower unemployment rates, find new jobs faster

and are more likely to have employment-provided benefits. Education and training is

part of a positive cycle of benefits for both employers and workers.

A note to readers: For purposes of this report, “education” generally refers to skill

enhancements received through the elementary and secondary school systems, adult basic

education providers and traditional academic post-secondary education programs. “Training”

generally refers to skill development that occurs in vocational settings. A subset of training is

“on-the-job training” (i.e. training that usually occurs in the course of employment). Training

can be formal (e.g. classroom based with a set curriculum) or informal (e.g. “learning while

doing” and assistance provided as needed).

From its very beginning America has expressed a

commitment to fulfilling the dreams and potential of its

people through education. Since the time of Thomas

Jefferson, the democratic system has been based on

developing an informed citizenry.

The Commission for a Nation of Lifelong Learners,

November 1997
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Employers and Workers Benefit

7

Employers Benefit from a Skilled Workforce

To run a successful business, an employer needs qualified, creative, and highly-motivate

workers. Unfortunately, employers today have concerns about the quality of their

workforces and the pool of job applicants. On average, employers report that one out of

every five of their workers is not fully proficient in his or her job.17

5. Education Increases Productivity

Factors Associated with Productivity Growth18

To remedy this situation, many employers have begun to invest in workforce skills, an

investment which substantially benefits both employers and employees, particularly when

the workplace is structured in a way that takes full advantage of worker skills.

• One study found that establishments whose workforce had a 10 percent higher than

average educational attainment level had an 8.6 percent higher than average

productivity level. (See figures 5.) In comparison, establishments with a 10 percent

higher than average level of capital investment had only a 3.4 percent higher than

average payoff from the capital. The study found that these differences were even

larger in the non-manufacturing sector than in the other sectors of the economy.19

This is an especially important finding considering the very large role serviceproducing industries play in the American economy.

• In addition to educational attainment, research on the economic effects of employerbased training consistently shows significant benefit to firm productivity. Firms that

provide formal, on the job training, raise their productivity by roughly 15 to 20

percent, on average.20

3.4%

8.6%

0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%

10% Higher level in

capital stock

10% Higher level in

education

Percent increase in productivity
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

8

Employees Benefit from Education and Training

Although investing in workforce education and training produces tangible benefits to

employers, those benefits are not limited to employers alone. It is a well established that

workers also benefit from education and training. Employers recognize that a more

skilled and educated workforce performs better, and they reward those skilled workers in

a variety of ways. The most obvious benefit to an employee with skills and education is

higher wages. For example, in 1997 more educated workers had substantially higher

earnings than less educated workers. (See figure 6.)

6. Increased Education Means Higher Wages

Mean Annual Earnings by Educational Attainment, 199721

• In 1997, the average high school graduate earned 42 percent more than the average

person with less than a high school education — $22,895 compared to $16,124. The

average college graduate made 77 percent more than the typical high school graduate

— $40,478 compared to $22,895.22 In addition, the economic payoff to education is

strong both for continuing students as well as returning adult students.23

• Even the middle range of earnings for college graduates is barely achievable for the

overwhelming majority of high school graduates. Among male workers, fewer than

20 percent of high school graduates are likely to achieve the median earnings of

college graduates.24

• Non-degree postsecondary programs also increase earnings. For example, one year

of non-degree education at a community college increases hourly wages above those

for high school graduates by eight percent for males and five percent for females

under 21 years old. Adult males gain an even larger return from non-degree college

education. On average, their wages are 14 percent higher than those of their high

school graduate counterparts.25

While education has always been valuable, the growing importance of knowledge and

skills in the workplace have made it more valuable than ever.

$16,124

$22,895 $26,235

$40,478

$63,229

$0

$10,000

$20,000

$30,000

$40,000

$50,000

$60,000

$70,000

< High school High school Associate's

degree

Bachelor's

degree

Advanced

degree

Highest level of educational attainment
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Employers and Workers Benefit

9

• In 1975, a college graduate earned 58 percent more than a high school graduate,

growing in 1997 to a 77 percent wage premium.26

• Americans increasingly recognize the value of education. Today, young people are

nearly twice as likely to have a bachelor’s degree as someone over the age of 65.27

Given the payoffs to education and training, it is no surprise that, over time, more

Americans have increased their investments in college education.

7. Higher Earnings for those with More Training

Median Weekly Earnings of Full-Time Workers by Educational Attainment and

Receipt of Training, 199128

Note: Data tracks workers who needed no training to qualify for their current jobs.

Formal schooling is not the only means of raising the incomes of American workers.

Overall, workers who receive skill improvement training earn higher wages, regardless of

their level of education.

• Even among workers with the same educational attainment, those who receive

training have significantly higher earnings. (See figure 7.) The wage premium of

those with training ranges from 26 percent for high school graduates to 33 percent for

those with one to three years of college.29

• Moreover, some kinds of training are associated with higher wages than other kinds

of training. Formal company-provided training produces the largest wage benefits

for employees at all educational levels, with a 16 percent increase in the first year. 30

In contrast, one study showed that on average, informal, “learning-by-doing,”

training did not appear to lead to significant long-term wage increases.31

• Productivity increases in the manufacturing sector are greater for firms the more time

employees spend in formal, off-the-job training. This may be because employers

$263

$314

$353

$461

$333

$396

$471

$601

$0 $100 $200 $300 $400 $500 $600 $700

College graduate

1 to 3 years of college

High school graduate

Fewer than 12 years

Median weekly earnings

Workers who had

training

Workers who had

not had training
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

10

who invest in off-the-job skill development may choose more advanced and timeintensive training.32

Payoffs to increased education go beyond increased earnings. For example, greater skills,

education and training produce a greater likelihood that an employee will receive a

pension and health insurance33 and have greater employment security. For example,

unemployment rates are significantly lower for those with more education.34

8. Lower Unemployment Rates for Those with More Education

Unemployment Rates for 25–64 Year-Olds by Educational Attainment,

1970-199735

• High school dropouts experienced the most unemployment over the last two decades,

with average unemployment rates of nearly 11 percent from 1977 to 1997, compared

to average unemployment rates of 2.5 percent for those with four years or more of

college education.36 (See figure 8.)

• In terms of basic skills, among adults who have difficulty interpreting data from

sources such as uncomplicated tables, graphs and maps (i.e,. those who are at the two

lowest levels of literacy), 65 percent are not in the labor force. In comparison, only

10 percent of adults who can easily interpret complex documents (i.e., those who are

at the two highest levels of literacy) are not in the labor force. Similarly, 70 percent

of those who are unemployed are at the lowest literacy levels, while only 5 percent of

the unemployed are at the highest levels.37

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

19701972197419761978198019821984198619881990199219941996

Less than 4 years of high school High school graduate

1-3 years of college 4 years or more of college 
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Employers and Workers Benefit

11

Similarly, workers with the lowest educational attainment are more likely to lose their

jobs than workers with more education. And, workers are more likely to secure new jobs

as their level of educational attainment increases. Higher educational attainment offers

greater employment security, even for those who are fired, laid off or downsized.

9. Displaced Workers with More Education are More Likely to Find

Reemployment

1998 Status of Workers Who Lost Jobs in 1995, 1996, or 199738

• Among displaced workers, those who had the most success in finding new jobs had

higher educational attainments. For example, only 7.4 percent of displaced workers

with a bachelor’s degree or higher remained unemployed in 1998 after losing their

jobs in either 1995, 1996 or 1997; 15.8 percent of displaced workers with less than a

high school diploma were still looking for work in 1998.39 (See figure 9.)

• Displaced workers with more education re-enter the workforce at much faster rates

than those with less education. Dislocated workers with a high school diploma spent

a median 8.5 weeks before finding a new job — nearly twice as long as a worker

with an associate’s degree.

40

• On average, of those displaced workers who found a replacement job, the wages for

the new job were higher than wages for their previous job for those with an

associate’s degree or more and lower for those with less than an associate’s degree.41

63.6 15.8

9

13.9

15.7

20.6

83.6

78

72.5 11.8

8

7.4 Bachelor's degree or

higher

Associate's degree or

some college, no

degree

High school diploma

Less than high school

diploma

Employed Unemployed Not in the labor force
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

12

Foreshadowing the Challenges

In the new economy, investing in education and training increases competitiveness and

productivity for businesses. This translates into prosperity and security for workers.

While the benefits to workforce development are fairly clear for both employers and

workers, there are legitimate reasons that more employers and workers have not

increased their investments in these activities.

Firms may fear that an investment in workers would lead to a higher turnover in their

workforce. While this fear may be lessened for those providing skills that are unique to

the particular firm, the loss of employees with transferable skills could make such

training a poor investment. In addition, firms, particularly small businesses, may not

invest in workforce development because of prohibitive costs associated with providing

training as well as a lack of full information about the potential benefits.

Similarly, some workers are not able to pursue additional skills development. A general

lack of the information or a lack of a single source of information may mask the range of

opportunities that are available. In addition, high tuition can also discourages workers

from pursuing additional training and education. Similarly, a lack of adequate

transportation, family obligations, and a lack of child or elder care often limits when and

where workers can engage in workforce education and training. And, some employees

may not receive training or education because of unique barriers particular to members of

certain racial, ethnic and age groups, to women, and to those with disabilities.

Finally, this inability to address adults’ needs can limit participation in education and

training, as well as limiting the benefits for those who do appreciate it. Overcoming

these very tangible barriers to participation in work-related education and training

requires many education and training programs are not adequately designed to meet the

needs of the adult learner.

As overcoming barriers to investing in education and training are fundamental to the

success of workforce skills development, these and other barriers are addressed in more

detail in a later chapter.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Education and Training of the Workforce

13

Education and Training of the Workforce

It is apparent that there are many providers of workforce education and training. Not

surprisingly, the most common providers are employers. Employers know what skills

they need their workforce to possess, and many businesses are increasingly taking the

initiative to ensure that their employees are equipped with these skills.

Educational institutions also have an important role in educating and training the

workforce, not only independently, but also as vendors to employers who seek outside

providers of training. Community colleges play a particularly important role in adult

education as they are often geared toward educating an older, working population.

Also, labor unions have committed to working with management to create far-reaching

training initiatives. Unions’ negotiations with employers have created productive joint

union-management initiatives. These initiatives often focus on broader skills

development when compared with the firm-specific training usually offered by

employers.

Finally, the government also has a stake in educating the workforce. While many of the

government’s training efforts focus on low-income and unemployed individuals, this

focus is being expanded through a variety of programs and initiatives that address the

broader labor force.

With so much activity by so many providers, it is important to note that workforce

training and education is not evenly spread throughout the labor force. The young, the

elderly, and the less-educated are less likely to receive education and training. Such

disparities mean that there are substantial voids in today’s training efforts, creating

challenges with significant economic and social consequences.

“100 years ago they struck gold in California. 10 years

ago I struck gold with Project Read ”

Enrique Ramirez,

United Airlines computer trainer

and former baggage handler
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

14

Providers of Workforce Education and Training

Educational Institutions

Among educational institutions, community colleges are well-suited to serve adult

workers. They are economical, often conveniently located, offer flexible schedules and

broad accessibility, and provide a wide array of vocational course offerings. Indeed,

community colleges (or public two-year institutions) enroll older students who are more

likely to be working and are more likely to be enrolled part-time than are students who

attend four-year educational institutions.

• The average age of students at all public two-year institutions was 29, compared to an

average age of 24 for students at four-year colleges.42

• Eighty-four percent of students at public, two-year institutions work while in school,

compared to 76 percent at public and private four-year institutions.43

• From 1980 to 1995, public and private four-year college enrollments increased 16

percent, while enrollments at two-year public colleges (primarily community

colleges) increased 21 percent.44 Much of this increased enrollment can be attributed

to increased part-time enrollments.

• Sixty-five percent of students at public two-year colleges enroll part-time compared

to 23 percent at four-year colleges.45 While full-time enrollments increased at the

same rate for four-year and two-year colleges from 1980–1995, part-time enrollment

increased by 26 percent for public, two-year colleges compared with 18 percent in

four-year colleges.46

In order to accommodate these nontraditional students, educational institutions have

adopted new and innovative methods for delivering instruction. One such method is

distance learning, the most common form of which is video technology. In addition,

courses on the Internet are also expanding.47 Distance education offers great potential for

providing education and training to disabled individuals, those in rural or isolated areas,

those on nontraditional time schedules, and other individuals who find it difficult to

attend traditional classroom training.

• One third of all higher education institutions offered distance education courses in the

fall of 1995 and another quarter planned to offer such courses by 1998.48

• Public institutions offered distance education courses much more frequently than did

private institutions. Fifty-eight percent of public two-year and 62 percent of public

four-year institutions offered distance education courses in the fall of 1995, compared

with 20 percent of private two-year and 12 percent of private four-year institutions.49

• Workers are the most commonly targeted group of students for distance education

courses. Thirty-nine percent of all institutions offering distance education target

professionals seeking re-certification, and 49 percent target other workers who are

seeking skills training.50
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Education and Training of the Workforce

15

Employers

While formal schooling provides an essential foundation for the education and skills

needed by the average American worker, the provision of new skills and training is no

longer limited to school.

• Business and industry provide almost one-half of the work-related training and

education courses taken by adults.51

• Employer-provided training has been on the rise. In 1994, 57 percent of

establishments reported that the level of formal training they provided had increased

since 1990, while only two percent reported a decrease in formal training.52

Employers, on average, spend about $30 to $40 billion annually on formal worker

training. This amounts to about one percent of payroll costs. However, not all firms are

equally likely to provide education and training to their workforce. 53

• On one hand, a few companies make relatively large commitments to training.

Companies like IBM, Motorola, and Federal Express spend between three and five

percent of payroll on training their employees.54

• On the other hand, in the manufacturing sector, over half (53 percent) of American

manufacturers spend less than 1 percent of their payroll on training and four percent

of manufacturing companies spend nothing. Nearly one-half do not have retraining

programs to provide incumbent workers with new or updated skills.55
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

16

10. Most Formal Training Focuses on Job-Related Skills

Formal Training by Purpose56

Just over one-half of training participants learn general skills which accounts for onethird of total training hours.57

 Conversely, nearly one-half of training participants learn

job-related skills, which accounts for two-thirds of total hours of training.58

• While computer training comprises a relatively high proportion (20 percent) of total

training hours,59 basic skills training makes up only one percent of total employerprovided training. 60

• There are key distinctions between where, when, and how employers provide

training. Most employer-provided training takes place on-site in the workplace and

during normal business hours. Overall, 71 percent of the formal training reported

takes place during work hours with three-quarters of that training taking place in the

workplace.61

Labor Unions

Labor unions have a long history of making workforce education and training a priority,

both at the bargaining table and by advocating for comprehensive public systems. In a

wide range of industries, labor organizations have operated training programs as well as

created mechanisms for privately financing worker education and training. The Joint

Apprenticeship Training Committees spend $500 million a year to train apprentices and

journeymen at more than 1000 locations in the U.S. and Canada.62

Through collective bargaining unions and employers often agree to fund a broad range of

work-related education and training. Particularly, among small firms, where training is

less prevalent, firms that are unionized are more likely to offer training than those that are

not unionized.

63

Clerical and 

administrative

5%

Service related

5%

Sales and customer 

relations 

7%

Management

7%

Production and 

construction

10%

Professional technical

12%

Computer

Basic skills 21%

1%

Other

2%

Orientation

6%

Occupational safety

11%

Communications and 

quality

13%

General skills training

Job-related skills training
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Education and Training of the Workforce

17

• Typically, labor-management negotiations include a formula for providing

guaranteed, predictable financing, and co-administration of the training fund.

• Joint training partnerships also secure for workers some of the general skills training

that employers may not otherwise provide, making the workers more adaptable to

changing job requirements.64

• In comparison to many traditional employer-provided training programs, joint

training initiatives tend to focus more on career development and the special needs

and considerations of adult learners. As a result, participation in these programs is

often high.

• The United Steelworkers of America—Institute for Career Development boasts a

participation rate of 23 percent,65 and nearly 40 percent of the employees at AT&T

participate in programs sponsored by the Alliance for Employee Growth and

Development.66

As unions help fill the gap for broader skills development, they are accompanied by the

efforts of the government in fostering general skills development for a wide range of

workers.

The Public Sector

The local, state, and federal governments invest substantially in training and

postsecondary education. In fiscal year 1998, the Federal government’s expenditure for

postsecondary education was $48 billion. Federal programs finance two-thirds of all

direct student aid (excluding state and local support for higher education).67 For example,

in 1994–95, funding through the Pell grant program helped just under 1.5 million adults

over the age of 24 further their education and training.68

In addition to Pell grants, student loans and tax credits, the Federal government invests

nearly $7 billion a year through Department of Labor programs to help low-skilled and

jobless individuals train for and find jobs. Through the Workforce Investment Act, OneStop Career Centers are being expanded to provide incumbent, disabled, low-income ,and

dislocated workers with job search assistance, employment counseling, and training

services. 69

Reflected by its many new and innovative programs, the Federal government has placed a

high priority on making education and training accessible, affordable, and convenient for

all Americans. (See figure 11.) Many of these programs are carried out at the state and

local levels.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

18

11. Federal Initiatives that Support Workforce Education and Training

Postsecondary Education and Other Training

Hope Scholarships: With Hope Scholarships, students in the first two years of

college or other eligible post-secondary training program can get a tax credit of up to

$1,500 for tuition and fees.

Lifetime Learning Credit: Students beyond the first two years of college, or those

taking classes part-time to upgrade their job skills, can receive a 20 percent credit for

the first $5,000 of tuition and fees each year through 2002. After the year 2002, the

credit is available on the first $10,000 in tuition and fees.

Pell Grants: This program provides grants to low and middle-income undergraduate

students.

Student Loans: Federal Family Education Loan program guarantees commercial

loans, and the Direct Loan Program provides loans directly to schools and students.

Learning Anytime, Anywhere Partnerships: Provides grants to partnerships of two

or more independent organizations to ensure that high-quality learning opportunities

are available to distance education students.

Montgomery G.I. Bill — Active Duty and Selected Reserve: Veterans and

reservists receive education benefits for degree and certificate programs, flight training,

apprenticeship/on the job training, correspondence courses, and other training.

Veterans Educational Assistance Program: Benefits may be used for degree and

certificate programs, and other training.

Workforce Development

Exclusion for Employer-Provided Educational Assistance: A tax-exemption for

employer-provided educational assistance for undergraduate courses that begin

before June 1, 2000. Employers may continue to provide up to $5,250 per year in

educational assistance to each employee on a tax-exempt basis for courses beginning

before that date, regardless of whether the education is job-related.

Workforce Investment Act of 1998: Provides job search, employment counseling,

and training services to adults, dislocated workers, and youth.

One-Stop Delivery Systems: In a single neighborhood resource center, One Stops

provide information about and access to a wide array of job training, education, and

employment services.

Adult Education and Literacy: Funds state and local programs to help educationally

disadvantaged adults—including welfare recipients and immigrants—develop basic

skills (including literacy), complete secondary education, and learn English.

America’s Learning Exchange (ALX): Part of America’s Career Kit, ALX is an

Internet program makes it easier for employers and individuals to find the training they

need.

Manufacturing Extension Partnership: Helps smaller manufacturers address work

with education and training providers to match their capabilities with manufacturers’

requirements. Companies are assisted through more than 400 non-profit linked

centers and offices around the country.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Education and Training of the Workforce

19

Participants in Education and Training

To fully understand the state of workforce education and training in the U.S., it is

important to understand not only what kind of education and training is being provided

and by whom, but also, who is receiving that education and training. In 1995, 40 percent

of people 16 years of age or older and not enrolled full-time in school participated in

some form of adult education; one-half of them were enrolled in work-related courses.70

Roughly four million adults were enrolled in basic education and English as a Second

Language courses.71

12. Most Educated Employees Receive the Most Formal Training

Percent Receiving Formal Training by Educational Level72

Among workers who receive formal, employer-provided training, the most educated reap

the greatest benefits. Nearly 90 percent of those with at least a bachelor’s degree receive

formal employer-provided training, compared to 68 percent of those who have some

college and 60 percent of those who have a high school education or less.73 (See figure

12.)

Additionally, workers in positions associated with professional and managerial work are

the most likely to participate in education and training courses.

• College teachers, managers and executives, and other professionals have an adult

education participation rate of 41 to 47 percent; those in service, sales, and

administrative support positions have a participation rate of 21 to 29 percent, while

those in the trades participate at rates of 11 to 22 percent.74

• These differences in participation rates are influenced by the fact that some

professions require higher levels of education. And, the more technical the job, the

more likely the worker is to participate in work-related education.75

Thus, while many workers are participating in education and training, this participation is

not even across all segments of the workforce. In order to improve access opportunities

for all Americans, it is imperative to understand the barriers that limit many workers and

employers’ investments in education and training.

68

90

60

0

20

40

60

80

100

High school or less Some college Bachelor's degree or

more
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

20

Next Steps: Challenges and Opportunities

Given the demand for skills and the clear benefits of greater education and training for

both employers and workers, the challenge to the Nation is to develop and maintain the

best-skilled workforce in the world. Effective partnerships among employers, workers,

educational institutions and the government can help businesses and workers overcome

the challenges that so often limit their training investments, so that they many reap the

benefits associated with increased skill development.

Workers

The incentives to acquiring additional education and training are powerful. Higher

skilled workers are paid more and are less likely to lose their jobs or to remain

unemployed than are less skilled workers. And yet, only 10 percent of those expressing

an interest in additional education or training actually enroll in a training program.76 The

reason for this lack of action is, that while the benefits of further skill development are

high, many of the costs are also high, particularly for adults.

• Focus groups of incumbent workers interested in lifelong learning indicate that there

are three primary barriers to pursuing additional education or training: the difficulty

of scheduling courses, the time commitment required, and the cost.77 The most

common barriers to participation reported by non-participants who knew of offerings

were a lack of time (47 percent) and high cost (30 percent).78

• Also at issue may be a lack of good information about opportunities for workers to

participate in additional education and training. Of adults who expressed an interest

in work-related courses, 40 percent were unaware of relevant offerings.79 The lack of

“Our mission is to provide the women in our program

with the tools and resources they need to make

informed decisions and determine their own path in

life. The role of our training program is to provide

information, training, access to resources, both

financial and technical, self-development and support.

We try to demystify the process and provide practical

information as well as technical training. We seek to

empower women by providing them with the

knowledge to be self-sufficient.”

Lynn Cutler, President

Women’s Opportunities Resource Center
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Next Steps: Challenges and Opportunities

21

a single source of information about all available programs makes it difficult and

time-consuming to obtain needed information on educational opportunities.80

Any effective strategy to increase the skills of the workforce must reduce the substantial

barriers that workers face in getting additional education and training. Innovations in

distance learning, financial aid, workplace-based education programs, and centralized

career centers are promising approaches to easing such constraints.

Employers

Among the gains associated with workforce skill development are increased productivity.

If the costs of providing this development were minimal, many employers would expand

investments in their workforce. However, the costs are not necessarily minimal. Many

employers hesitate to train their workers to have general, portable skills, in part, because

they fear losing their workers after they have trained them. As a result, firms are more

likely to train workers to have company-specific, non-transferable skills.81 Similarly,

employers are less likely to invest in workers they anticipate will leave the firm.82 That

said, at least one recent study shows that workers who participated in training were

neither more nor less likely to leave their firm after training. This result suggests that a

better understanding of the effects of training on worker mobility may ease employers’

fears.83

While these challenges can affect any firm, they are likely to be most acute among

smaller firms--and the majority of American workers are employed by small- and

medium-sized companies.84

• Firms may have prohibitively high training costs per employee. Smaller firms, in

particular, usually have a smaller group of workers at any given time who need

training, limiting their ability to spread the costs of training over a large employee

base.

• A smaller workforce limits the ability of small firms to retrain and promote workers

from within the firm85 which also acts to discourage smaller firms from investing in

and providing as much formal training as their larger counterparts.

• An even more formidable barrier in firms may be the lack of expertise and technical

resources necessary to design and implement effective workforce development

programs.

Education and training efforts are heavily concentrated among large firms and those

businesses with lower turnover. However, as employers adopt new and changing

technologies, an increasing number will need to explore ways to expand and update the

skills of their workforce. Regional consortia and labor management partnerships are two

promising approaches to decreasing training costs by spreading them among several

entities, thereby making training more affordable and reducing employer concerns about

employee turnover.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

22

Educational Institutions

Educational institutions, including two-year, four-year, technical and vocational colleges,

are important providers of workforce education and training. Regular degree programs,

non-credit offerings, and customized training programs all play a role in workforce skill

development. To best serve the needs of workers and employers, educational institutions

must address employers’ needs for both general and industry-specific training, as well as

employees’ needs to minimize time, cost, and scheduling burdens.

Understanding the obstacles the adult working population faces in acquiring additional

education is essential to increasing enrollments among this population. In response to the

challenges of educating a working population, educational institutions have a number of

factors to consider when designing course offerings:

• Adults often have special learning needs. For example, curricula and teaching styles

that serve young people well may not be effective for the returning student.

• Among adults potentially interested in acquiring additional education or training, 54

percent report lack of time as a barrier, forty percent report that courses are not

available at convenient times, and 25 percent consider distance between their home

and educational institutions to be a barrier.86

• Forty-one percent of participants in adult education said their “work schedule” made

it difficult to participate in adult education, 37 percent said that “meeting times”

constituted an obstacle, 30 percent said that family responsibilities interfered with

their participation, and 22 percent cited the location of classes as a barrier.87

• A majority of participants look for programs and focused on particular careers that

can be completed in a relatively short period of time, even if undertaken part-time

while working. Participants report a need for flexibility in education programs,

including scheduling of classes, access to professors, and counseling outside of

working hours.88

• Lack of financial resources is an issue for a majority of adults (56 percent) who are

interested in acquiring additional education and training.89 Some participants believe

they are unable to afford further education and training without financial aid because

of other financial obligations, but are ineligible for aid because of their income level.

Many participants believe they have little choice but to borrow money, even though

some express reluctance to take on more debt.90

Educational institutions can be the medium through which employers’ needs for a skilled

workforce and workers’ needs for convenient and affordable work-related education and

training are met. By understanding the skill needs of employers and the scheduling,

financial, and family needs of employees, educational institutions can play a substantial

and powerful role in the development of workforce education.

Education and training are pillars in constructing a competitive nation. The benefits to

additional education and training are clear but the barriers and obstacles are not

inconsequential. Employers, labor unions, workers, educational institutions, and

government must work together to take full advantage of our workforce to thrive in the

economy of the new millennium.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Promising Partnerships and Programs

23

Promising Partnerships and Programs:

Examples from Across the United States

This document profiles a representative sample of programs and partnerships around

worker training and lifelong learning. Helping workers continually improve their skills

throughout their careers will go a long way towards increasing the economic

competitiveness of our nation, the productivity of our businesses, and the job security and

satisfaction of our workforce. These partnerships and programs generally:

1. Help incumbent workers get the skills they need to get new jobs in emerging highgrowth fields (such as technology and healthcare).

2. Help incumbent workers get the skills they need to continue to grow in their current

jobs.

3. Help individuals get the basic skills they need to enter or move up in the workforce.

4. Help dislocated workers get the skills they may need to re-enter the workforce.

Alliance for Employee Growth and Development

8201 Corporate Drive, Suite 20

Landover, MD 20785

The Alliance is a joint training trust, which involves AT&T, Lucent Technologies, the

Communications Workers of America and the International Brotherhood of Electrical

Workers (IBEW). Most programs are delivered through a network of training providers,

private vendors as well as colleges and universities. Using technology, the Alliance

supports individual efforts to develop career and personal growth, and to enhance

employability through continuous learning experiences.

More than 200 joint labor management Alliance Local Committees help identify

educational needs, coordinate training, and build enrollment. Among the many

innovative programs, the Alliance provides “Life/Work Planning” to assess an

employee’s aptitude and professional objectives. A recent initiative, the “technical skill

aptitude” assessment, supports Alliance participants preparing to enter “high-tech”

“Investment in continuous learning has been critical to

achieving our vision. Most importantly, it has reinforced

that people are our most important asset, produced a

highly-motivated team, and increased the level of service to

our customers.”

—Ed Shultz, Chairman

 Dana Commercial Credit Corporation
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

24

certification programs. Following the assessment, an ongoing plan for self-development

is created and implemented. Using distance learning, participants can receive instruction

via electronic means, including the Internet. In addition, the program provides accredited

training programs through collaboration with local education institutions. Also, the

program provides customized technical training that allows employees to update their

technical skills for evolving positions. Many Alliance courses help employees improve

basic business skills for their current jobs. Some courses prepare them for new

assignments within a company, while others prepare them for work in a variety of other

fields.

Association of Rehabilitation Programs in Computer Technology

Tate Center for Technology and Educational Reform

Western Michigan University

3210 Sangren

Kalamazoo, MI 49008

The Association of Rehabilitation Programs in Computer Technology (ARPCT) is the

nation’s largest source of programmers, system analysts, and other computer related

professionals with disabilities. It is estimated that over 10,000 of Americas current

programmers and system analysts are persons with disabilities who are former graduates

of the ARPCT training programs. Many of these individuals are persons with significant

disabilities. The Association of Rehabilitation Programs in Computer Technology has

forty-eight members that include 15 education programs at the university and college

level as well as seventeen programs at rehabilitation training facilities. Almost all were

originally started as IBM sponsored projects.

The programs all have a Business Advisory Committee that consists mostly of

management information systems and other computer managers from major corporations

across the nation. All ARPCT programs have a commitment to train and place people in

successful computer careers. Participants, by addressing challenges in a direct and

positive manner, know how to succeed in the workplace.

Chicago Commons Employment and Training Center (ETC)

1633 North Hamlin

Chicago, IL 60647

Chicago Commons Employment and Training Center (ETC) is an adult literacy and job

training program serving long-term welfare recipients who face numerous obstacles to

self-sufficiency, including learning disabilities. Women receiving public aid come to

ETC for the opportunity to improve their skills and simultaneously resolve the various

issues affecting their lives. Most participants struggle with many barriers that have kept

them from success in the past. A majority of participants are long-term welfare recipients

who are considered to be “hardest to serve.”

ETC works with participants to provide a bridge to jobs or high-quality vocational

programs. The program’s strengths include innovative community partnerships and a

strong customer focus. They also work closely with local businesses to find out what

skills are needed for real jobs. The program tailors education and training activities

according to employers’ needs. They also work with businesses to arrange

apprenticeships and internships for their clients. (Many clients are offered a full-time job

after their apprenticeship/internship.) While most entrants into the program read below
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Promising Partnerships and Programs

25

the sixth grade level, within two years, 32 percent have become employed and another 17

percent have earned their GED. The participant success rate is due largely to a rich array

of support services — many provided by partnering agencies — including child care, a

health clinic, career counseling, transportation stipends, and a toy and book lending

library. ETC has established a multi-agency program that provides a seamless web of

services to participants. Although as many as five agencies have worked at the ETC site,

participants perceive ETC as one comprehensive program.

Distributive Training Technology Project

Army National Guard

111 South George Mason Drive

Arlington, VA 22204-1382

The National Guard Bureau (NGB) has been designated by Congress as the Executive

Agent to conduct the NGB Distributive Training Technology Project (DTTP). This effort

is a distributive learning (DL) project designed to meet the increasing educational and

training needs required to ensure National Guard troop readiness. In addition, the

learning and information delivery system devised for readiness purposes will be used to

provide Guardsmen and members of their communities broad access to education,

training, and information for development of new skills, life-long learning, and enhanced

quality of life.

Distributive learning is the delivery of education or training through electronically

mediated instruction including video, audio graphic, computer, multimedia technology,

and other forms of learning to students who are separated geographically from the

instructor. The NGB DTTP includes the development, operation and maintenance of

linked distance learning centers in state designated facilities. The NGB is responsible for

overall design and implementation of the network, software, equipment, installation,

integration, and courseware availability. The program has the additional responsibility of

establishing and promoting civil and governmental shared usage of the DL sites on a

space available, reimbursable basis.

The core business concept of the DTTP is the idea of public-private partnerships through

shared usage. By sharing the costs of operating these technology-supported learning

centers, each site can become financially self-sustaining. Revenue generated through

shared use of equipment and services can offset operational and maintenance costs while

providing the sites with state-of-the-art technology.

Family and Child Education (FACE) Native Americans Family Literacy Program

1849 C Street, N.W., MS 3512

Washington, DC 20240

Among Native American populations, the drop out rate is as high as 70 percent and the

unemployment and poverty rates are the highest in the nation. To address this problem,

the Family And Child Education (FACE) program serves ten Indian reservations assisting

approximately 3,000 adults and children. It combines three national models and has been

replicated at 22 sites. FACE empowers parents with a unique program design that is both

home based and center based. Through the home based curriculum, an educator comes to

the home and provides information to the parent about health, nutrition, and child

development. The center based setting allows for the parent to learn about adult
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

26

education, early childhood education, parent and child interactive time, and parent time.

For one parent, a particularly motivating experience was when she learned that the

education level of the mother is the most significant indicator as to whether a child will

graduate from high school. This parent graduated with her GED within that year.

The program measures improvements in the areas of parental involvement in their

children’s education, GED certificates, employment placements, improved computer

skills, and increased knowledge about child development. Through classes and meetings,

participants gain vital knowledge about parenting and skills to prepare them for jobs.

General Motors Work-to-Work Program

General Motors University, Warren Campus

Building 2-6, Mail Code 480-206-210

30009 Van Dyke Ave.

Warren, MI

General Motors has developed a promising collaboration with Macomb Community

College through which employees in positions that are being eliminated, downsized, or

have a skill shortage have the opportunity to attend 2-year technical education or 2-year

associate’s degree programs, with GM providing full salary and benefits, tuition, and

books. Another innovative aspect of this program is that GM establishes an advisory

council for each college or university in order to ensure that the employees are being

taught the skills required for their new GM job. Of the 171 employees who have been

through the program, 100 percent were placed in jobs.

Global 2000-Continuing Education Institute

108 Water Street

Watertown, MA 02472

The Continuing Education Institute (CEI) partners with 10 companies to improve the

basic literacy and technical skills of workers in a rapidly changing manufacturing

environment. Global 2000 offers classes in English communication, reading

comprehension, business writing, word processing, and math. Students are able to gain

the basic skills that they need to go onto productive careers.

A unique component of the program is the many Employee Involvement Teams that

design, manage and evaluate each educational program. The teams are formed from

representatives from each of the partnering companies. In addition, a company liaison,

typically either a human resource manager or a training manager may be a member of the

team. The teams work to provide feedback so that the program is customized to fit the

particular conditions of each partner company. There is also an oversight committee that

focuses on program evaluation and program dissemination. Among the many services

offered by the program are English as a Second Language classes, reading and writing

classes, and the CEI Adult Diploma Program for high school completion. By tailoring

the program to meet the needs of employees as well as employers, Global 2000 creates a

mutually beneficial program.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Promising Partnerships and Programs

27

The Hospital League/1199C Training and Upgrading Fund

330 West 42nd St., 8th Floor

New York, NY 10036

As the demand for health care jobs has shifted over the years, the Hospital League/1199C

Training and Upgrading Fund has been there — providing opportunities for members to

improve their skills. In so doing, they are able to take advantage of new jobs or to move

from job to job, when necessary, as the needs of the health care industry change.

Members to learn what they need for jobs as certified nurse’s aides and other specialties

that require expertise in CPR, EKG, and Phlebotomy, and computers. The

Consortium/Adult Education and Preparatory Programs offer part-time classes for

members and their families to attend General Educational Development (GED), English

as a Second Language (ESL), and Spanish and Russian courses for those who need to be

able to communicate effectively in these languages in a health care setting. In addition,

the Tuition Assistance Program provides both scholarships and reimbursements for up to

24 credits per year for members who are working towards a degree.

Intellectual Capital Partnership Program

Board of Regents of the University System of Georgia

244 Washington Street, SW

Atlanta, GA 30334

The Intellectual Capital Partnership Program (ICAPP) is an economic development

initiative that helps businesses meet immediate human resource needs. Through ICAPP,

Georgia’s public colleges and universities leverage existing University resources to

expedite the education and training of highly skilled workers in order to meet specific

workforce needs. The result is a unique economic development tool. Companies specify

the knowledge areas to be taught, then recruit and select the participants they will

sponsor. Participants are assured of a well-paying job with growth potential after

completing the ICAPP program. ICAPP attracts and grows knowledge-based companies

and as a result, the local workforce can attract and maintain top positions.

The University System of Georgia stays in close communication with its businesses

through surveys. In one example, the ICAPP program’s employment and training

incentives enabled the state to retain one company that employed 2,200 technology

workers. As a result of this investment, the company decided to expand its operations by

creating 2,500 additional jobs. This was a boost in not only the technology sector but to

the state’s economy. Graduates of the program are highly ranked in computer skills, oral

communication skills, and the ability to work in teams.

Maricopa Community College—Rio Salado Campus

2323 West 14th Street

Tempe, AZ 85281

The Rio Salado Community College Educational Partnership program works with

businesses to design programs that meet their immediate training needs. As part of the

partnership, the School of Dental Hygiene at Rio Salado Community College has created

a specialized training program with the Arizona Dental Association.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

28

 The Arizona Dental Association needed to address the shortage of dental hygienists in

Arizona. In response to this critical problem, the Arizona Dental Association and Rio

Salado College’s School of Dental Hygiene joined forces to build an educational facility

and program that provides students with a state-of-the-art training. Students can obtain

an Associate of Applied Science degree and all graduates can become registered as dental

hygienists. Eventually the program will incorporate distance learning to educate

hygienists in rural areas.

The program exemplifies Rio Salado’s commitment to meet the needs of the community

by collaborating with employers and is an innovative approach to health care training.

Miami-Dade Community College—Medical Center Campus

950 NW 20th Street

Miami, FL 33127

The Medical Center Campus of Miami-Dade Community College is located in the heart

of Dade County’s Medical Center near numerous private and public health facilities. The

Medical Center Campus provides Associate of Science Degrees, Continuing Education

opportunities and Certificate and Adult Vocational Training in 11 fields including:

Cardiorespiratory Care, Dental Health, Emergency Medical Services, and Health

Information Management. The Medical Center Campus faculty and staff are uniquely

qualified and committed to providing the best possible educational experiences. The

state-of-the-art technology found in Campus laboratories and clinics simulates the

environment found at the health care facilities in the community. In the caring

educational environment, students find individualized help from faculty and staff.

The Division of Continuing and Community Education provides continuing education

offerings for health professionals seeking to update and increase their knowledge and

skills. In addition to the schedule available to the public, the division can custom-design

offerings to meet any agency’s specific educational and training needs. Individual courses

or a series of offerings can be developed on a contract for services basis with the agency,

or for individual billing to the employees/participants. Classes can be held on-site or at

the Medical Center Campus. Students benefit from the program because they become

comfortable in their future work environment. As a result, they are accustomed to

learning in the workplace as well as the traditional classroom.

Military to Work Pilot Program

Communications Workers of America

501 3rd Street, N.W.

Washington, DC 20001-1279

The Military to Work Pilot Program was designed to assist former military personnel,

their spouses, veterans and retirees with skills in the Telecom and Information

Technology (IT) industries. The program links persons from the military community,

who are looking for employment opportunities, with employers in the

Telecommunications and IT industries. IT industry representatives have indicated that

there is a tremendous need for entry level personnel. During 1998, Lucent Technologies

hired 1800 new entry-level technicians. Projections indicate demand will continue to

grow for entry level and experienced personnel as the existing work force nears

retirement and technology needs increase. The Military to Work Pilot Program provides
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Promising Partnerships and Programs

29

an efficient link between individuals associated with the military who possess

fundamental knowledge of the IT industry and jobs.

Communications Workers of America provides a link to more than 1,000 employers in

the Telecommunications and the IT industries. Communications Workers of America

developed software which is now available over the Internet to facilitate skills

assessment, referral and placement of experienced Telecom and IT veterans, military

personnel and their spouses. It provides an efficient interface that is user friendly, time

and cost sensitive, and allows easy access to employment opportunities, and training

guidelines. This type of program makes it easier for former military personnel to obtain a

lucrative career in the Communications and IT industries.

Motorola University

1301 E. Algonquin Rd.

Schaumberg, IL 60196

Motorola Corporation considers training and education critical business tools. In order to

better confront business issues, in 1989, Motorola created Motorola University, a

strategic learning organization that makes available training and education to all

Motorola employees through 7 learning facilities around the world, with 20 offices in 13

countries on 5 continents. Objectives of the University include serving as a catalyst for

change and continuous improvement in order to position the corporation for the future;

and to provide added value to Motorola in marketing and distributing products

throughout the world. The corporation has found that Associates who receive training and

education are better able to satisfy customers and improve quality, and are more

motivated employees.

Northwest Center for Emerging Technologies

Bellevue Community College

3000 Landerholm Circle, SE, Bldg. N

Bellevue, WA 98007-6484

In April of 1998, Bellevue Community College opened the Northwest Center for

Emerging Technologies (NWCET), a cutting-edge facility dedicated to Information

Technology (IT) education. The mission of NWCET is to advance IT education in order

to improve the supply, quality, and diversity of the IT workforce. To fulfill this mission,

the NWCET aims to advance model partnerships linking business, education, and

government to promote IT education. The program also provides students with pathways

to new IT programs and new advanced technology degrees.

NWCET, through partnerships with a number of IT leaders (representing corporations,

professional organizations, and educational institutions) has taken a leadership role in

determining the needs of IT employers and prospective IT students. In this role, the

NWCET has identified Information Technology skill standards and is applying this data

to the development of a competency-based curriculum for IT students.

To support new and innovative IT programs and degrees, NWCET is providing

professional development opportunities for high school teachers and community college

and four-year university faculty. NWCET is developing a portfolio of electronic

courseware, curriculum development kits, teaching and learning kits, online resources
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

30

and other products specifically designed to enhance IT education methodologies.

NWCET strives to transfer their experiences by serving as national leader through the

dissemination of “Best Practices” in IT education. NWCET continuously improves and

evaluates its teaching and curriculum thus redefining the meaning of a learning

organization.

Project Quest

301 South Frio Street, Suite 400

San Antonio, TX 78207

Project Quest grew out of the sudden shutdown of a local factory in 1990 that employed

many workers with weak educational and job-skill backgrounds. The shutdown was a

blow to the San Antonio community especially since the area had recently endured other

plant closings and defense cutbacks at local military bases. Two community-based

organizations began to work through religious organizations, businesses, government

entities and schools. They found that local businesses were recruiting people from other

parts of the country because the local workforce lacked the skills that they needed to

compete in the 21st century. The San Antonio community reacted to the crisis quickly

and realized an opportunity to become part of the global economy by creating Project

Quest.

Project QUEST operates as a workforce development project, not as a traditional social

service agency. It works closely with the business community to identify recurring job

openings that pay living wages and designs training programs to fit these criteria. It also

works to overcome the barriers that adults face in returning to school for long-term

training by paying tuition costs, books, child care, transportation, and offering

motivational and life skills training. It makes a long-term investment in its clients. On

average, enrollees participate for 16 months. Annual earnings for participants increased

between $4,923 and $7,457 per year, and 85 percent of the adults served have been

placed in jobs at $9 per hour or more.

Project Read

South San Francisco Public Library

840 West Orange Ave.

South San Francisco, CA 94080

The program serves 450 learners each year. The project enables and trains community

members to become volunteer tutors. The curriculum is “learner driven” allowing

learners to determine the context in which they would like to learn. For example,

learners are given the choice as to whether they would like to focus on improving their

roles as a parents, community members, and/or workers. Once this decision is made, all

tutoring is conducted in the chosen context. Through the program, learners can choose to

meet goals such as passing a civil service test, writing memos for work, reading repair

manuals, or receiving their GED. Meanwhile, participants’ self-esteem improves

dramatically and they are empowered to learn more than just reading. Project Read is

nationally recognized for its innovative approach to developing effective learning

strategies.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Promising Partnerships and Programs

31

Rhode Island Human Resource Investment Council

601 Manton Ave.

Providence, RI 02909

Established by state law in 1992, this council establishes statewide policies, goals, and

guidelines to coordinate employment and training programs in Rhode Island, and

supports efforts to link those activities with economic development strategies. Members

include representatives of employer and labor communities, the state’s three Private

Industry Councils, Rhode Island Economic Development Corporation, Department of

Human Services, Department of Labor and Training, community organizations, and

public officials. HRIC’s “Project Upgrade” provides businesses with funds to upgrade

the skills of currently employed full-time workers impacted by technological or

organizational changes in their workplaces. The “Competitiveness Improvement

Initiative” provides grants of up to $25,000 to companies for activities in workforce

development, TQM, technology application, managing a diverse workforce, and

marketing development. The HRIC’s “Continuous Learning” initiative provides grants to

promote adult literacy programs that assist both employees who need to upgrade their

skills and unemployed adults who are actively seeking employment but face barriers

because of their literacy needs.

United Auto Workers (UAW) and Big Three Joint Initiative

Education Department

8000 East Jefferson Avenue

Detroit, MI 48214

The UAW joint initiative with the Big Three car companies — Ford, General Motors, and

Daimler Chrysler — are national and local. At both levels, they address matters of

common concern in areas such as product quality, education and development, employee

involvement, team structures, work technical skills redesign, health and safety,

ergonomics, employee assistance, apprenticeship, and labor-management studies. A

negotiated central fund and local training funds support these joint endeavors. Each

workplace program has a purpose, structure, and focus of its own. Some have large

programs within programs. For example, there are more than 21 individual programs in

education and development and technical skills training.

These car companies provide tuition for approved courses at universities, community

colleges, and vocational institutions. In addition, dependent children of union members

are eligible for training through a new scholarship program. Through this provision, the

not only to current employees but potential future employees receive training. In

addition, the Big Three provide unpaid leave for eligible workers to pursue educational

instruction related to employment opportunities with their company.

United Steelworkers of America—Institute for Career Development

100 E. 80th Place, Suite 301 S

Merrillville, IN 46410

The Institute for Career Development (ICD) came into being as a result of contract

negotiations between the United Steelworkers of America and major companies in the

steel industry. The ICD provides educational, training and personal development for the

steelworkers in association with the United Steelworkers of America. The services
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

32

provided through the program include upgrading steelworker’s basic skills in order to

enhance their ability to benefit from craft and noncraft training. In addition, the program

serves to generally upgrade workers’ ability to succeed in the workplace. One of the

primary objectives of the program is to provide alternate career opportunities in the event

employees become dislocated. The program gives participants the assurance that they

will always be employable.

Today there are 13 steel companies participating at 53 sites throughout the United States.

These sites have apprenticeship pre-qualification programs that provide workers who

want to transition into new jobs.

Tuition Assistance Program was initiated in January 1992. This program provides each

worker up to $1,800 annually that can be used for tuition, books and fees. Money is paid

directly to the institution upon registration. All classes have a hands-on approach.

Teachers and students actually have practical application for what is learned. As one

student stated as he was framing in a window in his carpentry class, “It took me 35 years

to finally see what the Pythagorean Theorem is used for.”

US West-Pathways to the Future

5660 Greenwood Plaza Blvd., Suite 406

Englewood, CO 80111

PATHWAYS To the Future is a joint education and training benefit program negotiated

by the Communications Workers of America (CWA) and U S WEST. It is open to both

union-represented and management employees. PATHWAYS is governed by a nonprofit corporation, Training Partnerships, Inc. (TPI), composed of representatives from

CWA and U S WEST.

The purpose of PATHWAYS is to promote lifelong learning through educational

opportunities which meet individual needs, provide personal and career choices, and

create a flexible and skilled workforce so that the employees, the company and the union

are prepared to fully participate in a changing and diverse marketplace. Participation is

voluntary and is for education and training outside of the employee’s current job.

PATHWAYS offers three pre-paid options: No-cap undergraduate degree option; $2,100

continuing education option; and a no-cap Essential Skills option. In addition to the prepaid tuition and fees, PATHWAYS provides career and education counseling assessment,

and book reimbursement. PATHWAYS allows for a broad range of choice in courses,

classes, workshops, and seminars.

Through PATHWAYS To the Future, several major research studies show that

participants increased their learning ability, communications skills, ability to participate

as a team member, self-confidence, initiative, and risk-taking. This clearly demonstrates

the dramatic effect education and training have on adult workers, with impacts extending

to the company and the union.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Promising Partnerships and Programs

33

Wisconsin Regional Training Partnership

208 East Capitol Drive

Milwaukee, WI 53212

The Wisconsin Regional Training Partnership is an organization in which labor and

management cooperate, both within and across firms, to build “high performance”

workplaces where ongoing workplace education and continuous innovation are the norm.

Labor and management representatives from member firms are grouped into three

committees that develop industry-wide solutions to the barriers typically encountered in

the transition to high-performance workplaces. Joint labor-management committees

within individual member firms then implement these plans in ways that are specific to

each firm’s needs. The Partnership provides assistance in the areas of workplace

education, workforce development, and plant modernization.

The workplace education programs improve the skills of the current workforce and train

future workers. The technical and other skills gained through this training translate into

superior products and “exceptionally high productivity.” Workers benefit by being able

to secure their future through continuous learning and increased motivation. In addition,

employers reap the rewards of investing in their employees’ professional development.

The results are professional satisfaction and improved efficiency.

Women’s Opportunities Resource Center

1930 Chestnut Street, Suite 1600

Philadelphia, PA 19038

The Women’s Opportunities Resource Center (WORC) was founded in 1984 and is one

of the earliest programs for microenterprise in the nation. Fundamental to WORC’s

success has been its ability to establish partnerships among private and public sector

leaders to leverage resources and strengthen the provision of services. Throughout this

process, WORC remains sensitive to the issues that low-income women and

underemployed women face. WORC strives to incorporate relevant and ongoing

technical and social support structures for all participants.

WORC’s activities are based on three principles. First, empowerment depends on the

development of the individual and her ability to envision increased self-sufficiency.

Second, low-income participants have special needs that must be addressed. Finally, to

succeed, change for individuals must occur in an incremental manner so that personal

growth becomes part of the ongoing learning process. Specific programs to assist WORC

participants include helping graduates with access to microloans through partnerships

with area financial institutions. WORC also offers continuing counseling and support

services after graduation. The program serves over 400 clients a year. Since inception,

approximately 40 percent of its training clients have started their own businesses. It is

the second national affiliate of Women’s World Banking, a network of global

organizations that provide entrepreneurial training and access to credit.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

34

Xerox Business Services

70b Linden Oaks Parkway

Rochester, NY 14625

Empowered employees are at the heart of Xerox Business Services’ (XBS) customerfocused culture. The vision of XBS is that “XBS people proactively continue their

learning and development while making productive contributions to the continued growth

and success of our organization.” The division invests more than $10 million annually

for training and is continually is searching for innovative learning approaches. Examples

are mini-camps — designed to help employees contemplate and prepare for future

changes in the way they work and in how XBS addresses evolving customer

requirements — and each employee’s personal learning plan that is regularly reviewed by

assigned coaches. Each employee’s learning style is assessed and taken into account in

their learning experiences.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Endnotes

35

Endnotes

 

1

 Frank Levy and Richard J. Murane, Teaching the New Basic Skills Principles for Educating

Children to Thrive in a Changing Economy, New York: 1997 Free Press, p. vii.

2 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Outlook, 1996-2006: A

Summary of BLS Projections, (February 1998), Chart 14 p 33.

3

 The National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce, “First Findings from the EQW

National Employer Survey,“ RE01,1995, p. 3.

4The American Society for Training and Development and the US Department of Labor, America

and the New Economy. 1991, p. 48.

5

 “The Emerging Digital Economy”, US Department of Commerce, 1998.

6

 The National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce “First Findings from the EQW

National Employer Survey,” 1995, RE01, p. 8.

7

 The National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce “First Findings from the EQW

National Employer Survey,” 1995, RE01, p. 8. For example, half of employers use equipment that

is at most four years old.

8

 The National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce “First Findings from the EQW

National Employer Survey,” 1995, RE01, p. 3.

9

 “Culture Change Lessons: The 1996 Best Plants Finalists Share Experiences in Creating and

Sustaining Cultures for World-Class Manufacturing,” Industry Week, February 17, 1997,

http://www.industryweek.com.

10 Briefing for Secretary Ronald H. Brown, for the Conference on the American Workplace, US

Department of Commerce, Office of Technology Policy, 1993.

11 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Outlook, 1996-2006: A

Summary of BLS Projections, (February 1998),Table 9, p. 80.

12 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Outlook, 1996-2006: A

Summary of BLS Projections, (February 1998), Table 9, p. 80.

13 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Outlook, 1996-2006: A

Summary of BLS Projections, (February 1998), Table 9, p. 80.

14 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment Outlook, 1996-2006: A

Summary of BLS Projections, (February 1998) Table 9, page 80.

15 George T. Silvestis, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2006,” Monthly Labor Review,

November 1997, Table 3, p. 77.

16 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, Adult Literacy in

America, National Adult Literacy Survey, 1992, Table 1.1b, p. 114. In addition, the United

States has a greater proportion of adults with low skills than most of our economic competitors in

the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).

17 The National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce, “A Reality Check: First

Findings from the EQW National Employer Survey,” EQW, 1995, p. 2.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

36

18 The National Center for the Educational Quality of the Workforce, “The Other Shoe:

Education’s Contribution to the Productivity of Establishments,” 1995, EQW, RE02, p. 2. Note:

Productivity is measured by output.

19 The National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce, “The Other Shoe:

Education’s Contribution to the Productivity of Establishments,” EQW, RE02, 1995, p. 2, and,

Black and Lynch. “How to Compete: the Impact of Workplace Practices and Information

Technology on Productivity,” NBER WP, no. 6210, August 1997. Note: a 10 percent higher

educational level is equivalent to slightly more than one year of schooling.

20 Committee for Economic Development, “American Workers and Economic Change,” p. 36.

21U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Educational Attainment in the U.S., P20-

513.

22U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Educational Attainment in the U.S., P20-

513. and Mean Earnings of Workers 18 Years and Older by Educational Attainment, Race,

Hispanic Origin, and Sex, 1975-1997, Internet release date, December 10, 1998.

23 Duane E. Leigh and Andrew M. Gill, “Labor Market Returns to Community Colleges:

Evidence for Returning Adults,” Journal of Human Resources, vol. 32, no. 2, 1997, p 350. Data is

only for community colleges.

24 U.S. Department of Labor, Report on the American Workforce, 1997, p. 8.

25 Dianne E. Leigh and Andrew M. Gill, “Labor Market Returns to Community Colleges:

Evidence for Returning Adults,” Journal of Human Resources, vol. 32, no. 2, 1997, pp. 334-352.

26 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Educational Attainment in the U.S., P20-

513. and Mean Earnings of Workers 18 Years and Older by Educational Attainment, Race,

Hispanic Origin, and Sex, 1975-1997, Internet release date, December 10, 1998.

27 T.D. Synder, C.M. Hoffman, and C.M. Geddes Digest of Education Statistics, 1997, U.S.

Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Table 9, p.18. Note:

In 1995, 16% of adults aged 25-29 had a BA compared to 9% of those 65 or older.

28 Alan Eck, “Job Related Education and Training: Their Impact on Earnings,” Table 9: Median

weekly earnings of full-time workers who needed training to qualify for their current jobs and who

took training to improve their skills, Monthly Labor Review (October 1993): 21-38; U.S.

Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey, January 1991.

29 Note: Data tracks workers who needed no training to qualify to their current job.

30Alan Eck, “Job-Related Education and Training: Their Impact on Earnings,” Monthly Labor

Review, (October 1993): 21-38 and Lillard, Lee A., and Hog W. Tan. “Private Sector Training:

Who Gets It and What Are Its Effects?” in Research in Labor Economics 13. Ed. Ronald

Ehrenberg. Greenwich, CT; JAI Press, Inc. 1992.

31 Committee for Economic Development, “American Workers and Economic Change,” p. 36.

32 Lisa M. Lynch and Sandra E. Black, “Beyond the Incidence of Training: Evidence from a

National Employer Survey,” 1996, EQW Working Papers, Catalog Number WP35, p.25. Final in

Industrial and Labor Relations, 52 (October 1998).

33 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey, April 1993.

34 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, National Longitudinal Survey of Youth,,

June 24, 1998, see table 3.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Endnotes

37

35 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, March 1970-

1997. NOTE: Since 1992, data on educational attainment have been based on the “highest

diploma or degree received.” Rather than the “number of years of school completed.” Data from

1994 forward are not directly comparable with data for 1993 and earlier years due to the Current

Population Survey redesign. 

36 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey, March 1970-

1997.

37 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Adult Literacy in

America, A First Look at the Result of the National Adult Literacy Survey, 1993, Figure 2.8, p.

65. Note: This measures prose literacy.

38 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Current Population Survey, February 1998.

39 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Displaced Worker Survey, “LongTenured Displaced Workers and Displacement Rates by Educational Attainment and Employment

Status in February 1998,” 1998, unpublished tabulation.

40 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Displaced Worker Survey, “LongTenured Displaced Workers Who Found New Jobs by Weeks Without Work and Educational

Attainment,” 1998, unpublished data.

41 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Displaced Worker Survey, “Median

Weekly Earnings of Long-Tenured Displaced Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers on Their Lost

Jobs Held in February 1998 by Educational Attainment,” 1998, unpublished tabulation.

42 1997 Digest of Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational

Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics 98-015, December 1997,

Table 8, p. 18. 54.6 percent of college students in 1993 were 18-24; 27.7 percent were over 30

years old; 34.9 percent of students at two- year institutions were over 30 years old in 1993.

43 Profile of Undergraduates in U.S. Postsecondary Education Institutions: 1995-1996, U.S.

Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 98-084, May 1998, Table 1.1,

p. 45.

441997 Digest of Education Statistics, U.S. Department for Education, Office of Educational

Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics 98-015, December 1997,

Table 173, p. 183.

45 1997 Digest of Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational

Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics 98-015, December 1997,

Table 176, p. 186.

46 1997 Digest of Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational

Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics 98-015, December 1997,

Table 178, p. 188.

47 Distance Education in Higher Education Institutions, U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics, 98-062, October 1997, Table 22 p. 38.

48 Distance Education in Higher Education Institutions, U.S. Department for Education, National

Center of Education Statistics, 98-062, October 1997, Table 1, p. 6.

49 Distance Education in Higher Education Institutions, U.S. Department of Education, National

Center of Education Statistics, 98-062, October 1997, Table 1, p. 6.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

38

50 Distance Education in Higher Education Institutions, U.S. Department of Education, National

Center of Education Statistics, 98-062, October 1997,Table 8, p.17

51 Kwang, Kim, Mary Collins, Peter Stowe, Kathryn Chandler, “Forty Percent of Adults

Participate in Adult Education Activities: 1994-1995,” National Center of Education Statistics 95-

823, November 1995, Table 1 p. 11.

52Lisa M. Lynch and Sandra E. Black, 1996 “Beyond the Incidence of Training: Evidence from a

National Employer Survey,” EQW Working Papers, Catalog Number WP35, p.5. The question

posed to the surveyed employers asked if any of them paid for or provided any kind of formal

training either through their firm, by hiring a contractor, or through an educational institution.

53Committee for Economic Development, “American Workers and Economic Change,” 1996,

p. 36.

54Committee for Economic Development, “American Workers and Economic Change,” 1996,

p. 36.

55 National Association of Manufacturers (NAM), Center for Workforce Success and Grant

Thornton, LLP, A Survey of American Manufacturers: The Skills Gap, 1998.

56 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Survey of Employer-Provided TrainingEmployer Results, USDOL 96-268, July 10, 1996, http://stats.bls.gov/news.release/sept1/nws.htm.

Note: Data from May-October 1995.

57 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Survey of Employer-Provided TrainingEmployer Results, USDOL 96-268, July 10, 1996, http://stats.bls.gov/news.release/sept1/nws.htm.

Note: Data from May-October 1995.

58 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Survey of Employer-Provided TrainingEmployer Results, USDOL 96-268, July 10, 1996, http://stats.bls.gov/news.release/sept1/nws.htm.

Note: Data from May-October 1995.

59 Lisa M. Lynch and Sandra E. Black, 1996 “Beyond the Incidence of Training: Evidence from a

National Employer Survey,” EQW Working Papers, Catalog Number WP35p 19.

60 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Survey of Employer-Provided TrainingEmployer Results, USDOL 96-268, July 10, 1996, http://stats.bls.gov/news.release/sept1/nws.htm.

Note: Data from May-October 1995.

61 Lisa M. Lynch and Sandra E. Black, 1996 “Beyond the Incidence of Training: Evidence from a

National Employer Survey,” EQW Working Papers, Catalog Number WP35, p. 6 and 19.

62 “Labor’s Key Role in Workplace Training: an AFL-CIO Report on Training,” The American

Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations, September 1994, p. 5.

63 Harley Frazis, Diane E. Herz, and Michael Horrigan, “Employer-Provided Training: Results

From a New Survey,” Monthly Labor Review, May 1995, (Volume 118 Number 5) Table 9, p.

12.

64 “Labor’s Key Role in Workplace Training: an AFL-CIO Report on Training,” The American

Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations, September 1994, p. 4-5.

65 “History and Statistics,” Mimeo of the Institute for Career Development, 1998.

66 “Labor’s Key Role in Workplace Training: an AFL-CIO Report on Training,” The American

Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations, September 1994, p. 8.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

Endnotes

39

67Charlene M. Hoffman, Federal $upport for Education: Fiscal Years 1980 to 1998, National

Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research

and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics 98-115, October 1998, p. iii.

68 U.S. Department of Education, Title IV, Federal Pell Grant Program/ 1994-1995, End of Year

Report, Table 11.

69Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 1999, p 53.

70 Kwang, Kim, Mary Collins, Peter Stowe, Kathryn Chandler, “Forty Percent of Adults

Participate in Adult Education Activities: 1994-1995,” National Center for Education Statistics

95-823, November 1995, Table 1, p. 7.

71 Kwang, Kim, Mary Collins, Peter Stowe, Kathryn Chandler, “Forty Percent of Adults

Participate in Adult Education Activities: 1994-1995,” National Center for Education Statistics

95-823, November 1995.

72Harley Frazis, Maury Gittleman, Michael Horrigan, and Mary Joyce, “Results from the 1995

Survey of Employer-Provided Training,” Monthly Labor Review, June 1998, (Volume 121

Number 6, pp. 3-13) Table 7, p. 10.

73Harley Frazis, Maury Gittleman, Michael Horrigan, and Mary Joyce “Results from the 1995

Survey of Employer-Provided Training,” Monthly Labor Review, June 1998, (Volume 121

Number 6, pp. 3-13), Table 7, p.10.

74 Gordon Darenwald, Kwang Kim, and Peter Stowe, “Adults’ Participation in Work-Related

Courses: 1994-95”, US Department. of Education, Office of Educational Research and

Improvement, July 1998, in press, Table 2, p.12.

75 Gordon Darenwald, Kwang Kim, and Peter Stowe, “Adults’ Participation in Work-Related

Courses: 1994-95”, US Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and

Improvement, July 1998, in press, p. 3.

76 Orr, Larry and Larry Buron, “Emerging Lessons from the Lifelong Learning Demonstration,”

Abt Associates, Draft, November 6, 199, p.2.

77 Orr, Larry and Larry Buron, “Emerging Lessons from the Lifelong Learning Demonstration,”

Abt Associates, Draft, November 6, 1998, p.2.

78 Gordon Darenwald, Kwang Kim, and Peter Stowe, “Adults’ Participation in Work-Related

Courses: 1994-95,” U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and

Improvement, July 1998, in press, Table 1, p. 11.

79 Gordon Darenwald, Kwang Kim, and Peter Stowe, “Adults’ Participation in Work-Related

Courses: 1994-95,” U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and

Improvement, July 1998, in press, Table 1, p. 11.

80 Terri Thompson, “The Lifelong Learning Demonstration: Report of Focus Groups with

Targeted Marketing Campaign Recipients,” Report prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor,

Abt Associates, Inc: Bethesda, Md. June 26, 1997, p. 8.

81 Lisa M. Lynch, “Do Investments in Education and Training Matter?,” Keynote Speech prepared

for the 9th annual European Association of Labour Economists, Aarhus, Denmark, September 25-

28, 1997.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

40

82 Lisa M. Lynch, “Do Investments in Education and Training Matter?,” Keynote Speech prepared

for the 9th annual European Association of Labour Economists, Aarhus, Denmark, September 25-

28, 1997.

83 Alan Krueger and Cecilia Rouse, “The Effect of Wrokplace Education on Earnings, Turnover,

and Job Performance, Journal of Labor Economics, 1998 (vol. 16, no 1) p. 62.

84 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Universe Database of Employment and

Wages (ES-202) Program, Table 1: Distribution of Establishment and Employment by Size Class,

Private Industry, December 1996. Note: For all establishments with less than 100 employees.

85 Lisa M. Lynch, “Do Investments in Education and Training Matter?,” Keynote Speech prepared

for the 9th annual European Association of Labour Economists, Aarhus, Denmark, September 25-

28, 1997.

86 Don A. Dillamn et al., “What the Public Wants from Higher Education: Workforce Implications

from a 1995 National Survey,” Pullman, Washington, The Social & Economic Sciences Research

Center, 1995, p. 21.

87 T. Kopka, N. Schantz, and R. Korb, “Adult Education in the 1990's: A Report on the 1991

National Household Education Survey,” U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational

Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics, February 1998.

88 Terri Thompson, “The Lifelong Learning Demonstration: Report of Focus Groups with

Targeted Marketing Campaign Recipients,” Report prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor,

Abt Associates, Inc: Bethesda, Md. June 26, 1997, p. 4-5.

89 Don A. Dillman et al. “What the Public Wants from Higher Education: Workforce Implications

from a 1995 National Survey,” Pullman, Washington, The Social & Economic Sciences Research

Center 1995, p. 21.

90 Terri Thompson, “The Lifelong Learning Demonstration: Report of Focus Groups with

Targeted Marketing Campaign Recipients,” Report prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor,

Abt Associates, Inc: Bethesda, Md. June 26, 1997, p. 6.
21st Century Skills for 21st Century Jobs

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41

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