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##  Reflective Practice and Professional Development. ERIC Digest.               

Reflective practice can be a beneficial process in teacher                      professional development, both for pre-service and in-service                   teachers. This digest reviews the concept, levels, techniques for,              and benefits of reflective practice. REFINING THE CONCEPTIn               1987, Donald Schon introduced the concept of reflective practice as             a critical  process in refining one's artistry or craft in a                    specific discipline. Schon recommended reflective practice as a way             for beginners in a discipline to recognize consonance between their             own individual practices and those of successful practitioners. As              defined by Schon, reflective practice involves thoughtfully                     considering one's own experiences in applying knowledge to practice             while being coached by professionals in the discipline (Schon,                  1996). 
After the concept of reflective practice was introduced by             Schon, many schools, colleges, and departments of education began               designing teacher education and professional development programs               based on this concept. As the concept grew in popularity, some                  researchers cautioned that SCDEs that incorporated reflective                   practice in their teacher education programs were focusing on the               process of reflective practice while sacrificing important content              in teacher education (Clift et al, 1990). These researchers                     recommended that reflective teaching combine John Dewey's philosophy            on the moral, situational aspects of teaching with Schon's process              for a more contextual approach to the concept of reflective                     practice. 
More recently, Boud and Walker (1998) also noted                    shortcomings in the way SCDEs were applying Schon's concept of                  reflective practice to teacher education. They took issue with what             they considered to be a "checklist" or "reflection on demand"                   mentality, reflection processes with no link to conceptual                      frameworks, a failure to encourage students to challenge teaching               practices, and a need for personal disclosure that was beyond the               capacity of some young teachers. Boud and Walker suggest that these             weaknesses can be addressed when the teacher-coaches create an                  environment of trust and build a context for reflection unique to               every learning situation. 
Reflective practice has also been                   defined in terms of action research. Action research, in turn, is               defined as a tool of curriculum development consisting of continuous            feedback that targets specific problems in a particular school                  setting (Hopkins & Antes, 1990). As such, it has become a standard              concept in teacher education programs. The teacher educator as                  researcher and role model encourages students to put theories                   they've learned into practice in their classrooms. The students                 bring reports of their field experiences to class and analyze their             teaching strategies with their mentors and colleagues. This                     collaborative model of reflective practice enriches students'                   personal reflections on their work and provides students with                   suggestions from peers on how to refine their teaching                          practices (Syrjala, 1996). LEVELS OF REFLECTIVE                               PRACTICEReflective practice is used at both the pre-service and             in-service levels of teaching.  Coaching and peer involvement are               two aspects of reflective practice seen most often at the                       pre-service level. In a 1993 study of how student teachers develop              the skills necessary for reflective teaching during their field                 experiences, Ojanen explores the role of the teacher educator as                coach. Teacher educators can most effectively coach student teachers            in reflective practice by using students' personal histories,                   dialogue journals, and small and large-group discussions about their            experiences to help students reflect upon and improve their                     practices. 
Kettle and Sellars (1996) studied the development of               third- year teaching students. They analyzed the students'                      reflective writings and interviewed them extensively about their                reflective practices. They found that the use of peer reflective                groups encouraged student teachers to challenge existing theories               and their own preconceived views of teaching while modeling for them            a collaborative style of professional development that would be                 useful throughout their teaching careers. 
At the level of                     in-service teaching, studies have shown that critical reflection                upon  experience continues to be an effective technique for                     professional development. Licklider's review of adult learning                  theory (1997) found that self-directness -- including self-learning             from experience in natural settings -- is an important component of             adult learning. Therefore, effective teacher professional                       development should involve more than occasional large-group                     sessions; it should include activities such as study teams and peer             coaching in which teachers continuously examine their assumptions               and practices. 
Serving as a coach or mentor to peers is another               form of reflective practice for in-service teachers. Uzat (1998)                presents coaching as a realistic and systematic approach to ongoing             teacher improvement through focused reflection on teaching methods.             Uzat also relates the concept of coaching to self-efficacy:                     Teachers' beliefs that they affect students' lives as well as the               school motivate them intrinsically to grow. INCORPORATING                     REFLECTION INTO PRACTICEThere are many successful techniques for            investing teaching practice with reflection. Some of these have been            mentioned above, including action research. Action research                     conducted in teacher education programs can be designed to engage               the reflective participation of both pre-service and in-service                 teachers. Rearick (1997) describes the benefits of this activity for            both groups, as well as for the teacher educator, as used in a                  professional development project at the University of Hartford. In              this project, experienced teachers identified knowledge, thinking,              and problem-solving techniques and decision-making processes they               used in designing instruction for language arts curricula. Based on             these discussions, a pre-service course agenda for teaching reading             and writing was developed. Students taking the course developed                 portfolios, conducting their own action research in the process.                These students also formed a critical learning community, developed             modes of inquiry, and shared their diverse ways of valuing, knowing,            and experiencing. 
A review of current research indicates that                 portfolio development has become a favorite tool used in pre-service            teacher education (Antonek, et al, 1997; Hurst et al, 1998).                    Portfolios encourage beginning teachers to gather in one place                  significant artifacts representing their professional development.              They assemble materials that document their competencies. Portfolios            include a reflective component, for when the teacher decides which              materials to include, he or she must reflect on which teaching                  practices worked well and why (Hurst et al, 1998). The portfolios               are modified at points throughout a teacher's career, as the teacher            continues to apply learning to practice. 
Furthermore, new                     performance-based assessments for teachers developed by the                     Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC)               include the use of portfolios. These are based on the National Board            for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) model that enables                  teachers to demonstrate how their teaching relates to student                   learning (Weiss & Weiss, 1998). 
Participation in some professional            development institutes can also be a way to  incorporate reflection             into practice. Professional development programs need not always                focus on specific teaching methods and strategies; they can also                focus on teacher attitudes that affect practice. Wilhelm et                     al (1996) describe the curriculum of a professional development                 institute that offers teacher interns an opportunity to explore                 attitudes, develop management skills, and reflect on the ethical                implications of practice in classrooms with cultural compositions               vastly different from their previous experiences.  By its nature,               this kind of professional development institute causes teachers to              step back and critically reflect not only on how they teach, but                also on why they teach in a particular way. BENEFITS OF REFLECTION            IN PRACTICEThe primary benefit of reflective practice for                   teachers is a deeper understanding of their own teaching style and              ultimately, greater effectiveness as a teacher. Other specific                  benefits noted in current literature include the validation of a                teacher's ideals, beneficial  challenges to tradition, the                      recognition of teaching as artistry, and respect for diversity in               applying theory to classroom practice. Freidus (1997) describes a               case study of one teacher/graduate student struggling to make sense             of her beliefs and practices about what constitutes good teaching.              Her initial pedagogy for teaching was based on the traditions and               practices of direct teaching. Her traditional socialization into                teaching made it difficult for her to understand that her views of              good teaching were being challenged in her practice. But the                    opportunity for exploration through reflective portfolio work                   enabled her to acknowledge and validate what she was                            learning. CONCLUSIONResearch on effective teaching over the               past two decades has shown that effective practice is linked to                 inquiry, reflection, and continuous professional growth (Harris                 1998). Reflective practice can be a beneficial form of professional             development at both the pre-service and in-service levels of                    teaching. By gaining a better understanding of their own individual             teaching styles through reflective practice, teachers can improve               their effectiveness in the classroom. REFERENCESReferences                identified with an EJ or ED number have been abstracted and are in              the ERIC database. Journal articles (EJ) should be available at most            research libraries; most documents (ED) are available in microfiche             collections at more than 900 locations.  Documents can also be                  ordered through the ERIC Document Reproduction Service: (800)                   443-ERIC. 
Antonek, J.L., et al. (1997) The student teacher                    portfolio as autobiography: Developing a professional identity.                 Modern Language Journal, 81(1), 15-27. EJ 542 857 
Boud, D. &                  Walker, D. (1998). Promoting reflection in professional courses: The            challenge of context. Studies in Higher Education, 23(2), 191-206.              EJ 570 398 
Clarke, A. (1995). Professional development in                     practicum settings: Reflective practice under scrutiny. Teaching &              Teacher Education, 11(3), 243-61. EJ 510 912 
Clift, R.T., Houston,            W.R., & Pugach, M.C., eds. (1990). Encouraging reflective practice              in education: An analysis of issues and programs. New York: Teachers            College Press. 
Freidus, H. (1997). The telling of story: Teachers             knowing what they know. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the            American Educational Research Association (AERA), Chicago, IL. ED               409 274 
Harris, A. (1998). Effective teaching: A review of the                literature. School Leadership & Management, 18(2), 169-183. EJ 563              868 
Hopkins, C. D., & Antes, R.L. (1990). Educational research: A             structure for inquiry. 3rd Ed. Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock. 
Hurst,               B., Wilson C., & Cramer, G. (1998). Professional teaching                       portfolios. Phi Delta Kappan, 79(8), 578-82. EJ 563 868 
Kettle                B., & Sellars, N. (1996). The development of student teachers                   practical theory of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12(1),            1-24. EJ 526 790 
Licklider, B.L. (1997). Breaking ranks: Changing             the in-service institution. NASSP Bulletin, 81(Jan.), 9-22. EJ 539              052 
Ojanen, S. (1993). A process in which personal pedagogical                knowledge is created through the teacher education experience. Paper            presented at the International Conference in Teacher Education,                 Tel-Aviv, Israel. ED 398 200 
Rearick, M.L. (1997). Educational                researchers, practitioners, and students of teaching reflect on                 experience, practice, and theories: Action research in a pre-service            course. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American                   Educational Research Association (AERA), Chicago, IL. ED 412                    229 
Schon, D.A. (1996).  Educating the reflective practitioner:               Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions.               San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc. 
Syrjala, L. (1996). The teacher              as a researcher. In Childhood Education: International Perspectives.            Ed. Eeva Hujala. Finland: Association for Childhood Education                   International, Oulu University. ED 403 069 
Uzat, S.L. (1998).                 Cognitive coaching and self-reflection: Looking in the mirror while             looking through the window. Paper presented at the annual meeting of            the Mid-South Educational Research Association. New Orleans, LA. ED             427 064 
Weiss, E.M. & Weiss, S.G. (1998). New directions in                   teacher evaluation. Washington, DC: ERIC Digest, ERIC Clearinghouse             on Teaching and Teacher Education, AACTE. 
Wilhelm, R.W., Coward,              M.F., and Hume, L. M. (1996). The effects of a professional                     development institute on pre-service teachers' perceptions of their             intercultural knowledge and diversity. Teacher Educator, 32(1),                 48-61. ED 533 469 
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This project has been funded at least in            part with Federal funds from the U.S. Department of Education,                  Office of Educational Research and Improvement, under contract                  number ED-99-CO-0007. The content of this publication does not                  necessarily reflect the views of or policies of the U.S. Department             of Education nor does mention of trade names, commercial products,              or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.                   **Title:** Reflective Practice and Professional Development. ERIC Digest.               **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education, American                  Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1307 New York Avenue,            N.W., Suite 300, Washington, DC 20005-4701; Tel: 202-293-2450; Tel:             800-822-9229 (Toll Free); e-mail: [email protected]; For full text:               http://www.ericsp.org.                                                       **Descriptors:** Action Research, Elementary Secondary Education,  Faculty                       Development, Higher Education, Inservice Teacher Education, Mentors,            Peer Teaching, Portfolios (Background Materials), Preservice Teacher            Education,  Reflective Teaching, Teacher Improvement, Teacher                   Researchers                                                                  **Identifiers:** Coaching, ERIC Digests                                                       
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