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##  Place-Based Curriculum and Instruction: Outdoor and Environmental               Education Approaches. ERIC Digest.                                           

Place-based education is a relatively new term, appearing only                  recently in the education literature. However, progressive educators            have promoted the concept for more than 100 years. For example,                 in "The School and Society," John Dewey advocated an experiential               approach to student learning in the local                                       environment: "Experience [outside the school] has its geographical              aspect, its artistic and its literary, its scientific and its                   historical sides. All studies arise from aspects of the one earth               and the one life lived upon it" (1915, p. 91). Place-based education            usually includes conventional outdoor education methodologies as                advocated by John Dewey to help students connect with their                     particular corners of the world. Proponents of place-based education            often envision a role for it in achieving local ecological and                  cultural sustainability (1). This Digest reviews placebased                     curriculum and instruction, especially as it relates to outdoor and             environmental education, and provides examples of K-12 resources and            programs. OUTDOOR EDUCATION, ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND                      PLACE-BASED EDUCATION:

HOW ARE THEY CONNECTED?The main                   purpose of "outdoor education" is to provide meaningful contextual              experiences--in both natural and constructed environments--that                 complement and expand classroom instruction, which tends to be                  dominated by print and electronic media (Knapp, 1996, p. ix). It is             a broader term than "environmental education," which can be                     described as instruction directed toward developing a citizenry                 prepared to live well in a place without destroying it (Orr, 1994,              p. 14). Environmental education can occur both inside and outside               the classroom. 
Understanding the relationships among place-based              education, outdoor education, and environmental education is                    worthwhile because each concept has been developed somewhat                     separately by educators who have produced curriculum materials and              instructional practices that could be useful within the other                   concept areas. Further complicating this potential exchange is the              variety of labels that have been applied to each of these                       approaches. For example, as the field of outdoor education matured,             it was labeled school camping, camping education, and eventually,               outdoor education. Likewise, place-based education has been referred            to as "community-oriented schooling," "ecological education,"                   and "bioregional education." 
Paul Theobald refers                             to "place-conscious" elementary and secondary classrooms in his                 book, "Teaching The Commons" (1997, pp. 132-159). He advocates using            the immediate locale as "the lens for disciplinary engagement in all            schools across the country" (p. 137). In a later article, Theobald              and Curtiss (2000) describe the field as "community-oriented                    schooling." 
Smith and Williams (1999) describe this approach                  as "ecological education." They write, "The practice of ecological              education requires viewing human beings as one part of the natural              world and human cultures as an outgrowth of interactions between                species and particular places" (p. 3). The authors outline seven                principles, two of which directly reflect outdoor education: (1)                practical experiences outdoors through the application of an ethic              of care, and (2) grounding learning in a sense of place through                 investigation of surrounding natural and human communities. 
Traina            and Darley-Hill (1995) extend "locale" to include "bioregional                  education," encouraging students and teachers to know their place               and to consider the impact of lifestyles on the resources of that               bioregion. Similarly, Orr's (1994) call for "ecoliteracy" presents              principles for rethinking education that clearly relate place-based             education to outdoor education: (1) students should understand the              effects of this knowledge on real people and their communities;                 and (2) learning though direct experiences outside the classroom is             as important as the content of particular                                       courses. 
Thomashow (1995) writes about the goal of                            achieving "ecological identity" through the examination of four                 basic questions: What do I know about the place where I live? Where             do things come from? How do I connect to the earth? What is my                  purpose as a human being? He integrates these questions into                    activities by incorporating reflective learning in the school, home,            community, and the workplace (p. xvii). These questions focus                   curriculum and instruction on understanding and appreciating                    students' immediate surroundings. 
Haymes (1995) speaks directly to            a "pedagogy of place" and addresses issues of race and class as they            are made manifest in the construction of urban environments and in              the power and politics that emerge from those constructs. His work              takes a cultural studies perspective and contributes a much-needed              complement to more conventional outdoor/environmental curriculum and            instruction. WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PLACE-BASED            EDUCATION?A survey of the literature on place-based education               reveals characteristic patterns to this still-evolving approach that            make it distinctive. 
*  It emerges from the particular attributes             of a place. The content is specific to the geography, ecology,                  sociology, politics, and other dynamics of that place. This                     fundamental characteristic establishes the foundation of the                    concept. 
*  It is inherently multidisciplinary. 
*  It is                    inherently experiential. In many programs this includes a                       participatory action or service learning component; in fact, some               advocates insist that action must be a component if ecological and              cultural sustainability are to result. 
*  It is reflective of an              educational philosophy that is broader than "learn to earn."                    Economics of place can be an area of study as a curriculum explores             local industry and sustainability; however, all curricula and                   programs are designed for broader objectives. 
* It connects place             with self and community. Because of the ecological lens through                 which place-based curricula are envisioned, these connections are               pervasive. These curricula include multigenerational and                        multicultural dimensions as they interface with community                       resources. WHY IS PLACE-BASED EDUCATION IMPORTANT?Some critics            of place-based education believe that the primary goal of schooling             should be to prepare students to work and function in a highly                  technological and consumer-oriented society. In contrast,                       place-based educators believe that education should prepare people              to live and work to sustain the cultural and ecological integrity of            the places they inhabit. To do this, people must have knowledge of              ecological patterns, systems of causation, and the long-term effects            of human actions on those patterns (Orr, 1994). One of the most                 compelling reasons to adopt place-based education is to provide                 students with the knowledge and experiences needed to actively                  participate in the democratic process. WHAT ARE SOME SOURCES OF               PLACE-BASED CURRICULUM?Space limitations in this Digest preclude            extensive lists and descriptions of place-based programs. However,              the references below will direct the reader to many of                          them. 
Periodicals. 
For descriptions of exemplary curricula, see             the resources and reviews sections of back and future issues                    of: 
"The Active Learner: A Foxfire Journal for Teachers." The                 Foxfire Fund, Inc. P. O. Box 541, Mountain City, GA 30562-0541.                 706-746-5828. 
"Clearing: Environmental Education in the Pacific               Northwest." Creative Educational Networks/EE Project, P. O. Box                 82954, Portland, OR 97282. 503-657-6958 x 2638. 
"Green Teacher:               Education For Planet Earth." 95 Robert Street, Toronto, Ontario,                Canada M5S 2K5. 416-960-1244. 
"Orion Afield: Working for Nature               and Community." The Orion Society, 195 Main Street, Great                       Barrington, MA 01230. 413-528-4422. (Especially "In Pursuit of a                Bioregional Curriculum," Spring, 1999, Vol. 3, No. 2). 
"Taproot: A            Publication of The Coalition for Education in the Outdoors." P. O.              Box 2000, Park Center, Cortland, NY 13045.                                      605-753-4971. 
Books. 
In addition to books included in the                   reference list, see the following: 
Bowers, C.                                 A. (1995). "Educating for an ecologically sustainable culture."                 Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Describes three                 curriculum models of community and environmental renewal and                    profiles the Foxfire Curriculum, the Common Roots Program, and the              Ecoliteracy Project. Bowers notes that the three programs represent             very different approaches, but they all share the common                        characteristic of having evolved outside schools of education (p.               184). 
Cajete, G. (1994). "Look to the mountain: An ecology of                 indigenous education." Durango, CO: Kivaki Press. Describes                     Indigenous teaching and learning tied to place. Written by a Tewa               Indian specializing in environmental education and multicultural                curriculum/program development in science, social science, and the              arts. These concepts and principles are equally adaptable to                    mainstream institutions. 
Haas, T., & Nachtigal, P. (1998). "Place             value: An educator's guide to good literature on rural lifeways,                environments, and purposes of education." Charleston, WV: ERIC                  Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. Chapter                     subtitles describe the book's scope: education for living well                  ecologically, politically, economically, spiritually, and in                    community. Extensive annotated bibliographies for each aspect of                place-based education are included. 
Hart, R.                                  A. (1999). "Children's participation: The theory and practice of                including young citizens in community development and environmental             care." London: Earthscan Publications Ltd. Outlines a theory and                practice leading to sustainable "development that meets the needs of            the present without compromising the ability of future generations              to meet their own needs" (p. 5). Hart's examples of place-based                 curricula are provided through several case studies from all over               the world. 
Kriesberg, D. A. (1999). "A sense of place: Teaching               children about the environment with picture books." Englewood, CO:              Teacher Ideas Press. Highlights integration of the arts with place,             providing teachers with picture book resources and activities for               place-based teaching. 
Smith, G. A., & Williams, D.                            R. (Eds.) (1999). "Ecological education in action: On weaving                   education, culture, and the environment." Albany, NY: State                     University of New York Press. Kiefer and Demple describe a strategy             for building an ecologically sustainable way of learning in the                 program, "Common Roots." They conclude, "in creating a context for              local curriculum, we have seen the power of unifying the curriculum             through the unique story of each community" (p. 43). 
Sobel,                   D. (1993). "Children's special places: Exploring the role of forts,             dens, and bush houses in middle childhood." Tucson, AZ: Zephyr                  Press. Offers several case studies in Chapter 5: "Making a Place in             The Curriculum" and demonstrates the importance of childhood                    experiences around the home and community. 
The Orion                          Society (1998). "Stories in the land: A place-based environmental               education anthology." Great Barrington, MA: The Orion Society. John             Elder describes four fundamental themes illustrated by the programs             described: attentiveness to students' home landscapes, the                      convergence of natural sciences and the arts, time spent outdoors,              and exploring cultural aspects of the community (pp. 13-14). The                authors of this anthology provide examples of place-based                       curricula. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE                          DIRECTIONSPlace-based education represents a recent trend in the            broad field of outdoor education. It recaptures the ancient idea                of "listening to the land" and living and learning in harmony with              the earth and with each other. As society becomes increasingly                  urbanized and technologized, educators must continue to adopt and               adapt more of the goals, theory, and practice of place-based                    education. REFERENCESDewey, J. (1915). The school and                     society (Rev. ed.). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago                      Press. 
Haymes, S. N. (1995). Race, culture, and the city: A                   pedagogy for Black urban struggle. Albany, NY: State University of              New York Press. 
Knapp, C. E. (1996). Just beyond the classroom:               Community adventures for interdisciplinary learning. Charleston, WV:            ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC                  Document Reproduction Service No. ED 388 485) 
Orr, D. W. (1994).              Earth in mind: On education, environment, and the human prospect.               Washington, DC: Island Press. 
Smith, G. A., & Williams, D.                    R. (Eds.) (1999). Ecological education in action: On weaving                    education, culture, and the environment. Albany, NY: State                      University of New York Press. 
Theobald, P. (1997). Teaching the               commons: Place, pride, and the renewal of community. Boulder, CO:               Westview Press. 
Theobald, P., & Curtiss, J. (2000, Spring).                   Communities as curricula. Forum for Applied Research and Public                 Policy, 15(1), 106-111. 
Thomashow, M. (1995). Ecological identity:            Becoming a reflective environmentalist. Cambridge, MA: The MIT                  Press. 
Traina, F., & Darley-Hill, S. (Eds.) (1995). Perspectives              in bioregional education. Troy, OH: North American Association for              Environmental Education. 
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Jan Woodhouse is a faculty                   associate in the Department of Educational Psychology and                       Foundations and a doctoral student in Educational Leadership and                Policy Studies at Northern Illinois University, DeKalb. 
Clifford              E. Knapp is a professor of outdoor education in the Teacher                     Education Department at Northern Illinois University, DeKalb and                author of several books published by ERIC/CRESS. 
This publication             was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research               and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract no.               ED-99-CO-0027. The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily                 reflect the positions or policies of OERI, the Department, or AEL.           **Title:** Place-Based Curriculum and Instruction: Outdoor and Environmental               Education Approaches. ERIC Digest.                                           **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC/CRESS, P.O. Box 1348, Charleston, WV 25325-1348; Tel:                      800-624-9120 (Toll Free). Full text at Web site:                                http://www.ael.org/eric/digests/edorc006.htm.                                **Descriptors:** Ecology, Educational Principles, Elementary Secondary Education,                 Environmental Education, Experiential Learning,  Outdoor Education,            Role of Education, School Community Relationship                             **Identifiers:** ERIC Digests,  Place Based Education, Sense of Place                         
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