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##  Tools for Automating Instructional Design. ERIC Digest.                      

Instructional design (ID) is the systematic process of planning                 events to facilitate learning. The ID process encompasses a set of              interdependent phases including analysis of learners, contexts and              goals; design of objectives, strategies and assessment tools;                   production of instructional materials; and evaluation of learner                performance and overall instructional design effort (Gagne, Briggs,             and Wager, 1992). PURPOSE OF AUTOMATED INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN                   TOOLSAutomated instructional design (AID) tools assist                      instructional designers and others in creating instructional                    products to improve learning. AID systems aid in the production of              courseware (Gros & Spector, 1994), or in the development of                     computer-based instruction (CBI), although some tools guide users in            general decision-making that can apply to a range of instructional              products and solutions. 
AID tools may eliminate some physical ID              tasks such as storyboarding and test generation (Muraida & Spector,             1993). However, the strength of AID tools lies in their ability to              guide novices and non-ID professionals through the process of                   creating effective instruction (Tennyson & Barron, 1995; Chapman,               1995). AID tools are especially useful in situations where                      instructional design expertise is lacking and subject-matter experts            and others are responsible for developing instruction [as seen in               military courseware development (Muraida & Spector 1993)]. TYPES              OF AID TOOLSThis Digest focuses on four types of tools that                 guide users through the ID process: expert systems, advisory                    systems, information management systems, and electronic performance             support systems. Authoring tools are also mentioned as popular                  mechanisms for supporting the production of computer-based                      instruction. Some tools contain features representing more than one             type of system. 
--Expert Systems: An expert system contains a                 domain-specific knowledge-base and performs decision-making and                 analysis functions for the designer using natural language                      queries (Schwier & Misanchuk, 1993). Expert systems for                         instructional design have been developed to provide advice to novice            instructional designers (Locatis & Park, 1992) and to facilitate the            development process for experienced designers. 
ID Expert from the             ID2 Research Group (Cline & Merrill, 1995) was created to develop               and deliver computer-based instruction more efficiently. ID Expert              is based on Instructional Transaction Theory, a "second generation"             theory of instructional design (Cline & Merrill, 1995; Merrill et               al, 1996; Locatis & Park, 1992). According to Instructional                     Transaction Theory, instruction is based on transactions (sets of               interactions) between the system and the learner in order to                    accomplish a given task. ID Expert assists designers in creating                transactions by presenting a set of decision-making steps involving             instructional components, formatting, resources, etc. ID Expert is              considered a prototype system and has not yet been released                     commercially (Merrill, 1997). 
The United States Air Force                     Armstrong Laboratory proposed two AID approaches that use expert                system technology to provide expertise to novice instructional                  designers and subject matter experts in the design, production, and             implementation of courseware used in Air Force training (Spector &              Song, 1995). Guided Approach to Instructional Design                            Advising (GAIDA) uses tutorials and context-specific advice and                 examples. Experimental Advanced Instructional Design Advisor (XAIDA)            uses the Instructional Transaction Theory framework to encapsulate              context-specific knowledge. Both of these environments are results              of the Advanced Instructional Design Advisor (AIDA) research                    project (Muraida & Spector, 1993; Spector et al, 1991). 
Reactions             to Expert Systems: While expert systems for instructional design can            teach theory validation and function as authoring tools, they are               limited by their inability to support analysis and design                       tasks (Paquette et al, 1994). ID expert systems attempt to control              the instructional design process, a process involving a large number            of interrelated elements, and so must rely heavily on the knowledge             and experience of the individual practitioner (Duchastel, 1990).                Several instructional technologists have proposed systems that more             subtly advise the instructional designer, rather than prescribe a               set of solutions. Some examples are described below. 
--Advisory               Systems: 
Duchastel (1990) challenges the expert system model by               providing an advisory system model. Instead of controlling the                  problem-solving process with expert knowledge, advisory systems                 assist or coach users in accomplishing a given task. A prototype for            the advisory system approach is the Instructional Design Advanced               Workbench, an architecture for a computer-based workbench that                  supports the cognitive tasks of instructional design without                    constraining the designer. 
--Information Management                           Systems: 
Instructional Design Environment (IDE) from the Institute            for Research on Learning (Russell & Pirolli, 1992) is a                         computer-aided design environment that supports an ID methodology               for teaching the use of software in real-life problem-solving                   contexts. IDE helps document design and development                             options (Locatis & Park, 1992). It is intended for experienced                  instructional designers (Muraida & Spector, 1993). 
--Electronic               Performance Support Systems: 
Electronic performance support                   systems (EPSS) are self-instructional electronic environments that              provide access to "software, guidance, advice, data, tools, and                 assessment with minimum support and intervention by                             others" (Milheim, 1997, p.103). EPSS have become popular in the                 1990s for business and educational contexts that                                require "just-in-time" learning and a high level of a particular                skill (Milheim, 1997; Leighton, 1996). Some examples of EPSS are                listed below. 
Building on Duschastel's "workbench," Paquette et               al (1994) introduced a performance support system called AGD (a                 French acronym meaning Didactic Engineering Workbench). AGD provides            procedural instructional design information to guide users in                   defining the learning system (e.g., analyzing training needs,                   designing pedagogical structures). AGD includes a rules-based                   advisory component that offers advice regarding specific design                 decisions made by users (e.g., amount and nature of                             objectives). 
Other performance support systems tools include                  Designer's Edge from Allen Communication (Chapman, 1995) and                    Instructional DesignWare from Langevin Learning Services (Langevin              Learning Services). Like AGD, these tools support the planning                  phases of instructional design, but contain a much more general                 advisory component (e.g., context-specific online help, wizards, and            tutorials). 
In contrast to AGD, Designer's Edge and Instructional             DesignWare lead designers through all tasks involved in                         instructional design, but place more emphasis on the ultimate                   production phase. Both tools provide a graphical representation of              the instructional systems design model, thus leading to additional              support for completing each step of the model. Data entered by users            are cross-referenced with all steps to enhance continuity between               phases. Usable reports and documents such as evaluation instruments,            content outlines, lesson plans, and checklists can be generated by              the users. 
The primary difference between the two products lies in            their intended audiences and purposes. Designer's Edge is for both              novice and experienced instructional designers planning                         computer-based instruction. The product includes support for                    scripts, storyboards and other CBI production needs. Integration                with external software applications is also supported (Allen                    Communication, 1997). Instructional DesignWare is intended for                  course designers and trainers interested in producing either                    computer-based or classroom training. For this reason, more support             is provided for decisions regarding media selection and course and              presentation materials (Langevin Learning Services). AUTHORING                TOOLSAlthough they do not necessarily support the preliminary               planning stages of instructional design, instructional designers use            authoring tools in the development phase to produce computer-based              instruction (Paquette et al, 1994; Locatis & Park, 1992; Merrill,               1997). Some authoring tools take advantage of the World Wide Web by             providing features that integrate Web content into computer-based               instruction and deliver instruction over the Web (e.g.,                         WebCT). 
According to Merrill (1997), authoring tools simplify the             programming process and allow experienced users to create effective             and visually-appealing instruction, but require a steep learning                curve in order to take full advantage of their features. Current                popular authoring tools include Macromedia Authorware 4.0, Aim Tech             IconAuthor, WBT Systems TopClass, and Asymetrix                                 Toolbook. SUMMARYSome AID tools support instructional design              by focusing on the cognitive aspects of instructional design (e.g.,             ID Expert, AGD, etc.). Some highlight the procedural steps of                   ID (e.g., Designer's Edge, Instructional DesignWare). Others support            the production phase only (i.e., authoring tools for computer-based             instruction). 
In general, AID tools that support the planning and             evaluation phases of ID are not as widely used by practitioners as              tools that focus on the authoring and media production                          phases (Chapman, 1995). One exception may be Designer's Edge which              has been cited as one of the most popular CBT authoring tools                   despite its intended purpose as a pre-authoring system (Kemske,                 1997). Regardless of its strength or approach, the value of a                   particular tool or type of system is measured by how well it can                support a particular designer's task (Gros & Spector,                           1994). REFERENCESAllen Communication. "Designer's Edge                    Features." Allen Communication. Internet WWW page, at URL:                      http://www.allencomm.com/software/designer/features.html (version               current at 13 March 1998). 
Chapman, B. L. (1995). Accelerating the            design process: A tool for instructional designers. "Journal of                 Interactive Instructional Development," 8(2), 8-15. (EJ 520                     294) 
Cline, R. W. & Merrill, M. D. (1995). Automated instructional            design via instructional transactions. In Robert D. Tennyson & Ann              E. Baron, (Eds.), "Automating instructional design: Computer-based              development and delivery tools" (pp. 317-353). New York:                        Springer-Verlag. 
Duchastel, P. C. (1990). Cognitive design for                instructional design. "Instructional Science," 19(6), 437-444. (EJ              423 422) 
Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W.                             W. (1992). "Principles of instructional design." 4th ed. Fort Worth,            TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 
Gros, B. & Spector, J. M. (1994).              Evaluating automated instructional design systems: A complex                    problem. "Educational Technology," 34(5), 37-46. (EJ                            483719) 
Kemske, F. (1997). "The CBT software market." Internet WWW            page, at URL:                                                                   http://www-euro.macromedia.com/software/authorware/reviews.                     html (version current at 13 March 1998). 
Langevin Learning                    Services. "Langevin Instructional DesignWare." Internet WWW page, at            URL: http://www.langevin.com/dw_info1.html (version current at 13               March 1998). 
Leighton, C. (1996). "What is an EPSS?" Internet WWW             page, at URL:http://itech1.coe.uga.edu/EPSS/Whatis.html (version                current at 13 March 1998). 
Locatis, C. & Park, O. (1992). Some                uneasy inquiries into ID expert systems. "ETR&D," 40(3), 87-94. (EJ             462 856) 
Merrill, M. D. & ID2 Expert Group (1996). Instructional              transaction theory: Instructional design based on knowledge                     objects. "Educational Technology," 36(3), 30-37. (EJ 524                        804) 
Merrill, M. D. (1997). Learning-oriented instructional                   development tools. "Performance Improvement," 36(3), 51-55. (EJ 544             730) 
Milheim, W. (1997). Instructional design issues for                      electronic performance support systems. "British Journal of                     Educational Technology," 28(2), 103-110. (EJ 544 668) 
Muraida &               Spector (1993). The advanced instructional design                               advisor. "Instructional Science," 21(4), 239-253. (EJ 464                       301) 
Paquette, G., Aubin, C., & Crevier, F. (1994). An intelligent            support system for course design. "Educational Technology," 34(9),              50-57. (EJ 493 315) 
Russell, D. M. & Pirolli, P. (1992). "Computer            assisted instructional design for computer-based instruction." Final            Report. Working Papers. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research              in Vocational Education. (ED 354 872) 
Schwier, R. A. & Misanchuk,             E. R. (1993). "Interactive multimedia instruction." Englewood                   Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. 
Spector, J. M.,              Muraida, D. J. & Marlino, M. R. (1991). "Modeling user interactions             with instructional design software." Paper presented at the Annual              Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago,              IL. (ED 332 695) 
Spector, J. M. & Song, D. (1995). Automated                  instructional design advising. In Robert D. Tennyson & Ann E.                   Baron (Eds.), "Automating instructional design: Computer-based                  development and delivery tools," (pp. 377-402). New York:                       Springer-Verlag. 
Tennyson, R. D. & Baron, A. E. (1995). Automating            instructional design: An introduction. In Robert D. Tennyson & Ann              E. Baron (Eds.), "Automating instructional design: Computer-based               development and delivery tools" (pp. 1-10). New York:                           Springer-Verlag. 
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ERIC Digests are in the public domain and              may be freely reproduced and disseminated. This publication was                 prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and               Improvement, U.S. Department of Education under contract no.                    RR93002009. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily            reflect the positions of OERI or ED.                                         **Title:** Tools for Automating Instructional Design. ERIC Digest.                      **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology, 4-194 Center for              Science and Technology, Syracuse, NY 13244-4100 (free while supply              lasts).                                                                      **Descriptors:** Authoring Aids (Programming),  Computer Assisted Design, Computer               Oriented Programs, Expert Systems,  Instructional Design,                       Instructional Effectiveness, Instructional Improvement,                          Instructional Materials, Management Information Systems, Material              Development                                                                  **Identifiers:** ERIC Digests                                                                 
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