Contents

Approved by USDA’s 

World Agricultural 

Outlook Board

United States

Department

of Agriculture

www.ers.usda.gov

A Report from the Economic Research Service

Abstract

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region accounts for a significant and 

growing portion of worldwide food and feed imports. Despite the violence and political 

uncertainty hanging over parts of the region, the MENA’s growing populations and 

rising incomes are driving higher demand for major food and feed grains, soybeans, 

cotton, and meats. This demand cannot be fulfilled by domestic production alone 

given the region’s climatic and geographic constraints, thus creating a large need for 

food imports. The United States has historically played an important role in meeting 

this region’s food needs, but recently, new exporters from South America, Europe, 

and Asia have emerged to compete for the MENA region’s market share, exploiting 

various production and transport cost advantages. For certain commodities, the effects 

of this new competition have translated into fewer U.S. shipments to the MENA and a 

smaller share of the region’s market.

Acknowledgments

The authors appreciate the feedback of reviewers Neda Zawahri of Cleveland 

State University, Mark Smulders of the United Nations Food and Agriculture 

Organization, Levin Flake of USDA’s Foreign Agricultural Service, and Suresh 

Persaud of USDA’s Economic Research Service. The authors also benefited from 

the insights and expertise of Dave Stallings of the World Agricultural Outlook Board 

and Maurice Landes, Ed Allen, Mark Ash, Stephen MacDonald, and Nathan Childs 

of the Economic Research Service.

AES-88

July 2015

Getachew Nigatu and Mesbah Motamed 

Middle East and North Africa 

Region: An Important Driver of 

World Agricultural Trade

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Overview MENA Region. 3

Driving Factors. . . . . . . . . 9

Profile of MENA Region 12

 Wheat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

 Corn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

 Rice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

 Soybeans and Soy Products

 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

 Cotton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

 Poultry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

 Beef and Veal. . . . . . . . . 19

 Other Crops. . . . . . . . . . 19

Projections. . . . . . . . . . . . 20

 Food Grains. . . . . . . . . . 20

 Animal Feeds. . . . . . . . . 24

 Meats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

 Cotton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . 28

References. . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Appendix Tables. . . . . . . 32
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Introduction

Over the next 10 years, growth in worldwide demand for crops and animal products is expected to 

occur primarily in developing and emerging economies. With expanding populations, rapid urbanization, and rising incomes, diets in low- and middle-income countries are gaining calories not only 

from increased consumption of staple grains and oilseeds, but also from diversification toward beef 

and poultry (Trostle and Seeley, 2013). Rising consumption in many of these countries, however, 

is outpacing their ability to produce, with consequences for production and trade by agricultural 

exporters such as the United States. Among the most important destinations for agricultural exports 

is the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region (fig. 1).1

Like other parts of the developing world, the MENA region has experienced strong population and 

income growth, which has contributed to rising food consumption and shifting dietary preferences. 

But growing demand, coupled with a climate-constrained production potential, has forced the region 

to rely increasingly on food imports, raising its trade profile. Figure 2 shows that wheat, rice, corn, 

and poultry imports into the MENA region account for a sizeable share of total world imports for 

these commodities.2

Apart from these long-run trends, more recent events have added complexity to the MENA region’s 

food demand and import profile. The food price crises that struck markets around the world in 

2007-8 and again in 2010-11 contributed to worldwide political instability, and the MENA region 

was no exception. (Trostle, 2008; Arezki and Brückner, 2011; USDA, 2011). Rising agricultural 

commodity prices, occurring in tandem with dramatic changes in governance, stretched the ability 

1For this report, MENA refers to the 14 Middle Eastern and 5 North African countries that appear in USDA’s International Long-Term Projections to 2024 (USDA, 2015). 

2These shares are 31, 18, 22, and 20 percent, respectively, on average, for 2012-14. 

Figure 1 

Map of Middle East and North Africa region1

1

Note: The disputed territory of Western Sahara is not depicted separately from Morocco, 

which currently administers the region.

Source: USDA, 2015.

Lebanon

Israel

West Bank

Gaza

Turkey

Qatar

Bahrain

Kuwait

United Arab

 Emirates

Algeria

Tunisia

Libya Egypt

Iraq

Syria Iran

Jordan

Yemen

Oman

Saudi

Arabia

Morocco
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of some MENA governments to subsidize basic staples, jeopardizing the food security of their 

poorest citizens (Cha, 2011; Ciezadlo, 2011; Hanley, 2011).

The MENA region’s combination of growing demand, weak agricultural production, and, in some 

cases, unstable governments and civil confl ict, increases its vulnerability to economic shocks and 

volatility in global food markets. As a key food supplier to the MENA region, the United States 

can play an important role in meeting the region’s food needs, supplying not only traditional crop 

commodities but also high-value products such as meat and poultry (Westcott and Trostle, 2012). 

Broader policy initiatives have paralleled these opportunities, including Free Trade Agreements 

(FTAs) signed with fi ve MENA countries that facilitate more open trade and investment (Freund and 

Portugal-Perez, 2013).3

This report examines some of the features of the MENA region’s agricultural economy, its 

contribution to the projected growth of global agricultural trade, and the resulting prospects for 

U.S. agricultural exports to the region. The report assesses production, consumption, and trade 

developments for major agricultural commodities and identifi es which markets are likely to 

matter most to U.S. exporters.

3These fi ve countries--Bahrain, Morocco, Jordan, Israel, and Oman--accounted for 18 percent of overall value of 

exports from the United States to the MENA in 2011-13.

0

20

40

60

80

100

Wheat Soybeans Corn Soymeal Cotton Rice Poultry

103.0

mmt

91.5

mmt

57.0

mmt

46.7

mmt

39.1

mmt

7.4

mmt

138.3

mmt

Figure 2

MENA share of world imports, average for marketing year 2012-14

MENA share of world imports (percent)

As a reference point, total world import volumes in millions of metric tons (mmt) are printed on each commodity’s bar graph

Source: Authors calculations and USDA (2015).
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Overview of the MENA Region

Although there are many cultural commonalities among the countries that compose the MENA 

region, considerable variation exists among their populations, agricultural production, incomes, 

import patterns, and political governance (see Box, “Analyzing a Diverse Region”). To illustrate 

this diversity, the overview will highlight some individual countries. Other parts of the analysis, 

however, follow the regional aggregations used in the USDA’s International Long-Term Projections 

(USDA, 2015). The individual countries, chosen primarily for their market size and their influence 

on trade, are Egypt, Morocco, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey. The remaining countries are 

aggregated into two broad groups: Other Middle East (OME) and Other North Africa (ONA).

Population and Economy

The MENA region is economically diverse, encompassing the oil-rich states of the Persian Gulf 

as well as relatively resource-scarce countries such as Egypt, Morocco, and Yemen (World Bank, 

2014a). The region’s population, now nearly 500 million, grew an average 2.1 percent annually 

from 2004 to 2013, faster than the world average of 1.2 percent per year and one of the fastest rates 

in the world. The three most populous countries, Egypt, Turkey, and Iran, are home to more than 50 

percent of the region’s people. The population is 73-percent urbanized, a share that is projected to 

exceed 75 percent by 2023 (World Bank, 2014c). 

The MENA region’s income is rising, reaching a per capita average of over $7,600 in 2013, with 

around 2.6 percent annual growth over the past 10 years.4 But this average growth rate obscures 

considerable variation within the region. In 2013, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) reported the 

highest per capita income at $59,885, while the lowest was in Yemen, at $1,135. In 2013, the 

region’s total GDP accounted for about 5.2 percent of the world’s economy, with Turkey occupying 

the top spot, followed by Saudi Arabia and Iran (Table 1). 

In general, the MENA’s most significant sources of foreign currency income are mineral exports 

(including oil), tourism, foreign direct investment, remittances, and foreign aid, with the largest 

economic actors in the region being governments and state-owned enterprises (Malik and 

Awadallah, 2013). While poverty in the region is not as acute as in other parts of the developing 

world, around 40 million people there still survive on less than $2 per day. In Egypt, poverty 

according to this measure afflicts 15 percent of the population, and for Yemen, it is nearly 50 

percent (World Bank, 2014b). 

With a growing population and limited economic diversification, unemployment in the region 

remains problematic (Akhtar, Bolle, and Nelsen, 2008). Like per capita incomes, unemployment 

rates in the region vary widely (Appendix Table 1). In Yemen and Tunisia, unemployment is nearly 

18 percent, while in Kuwait and the UAE, the rate is less than 5 percent (ILO, 2013a). But these 

rates mask a burgeoning youth cohort of the population, which is projected to experience between 

25 and 30 percent unemployment over the next 5 years (ILO, 2013b).

4Values are reported in year 2010 $US unless otherwise stated.
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Table 1

Economic and population profile of the MENA

Region/ country

GDP in 

2013 

(billions

of $US)

Average 

annual GDP 

change, % 

(2004-2013)

Projected 

annual average GDP 

growth, % 

(2015-2024)

Population 

in 2013 

(millions)

Average 

annual 

population 

growth, % 

(2004-2013)

Projected 

annual 

population 

growth, % 

(2015-2024)

Turkey 845 4.9 4.2 80.7 1.4 1.0

Saudi Arabia 628 6.3 4.5 26.9 1.7 1.4

Iran 422 3.4 3.2 79.9 1.2 1.1

UAE 328 4.1 4.2 5.5 3.9 2.2

Israel 259 4.5 3.6 7.7 1.7 1.3

Iraq 177 11.2 6.8 31.9 2.6 2.0

Kuwait 142 4.5 2.8 2.7 2.3 1.3

Oman 68 5.4 4.4 3.2 2.0 2.0

Lebanon 40 5.4 3.0 4.1 0.7 0.4

Syria 31 -1.1 4.7 22.5 2.4 1.5

Yemen 29 1.9 3.7 25.3 3.0 2.2

Bahrain 29 5.3 3.4 1.3 5.1 1.8

Jordan 29 5.6 4.1 6.5 2.6 1.8

West Bank & Gaza 10 4.2 4.6 4.4 2.7 2.1

Egypt 232 4.6 4.4 85.3 2.1 1.6

Algeria 177 3.1 3.9 38.1 1.8 1.6

Morocco 102 4.4 4.0 32.6 1.1 0.9

Libya 53 7.0 8.4 6.0 1.2 1.6

Tunisia 47 4.0 4.6 10.8 1.0 0.8

MENA 3,647 4.7 4.3 475.4 2.1 1.5

United States 15,902 1.7 2.7 316.5 0.9 0.7

World 69,656 2.9 3.5 7,044.7 1.2 1.0

Notes: GDP values are reported in constant 2010 $US.

Source: USDA (2015).
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Analyzing a Diverse Region

Any analysis of the MENA region must acknowledge the large variation of incomes, political 

conditions, and economic activities among the different countries (Appendix Table 1). Each of 

these factors carries signifi cant implications for food demand and imports. 

Per capita incomes in the region span a large range. Among the individual countries included 

in the USDA projections, Morocco and Egypt have the lowest income levels, although poorer 

countries such as Yemen are counted within the OME aggregation. Similarly, while Turkey 

is the richest of the group, other, even wealthier, Gulf Arab states appear in OME. In short, 

incomes in the region vary widely, and much of the region’s demand for food imports can be 

traced to those countries with the ability to pay for it.

Sources of economic revenue in the region span a wide variety of activities. The MENA is 

home to eight members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Saudi 

Arabia leads the region (and the world) in oil exporting, with about 8.7 million barrels per day 

in 2012/14 (EIA, 2015). Other OPEC members in the region are the UAE, Kuwait, Iraq, Qatar, 

Iran, Libya, and Algeria. Due in part to these exports, all the MENA’s OPEC members, with 

the exception of Iran, run current account surpluses (World Bank, 2015). 

Figure 3

Political stability and income of MENA, ONA, and OME countries

Note: Values for OME (Other Middle East) and ONA (Other North Africa) are weight-averaged by 

individual country populations. 

Source: USDA (2015); FFP (2014).

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000

GDP per capita

(year 2010 $US)

Saudi

Arabia

OME

Egypt

ONA Turkey

Iran

Morocco

Iraq

Fragility Index

(...continued)
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International Trade and MENA Policies

The MENA region exported about $1.4 trillion worth of goods and services and imported about 

$936 billion in 2012 (measured in 2012 f.o.b. and c.i.f. $US, respectively), accounting for just 

under 10 percent of total global trade that year (Table 2). Imports are comprised mainly of manufactured goods, while fuels and mining products account for the bulk of the region’s exports. 

Agriculture’s share of the region’s total imports was around 15 percent, and its share of the 

exports was about 3 percent.

The European Union (EU-28) is by far the leading trading partner for MENA countries, particularly 

dominating the export and import markets of North African countries (Table 2). The United States, 

China, Japan, South Africa, Canada, and India are also major trading partners, while Eastern Europe 

and South Asia are becoming important competitors. In 2012, U.S. goods and services accounted 

for 8.3 percent of all the region’s imports. Meanwhile, U.S. purchases of MENA goods and services 

added up to 9.6 percent of total U.S. imports. Trade among MENA countries is relatively low, 

accounting for less than 10 percent of all the region’s exports (Malik and Awadallah, 2013). 

MENA attracted about 8 percent of global tourism revenue, approximately $103 billion, in 

2010/12, with Turkey leading with almost $30 billion and Libya the lowest with less than $0.2 

billion. In addition, remittances to MENA countries reached around $45 billion in 2011/13, 

with Egypt, the largest recipient, accounting for about 38 percent of the region’s share (World 

Bank, 2015). The region received nearly $65 billion (5 percent) of global foreign direct 

investment in 2011/13, ranging from $15 billion in Saudi Arabia to less than $100 million in the 

West Bank and Gaza.

Adding complexity to any overview of the MENA is the uncertainty and volatility of 

governance and civil conflict across the region. Figure 3 shows that countries across the 

region, regardless of income level, appear in the upper half of the Fragile States Index 

of values (FFP, 2014).1 Iraq’s recent experience with conflict and violence pushes its 

index value to the highest among the individual countries, though the present civil war in 

neighboring Syria, included within the OME aggregation, earns it a similar score. In the 

MENA region’s most populous country, Egypt, conditions remain uncertain following a 

period of protests, revolution, elections, and military control. Faced with such conditions, 

these countries suffer possibly lower incomes, reduced agricultural production, and 

diminished abilities to import food from overseas. 

Rated lower on the Fragile States Index are relatively stable countries like Saudi Arabia, 

Morocco, and Turkey, as well as the remainder of the countries grouped within OME 

and ONA, where the primary drivers of agricultural imports continue to be incomes and 

domestic production. 

Additional information and data about this diverse region can be found in Appendix Table 1.

1The Fragile States Index, according to its authors, captures a country’s “loss of physical control of its 

territory or a monopoly on physical force,” the “erosion of legitimate authority to make collective decisions,” an “inability to provide reasonable public services,” and the “inability to interact with other states 

as a full member of the international community.” It is a quantitative measure that reflects 12 different 

social, economic, and political/military indicators covering 178 countries (FFP, 2014).
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Within the agriculture sector, the value of U.S. exports to the MENA region has increased substantially since 2007. In 2011/13, the average trade surplus with this region reached more than $8.7 

billion, accounting for about 23 percent of the total U.S. agricultural trade surplus. The MENA is an 

important destination for a variety of U.S. agricultural products. The main U.S.-grown commodities 

include wheat, corn, soybeans, almonds and walnuts, and poultry. Major destinations include Egypt, 

Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Israel, Morocco, and Tunisia. In turn, the United States imports commodities from the MENA, including horticulture products, sugar, oilseeds and tobacco products, from 

Turkey, Israel, Morocco, Tunisia, and Egypt. 

Trade policy in the MENA region varies from country to country. High import tariffs on agricultural 

commodities are levied in Egypt, Morocco, and Turkey, while Gulf Arab countries impose relatively small duties on imports. Several factors may explain these differences, including a country’s 

ability to produce food domestically and the size of its agricultural sector. Figure 4, as an example, 

Table 2

MENA trade profile, year 2012

Region/country

Merchandise 

exports 

(FOB)

Ag. 

exports 

(FOB)

Share of 

exports in 

ag. (%)

Merchandise 

imports 

(CIF)

Ag. 

imports 

(CIF)

Share 

imports 

in ag 

(%)

Ag. 

imports 

from US

Avg. 

annual 

growth

 (%)#

Major trading partner 

exports, imports

(% of trade volume)

Iran 104 6 5.7 57 14 24.5 0.14 25 Chinese Taipei 46.8, UAE 22.2

Iraq 94 0 0.1 57 13 23.4 0.15 84 Syria 0.2, NA import

Saudi Arabia 388 5 1.3 156 29 18.8 1.19 12 Japan 26.8 , EU-28 31.9

Turkey 17 2 11.4 24 3 14 1.99 11 EU-28 76.4 , EU-28 57.5

Bahrain* 3 0 2.3 14 1 8.1 0.06 8 Saudi Arabia 23.2, EU-28 20

Israel* 63 2 3.9 75 6 7.8 0.63 3 EU-28 27.1 , EU-28 34.4

Jordon* 8 1 13.1 21 4 17.4 0.22 9 Iraq 15.2 , Saudi Arabia 22.8

Kuwait 119 0 0.3 26 4 14.9 0.19 13 China 2.2, NA import

Lebanon 6 1 11.2 22 3 15.7 0.1 5 South Africa 19.4, EU-28 37.8

Oman* 52 1 2.2 26 3 10.7 0.07 14 UAE 23 import

Syria 4 1 22.7 7 2 23.4 0.02 -20 EU-28 40.5, EU-28 25.3

UAE 350 7 1.9 230 16 7.1 1.02 13 India 11, EU-28 15.7

Yemen United 9 0 0 12 4 33.5 0.15 3 China 41 , EU-28 14.8

Egypt 29 5 16.1 69 18 25.5 1.87 8 EU-28 26.8, EU-28 29.2

Morocco* 21 4 18.3 45 6 14.3 0.66 17 EU-28 56.8, EU-28 47.4

Algeria 72 0 0.5 47 11 22.6 0.22 -2 EU-28 55.3, EU-28 52.3

Libya 62 2 2.5 23 1 5.3 0.13 19 EU-28 81.7, EU-28 31.4

Tunisia 17 2 11.4 24 3 14 0.23 9 EU-28 76.4, EU-28 57.5

MENA 1418 39 2.8 936 142 15.2 9.03 9

United States 1546 172 11.1 2336 142 6.1 - - Canada 18.8, China 19.1

EU-28 2167 163 7.5 2301 173 7.5 10 5 China 8.2, China 16.2

World 18401 1656 9 18601 1748 9.4 141.3 10 EU-28 11.8, China 9.8

Notes: All trade values are in billions of 2012 $US. *Countries with free trade agreement with the United States. # Average annual growth from 

2002-2012, based on GATS (2014) data. 

Source: WTO (2014), GATS (2014).
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plots average agricultural tariffs for several MENA countries against the agricultural share of each 

country’s GDP. As the graph shows, countries with a larger fraction of economic activity based 

in agriculture erect higher tariff barriers, likely a result of policymakers’ interests in protecting 

domestic farmers.

Apart from tariff barriers, the MENA also imposes a variety of nontariff measures (NTM), including 

border controls and technical and sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) regulations, that effectively limit 

foreign-produced goods from entering local markets. In an analysis of fi ve MENA countries for 

which data were available, Augier et al. (2012) report that nontariff measures were applied to 50 

percent of all imports, a rate that is not exceptional in comparison with other countries around the 

world. Within the region, however, Morocco and Egypt stand out for the scope of products covered 

by NTMs and the tariff equivalents associated with importing them. For example, in Morocco, the 

ad valorem equivalent of NTMs applied to wheat is 108.5 percent and 375 percent to rice, mostly 

due to SPS regulations. (Augier et al., 2012).

Despite these impediments to trade, most countries in the region are members of the World Trade 

Organization (WTO) and are bound by its rules governing certain tariff and nontariff measures. In 

addition, the United States has signed Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with Jordan, Israel, Bahrain, 

Morocco, and Oman, often providing for further reductions in tariffs for U.S. products, including 

agricultural ones.

Figure 4

Selected MENA tariff rates and agricultural GDP shares

Notes: Tariff values are based year 2013 data, taking a simple average of all applied tariffs for Most 

Favored Nations (MFN) across all agricultural products. Agriculture share of GDP data are also for year 

2013, with the exception of Syria and Yemen, which reflect year 2000 data. MENA countries missing from 

the graph did not appear in either of the WTO and World Bank data sets.

Source: Tariff rates from WTO (2015); agricultural share of GDP from World Bank (2015b).

Simple average applied MFN tariff rate (percentage)

0

20

40

60

80

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Percent of GDP in agriculture

Morocco

Yemen

Tunisia

Turkey

Jordan

Saudi Arabia

Qatar 

and 

Kuwait Oman

Egypt

Syria
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Factors Driving Agricultural Production, 

Demand, and Imports

Natural Constraints on Production

For most of the MENA region, geography and climate combine to impose severe constraints on 

agriculture production. Vast deserts stretch across North Africa to the Arabian Peninsula, leaving 

little arable land for most of the region’s population. Growing populations, in fact, have reduced 

per capita arable land availability to 0.19 hectares, one of the world’s lowest rates (FAO, 2014). 

Exceptions exist, of course, with the area covering the historic Fertile Crescent—which includes 

Turkey, Lebanon, parts of Syria and Jordan, and the Nile River Delta—offering sufficient moisture 

to sustain productive agriculture. 

Precipitation levels in the region are among the world’s lowest (FAO, 2011). North Africa’s annual 

rainfall averages about 96 millimeters, while the Middle East’s is about 217 millimeters, values 

approximately one-sixth and one-third, respectively, of the rainfall levels in North America (FAO, 

2011).5 Rain-fed agriculture in the MENA is supplemented with irrigation systems on about 30 

percent of arable land, though the vast majority of this is concentrated in Iran, Egypt, and Iraq. 

While production has grown over the past decade, cereal yields across the MENA region average 

around 1.9 tons per hectare, well below the 3.7 tons per hectare world average (FAO, 2014). Gaps 

between world and regional average yields for all crops combined are estimated at 60 percent in 

North Africa and 49 percent in the Middle East (FAO, 2011), suggesting considerable room for 

growth through improved inputs. Moreover, highly variable rainfall in areas that rely on rain-fed 

agriculture contribute to large swings in year-to-year yields. In Morocco, for example, wheat yields 

have averaged about 1.5 metric tons per hectare (MT/ha) since 2000, though depending on the rainfall in any given year, this value could jump or fall by nearly 50 percent. 

Food Variety Demands Rising with Population and Income

Food demand is increasing in the MENA region for two key reasons: population growth and rising 

incomes. Growing populations present additional consumption demand for commodities across 

the board. Rising incomes imply not only greater calorie consumption, but also a greater diversification of diets (FAO, WFP, and IFAD, 2012). Over the past 50 years, the composition of the 

MENA region’s diet has changed significantly. While overall calorie consumption rose from 1961 

to 2007 (the most recent year of comprehensive FAO estimates of calorie intake), the percent of 

calories derived from cereals declined, while the shares derived from meats, dairy, and vegetable 

oils increased (Golzarand et al., 2012). Despite the relative decline of cereals in the MENA diet, 

however, wheat remains the dominant staple grain, accounting for up to one-third of the calories 

consumed in the region (World Bank, 2009). 

The most dramatic change in the MENA diet is the increasing consumption of meats, a feature 

commonly observed as incomes grow. Figure 5 illustrates this feature for poultry, the largest category of meats, showing how the region’s different income levels correlate strongly with per capita 

5In parts of its report, FAO (2011) uses the regional designation “Western Asia” which overlaps with our definition of 

the “Middle East” but also includes Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. In the present context, we use the term “Middle 

East” for the sake of consistency. 
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consumption. For the MENA region as a whole, average annual per capita meat consumption has 

more than doubled from around 12 kg in the 1990s to about 24 kg beginning in 2010, with projections showing similar growth into the future (USDA, 2015). Over the 1990-2010 period, protein 

from animal products increased between 20 and 45 percent across the different countries in the 

region (FAO, 2014). 

While the MENA countries import large volumes of animal products, domestic meat production, 

particularly poultry, has also grown signifi cantly. Regional poultry production grew by nearly 5 

percent annually from 2000 to 2011 (FAO, 2014), leading to a corresponding growth in demand for 

animal feeds, primarily corn and soybean meal. 

Imports Rising with Income

Growing populations and unfavorable geography drive much of the region’s reliance on imports, 

but incomes also matter. That is, not only do higher incomes cause diets to diversify, they permit 

a greater fraction of food purchases to originate from overseas. Since incomes within the MENA 

region vary tremendously, there are large differences in cross-country import demand (fi g. 6). 

Higher incomes appear correlated with greater import shares of grains. Saudi Arabia, a high-income 

country, imports nearly 80 percent of its corn, wheat, and rice, while a lower middle income country 

like Egypt imports less than 40 percent. Outliers exist, thanks to the more favorable geography 

and climate of certain countries—Turkey is a good example—but in general, imports and incomes 

appear to be positively linked. 

Figure 5

MENA poultry consumption and income in 2013

Note: Values derived from USDA (2014); OME=Other Middle East; ONA=Other North Africa. 

Source: Morocco’s consumption data are taken from FAO (2014). 

Consumption kg/per capita

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000

Saudi

OME Arabia

Turkey

Egypt

Morocco

ONA

Iraq

Iran

GDP per capita 

(year 2010 $US)
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Figure 6

Income and grain import reliance across the MENA

Note: The ratio is the sum of imported wheat, corn, and rice to the sum of consumed wheat, corn, and rice. 

OME=Other Middle East; ONA=Other North Africa. 

Source: Values derived from USDA (2014).

Ratio of imports to consumption in 2013

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000

Saudi

Arabia

Turkey

Egypt

Iran

Morocco

Iraq

ONA OME

GDP per capita in 2013 

(Constant Year 2005 $US)
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Profile of MENA Region Agricultural Commodity Markets

While the MENA region’s import demand for crop commodities has steadily grown, the role of U.S. 

exports in satisfying this demand has been mixed. This role can be analyzed in two dimensions:

(1) overall volume of U.S. shipments to the region; and (2) the U.S. share of MENA’s total imports.

In terms of volume, U.S. shipments of wheat and corn have dropped since the early 2000s (See Box, 

“Explaining U.S. Declines in Corn and Wheat Shipments.”) Soy products have seen only sporadic 

growth over the same period, hampered by recent volatility in international markets. Meanwhile, 

U.S.-grown cotton exports have remained fairly steady and the U.S. trade position for meat products, particularly poultry, has strengthened dramatically, with shipments consistently and steeply 

rising over the past 10 years. 

A different pattern has emerged for the market shares held by U.S. commodities in the MENA 

market. For corn, wheat, rice, and soy products, the shares have declined for almost two decades. 

The share of U.S. poultry in the MENA market has grown only slightly over the past decade, despite 

a 10-percent annual growth in shipments. The MENA region’s strong and increasing demand for 

chicken products has led it to source its poultry from a variety of countries, limiting growth in the 

U.S. share. Meanwhile, despite relatively small shipments and modest growth in beef and veal, the 

U.S. share of MENA’s imports has shown gradual rises over the past 10 years. 

Wheat 

Although wheat is central in MENA diets, wheat cultivation in the region is significantly 

constrained by the arid climate and limited water availability. While some production is rain-fed, 

highly variable annual rainfall, particularly in Morocco and Turkey, contributes to variations in 

yields, often resulting in large swings in import demand (fig. 8). The MENA region’s growing 

incomes imply a gradual diversification away from wheat into more expensive food products, 

including meats. However, governments throughout the region tend to ensure supplies of this key 

food staple through policies that support both wheat producers and bread consumers and prioritize 

adequate levels of imports. In combination with robust population growth, this important staple is 

expected to be in steady demand in the years to come. 

Given the production conditions and the strong demand in the region, wheat consumption has 

exceeded production and the region continues to rely heavily on imports. Historically, much of this 

supply originated in the United States, but the past 20 years have seen a sizeable drop in the U.S. share 

of wheat imports into the MENA. Limited growth in U.S. wheat output, coupled with growing competition from Black Sea countries and the European Union, have reduced the U.S. share of the region’s 

wheat imports to around 10 percent in recent years, down from around 30 percent in the 1990s. 

The largest buyer of U.S. wheat in the region is Egypt, accounting for slightly more than half of all 

U.S. exports to the MENA, though year-to-year volumes have fluctuated dramatically, most recently 

due to political turbulence (Ciezadlo, 2011; Hanley, 2011). The next largest buyer of U.S. wheat is 

Yemen. Meanwhile, with recent policy changes in Saudi Arabia to de-emphasize domestic wheat 

production, the expectation is that Saudi wheat imports will expand and U.S. wheat will play a role 

in meeting that country’s import demand (FAS, 2014c). Turkey, Algeria, Israel, and Morocco are 

also major importers of U.S. wheat, though the pattern of shipments over time has been volatile, 

reflecting these rain-dependent producers’ own unpredictable harvests.
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Explaining U.S. Declines in Corn and Wheat Shipments

U.S. wheat and corn shipments to the MENA—and to many other markets around the world—

have all fallen for the same reason: that competition from the European Union and the former 

Soviet Union has increased. Those competitors, owing to their much closer distance to MENA 

markets, enjoy signifi cantly lower transportation costs and consequently can offer more 

competitive prices (USDA, 2015).

In addition to this natural advantage, overall trade costs with the MENA—which include 

logistics, tariffs, and nontariff barriers—have declined faster for these regions than for the 

United States. To illustrate this, fi gure 7 presents an index of annual bilateral trade costs 

between the MENA and a sample of trading partners: France, Russia, Ukraine, and the United 

States (ESCAP-World Bank, 2015). 

Based on fi gure 7, recent years show that trade costs have fallen signifi cantly for France, 

Russia, and Ukraine but not the United States, suggesting that additional trade advantages 

may have accrued to these competitors. Thus, while distance will continue to pose signifi cant 

competitive obstacles to U.S. shipments, reducing other costs associated with trade could help 

U.S. producers regain competitiveness.

Figure 7

Comparative changes in costs incurred by other regions for trading with the MENA* 

*Including logistics, tariffs, and nontariff barriers.

Source: ESCAP-World Bank (2015).

Trade costs, average 1999-2001=100

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

Russian Federation Ukraine

United States France
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Corn

In the MENA region, corn, used mainly as feed for livestock, is grown primarily in Turkey, Egypt, 

and Iran. While most corn production is irrigated, it remains subject to a different kind of moisture 

constraint, namely, the limited—and, in some places, declining—underground water supplies. This 

leaves relatively little room for area expansion or yield growth (fig. 9). 

MENA corn consumption has grown steadily over the past 20 years, primarily due to growing 

demand for feed to support expansion of poultry production and consumption. While rising incomes 

are fueling poultry demand, it remains to be seen whether the demand for poultry will translate into 

rising feed imports or higher poultry imports, with the outcome likely to vary within the region. 

Given the disparity between the region’s constrained production and its growing demand for poultry 

and other meats, corn imports into the MENA region have steadily risen, except for a temporary 

drop in 2009 associated with the spike in global food prices. The U.S. share of the region’s corn 

imports has declined from about 70 percent during the mid-1990s to around 10 percent in recent 

years, the result of reduced U.S. exportable surpluses, higher U.S. prices following the 2012 U.S. 

drought, and more competition from other suppliers. But the expectation is that the MENA’s rising 

incomes and increasing population will sustain its growing demand for U.S. corn in the future. 

Major U.S. competitors in the MENA corn market include Ukraine and Russia, who enjoy transport cost advantages to the MENA region but experience frequent weather-induced fluctuations in 

production. The major destinations of MENA-bound U.S. corn are Saudi Arabia and Egypt.

Figure 8

Wheat Consumption, production, and trade for MENA, and U.S. import share

Volume (millions of tons) U.S. share of imports (percentage)

Source: Data taken from USDA (2015) and USDA-GATS(2014).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013

Year

U.S.import Share Consumption Production + U.S. imports Production
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Rice

Major rice producers in the MENA region include Egypt, Turkey, and Iran, but as with other 

crops, production lags far behind consumption and is not expected to rise appreciably because of 

climate and land constraints. The region’s population consumed an average of 13 million tons of 

rice per year over the period 2011-13, of which around 7 million tons were imported (fig. 10). The 

U.S. share of rice imports to the region has fallen, dipping below 15 percent in recent years, as 

emerging competitors in South Asia and Thailand have gained market share due to lower prices and 

geographic proximity. 

Major MENA region destinations for U.S. rice include Turkey, Libya, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. 

Some of these markets emerged in the wake of the 2008 food price crisis when regular suppliers, 

namely, Egypt and India, imposed export restrictions. Notwithstanding the unpredictable occurrence and effects of such trade policies, rising incomes and populations in the region are expected to 

sustain rice demand, leaving the door open for a growing U.S. role in this market. 

Soybeans and Soy Products

Despite recent volatility, consumption of MENA region soy products has risen over the past 20 

years (fig. 11). As with corn, this growth has been driven primarily by rising demand for poultry 

and other meat. The proportion of soybeans and soybean meal imports varies across the region, 

depending on each country’s domestic soybean-crushing capacity. In some countries, such as 

Egypt, crushing capacity remains controlled by government-favored monopolies that enjoy tariff 

protection from soymeal imports. In other countries, however, economic constraints have limited 

Figure 9

Corn consumption, production, and trade for MENA, and U.S. import share

Volume (millions of tons) U.S. share of imports (percentage)

Source: Data taken from USDA (2015) and USDA-GATS(2014).

Year

U.S.import Share Consumption Production + U.S. imports Production

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013
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Figure 10

Rice consumption, production, and trade for MENA, and U.S. import share

Volume (millions of tons) U.S. share of imports (percentage)

0

5

10

15

20

25

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013

Source: Data taken from USDA (2015) and USDA-GATS(2014).

Year

U.S.import Share Consumption Production + U.S. imports Production

Figure 11

MENA soybean and soy products consumption, production, 

and imports from the United States

Volume (millions of tons) U.S. share of imports (percentage)

0

10

20

30

40

50

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

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20

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013

Source: Data taken from USDA (2015) and USDA-GATS(2014).

Year

U.S.import Share Consumption Production + U.S. imports Production
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the expansion of crushing capacity, leaving markets open to U.S. soymeal products despite a 

declining trend in the share of U.S. soy products exported to the region (fig. 11). 

While U.S. shipments of soybeans to the MENA region have varied like those of other crop 

commodities, the trend over the past 10 years has generally tracked upward with consumption. 

Among the MENA importers of U.S. soy are Egypt and Turkey, along with Tunisia, Morocco, and 

Israel. However, the U.S. share of the MENA region soy product market has steadily shrunk as pricecompetitive producers, such as Brazil and Argentina, have claimed a greater portion of these markets.

Soy oil, an edible byproduct of soymeal production, has witnessed similar growth in consumption 

over the past 20 years, primarily in Egypt and ONA. As with other soy products, however, soy oil 

production has witnessed little growth over the past two decades. Consequently, imports into the 

region have risen significantly to make up the difference, averaging about 1.8 million tons over the 

period 2011/13 and accounting for more than 20 percent of the world’s total soy oil imports. 

Cotton

For cotton, the MENA’s consumption levels have regularly exceeded production, but by a consistent 

amount, keeping imports relatively constant for the past 15 years (fig. 12). While Egypt is known 

for its high-value, long-fiber cotton, which directly competes with the U.S.-grown Pima variety, its 

production volume is relatively small. The region’s largest cotton grower is Turkey, accounting for 

much of the region’s production, with around 630,000 metric tons in 2014 (FAS, 2014a). 

Despite being the top MENA producer of cotton, Turkey’s demand for fiber from its expanding 

textile sector has outpaced domestic supply. Turkey is the largest market for U.S. cotton in the 

region, with U.S. shipments accounting for nearly one-third of the country’s total use (FAS, 2014a). 

In 2013, Turkey surpassed China as the biggest global buyer of U.S. cotton (Prentice, 2013). In 

addition, Israel, UAE, and Saudi Arabia are major U.S. cotton destinations figure 12 shows, both 

market share and volumes of U.S. cotton exports to the MENA have increased over the past 15 

years, though year-to-year fluctuations occur.

Poultry

The MENA region’s poultry consumption and production have risen consistently over the past 15 

years (fig.13). As with other commodities, the growth of poultry consumption has been exceeding 

gains in domestic production, leading to rising imports, and MENA is now the largest regional 

importer of poultry products in the world (FAS, 2014b). Saudi Arabia remains the region’s largest 

buyer, with total imports over the last decade rising about 4 percent annually, reaching 700,000 

metric tons in 2013 (Davis et al., 2013). Close behind is Iraq, with total imports expanding by over 

400 percent over the same period. U.S. poultry shipments, which consist mainly of broilers, saw 

rapid growth over the past 10 years, with quantities reaching around 350,000 metric tons in 2013, 

accounting for about 15 percent of the region’s poultry imports. Destinations within the region for 

U.S. poultry are different than for other commodities, with the biggest customers, Iraq and the UAE, 

accounting for 30 percent and 20 percent, respectively, of total U.S. shipments to the MENA. 

Over the last decade, MENA imports from the United States have grown more than 10 percent per 

year. The largest U.S. competitor for this market is Brazil, the world’s largest poultry exporter, but 

Turkey has emerged as an important local supplier within the region (FAS, 2014b). 
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Figure 12

Cotton consumption, production, and trade for MENA, and U.S. import share

Volume (millions of tons) U.S. share of imports (percentage)

0

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20

30

40

50

60

70

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013

Source: Data taken from USDA (2015) and USDA-GATS(2014).

Year

U.S.import Share Consumption Production + U.S. imports Production

Figure 13

Poultry consumption, production, and trade for MENA, and U.S. import share

Volume (millions of tons) U.S. share of imports (percentage)

0

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10

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1

2

3

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9

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013

Source: Data taken from USDA (2015) and USDA-GATS(2014).

Year

U.S.import Share Consumption Production + U.S. imports Production
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Beef and Veal

Beef and veal consumption, in contrast to poultry, showed relatively little growth over the past 

decade (fig. 14). Production generally tracked consumption with a consistent supply gap, leaving 

a sizeable role for imports. However, unlike other products, U.S. beef and veal shipments not only 

grew modestly, but their share of the MENA region’s total beef and veal imports climbed over the 

past 10 years, from nearly nothing to about 10 percent in 2010. 

For U.S. beef, major MENA markets include Egypt, Kuwait, and Qatar. The region’s dominant 

supplier is India, one of the world’s leading exporters, which provides relatively low-cost “carabeef” (water buffalo meat) processed according to Islamic requirements. Due to its geographic proximity, India also enjoys transportation cost advantages with the MENA market (FAS, 2014b).

Other Crops

Apart from the major crop commodities and meat products, other U.S. products appear among the top 

exports to the MENA region. Tree nuts—mainly almonds and walnuts—actually claimed the number 

one spot, in value, in exports to the MENA region, surpassing wheat in 2013.6 U.S. tree nut exports, 

almost entirely grown in California, have surged in markets around the world, those in the MENA 

region included. U.S. tree nut exports to the MENA totaled $967 million in 2013, with the largest 

percentages of these shipments going to the UAE (38 percent) and Turkey (29 percent). Turkey’s 

own tree nut production and exports represent a distant second supplier for MENA markets. 

6According to Global Agricultural Trade System (GATS, 2014) data, shipments in 2013 of U.S. wheat, cotton, and 

soybean exports to MENA region were around $955 million, $822 million, and $814 million, respectively.

Figure 14

Beef and veal consumption, production, and trade for MENA, and U.S. import share

Volume (millions of tons) U.S. share of imports (percentage)

0

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18

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1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013

Source: Data taken from USDA (2015) and USDA-GATS(2014).

Year

U.S.import Share Consumption Production + U.S. imports Production
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Projections of MENA Production and Trade

The MENA region’s rising incomes and above-average population growth are projected to drive its 

consumption growth across a variety of agricultural commodities over the next 10 years. Given the 

region’s natural constraints on production, the USDA projections point to a correspondingly large 

rise in total imports. This section highlights some of the results reported in the USDA Agricultural 

Projections to 2024 to provide an overview of the production and net imports of important commodities in this region (USDA, 2015). Along with the discussion, the projections are detailed in the 

following tables:

• Table 3 presents the MENA region’s projected production for each of the main crop 

commodities. 

• Table 4 provides a more detailed, country-specific presentation of each commodity’s projected 

consumption for food and feed use, as well as projected imports.

• Table 5 reports projections for production, consumption, and import values for meat products, 

for each country, the country aggregations, and the overall region. 

• Table 6 reports the region’s projections for cotton.

Certain assumptions underlie the USDA long-term projections (see Box, “USDA Agricultural 

Projections to 2024”). One of the key assumptions is the continuation of current government policies. Given uncertainty about the stability of several governments in the MENA region, such an 

assumption is likely to prove tenuous. Projections for Iraq and Egypt must be treated with particular 

caution as these countries continue to experience political tensions. Similarly, projections for the 

OME category, which includes Syria and Yemen, must be interpreted with caution due to the persistence of civil conflict and political turmoil. 

Food Grains

By far the largest field crop by area in the MENA, wheat is currently cultivated on about 26 million 

hectares. This area is projected to rise about 0.4 percent annually through 2024. Combined with 

somewhat slow growth in yields, production is expected to grow at a relatively low 1.3 percent 

annually over the projection period. (See Tables 3 and 4 for summaries of the region’s food grain 

production and consumption.)

Over 90 percent of MENA’s wheat is destined for direct human consumption, primarily in the form 

of bread. The most populated countries in the region, Egypt, Turkey, and Iran, will remain the top 

wheat consumers over the next 10 years. But the region’s fastest consumption growth is projected 

to occur in Iraq, assuming current political conditions there do not deteriorate. As described above, 

rising populations and production constraints imply a growing role for imports across the MENA. 

Egypt is projected to remain the region’s largest wheat buyer, with imports accounting for nearly 60 

percent of its own consumption. Recently, imports into Egypt have shown large swings due to the 

country’s recent political turmoil. Forecasts of Egypt’s wheat imports, therefore, must make strong 

assumptions of stability and unchanging policies toward producers and consumer subsidies. 

Saudi Arabia’s import dependence, meanwhile, is even greater than Egypt’s and is projected 

to approach 100 percent by the end of 2024. The aggregate regions of ONA and OME are also 
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projected to become among the largest importers by 2024. The OME group includes Yemen, where 

recent political upheavals, combined with the country’s heavy dependence on imported wheat, inject 

additional uncertainty into the region’s overall wheat profile. 

For rice, MENA production is expected to grow only 0.5 percent over the 10-year projection period. 

As noted, constraints on available arable land and underground water supplies combine to limit the 

area and yield growth of the region overall. Egypt remains the largest rice consumer in the region, 

and its domestic production adequately covers demand, positioning it to sell excess quantities on 

the world market. Rice imports play a less important role than wheat in satisfying the country’s 

consumer demand, and uncertainties about Egypt’s political stability may have less effect on rice 

import projections.

USDA Agricultural Projections to 2024

USDA agricultural projections are based on a simulation of global production and trade 

that assumes the continuation of current government policies and existing bilateral and 

multilateral trade agreements. Most important, critical long-term assumptions are made for 

U.S. and international macroeconomic conditions.1 The projections are a representative 

scenario that assumes normal weather conditions throughout the projection period and the 

extension of historical trends in the expected performance of some economic variables. In 

addition, there are no domestic or external shocks in the assumptions that affect the global 

supply and demand balance. Change in any of the stated assumptions could significantly alter 

the outcomes of the projections. 

As described in the long-term projections to 2024, the main assumptions for the MENA 

region’s projections are rising per capita income and a rapidly growing middle-income class. 

GDP is projected to grow at an annual rate of 4.3 percent, with the highest growth rate at 8.4 

percent in Libya and the lowest rate at 2.8 percent in Kuwait (Table 1). The region’s population 

is expected to grow at 1.5 percent annually, 50 percent higher than the world average. The 

region’s agriculture will be constrained by scarce arable land and water resources and limited 

infrastructure. In addition, the MENA will experience a smaller increase in area expansion and 

yield growth in comparison with other regions. 

The USDA’s baseline projections for the MENA region are based on individual country 

models for Egypt, Morocco, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey. A regional model for the 

Other Middle East (labeled OME) aggregates Bahrain, West Bank & Gaza, Israel, Jordan, 

Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Syria, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Similarly, Tunisia, Libya, 

and Algeria are aggregated into an Other North Africa (ONA) model. 

For additional information for USDA Long-Term projections, refer to:

The Agricultural Baseline Projections topic page on ERS website: http://www.ers.usda.gov/

topics/farm-economy/agricultural-baseline-projections.aspx#.Uh5qxbzjZHY 

USDA Agricultural Projections to 2024: http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/oce-usda-agricultural-projections/oce151.aspx

1Given the ongoing political and economic instability within certain parts of the MENA, greater uncertainty surrounds the macroeconomic assumptions for this region.
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The MENA region’s number two rice consumer, Iran, relies on imports to meet over half of its 

demand and is expected to continue importing high levels as its population grows over the projection period. Other significant rice consumers are Iraq and Saudi Arabia, both of which rely even 

more heavily than Iran on imports as a percentage of consumption and whose imports are expected 

to grow over the next 10 years. Again, projections concerning Iraq’s rice imports are tempered by 

uncertainties surrounding its recent history of civil conflict.

Table 3

Projected MENA grains and oilseeds area, yields, and production

Average

2012/14

Projected

2024 

Growth rate

2013/24

Area (1,000 hectares)

Wheat 25,844 26,993 0.4

Barley 10,244 11,498 1.1

Rice 1,480 1,510 0.2

Corn 1,960 2,016 0.3

Soybean 116 133 1.2

Yield (MT/ha)

Wheat 2.14 2.36 0.9

Barley 1.41 1.66 1.4

Rice 4.69 4.86 0.3

Corn 6.34 6.79 0.6

Soybean 2.72 3.03 1.0

Production (1,000 MT)

Wheat 55,390 63,746 1.3

Barley 14,516 19,025 2.5

Rice 6,943 7,333 0.5

Corn 12,425 13,677 0.9

Soybean 317 402 2.2

Soy oil 672 783 1.4

Soymeal 2,942 3,514 1.6

Soymeal equivalent 4,681 5,529 1.5

Note: The figures for the growth rate 2013/24 column present the 11-year average annual growth rate beginning from the 2012-

2014 average value (effectively representing the year 2013) to the projected value in 2024. MT is metric ton and ha is hectare.

Source: USDA (2015).
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Table 4

Projected MENA consumption and imports for major crop commodities

Consumption Imports Food use Feed use

Average 

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth 

rate (%) 

2013/24

Average 

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth 

rate (%) 

2013/24

Average 

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth 

rate (%) 

2013/24

Wheat

Egypt 16,300 18,292 1 1,933 1,791 -0.7 9,323 10,545 1.1

Morocco 8,400 9,646 1.3 333 342 0.2 3,575 3,842 0.7

ONA 14,723 17,671 1.7 75 87 1.3 10,618 11,509 0.7

Saudi Arabia 3,133 3,900 2 150 181 1.7 2,867 3,904 2.8

Turkey 16,933 18,052 0.6 617 308 -6.3 4,486 4,868 0.7

Iraq 5,695 7,212 2.1 692 927 2.7 3,398 4,924 3.4

Iran 15,833 16,803 0.5 1,700 1,515 -1 5,633 3,550 -4.2

OME 12,328 14,711 1.6 1,658 1,847 1 10,575 12,426 1.5

Total MENA 93,347 106,287 1.2 7,158 6,998 -0.2 50,475 55,568 0.9

Rice

Egypt 4,017 4,515 1.1 0 0 0 22 46 6.7

Morocco 56 76 2.7 0 0 0 21 34 4.6

ONA 461 522 1.1 0 0 0 461 522 1.1

Saudi Arabia 1,326 1,602 1.7 0 0 0 1,325 1,600 1.7

Turkey 770 916 1.6 0 0 0 292 383 2.5

Iraq 1,483 1,948 2.5 0 0 0 1,404 1,765 2.1

Iran 3,400 3,880 1.2 0 0 0 1,817 2,112 1.4

OME 1,992 2,357 1.5 0 0 0 1,971 2,360 1.6

Total MENA 13,505 15,815 1.4 0 0 0 7,312 8,821 1.7

Barley

Egypt 50 67 2.6 88 94 0.6 35 55 4.2

Morocco 833 1,110 2.6 1,500 2,162 3.3 300 291 -0.3

ONA 483 588 1.8 3,083 3,705 1.7 1,426 1,655 1.4

Saudi Arabia 25 37 3.5 8,333 7,101 -1.5 8,500 7,141 -1.6

Turkey 900 842 -0.6 5,500 6,582 1.6 615 253 -8.1

Iraq 183 209 1.2 650 905 3 23 41 5.2

Iran 300 337 1.1 4,167 4,405 0.5 1,167 1,095 -0.6

OME 296 343 1.3 2,930 3,373 1.3 2,381 2,765 1.4

Total MENA 3,071 3,533 1.3 26,251 28,327 0.7 14,447 13,296 -0.8

(...continued)
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Animal Feeds 

Corn consumption in the MENA region is projected to rise by 1.4 percent over the next 10 years, 

thanks to growing demand for livestock feeds. Nearly 90 percent of MENA’s corn consumption is 

fed to livestock, although human consumption figures significantly in Egypt and Turkey. Again, the 

Consumption Imports Food use Feed use

Average 

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth 

rate (%) 

2013/24

Average 

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth 

rate (%) 

2013/24

Average 

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth 

rate (%) 

2013/24

Corn

Egypt 2,167 2,837 2.5 10,833 12,953 1.6 7,020 9,713 3

Morocco 200 210 0.4 1,983 2,661 2.7 2,057 2,738 2.6

ONA 0 0 - 5,000 5,923 1.5 5,029 5,930 1.5

Saudi Arabia 167 242 3.4 2,433 3,147 2.3 2,521 3,301 2.5

Turkey 1,000 987 -0.1 5,383 7,362 2.8 1,808 2,932 4.4

Iraq 50 57 1.2 300 422 3.1 133 227 4.8

Iran 150 157 0.4 6,100 7,604 2 4,900 6,364 2.4

OME 518 619 1.6 3,374 3,679 0.8 3,688 4,088 0.9

Total MENA 4,252 5,108 1.7 35,407 43,751 1.9 27,156 35,293 2.4

Soymeal

Egypt 0 0 0 2,377 2,917 1.9 1,002 1,375 2.9

Morocco 0 0 0 0 0 - - - -

ONA 0 0 0 2,602 3,631 3 2,174 2,992 2.9

Saudi Arabia 0 0 0 634 782 1.9 634 782 1.9

Turkey 0 0 0 1,371 1,600 1.4 973 1,212 2

Iraq 0 0 0 - - - - - -

Iran 0 0 0 2,843 3,518 1.9 2,527 3,095 1.8

OME 0 0 0 1,582 1,878 1.6 1,240 1,465 1.5

Total MENA 0 0 0 11,408 14,326 2.1 8,550 10,921 2.2

Soymeal

equivalent

Egypt 0 0 0 2,553 3,139 1.9 1,085 1,499 2.9

Morocco 0 0 0 - - - - - -

ONA 0 0 0 2,767 3,825 2.9 2,310 3,154 2.8

Saudi Arabia 0 0 0 639 789 1.9 638 789 1.9

Turkey 0 0 0 2,553 3,139 1.9 1,085 1,499 2.9

Iraq 0 0 0 - - - - - -

Iran 0 0 0 3,014 3,738 2 2,609 3,229 1.9

OME 0 0 0 2,139 2,482 1.4 1,485 1,692 1.2

Total MENA 0 0 0 13,665 17,112 2 9,212 11,862 2.3

Source: USDA (2015).

Table 4

Projected MENA consumption and imports for major crop commodities—continued
25

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largest corn consumer is Egypt, where imports—which account for over half of total usage—are 

projected to grow by 3 percent annually through the end of 2024. Egypt’s recent political turmoil, 

however, casts some doubt on its prospects for import growth. Morocco will continue to rely almost 

entirely on imports to supply its growing livestock sector, as will ONA, and Saudi Arabia, Iran, and 

OME. Turkey currently imports less corn than its neighbors, but USDA projections suggest that its 

rate of import growth will be among the region’s highest over the next 10 years. 

Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and Iran are the largest consumers of barley in the MENA region, using it 

largely for animal feed. And while Saudi Arabia currently imports nearly all the barley it consumes, 

projections indicate declining usage as the government encourages livestock producers to use more 

efficient mixes, including processed feeds. Raw barley imports over the next 10 years are consequently projected to decline (FSA, 2014c). In contrast, Turkey and Iran are projected to raise their 

barley demand. Turkey’s own barley production covers most of its domestic demand, however, so 

its import profile for barley is small. Similarly, owing to robust domestic production, projections 

indicate declining import demand for barley in Iran as well.

The MENA’s imports of soy products (soymeal and soymeal equivalents) are also expected to 

continue their strong growth, given the region’s near-stagnant production and rising demand for 

animal feed. Over the projection period, the MENA region is expected to account for 13 percent 

of the world’s overall import growth in soymeal. Major consumers Egypt, ONA, and Turkey are 

projected to have the fastest growth in consumption, with imports into each of these countries and 

regions satisfying nearly all the additional consumption. (Tables 3 and 4 include summaries of the 

region’s animal feed production and consumption.)

Meats

Much of the growth in meat consumption in the MENA region is due to rising incomes, and as 

countries in the region ascend the income ladder over the next 10 years, meat consumption will 

correspondingly rise. Table 5 presents a summary of current and projected poultry and beef production, consumption, and net imports. The MENA region is projected to import a quarter of the 

world’s traded poultry and 12 percent of its beef over the period 2015-24. By 2024, the region’s 

poultry and beef net imports are projected to reach around 2.8 and 1.6 million tons, respectively, 

reflecting almost a 4-percent increase per year.

For poultry, the most dramatic changes are projected to appear in Egypt. With consumption 

growing at almost twice the rate of production, Egypt is expected to rely more heavily on imports, 

with import volumes rising about 11 percent annually over the projection period. Again, Egypt’s 

recent political turmoil suggests that import growth for poultry may be fragile. Projections for the 

OME region also exhibit rapid poultry import growth. Only one country, Turkey, produces enough 

chicken to meet its own increasing needs (and to also supply its neighbors), with exports expected to 

rise 2.3 percent over the projection period. 

The outlook for beef and veal products largely mirrors that of poultry. Growth in consumption in 

the region vastly outpaces production, with demand growing fastest in Egypt, ONA, and Saudi 

Arabia. Corresponding to the growing gap between production and consumption is the rapid growth 

in imports, observed across nearly all the countries in the region for which data are available. One 

exception is Turkey, for which rising consumption is projected to be almost entirely matched by 

domestic production, keeping its import profile relatively small. 
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Cotton 

For cotton, the region is projected to continue its net import position, but at a decreasing growth 

rate over the projection period. Area under cultivation is expected to expand less than 1 percent, 

but yield will increase around 1.3 percent (Table 6). Cotton consumption in the MENA region is 

projected to grow about 1 percent annually over the next 10 years. Almost 50 percent of cotton 

consumption is projected to be met through imports, with Turkey remaining the top regional 

importer and the United States the major foreign supplier. Egypt is projected to decrease its dependency on imported cotton. The country’s cotton net imports will substantially decrease from 25,000 

metric tons in 2012/14 to less than 1,000 metric tons at the end of the projection period.

Table 5

Projected MENA production, consumption, and net imports of meat products

Production Consumption Net Imports

Average 

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth 

rate (%) 

2013/24

Average 

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth 

rate (%) 

2013/24

Average 

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth 

rate (%) 

2013/24

Poultry

Egypt 676 820 1.7 703 1,071 3.8 27 251 20.4

ONA 1052 1,279 2.0 1,054 1,288 2.0 2.3 11 16.9

Saudi Arabia 653 857 2.5 1,430 1,840 2.3 776 984 2.2

Turkey 1,780 1,979 1 1,410 1,501 0.6 -370 -478 2.3

OME 2,289 2,546 1.1 3,622 4,513 2.2 1,333 1,967 4.0

Total MENA 6,510 7,504 1.3 8,324 10,303 1.9 1,814 2,800 3.9

Beef and Veal

Egypt 302 333 0.9 533 700 2.5 232 367 4.2

ONA 385 409 0.6 528 713 3.0 144 305 7.8

Saudi Arabia 51 54 0.6 221 294 2.6 170 240 3.1

Turkey 479 498 0.3 499 523 0.4 20 25 2.0

OME 614 640 0.4 1,089 1,319 1.9 485 682 3.5

Total MENA 1,835 1,938 0.5 2,912 3,583 1.9 1,077 1,644 3.8

Note: All values are in 1,000 MT. The figures for the growth-rate column present the 11-year average annual growth rate from the 2012-2014 

average value (effectively representing the year 2013) through the projected value in 2024. 

The baseline projections do not contain estimates for Morocco, Iran, and Iraq. 

Source: USDA (2015).
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Table 6

Projected MENA cotton/fiber economy

Average

2012/14

Projected

2024 

Growth rate 

(%)

2015/24

Area (1,000 hectares)

Egypt 143 154 0.7

Turkey 390 498 2.2

Other MENA 253 213 -1.6

MENA 786 865 0.9

Yield (MT/ha)

Egypt 737 815 0.9

Turkey 1,506 1,687 1.0

Other MENA 840 884 0.5

MENA 1,152 1,335 1.3

Production (1,000 MT)

Egypt 105 126 1.6

Turkey 588 840 3.2

Other MENA 213 188 -1.1

MENA 906 1,154 2.2

Consumption (1,000 MT)

Egypt 131 126 -0.3

Turkey 1,368 1,617 1.5

Other MENA 299 238 -2.1

MENA 1,798 1,981 0.9

Net import (1,000 MT)

Egypt 25 0.6 -34.1

Turkey 807 777 -0.3

Other MENA 80 49 -4.5

MENA 912 827 -0.9

Source: USDA (2015).
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Conclusions

Strong population growth and rising incomes in the MENA region are likely to continue to drive 

consumption demand, with implications for continued robust growth in import demand. While these 

trends present opportunities to U.S. producers, U.S market share in the region has recently been 

declining for several major commodities. Further, recent political instability in the MENA region 

may affect income growth, purchasing power, and import demand more than is reflected in the 

current USDA projections. 

The MENA region’s most populous country, Egypt, encapsulates many of these conditions. Egypt’s 

economic growth is combining with its sizeable consumer base to create a market with new middleclass tastes. This promises not only greater consumption of staple grains, but also a significant 

dietary transition into more high-value foods, including poultry, as well as more animal feeds such 

as corn and soy products. But as these changes are evolving in the background, political events 

in the foreground raise questions about the country’s ability to provide stable conditions for these 

markets to operate. Egypt’s volatile import profile in the past several years, as well as its willingness 

to enforce trade restrictions, is evidence of this instability.

The MENA region defies generalization, however. For example, the rising middle class in Morocco, 

a country with notably less instability than in Egypt, Iraq, or Syria, has created new markets for 

agricultural trade. Large countries Turkey and Iran exhibit some of these same demographic and 

economic traits, but their agricultural economies are more self-subsistent. Iran’s economy remains 

further out of reach to U.S. producers due to longstanding sanctions. Meanwhile, high-income, 

stable importers such as Saudi Arabia remain attractive destinations for U.S. shippers, but compared 

with their less-developed neighbors, these markets are relatively mature and offer fewer growth 

opportunities. 

In addition to the complexities of the MENA region, producers in other countries have placed new 

pressures on the competitive environment. U.S. shipments of corn and wheat to the region have 

experienced sharp declines in recent years due to increased competition from low-cost suppliers in 

the Black Sea region. U.S. suppliers also face stiff competition from low-cost suppliers like Brazil 

and Argentina in soy product markets, India in the cotton and beef market, and Brazil in the MENA 

region’s rapidly expanding poultry market. Some of the loss of U.S. exports to MENA through this 

competition could be offset, however, if tariffs and nontariff barriers could be reduced. 
29

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Appendix Table 1

General overview of the MENA region

Region/ country

GDP 

per 

capita 

2013

Current 

account 

balance 

2012 OPEC 

Stability status 

2014

Unemployment rate 

2013

Urbanization 

rate 

2013

Tourism 

revenue 

average 

2010/12

Net Foreign 

direct 

investment 

average 

2011/13

Personal 

remittances 

received 

average 

2011/13

2010 

$US

 Billion 

current 

$US

MemberFragile States 

Index % %

Billion 

current 

$US

Billion 

current

 $US

Billion 

current 

$US

UAE 59,885 52.7 Yes Stable 3.8 85 8.6 8 0

Kuwait 52,549 79.2 Yes Less Stable 3.1 98 0.7 0.8 0

Israel 33,562 0.8 No High Warning 6.7 92 6 6.8 0.7

Saudi Arabia 23,318 164.8 Yes High Warning 5.5 83 8.4 15.1 0.3

Bahrain 22,349 2.9 No Warning 7.4 89 1.9 0.9 0

Oman 21,493 8.3 No Less Stable 8 77 1.5 1.2 0

Turkey 10,473 -48.5 No High Warning 9.9 72 29.6 10.8 1

Lebanon 9,665 -1.7 No Very High Warning 6.6 88 7 3.2 7.2

Iraq 5,567 29.5 Yes High Alert 16.1 69 1.6 1.2 0.2

Iran 5,288 -8.7 Yes Very High Warning 13.2 72 2.6 2.9 1.3

Jordan 4,413 -5.7 No High Warning 12.6 83 4.2 1.7 3.5

West Bank & 

Gaza 2,233 -2.3 No High Warning NA 75 0.7 0.1 1.8

Syria 1,396 -0.4 No High Alert 8.4 57 6.3 0.9 0

Yemen 1,135 -1 No High Alert 17.2 33 1 0.3 2.7

Tunisia 8,753 -3.7 No High Warning 17.5 66 3 1.3 2.2

Algeria 4,641 12.2 Yes High Warning 9.8 70 0.3 1.7 0.2

Libya 4,341 23.8 Yes Very High Warning 9 78 0.2 1.5 0

Morocco 3,126 -9.6 No High Warning 9.2 59 8.6 1.9 6.9

Egypt 2,725 -7 No Alert 12.7 43 11.3 4.6 16.8

MENA 7,672 15 - High Warning 10.4** 73 103.5 64.9 44.9

United States 50,249 -400.3 No Very Stable 7.5 81 183.1 211.5 6.4

World 9,888 0 - High Warning 6 53 1,221.4 1,437.8 478.4

Sources:: GDP per capita, USDA, 2015; OPEC, OPEC, 2015; Stability status, FFP, 2015; Current account balance, Unemployment rate, 

Urbanization rate, Tourism revenue, Net foreign direct investment, and Personal remittances received, World Bank, 2015.

Appendix 
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Appendix Table 2

Projected grains and oilseeds economy: Egypt

Average Projected Growth rate (%)

2012/14 2024 2013/24

Area (1,000 hectares)

Total Grain and oilseed 3,231 3,341 0.3

Wheat 1,333 1,457 0.8

Barley 83 82 -0.1

Rice 730 713 -0.2

Corn 725 718 -0.1

Soybean 9 8 -0.6

Yield (MT/ha)

Total Grain and oilseed 6.19 6.57 0.5

Wheat 6.24 6.66 0.6

Barley 1.30 1.34 0.3

Rice 6.39 6.71 0.4

Corn 7.99 8.47 0.5

Soybean 2.50 2.53 0.1

Production (1,000s MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 19,980 21,950 0.9

Wheat 8,317 9,708 1.4

Barley 108 110 0.2

Rice 4,642 4,781 0.3

Corn 5,783 6,083 0.5

Soybean 22 21 -0.5

Soy oil 1,473 1,644 1.0

Soymeal 1,378 1,546 1.0

Soymeal equivalent 1,473 1,644 1.0

Consumption for food use (1,000 MT) 

Total Grain and oilseed 23,129 26,375 1.2

Wheat 16,300 18,292 1.0

Barley 50 67 2.6

Rice 4,017 4,515 1.1

Corn 2,167 2,837 2.5

Soybean 17 18 0.6

Net Import (1,000 MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 17,376 21,846 2.1

Wheat 9,121 10,345 1.1

Barley 30 50 4.7

Rice -578 -275 -6.8

Corn 7,010 9,703 3.0

Soybean 1,758 1,986 1.1

Soy oil 1,082 1,494 2.9

Soymeal 999 1,370 2.9

Soymeal equivalent 1,082 1,494 2.9

Source: USDA (2015).
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Appendix Table 3

Projected grains economy: Morocco

Average Projected Growth rate (%)

2012/14 2024 2013/24

Area (1,000 hectares)

Total Grain 5,013 5,578 1.0

Wheat 3,161 3,446 0.8

Barley 1,674 1,956 1.4

Rice 7 8 1.2

Corn 118 114 -0.3

Yield (MT/ha)

Total Grain 1.49 1.73 1.4

Wheat 1.68 1.86 0.9

Barley 1.14 1.52 2.7

Rice 4.86 4.98 0.2

Corn 1.38 1.43 0.3

Production (1000 MT)

Total Grain 7,451 9,657 2.4

Wheat 5,323 6,407 1.7

Barley 1,867 2,979 4.2

Rice 36 42 1.5

Corn 163 163 0.0

 Consumption for food use (1,000 MT)

Total Grain 9,506 11,061 1.4

Wheat 8,400 9,646 1.3

Barley 833 1,110 2.6

Rice 56 76 2.7

Corn 200 210 0.4

Net Import (1,000 MT)

Total Grain 5,724 6,624 1.3

Wheat 3,341 3,571 0.6

Barley 300 291 -0.3

Rice 21 34 4.6

Corn 2,049 2,714 2.6

Source: USDA (2015).
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Appendix Table 4 

Projected grains and oilseeds economy: Saudi Arabia

Average

2012/14

Projected

2024 

Growth rate (%)

2013/24

Area (1,000 hectares)

Total Grain and oilseed 203 120 -4.8

Wheat 100 29 -11.3

Barley 2 2 1.3

Sorghum 675 671 -0.1

Corn 21 17 -1.6

Yield (MT/ha)

Total Grain and oilseed 4.75 4.53 -0.4

Wheat 6.00 6.33 0.5

Barley 7.83 5.52 -3.2

Sorghum 2.30 2.44 0.5

Corn 4.22 5.41 2.2

Production (1,000 MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 961 543 -5.2

Wheat 600 184 -10.7

Barley 16 13 -1.7

Sorghum 1555 1636 0.5

Corn 80 93 1.4

 Consumption for food use (1,000 MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 4,901 6,054 1.9

Wheat 3,133 3,900 2.0

Barley 25 37 3.5

Sorghum 970 1,081 1.0

Corn 167 242 3.4

Soy oil 8 10 2.5

Net import (1,000 MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 15,384 16,171 0.5

Wheat 2,867 3,904 2.8

Rice 1,325 1,600 1.7

Barley 8,500 7141 -1.6

Sorghum 163 243 3.7

Corn 2,521 3,301 2.5

Soybean 3 3 1.0

Soy oil 8 10 2.5

Soymeal 634 782 1.9

Soymeal equivalent 638 789 1.9

Source: USDA (2015).
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Appendix Table 5

Projected grains and oilseeds economy: Turkey

Average

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth rate (%)

2013/24

Area (1000s hectares)

Total Grain and oilseed 13,126 13,775 0.4

Wheat 7737 7,898 0.2

Barley 3,343 3,706 0.9

Rice 99 109 0.9

Corn 552 600 0.8

Soybean 30 48 4.3

Yield (MT/ha)

Total Grain and oilseed 2.28 2.57 1.1

Wheat 2.09 2.33 1.0

Barley 1.68 2.04 1.8

Rice 4.95 5.18 0.4

Corn 8.51 9.06 0.6

Soybean 3.60 4.02 1.0

Production (1000s MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 29,986 35,337 1.5

Wheat 16,167 18,432 1.2

Barley 5,600 7,575 2.7

Rice 488 566 1.3

Corn 4,700 5,431 1.3

Soybean 108 194 5.3

Soy oil 1,486 1,698 1.2

Soymeal 377 420 1.0

Soymeal equivalent 1,473 1,644 1.0

 Consumption for food use (1000s MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 20,093 21,317 0.5

Wheat 16,933 18,052 0.6

Barley 900 842 -0.6

Rice 770 916 1.6

Corn 1,000 987 -0.1

Net Import (1000s MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 5,545 5,782 0.4

Wheat 692 -37 NA

Barley 611 -122 NA

Rice 264 353 2.6

Corn 1,702 2,922 4.9

Soybean 1,440 1,467 0.2

Soy oil 1,635 2,011 1.9

Soymeal 944 1,182 2.0

Soymeal equivalent 1,082 1,494 2.9

Source: USDA (2015).
37

Middle East and North Africa Region: An Important Driver of World Agricultural Trade, AES-88

Economic Research Service/USDA

Appendix Table 6

Projected grains and oilseeds economy: Iran

Average

2012/14

Projected

2024 

Growth rate (%)

2013/24

Area (1000s hectares)

Total Grain and oilseed 9,724 9,905 0.2

Wheat 6,933 7,058 0.2

Barley 1608 1,618 0.1

Rice 572 598 0.4

Corn 350 369 0.5

Soybean 77 76 -0.1

Yield (MT/ha) 

Total Grain and oilseed 2.09 2.24 0.6

Wheat 1.98 2.12 0.6

Barley 2.03 2.26 0.9

Rice 2.84 2.95 0.3

Corn 3.57 3.79 0.5

Soybean 2.41 2.46 0.2

 Production (1000s MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 20,303 22,168 0.8

Wheat 13,767 14,965 0.8

Barley 3,267 3,649 1.0

Rice 1,623 1,762 0.7

Corn 1,250 1,398 1.0

Soybean 185 186 0.1

Soy oil 74 95 2.3

Soymeal 329 423 2.3

Soymeal equivalent 415 509 1.8

 Consumption for food use (1000s MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 19,701 21196 0.7

Wheat 15,833 16803 0.5

Barley 300 337 1.1

Rice 3400 3880 1.2

Corn 150 157 0.4

Soy oil 650 700 0.7

Net Import (1000s MT)

Total Grain and oilseed 13,647 13,308 -0.2

Wheat 5,465 3,329 -4.5

Barley 1,167 1,095 -0.6

Rice 1,817 2,112 1.4

Corn 4,900 6,364 2.4

Soybean 259 367 3.2

Soy oil 560 608 0.7

Soymeal 2,527 3,095 1.8

Soymeal equivalent 2,609 3,229 1.9

Source: USDA (2015).
38

Middle East and North Africa Region: An Important Driver of World Agricultural Trade, AES-88

Economic Research Service/USDA

Appendix Table 7

Projected grains economy: Iraq

Average

2012/14

Projected 

2024

Growth rate (%)

2013/24

Area (1,000 hectares)

Total Grain 3,311 3,360 0.1

Wheat 2,188 2,034 -0.7

Barley 940 1,118 1.6

Rice 72 82 1.2

Corn 85 99 1.4

 Yield (MT/ha)

Total Grain 1.28 1.43 1.0

Wheat 1.36 1.59 1.4

Barley 0.86 0.96 1.0

Rice 2.15 2.23 0.4

Corn 2.57 2.55 -0.1

 Production (1,000 MT)

Total Grain 4,223 4,813 1.2

Wheat 2,967 3,228 0.8

Barley 815 1,074 2.5

Rice 156 183 1.5

Corn 217 252 1.4

Consumption for food use (1,000 MT)

Total Grain 7,415 9,430 2.2

Wheat 5,695 7,212 2.1

Barley 183 209 1.2

Rice 1,483 1,948 2.5

Corn 50 57 1.2

Net Import (1,000 MT)

Total Grain 4,958 6,950 3.1

Wheat 3,398 4,924 3.4

Barley 23 41 5.2

Rice 1,404 1,765 2.1

Corn 133 227 4.8

Source: USDA (2015).