Abstract

This study examines dynamics in poverty and food insufficiency using newly available

longitudinal data from the 1993 panel of the Survey of Income and Program Participation

(SIPP) and the follow-on Survey of Program Dynamics (SPD). The study uses these data

to characterize the incidence and dynamics of poverty and food problems for the entire

U.S. population and for different subgroups. It also estimates multivariate, discrete-choice

regression models to examine the factors associated with transitions into and out of poverty

and food insufficiency, and it analyzes the empirical results in the context of a life-cycle

model of income and food consumption. Results indicate that the incidence of food insufficiency in the United States is low—less than 3 percent in 1997. There also appears to be

little persistence in food problems; 79 percent of people in households with food problems

at the start of the study period were in households without problems 2 years later. The

multivariate results indicate that female-headed households face an especially high risk of

being food insufficient. Low levels of asset income, an indicator of a household’s ability to

spread out consumption costs over time, are also associated with food sufficiency problems.

Keywords: food sufficiency, food insufficiency, food security, food insecurity, poverty,

well-being, hunger.

Acknowledgments

This research was performed under a cooperative agreement from the Economic Research

Service. The authors thank Margaret Andrews, Steve Carlson, Elizabeth Dagata, Maria

Laura di Tommaso, Craig Gundersen, Sandra Hofferth, Mark Nord, Donald Parsons, Laura

Tiehen, Leslie Whitener, and Parke Wilde for helpful comments. We are grateful to

Courtney Knauth for excellent editing and Linda Hatcher for design and final production.

United States

Department

of Agriculture

www.ers.usda.gov

Electronic Report from the Economic Research Service

Dynamics of Poverty and 

Food Sufficiency

David C. Ribar and Karen S. Hamrick

ERS contact: Karen S. Hamrick, 202-694-5426,

khamrick@ers.usda.gov.

September

2003

Food

Assistance

and Nutrition

Research

Report

Number 36
 ✥ 	
	

		

	815''!9 /
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Contents



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	815''!9 ✥ 

Table 1—Food sufficiency, food insecurity, and

income-to-needs, 1994-95 and 1997

Item 1994-95 1997

Percent

Family income-to-needs ratio:

In poverty, people in families 

with an income-to-needs ratio—

Under 0.5 3.4 4.3

Between 0.5 and 1.0 8.6 7.3

Above the poverty threshold, 

people in families with an 

income-to-needs ratio—

Between 1.0 and 2.0 19.5 17.4

2.0 or greater 68.5 70.9

Food sufficiency:

People in households—

With enough food and of 

the kinds wanted 82.1 83.2

With enough food but 

not the kinds wanted 13.6 14.1

That sometimes do not 

have enough food 3.8 2.3

That often do not have 

enough food 0.5 0.4

Food security:

People in households that are—

Food secure — 89.1

Food insecure without hunger — 7.2

Food insecure with hunger — 3.8

Food insufficiency and poverty:

Food insufficiency among people 

who were in poverty 16.2 11.0

Poverty among people in foodinsufficient households 45.8 47.1

Notes: — = Not available. The family income-to-needs ratio, food

sufficiency, and food security statistics are all distributions; sums

may not add to 100 due to rounding. The food security series of

questions was not asked in the 1994-95 SIPP, so estimates cannot

be calculated.

Source: Figures calculated using weighted data from the 1993

SIPP and 1998 SPD.

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Table 2—Poverty and food insufficiency rates and dynamics for selected demographic groups

Families in poverty Households with insufficient food

Both Either Entry Exit Both Either Entry Exit

Characteristics 1994-95 1997 years year rate rate 1994-95 1997 years year rate rate

Percent

All people 12.1 11.6 7.1 16.6 5.1 41.3 4.3 2.7 0.9 6.1 1.9 79.1

Male 10.0 9.4 5.5 14.0 4.3 45.0 3.8 2.4 0.7 5.6 1.8 81.6

Female 14.0 13.8 8.7 19.1 5.9 37.9 4.7 3.0 1.1 6.6 2.0 76.6

Age in 1995:

0-16 years 19.8 17.3 12.3 24.8 6.2 37.9 6.4 4.1 1.5 9.0 2.8 76.6

17-60 years 9.5 9.2 5.2 13.5 4.4 45.3 4.1 2.5 0.8 5.8 1.8 80.5

61+ years 9.4 11.5 6.1 14.9 6.0 35.1 1.8 1.3 0.4 2.8 0.9 77.8

White 9.2 9.2 5.1 13.3 4.5 44.6 3.7 2.2 0.7 5.1 1.6 81.1

Black or African American 31.0 27.3 20.4 37.9 10.0 34.2 8.2 6.5 2.1 12.6 4.8 74.4

Hispanic 29.3 25.4 18.5 36.3 9.8 36.9 12.2 7.7 2.9 17.0 5.5 76.2

Noncitizen 32.5 27.2 20.8 38.8 9.5 36.0 11.8 6.6 2.8 15.5 4.3 76.3

Education level:

Less than high 

school diploma 20.9 19.3 13.3 26.9 7.6 36.4 6.5 4.6 1.7 9.4 3.1 73.8

High school diploma 7.8 7.8 3.9 11.8 4.2 50.0 3.5 1.9 0.4 4.9 1.6 88.6

College degree 2.1 3.3 0.8 4.5 2.6 61.9 0.9 0.5 0.2 1.2 0.3 77.8

Household type:

Married-couple 

with children 7.5 6.0 3.4 10.2 2.8 54.7 3.3 1.6 0.4 4.4 1.2 87.9

Female head 

with children 45.7 41.8 33.3 54.3 15.7 27.1 13.6 12.7 4.3 22.0 9.7 68.4

ABAWD 4.2 4.4 1.2 7.4 3.3 71.4 3.1 1.5 0.3 4.2 1.2 90.3

Notes: Hispanics may be of any race. ABAWD is all able-bodied adults without dependents (whether or not food stamp recipient).

Source: Figures calculated using weighted data from the 1993 SIPP and 1998 SPD.





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Levels of and transitions in poverty and 

food insufficiency: 1994-95 to 1997

1994-95 1997

Above

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Above

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88.4%

In poverty,

12.1%

In poverty,

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58.7% continue

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1.9% enter

79.3% exit

20.9% continue Food

insufficient,

2.7%

Note: Sums may not add to 100 due to rounding.

Source: Authors' estimates using data from the Survey of Income and 

Program Participation and the Survey of Program Dynamics.


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Food insufficiency

Food with income-toPoverty insufficiency needs ratio

Entry Exit Entry Exit Entry Exit

Variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Age -0.047** -0.0005 0.030 -0.069 0.037 -0.069

(0.023) (0.026) (0.035) (0.051) (0.035) (0.051)

Age2 (/100) 0.039* -0.013 -0.061 0.068 -0.069* 0.067

(0.023) (0.026) (0.037) (0.052) (0.037) (0.052)

Female 0.337*** -0.305* -0.264 0.267 -0.299 0.265

(0.126) (0.162) (0.231) (0.278) (0.229) (0.279)

Black or African American 0.542*** -0.120 0.454* -0.477 0.472* -0.483

(0.178) (0.242) (0.257) (0.399) (0.251) (0.398)

Hispanic 0.367* -0.176 0.423 0.368 0.362 0.330

(0.221) (0.228) (0.280) (0.458) (0.284) (0.439)

U.S. citizen -0.286 0.045 -0.449 0.075 -0.433 0.034

(0.306) (0.302) (0.483) (0.508) (0.478) (0.497)

Completed high school -0.410*** 0.436** -0.461* 1.014*** -0.401* 1.013***

(0.143) (0.171) (0.244) (0.343) (0.239) (0.341)

Completed college -0.218 0.112 -0.994* 0.040 -0.759 0.022

(0.268) (0.395) (0.527) (0.821) (0.524) (0.825)

Female-headed household 0.311* -0.450* 0.762*** -0.777** 0.650** -0.759**

(0.171) (0.232) (0.273) (0.389) (0.287) (0.386)

Number of children under age 18 -0.005 -0.224*** -0.065 -0.203* -0.102 -0.206*

(0.072) (0.074) (0.115) (0.119) (0.118) (0.119)

Disabled 0.684*** -0.740*** 0.691** 0.272 0.587** 0.262

(0.146) (0.163) (0.291) (0.309) (0.287) (0.308)

Annual hours of work 1995 (/1,000) -0.122 0.230* 0.103 0.073 0.116 0.080

(0.092) (0.122) (0.133) (0.173) (0.134) (0.174)

Income-to-needs, 1995 -0.471*** 1.277*** -0.597*** 0.473** -0.321* 0.545*

(0.104) (0.405) (0.145) (0.193) (0.169) (0.283)

Income-to-needs, 1997 -0.415* -0.076

(0.219) (0.159)

Constant -0.254 -0.106 -2.303** 2.078 -1.989** 2.185*

(0.653) (0.813) (0.942) (1.385) (0.989) (1.319)

Log likelihood -1,379.28 -712.67 -637.82 -186.72 -623.65 -186.47

Observations 8,358 1,156 9,098 416 9,098 416

*Significant at 0.10 level; **Significant at 0.05 level; ***Significant at 0.01 level.

Notes: Blank spaces in data field indicate that the variable was not included. Hispanics may be of any race. Logistic transition models estimated using weighted data from the 1993 SIPP and 1998 SPD. Estimated standard errors in parentheses account for repeated observations in

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Food with income-toPoverty insufficiency needs ratio

Entry Exit Entry Exit Entry Exit

Variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Age -0.032 -0.002 0.043 -0.066 0.049 -0.070

(0.025) (0.028) (0.035) (0.052) (0.035) (0.052)

Age2 (/100) 0.024 -0.011 -0.064* 0.060 -0.070* 0.063

(0.025) (0.028) (0.037) (0.053) (0.037) (0.054)

Female 0.021 0.022 -0.501** 0.366 -0.510** 0.401

(0.130) (0.171) (0.256) (0.291) (0.257) (0.287)

Black or African American 0.444** -0.122 0.262 -0.385 0.300 -0.390

(0.194) (0.224) (0.255) (0.406) (0.255) (0.405)

Hispanic 0.426* -0.235 0.335 0.306 0.285 0.261

(0.232) (0.243) (0.281) (0.444) (0.282) (0.427)

U.S. citizen -0.341 0.086 -0.478 0.095 -0.474 0.042

(0.333) (0.338) (0.488) (0.532) (0.484) (0.523)

Completed high school -0.297** 0.264 -0.352 0.936*** -0.321 0.941***

(0.145) (0.174) (0.254) (0.351) (0.244) (0.348)

Completed college 0.010 -0.202 -0.787 -0.384 -0.614 -0.407

(0.277) (0.397) (0.515) (0.947) (0.508) (0.981)

Female-headed household, 1995 -0.754*** -0.368 0.266 0.063 0.283 0.137

(0.257) (0.477) (0.379) (0.631) (0.366) (0.568)

Number of children under age 18, 1995 -0.128 -0.078 0.025 -0.256 0.034 -0.245

(0.112) (0.108) (0.182) (0.191) (0.178) (0.194)

Disabled, 1995 0.462*** -0.392** 0.464 0.199 0.422 0.202

(0.153) (0.169) (0.286) (0.334) (0.279) (0.336)

Low-asset income, 1995 -0.097 0.056 1.829*** -0.976 1.799*** -1.112

(0.174) (0.387) (0.581) (1.181) (0.582) (1.250)

Own home, 1995 -0.001 -0.034 -0.178 0.558 -0.181 0.536

(0.160) (0.193) (0.287) (0.370) (0.277) (0.369)

Annual hours of work (/1,000), 1995 0.502*** -0.317** 0.289* -0.091 0.224 -0.110

(0.113) (0.147) (0.173) (0.200) (0.165) (0.200)

Received food stamps, 1995 0.488** -0.058 0.567 -0.805* 0.527 -0.804*

(0.226) (0.216) (0.349) (0.416) (0.345) (0.415)

Income-to-needs, 1995 -0.432*** 1.592*** -0.405*** 0.199 -0.203 0.294

(0.107) (0.438) (0.133) (0.192) (0.155) (0.255)

Female-headed household, 1997 1.447*** -0.169 0.645** -1.002* 0.514* -1.099**

(0.231) (0.470) (0.321) (0.601) (0.306) (0.535)

Number of children under age 18, 1997 0.202* -0.129 -0.139 0.107 -0.184 0.078

(0.104) (0.114) (0.165) (0.217) (0.158) (0.215)

Disabled, 1997 -0.183 -0.149 -0.111 0.026 -0.109 0.036

(0.219) (0.284) (0.351) (0.674) (0.346) (0.668)

Changed households, 1997 0.456*** -0.429* 0.808*** -0.187 0.756*** -0.153

(0.162) (0.233) (0.260) (0.338) (0.267) (0.344)

Annual hours of work (/1,000), 1997 -0.917*** 0.782*** -0.328 0.074 -0.214 0.118

(0.119) (0.136) (0.202) (0.204) (0.199) (0.207)

Received food stamps, 1997 0.991*** -0.925*** 0.130 0.222 0.049 0.198

(0.249) (0.209) (0.367) (0.419) (0.357) (0.423)

Income-to-needs, 1997 -0.333 -0.110

(0.214) (0.148)

Constant -0.622 -0.418 -4.801*** 3.714* -4.494*** 4.081**

(0.746) (0.979) (1.182) (1.772) (1.232) (1.794)

Log likelihood -1,261.75 -648.32 -605.55 -178.97 -596.75 -178.54

Observations 8,358 1,156 9,098 416 9,098 416

*Significant at 0.10 level; **Significant at 0.05 level; ***Significant at 0.01 level.

Notes: Blank spaces in data field indicate that the variable was not included. Hispanics may be of any race. Logistic transition models estimated

using weighted data from the 1993 SIPP and 1998 SPD. Estimated standard errors in parentheses account for repeated observations in households.





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Working-age adults Households with children Food stamp eligible

Entry Exit Entry Exit Entry Exit

Variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Age 0.199** -0.139 -0.014 0.066 0.066* -0.038

(0.088) (0.111) (0.056) (0.116) (0.037) (0.058)

Age2 (/100) -0.271** 0.159 0.030 -0.073 -0.095** 0.038

(0.111) (0.141) (0.063) (0.145) (0.040) (0.061)

Female -0.430 0.228 -0.462 0.469 -0.380 0.798**

(0.278) (0.331) (0.318) (0.357) (0.330) (0.333)

Black or African American 0.262 -0.394 0.017 -1.415** 0.386 -0.478

(0.289) (0.439) (0.283) (0.634) (0.263) (0.428)

Hispanic 0.361 0.300 0.316 -0.195 0.372 0.015

(0.308) (0.447) (0.373) (0.570) (0.309) (0.482)

U.S. citizen -0.300 0.023 0.045 0.277 -0.433 0.022

(0.554) (0.593) (0.461) (0.704) (0.424) (0.555)

Completed high school -0.341 0.934** 0.184 0.834* -0.118 1.104***

(0.270) (0.376) (0.277) (0.499) (0.224) (0.371)

Completed college -0.579 -0.416 0.182 -1.391 -0.019 0.092

(0.532) (1.045) (0.518) (1.828) (0.529) (0.961)

Female-headed household, 1995 0.311 0.167 0.131 0.064 -0.123 -0.037

(0.378) (0.584) (0.414) (0.692) (0.322) (0.525)

Number of children under age 18, 1995 -0.127 -0.287 0.087 -0.235 0.008 -0.245

(0.155) (0.204) (0.256) (0.285) (0.187) (0.218)

Disabled, 1995 0.437 0.289 0.511* -0.354 0.309 0.199

(0.321) (0.403) (0.281) (0.534) (0.298) (0.359)

Low-asset income, 1995 2.353*** -0.602 0.604 -0.205

(0.744) (1.414) (0.710) (1.153)

Own home, 1995 -0.074 0.678 -0.080 0.255 -0.315 0.665

(0.304) (0.420) (0.361) (0.517) (0.292) (0.409)

Annual hours of work (/1,000), 1995 0.245 -0.103 -0.107 0.036 0.275 -0.071

(0.175) (0.231) (0.197) (0.280) (0.168) (0.224)

Received food stamps, 1995 0.727** -0.621 0.625 -0.133 0.368 -0.544

(0.368) (0.452) (0.437) (0.734) (0.313) (0.446)

Income-to-needs, 1995 -0.241 0.288 -0.028 0.049 0.009 -0.117

(0.170) (0.252) (0.182) (0.311) (0.128) (0.287)

Female-headed household, 1997 0.529* -1.158** 1.014*** -1.541** 0.691** -1.407***

(0.293) (0.541) (0.360) (0.667) (0.320) (0.537)

Number of children under age 18, 1997 -0.142 0.113 -0.185 -0.217 -0.130 0.029

(0.144) (0.224) (0.222) (0.369) (0.167) (0.249)

Disabled, 1997 -0.368 -0.219 0.147 1.924** 0.072 0.115

(0.391) (0.712) (0.485) (0.861) (0.388) (0.757)

Changed household, 1997 0.777*** -0.197 0.637* -0.153 0.646** -0.201

(0.286) (0.381) (0.367) (0.590) (0.284) (0.390)

Annual hours of work (/1,000), 1997 -0.228 0.122 -0.001 0.160 -0.351** 0.312

(0.216) (0.225) (0.192) (0.282) (0.172) (0.221)

Received food stamps, 1997 -0.044 0.057 -0.427 -0.661 0.003 0.221

(0.348) (0.454) (0.460) (0.668) (0.325) (0.432)

Income-to-needs, 1997 -0.291 -0.110 -0.772*** -0.388 -0.234* -0.313**

(0.217) (0.146) (0.201) (0.238) (0.131) (0.138)

Constant -7.813*** 4.786** -2.975* 2.053 -3.116*** 2.401

(2.152) (2.434) (1.696) (2.839) (1.180) (1.554)

Log likelihood -506.13 -149.91 -341.48 -96.11 -490.30 -148.64

Observations 7,000 358 4,507 226 2290 293

*Significant at 0.10 level; **Significant at 0.05 level; ***Significant at 0.01 level.

Notes: Blank spaces in data field indicate that the variable was not included. Hispanics may be of any race. Logistic transition models estimated

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Food insecurity: Logit Food insecurity scale: Tobit

Food sufficient Food insufficient Food sufficient Food insufficient

in 1995 in 1995 in 1995 in 1995

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Age 0.020 0.054 0.068 0.187*

(0.020) (0.049) (0.045) (0.107)

Age2 (/100) -0.046** -0.044 -0.152*** -0.163

(0.019) (0.050) (0.044) (0.109)

Female -0.364*** -0.121 -0.872*** 0.319

(0.116) (0.222) (0.280) (0.501)

Black or African American 0.464*** -0.198 1.110** -0.011

(0.163) (0.353) (0.441) (0.782)

Hispanic 0.131 -0.156 0.642 -0.204

(0.177) (0.406) (0.445) (0.714)

U.S. citizen -0.305 -0.579 -0.658 -1.175

(0.237) (0.600) (0.654) (0.973)

Completed high school -0.200 -0.196 -1.156*** 0.165

(0.128) (0.299) (0.311) (0.612)

Completed college -0.303 0.580 -1.361** 1.849

(0.230) (0.687) (0.544) (1.560)

Female-headed household, 1995 0.494** -0.331 1.196** -0.923

(0.231) (0.661) (0.598) (1.329)

Number of children under age 18, 1995 0.118 0.021 0.252 0.282

(0.081) (0.163) (0.190) (0.316)

Disabled, 1995 0.509*** -0.273 1.636*** -0.288

(0.131) (0.276) (0.331) (0.602)

Low-asset income, 1995 1.042*** 0.300 2.634*** 0.132

(0.259) (0.822) (0.460) (2.301)

Own home, 1995 -0.099 -0.251 -0.298 -0.761

(0.142) (0.320) (0.345) (0.627)

Annual hours of work (/1,000), 1995 0.109 0.349* 0.054 0.375

(0.080) (0.190) (0.200) (0.390)

Received food stamps, 1995 0.403** -0.163 1.514*** 0.237

(0.192) (0.401) (0.461) (0.709)

Income-to-needs, 1995 -0.222*** -0.452** -0.319* -0.869*

(0.069) (0.216) (0.167) (0.516)

Female-headed household, 1995 0.123 0.535 0.191 0.674

(0.224) (0.648) (0.548) (1.296)

Number of children, under age 18, 1997 -0.078 0.070 -0.267 -0.158

(0.079) (0.181) (0.194) (0.377)

Disabled, 1997 0.040 0.190 0.400 0.416

(0.227) (0.529) (0.585) (0.924)

Changed household, 1997 0.139 0.275 0.594 0.298

(0.151) (0.315) (0.375) (0.616)

Annual hours of work (/1,000), 1997 -0.127 -0.224 -0.309 -0.333

(0.083) (0.178) (0.198) (0.372)

Received food stamps, 1997 0.549*** 0.288 1.847*** 1.086

(0.196) (0.413) (0.481) (0.787)

Income-to-needs, 1997 -0.363*** -0.305* -1.169*** -0.844**

(0.076) (0.183) (0.165) (0.408)

Constant -1.579*** 0.286 -2.400 1.560

(0.645) (1.551) (1.469) (3.637)

Log likelihood -1,733.25 -243.94 -5,398.79 -900.30

Observations 9,092 416 9,092 416

*Significant at 0.10 level; **Significant at 0.05 level; ***Significant at 0.01 level.

Notes: Hispanics may be of any race. Conditional logit and tobit models estimated using weighted data from the 1993 SIPP and 1998 SPD.

Estimated standard errors in parentheses account for repeated observations in households.
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Appendix C. Descriptive Statistics for Subsamples

Used in Multivariate Analyses

Not poor Poor in Food sufficient Food insufficient

in 1994-95 1994-95 in 1994-95 in 1994-95

Standard Standard Standard Standard

Variable Mean deviation Mean deviation Mean deviation Mean deviation

Years Years Years Years

Mean age 47.51 (17.20) 46.80 (18.66) 47.66 (17.40) 41.50 (14.57)

Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion

Female 0.50 (0.50) 0.66 (0.47) 0.51 (0.50) 0.58 (0.49)

Black or African American 0.09 (0.29) 0.29 (0.45) 0.11 (0.31) 0.24 (0.43)

Hispanic 0.08 (0.27) 0.22 (0.41) 0.08 (0.28) 0.25 (0.43)

U.S. citizen 0.97 (0.18) 0.88 (0.33) 0.96 (0.19) 0.87 (0.34)

Completed high school 0.58 (0.49) 0.45 (0.50) 0.57 (0.50) 0.54 (0.50)

Completed college 0.24 (0.43) 0.04 (0.20) 0.23 (0.42) 0.05 (0.21)

1995:

Female-headed household 0.19 (0.39) 0.49 (0.50) 0.21 (0.41) 0.39 (0.49)

Level Level Level Level

Average number of 

children under age 18 0.73 (1.10) 1.39 (1.65) 0.77 (1.16) 1.43 (1.58)

Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion

Disabled 0.17 (0.38) 0.45 (0.50) 0.19 (0.39) 0.40 (0.49)

Low-asset income 0.64 (0.48) 0.95 (0.23) 0.65 (0.48) 0.95 (0.22)

Own home 0.79 (0.40) 0.40 (0.49) 0.77 (0.42) 0.46 (0.50)

Thousands Thousands Thousands Thousands

Annual hours of work 1.45 (1.08) 0.40 (0.75) 1.37 (1.10) 0.92 (0.97)

Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion

Received food stamps 0.04 (0.19) 0.58 (0.49) 0.08 (0.27) 0.47 (0.50)

Income-to-needs 3.91 (2.47) 0.66 (0.25) 3.69 (2.54) 1.55 (1.29)

1997:

Female-headed household 0.19 (0.39) 0.50 (0.50) 0.21 (0.41) 0.38 (0.49)

Level Level Level Level

Average number of children

children under age 18 0.70 (1.08) 1.27 (1.61) 0.74 (1.13) 1.21 (1.40)

Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion

Disabled 0.08 (0.27) 0.10 (0.30) 0.08 (0.28) 0.07 (0.26)

Changed households 0.19 (0.39) 0.25 (0.43) 0.19 (0.39) 0.31 (0.46)

Thousands Thousands Thousands Thousands

Annual hours of work 1.40 (1.10) 0.63 (0.97) 1.34 (1.11) 1.10 (1.08)

Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion

Received food stamps 0.02 (0.15) 0.40 (0.49) 0.05 (0.22) 0.29 (0.45)

Income-to-needs 4.25 (2.83) 1.27 (1.34) 4.05 (2.86) 1.99 (1.91)

Number of observations 8,358 1,156 9,098 416

Notes: Hispanics may be of any race. Statistics were estimated using weighted data from the 1993 SIPP and 1998 SPD.
Appendix D. Persistence and State

Dependence Examples


				



	




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