Keynote papers • Aquatic studies • Scale issues • Silviculture studies • Nontimber forest products • Social/economic studies

ATIVE WORKSHOP

: 

PNW-GTR-563 2002
EDITORS

Adelaide C. Johnson is a hydrologist, Aquatic and Land Interactions Program, PNW Research Station, Juneau, Alaska 

99801; Richard W. Haynes and Robert A. Monserud are research foresters, Human and Natural Resources Interactions 

Program, PNW Research Station, Portland, Oregon 97208.

Technical editors include Mary Willox, Longmont, Colorado 80501; and Rachael Baker, Juneau, Alaska 99801

Cover design and graphic layout of proceedings: Jenny Beranek, Beaverton, Oregon 97006

Cover graphic/chapter heading graphic: Terry Inokuma, Philomath, Oregon

Cover photo credit: Paul Hennon, PNW Research Station, Juneau, Alaska 99801

Papers were provided in camera-ready form for printing by the editors, who are therefore responsible for the content and accuracy. Opinions expressed

may not necessarily reflect the position of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

The use of trade or firm names is for information only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service.
CONGRUENT MANAGEMENT

OF MULTIPLE RESOURCES: 

PROCEEDINGS FROM THE

WOOD COMPATIBILITY

INITIATIVE WORKSHOP

Adelaide C. Johnson, Richard W. Haynes, 

and Robert A. Monserud, Editors

Skamania Lodge

Stevenson, Washington

December 4-7th 2001

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest Research Station

Portland, Oregon

General Technical Report 

PNW-GTR-563

November 2002

ABSTRACT

Johnson, Adelaide C.; Haynes, Richard W.; Monserud, Robert A. eds. 2002. Congruent management of multiple resources: 

proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative workshop. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-563. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 252 p.

The Wood Compatibility Initiative (WCI) addresses options that may increase the compatibility between wood production and other societal values derived from forestlands. The set of 25 papers included in this proceedings presents the summaries of WCI-related research, compiled from a workshop held December 4-7th 2001 at the Skamania Lodge in Stevenson,

Washington. The workshop proceedings papers are grouped into six general topics: 1) workshop keynote papers, 2) aquaticrelated studies, 3) issues relating to scale, 4) silviculture studies, 5) nontimber forest products related research, and 6) social/

economic studies. These papers set the context for scientific and management inferences as well as illustrate the complex

and diverse array of information needed in the development of land management strategies at different spatial scales.

KEY WORDS: Forest management, societal values, wood production, tradeoffs, compatibility. 

ENGLISH/METRIC EQUIVALENTS

When you know: Multiply by: To find:

Meters (m) 3.28 Feet

Square meters (m2) 10.8 Square feet

Centimeters (cm) 2.54 Inches

Hectares (ha) 2.47 Acres

Kilometers (km) .62 Miles

Kilogram (kg) 2.205 Pounds

Feet (ft) .305 Meters

Square feet (ft2) .093 Square meters

Inches (in) .394 Centimeters

Acres .405 Hectares

Mile 1.609 Kilometers

Pounds (lbs) .454 Kilograms
Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop

CONTENTS

1. Emergent Results from the Wood Compatibility Initiative

Richard W. Haynes, Robert A. Monserud, and Adelaide C. Johnson 1

A. KEYNOTE PAPERS

2. Challenges to Integrating Wood Production Biodiversity, and Other Socioeconomic Values at Broad Scales: 

an Example from Coastal Oregon 13

Thomas A. Spies, K. Norman Johnson, Pete Bettinger, William C. McComb, Janet L. Ohmann, and

Gordon H. Reeves

3. Effects of Streamside Forest Management on the Composition and Abundance of Stream and Riparian

Fauna of the Olympic Peninsula 27

Martin G. Raphael, Peter A. Bisson, Lawrence L.C. Jones, and Alex D. Foster

4. Socioeconomic Factors Influencing Land Use and Management Changes in the Pacific Northwest 41

Ralph J. Alig and Jeffrey D. Kline

5. Mixed Alder-Conifer Forests: Managing Upland Ecosystems in Southeast Alaska for Wood Products, 

Wildlife, and Fish 51

Paul Hennon, Mark Wipfli, Robert Deal, Adelaide Johnson, Toni De Santo, Mark Schultz, Tom Hanley, 

Ewa Orlikowska, Gomi Takashi, Mason Bryant, and Rick Edwards 

B. AQUATIC STUDIES

6. Influence of Site and Landscape Features on Vertebrate Assemblages in Small Streams 61

Peter A. Bisson, Martin G. Raphael, Alex D. Foster, and Lawrence L.C. Jones

7. A Survey of Research on Riparian Responses to Silviculture 73

Patrick G. Cunningham

8. Riparian Buffers and Thinning Design in Western Oregon Headwaters Accomplish Multiple Resource 

Objectives 81

Deanna H. Olson, Samuel S. Chan, and Charles R. Thompson 

9. Research on Streamside Issues Through the Wood Compatibility Initiative 93

Susan Bolton and Cara Berman

10. Physical and Chemical Processes in Headwater Channels with Red Alder 101

Adelaide C. Johnson and Richard T. Edwards

C. SCALE ISSUES

11. An Evaluation of Tradeoffs Between Wood Production and Ecological Integrity in the Oregon 

Coast Range 111

Thomas A. Spies, K. Norman Johnson, Gordon Reeves, Pete Bettinger, Michael T. McGrath, 

Robert Pabst, Kelly Burnett, and Keith Olsen

12. Framing the Discussion of Future Forestry in the Pacific Northwest 121

Fred J. Swanson, John H. Cissel, Deana D. Pennington, and Julia A. Jones 
13. Development of Mixed Red Alder-Conifer Stands in Southeast Alaska 127

Robert L. Deal and Ewa H. Orlikowska

D. SILVICULTURE STUDIES

14. Do Large Trees Always Have Higher Wood Product Value? 135

R. James Barbour, David D. Marshall, Dean L. Parry, and Glenn Christensen

15. Stem Characteristics and Wood Properties: Essential Considerations in Sustainable Multipurpose 

Forestry Regimes 145

David D. Marshall and Dean S. DeBell

16. How Adaptable are Forest Growth Models For Simulating Alternative Silvicultures in the Northwest? 151

Robert A. Monserud and Andrew P. Robinson

17. Factors Influencing Growth and Flowering of Understory Plants in Conifer Stands in Western 

Washington 159

Constance A. Harrington, Karl R. Buermeyer, Leslie Chandler Brodie, and Bryan W. Wender

18. Compatibility of Breeding for Increased Wood Production and Long-term Sustainability: 

the Genetic Variation of Seed Orchard Seed and Associated Risks 169

Randy Johnson and Sara Lipow

E. NONTIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

19. Assessment of Western Oregon Forest Inventory for Evaluating Commercially Important 

Understory Plants 183

Nan Vance, Andrew Gray, and Bob Haberman

20. Assessing Commercial Understory Species: Quantity, Quality, Supply and Demand 191

Becky K. Kerns, Susan J. Alexander, David Pilz, and Leon H. Liegel

21. Silvishrooms: Predicting Edible Ectomycorrhizal Mushroom Productivity 199

David Pilz, Randy Molina, Eric Danell, Richard Waring, Catherine Rose, Susan Alexander, Daniel Luoma, 

Kermit Cromack, and Charles Lefevre

22. Involving Stakeholder Communities in Research on Nontimber Forest Products 209

Roger D. Fight, Ellen M. Donoghue, and Harriet H. Christensen

F. SOCIAL/ECONOMIC STUDIES

23. Logic Models as Frameworks for Thinking about Compatibility 215

Keith M. Reynolds

24. Compatibility of Timber and Conservation: Tracing the Tradeoff Frontier 225

Claire A. Montgomery

25. Assessing Temporal Trends in Forest Inventory and Analysis Data: Applications to Criteria and Indicators 233

Joseph A. Donnegan

26. Social Acceptability of Natural Resource Decision-making Processes 245

Keith M. Reynolds

1, 2 Research Foresters, USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, PO Box 3890, Portland, OR 97208; e-mail: rhaynes@fs.fed.us and

rmonserud@fs.fed.us. 

3 Hydrologist, USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, 2770 Sherwood Lane, Suite 2A, Juneau, AK 99801; email: ajohnson03@fs.fed.us.

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 1.

EMERGENT RESULTS FROM THE WOOD COMPATIBILITY INITIATIVE 

Richard W. Haynes1, Robert A. Monserud2, and Adelaide Johnson3

INTRODUCTION

The Pacific Northwest (PNW) Research Station has a

75-year tradition of discovery in forest and range research

(see Duncan 2000 for details). Since 1998, scientists at the

PNW Research Station have been engaged in an effort

called the Wood Compatibility Initiative (WCI) to develop

a greater understanding of potential compatibility among

commodities, ecological values, and social and cultural values (Peterson and Monserud 1998). Compatibility in this

sense refers to forest management approaches that focus on

sets of outcomes that can be managed for simultaneously.

This initiative was stimulated by the public debate over

forest management, which often portrayed management

choices as involving tradeoffs between biophysical and

socioeconomic components of ecosystems (Peterson and

Monserud 1998). This portrayal often leads people to focus

on dichotomous tradeoffs rather than on the possibility that

opportunities for compatible changes in outputs (either

goods or services) exist among alternative management

strategies. In the simplest sense, a management action is

compatible if it simultaneously produces wood and at least

one other forest value without decreasing any other value.

ABSTRACT

The Wood Compatibility Initiative (WCI) was stimulated by the public debate over forest management, which often portrayed management choices as involving tradeoffs between biophysical and socioeconomic components of ecosystems. Its

purpose is to expand information on the options that may increase the compatibility between wood production and other

societal values derived from forestlands. The WCI addresses two aspects of the compatibility issue. First, how can various

forest management practices be related to an array of associated goods and services? Second, how can the effects of different approaches to forest management be derived across relatively large and complex ecosystems? The goal is to enable a

richer public dialogue about the ability of land management options to produce timber, nontimber forest products, fish, and

wildlife.

KEY WORDS: Forest management, forest production, tradeoffs, compatibility.

1

Considered in aggregate at the regional scale, compatible

wood production increases the overall level of some forest

value(s) without decreasing others. The goal is to remove

forest management from the divisive arena of either or

choices.

The WCI addresses two aspects of the compatibility

issue. First, how can various forest management practices

be related to an array of associated goods and services?

Second, how can the effects of different approaches to forest management be derived across relatively large and

complex ecosystems? The purpose of the WCI is to expand

information on the management options that may increase

the compatibility between wood production and other societal values derived from forestlands. 

The set of papers included in this proceedings presents

summaries of WCI-related research. These summaries are

important steps in developing synthetic themes as well as

scientific and management inferences. They also illustrate

the complex and diverse array of information needed in the

development of land management strategies at different

spatial scales. Our purpose here is to set the context for the

summary papers. We summarize forest management history
in the Pacific Northwest, the conceptual model underlying

discussions of compatibility, the scope of the Station’s

research on compatibility, and conclude with a brief discussion of where we go from here. 

MANAGEMENT HISTORY

Before the mid-1970s, there was general agreement that

timber production was the primary objective in management of most forestland (Curtis et al. 1998; Peterson and

Monserud 1998). It was generally accepted that wood production in old-growth stands was essentially static (no net

growth) and insects and disease were diminishing the

amount of usable wood in such stands. It therefore seemed

desirable to replace old-growth forests with young, rapidly

growing stands (Curtis et al. 1998). Furthermore, clearcut

logging and broadcast burning in the Douglas-fir region

(western Washington and Oregon) were justified as a mimic

of the catastrophic, stand-replacing fires typical of the region

prior to fire suppression (Halpern 1995). Consequently,

most of these management practices in the Pacific Northwest

(western Oregon, western Washington, coastal British

Columbia, and southeastern Alaska) attempted to increase

wood production to meet increasing wood demands, relying

on the economic efficiencies of clearcutting and plantation

management.

Over the years, conflicts among demands for forest values have intensified (Peterson and Monserud 1998; Cissel

et al. 1999). The public has become increasingly aware that

a broad spectrum of additional products and values are

available from the forest (Behan 1990; Beese and Phillips

1997), from old growth to conservation and restoration of

wildlife and fish populations. Central to the current public

debate on forest management of public lands are interactions between wood production and wildlife needs, aquatic

needs, biodiversity needs, and social acceptance (Peterson

and Monserud 1998). Together, these include most of the

major factors setting the public agenda on the future of forest management in the Pacific Northwest. The public has

strong expectations for values and uses of forest land, especially public land. In short, the process of deciding how

best to manage those resources has become increasingly

polarized and value-laden. 

As a consequence, the past decade in the Pacific

Northwest has seen a major shift from timber-stand management to sustainable forest-ecosystem management

(Behan 1990), culminating in the Northwest Forest Plan

(USDA and USDI 1994a, 1994b) for western Oregon and

Washington, the new Forest Practices Code of British

Columbia (1994), and the Tongass Land Management Plan

(USDA 1997a, 1997b, 1997c) for southeastern Alaska.

Instead of the traditional goal of efficient wood production

with even-aged plantations, the focus has shifted toward

“old-growth” management and multi-resource ecosystem

management, with related goals of protecting endangered

species and fish habitat and promoting biodiversity (FEMAT

1993; Clayoquot Scientific Panel 1995). There is great

interest in and need for science-based silvicultural practices

and management regimes that will reduce conflicts among

user groups, while providing concurrent production of the

many values associated with forestlands on a biologically

and economically sustainable basis (Curtis et al. 1998;

Committee of Scientists 1999). Smith’s (1986, p. 1) definition of silviculture is appropriate: the various treatments

that may be applied to forest stands to maintain and

enhance their utility for any purpose. 

A common, but largely mistaken, perception of traditional forest management is that it is based on scientific

experimentation (Franklin et al. 1999). Rather, it is rare

that resource management approaches are formulated from

a systematic scientific approach that is tested prior to widespread application (Franklin et al. 1999). Dispersed patch

clearcutting was widely adopted on national forest land

after World War II without experimental testing, largely

with the support of Isaac (1943) and other forestry experts

of the day. Alternative silvicultural approaches were rejected (Isaac 1956) based on a few ill-chosen case studies

rather than a scientific test of alternative methods (Curtis

1998). The consequent lack of research into alternatives to

clearcutting has severely handicapped current efforts to

meet changing objectives and public concerns (Curtis

1998). Other harvest experiments were implemented on a

very small scale and generally lacked statistical rigor and

replication (Tappeiner et al. 1997b; Franklin et al. 1999).

Since then, methods for regenerating vigorous young stands

of primary timber species following clearcut logging have

been thoroughly researched and tested throughout the

Pacific Northwest (Loucks et al. 1996; Smith et al. 1997).

Foresters have accumulated an enormous amount of information and experience on even-aged silviculture and plantation management in the past 50 years (Curtis et al. 1998),

but this scientific basis for management was seriously lacking when widespread implementation of modern plantation

management began decades earlier in the Douglas-fir region.

After a half century of implementation, it was a short step

to the belief that this intensive plantation management was

the only silviculture that worked in the continent’s most

productive ecosystem (Peterson and Monserud 1998). 

2
Basically, the management history of the coastal forests

of British Columbia and southeastern Alaska is quite similar to that in the Douglas-fir region, with a strong reliance

on clearcut logging (especially old growth) followed by

even-aged plantation management (Beese and Bryant 1999;

McClellan et al. 2000). With the exception of several

experiments with shelterwood cutting in mature and oldgrowth stands (e.g., Williamson 1973), well-documented

comparative trials of other possible silvicultural systems in

the Pacific Northwest were conspicuously lacking before

the mid-1990s (Curtis 1996).

Recently, several new large-scale, multidisciplinary 

silvicultural experiments from the Pacific Northwest have

been initiated (e.g., Carey et al. 1999; Curtis 1996; Halpern

and Raphael 1999; McClellan et al. 2000). All are implementing silvicultural alternatives (e.g., variable retention,

variable density thinning) to the widely-used plantation

management of the previous half century (Monserud 2002).

Some are attempting to hasten the approach to old-growth

structure and composition. All are multidisciplinary, examining some forest value other than wood production (e.g.,

biodiversity). In a strong break with past experiments, all

have randomized treatment units large enough to be operational (e.g., 13-20 ha units in experimental blocks of 50-

200 ha). Thus, treatments are implemented as part of normal

forest management sales programs and are installed on

tracts of land large enough to be economically efficient for

wood production (Tappeiner et al. 1997a). Because the

large-scale context is designed into these experiments,

results can be directly interpreted at the scale of management that produced the manipulation, eliminating a changeof-scale bias common in smaller management experiments

(Monserud 2002). 

Forests of the Pacific Northwest

The temperate rainforests of the Pacific Northwest (from

the Douglas-fir region of western Oregon and Washington

north to the coastal spruce/hemlock forests of British

Columbia and southeastern Alaska) contain the highest

quality wood-producing lands on the continent and are

among the most productive forests in the world (Franklin

and Dyrness 1973; Walter 1985). These coniferous forests

exhibit some of the greatest biomass accumulations and

highest productivity levels of any in the world, temperate

or tropical (Franklin and Waring 1981; Fujimori et al. 1976;

Franklin 1988). The outstanding structural feature is the

huge biomass accumulation typically present (Franklin and

Dyrness 1973). These forests have extremely high value for

scenery and recreation, watershed protection, and fish and

wildlife habitat (Peterson and Monserud 1998). The northern

extent of this moist, coastal forest is the vast Picea sitchensisTsuga heterophylla zone of British Columbia and southeastern Alaska. Vast tracts of this coastal rainforest are

relatively unaltered and have unique values of great importance (Everest et al. 1997).

Mild, moist maritime conditions characterize the region,

producing expanses of forest dominated by massive evergreen conifers, including Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglasfir), Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock), Thuja plicata

(western redcedar), Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce), Abies

amabilis (Pacific silver fir), and Abies procera (noble fir).

A mediterranean climate of wet, mild winters and relatively

dry summers (Walter 1985) favors needle-leaved conifers

by permitting extensive photosynthesis outside of the

growing season and reducing transpiration losses during

the summer months (Waring and Franklin 1979). The summer climate is controlled by a large, semi-permanent highpressure center in the Pacific, which greatly reduces the

frequency and intensity of Pacific storms (Meidinger and

Pojar 1991). Very infrequent catastrophic events such as

wildfires and hurricanes, at intervals of several hundred

years, allow for the accumulation of enormous biomass and

the phenotypic expression of extremely tall and long-lived

forest trees.

The vegetation zone classification of Franklin (1988) is

used, which is based on the system of Franklin and Dyrness

(1973) but has larger geographic coverage. For almost all

of the studies covered in this collection, only three forest

vegetation zones are needed to describe the temperate rainforest from southeastern Alaska down to central Oregon, on

the west side of the Cascade Range: the broad Pseudotsuga

menziesii-Tsuga heterophylla zone, the coastal Picea

sitchensis-Tsuga heterophylla zone, and the montane Abies

amabilis-Tsuga heterophylla zone.

THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL

The intent of the Wood Compatibility Initiative rests 

on two conceptual models. The first represents a highly

abstracted version of the challenge facing land managers. It

does provide a framework for considering the nature of the

various relationships involved in the compatibility arguments. The second model represents the more traditional

view of the challenge facing land managers. It also provides a framework for looking at the linkages among the

components of the land management problem. 

3
4

Figure 1—Hypothetical joint production function

between ecological and socioeconomic conditions

showing opportunities for compatible changes of

both.

Figure 2—Wood Compatibility Initiative

general conceptual model including forest

resource components with interactions

among social values, institutions, management, and outcomes.
Figure 1 illustrates the challenge facing land managers

who are trying to manage for both ecological and socioeconomic well-being [the general problem for forestry has

been described by Gregory (1972)]. The curve represents

the production possibility frontier (the set of all combinations of ecological and socioeconomic conditions with no

waste and no inputs left over, from which more of one output could be achieved without giving up some of the other).

If, for example, our current position was point X, society

would theoretically be better off if we moved closer to the

production possibility frontier in any positive direction.

However, people who place high value on socioeconomic

conditions are concerned that improvements in ecological

conditions will likely mean a move to the left of point A, 

at which point socioeconomic conditions will be reduced.

Similarly, people who place high value on ecological conditions are concerned that improvements in socioeconomic

conditions will likely mean a move below point B, at which

point ecological conditions will suffer. Resistance to change

means we forgo opportunities to move toward point C, at

which both ecological and socioeconomic conditions

improve and everybody is better off. This last condition—

in which nobody is worse off and at least someone is better

off— is a move closer to Pareto optimality, a useful concept

that does not require the marketplace to determine value. In

this simple two-dimensional example, all points bounded

by X-A-B are desirable, for the amount of each of the two

resources is at least as good as a point X, the status quo.

The challenge is to identify points like C—and the path to

reach them—in a complex world with multiple inputs and

multiple desired outputs.

Figure 2 illustrates the basic interactions among these

multiple values, ideas, actions, and outcomes/outputs, providing the context for research. Social values influence

institutional policy that in turn affects managerial decisions

and actions, resulting in both a change in forest resource

components and the associated mix of outcomes. Those

decisions and proposed actions are evaluated—often challenged—by society prior to being implemented, as a normal part of the planning process. Note that social concerns

are not just at the top of this cycle in constructing policy

and goals, but that social actions are woven through water

quality, biodiversity, economic dimensions, and so forth.

Thus, we will need to distinguish social activity and public

use from the outcome of social acceptability. Once management takes action, the final evaluation will be to what

extent and success was the desired mix of measurable outcomes achieved. A complication is that many of the values

are realized in different areas and over varying lengths of

time after the management action (spatial and temporal

scale differences). This also suggests that much of the

research information should be amenable to socioeconomic

evaluation of risks and consequences.

The first conceptual model largely serves as a guiding

star in discussions of broadscale policy and science issues.

Some scientists see Figure 1 as too simple. They might

argue that, for example, ecological integrity should have

two or three axes given the complexity and sometimes

competing or contradictory dimensions to the problem.

Though this would add more dimensions to Figure 1, the

essential policy and science issues illustrated would be

much the same. 

The second conceptual model (Figure 2) provides a

practical framework of the various components and links

that can be used at multiple spatial scales. This conceptual

model specifies the management regimes and considers the

multiple ownerships making up different broad-scale landscapes. Thus, questions regarding the management of public lands will be examined within the context of broader,

spatially complex landscapes. Figure 2 also has a relatively

short list of products that reflects recognition of the limited

information available on the relation between land management actions and outputs. 

These models are applied at three different spatial

scales in the WCI efforts. The first scale is the traditional

stand scale of forest management. Compatibility issues at

this scale usually involve choices between management

actions to achieve relatively specific land management

objectives. The emphasis may be on a selected stand but

there is also interest in the cumulative effects of actions in

that stand across neighboring stands. The second scale is

composed of broader landscapes that include multiple sub

basins or counties. The importance of this scale is that it

sets context for finer scales where much of the Station’s

ongoing work takes place. In this case, most tradeoffs still

involve choices between management actions, but notions

of public tradeoffs in terms of social acceptability regarding specific land management actions are noticeable at this

scale. The third scale is the ecoregion scale that roughly

corresponds, for example, to western Oregon and Washington

(the Douglas-fir region). At this scale, these tradeoffs

involve choices and the linkages between different land

management/owner strategies and broad scale resource

conditions and various outputs.

5
RESEARCH SUMMARY

This group of papers, compiled from the WCI workshop held December 4-7, 2001 at the Skamania Lodge in

Stevenson, Washington, includes 25 out of a total of 33

presentations (the remaining six papers are syntheses that

will be published in another volume). The workshop proceedings includes six general topics: (1) workshop keynote

papers, (2) aquatic-related studies, (3) issues relating to

scale, (4) silviculture studies, (5) nontimber forest products

related research, and (6) social/economic studies.

Four keynote papers outline broad research topics. The

first, a landscape and regional scale analysis, describes

conceptual challenges and gives examples of linking wood

production and biodiversity with other socioeconomic values. The second paper, a reach-scale study, describes the

effects of streamside forest management on the composition and structure of headwater stream and riparian fauna.

The third paper is an outline of socioeconomic factors

influencing land use changes in the Pacific Northwest. The

final keynote paper, a case study of wood compatibility

within young-growth stands in southeastern Alaska, examines mixed alder-conifer forests in order to manage upland

ecosystems for wood products, wildlife, and fish. 

Most of the five papers with an aquatic emphasis

describe the importance of understanding the influence of

physical disturbance processes within broad time and spatial scales. Papers also describe possibilities for accelerated

development of old-growth forest characteristics in riparian

zones (third paper); the effects landscape pattern, riparian

buffers and timber harvest on vertebrate assemblages (first

paper); and the biophysical role of alder in headwater channels (fifth paper). Three additional papers include summaries of the effects of upslope forest stand management

on riparian ecosystems (second paper) and studies that

have been conducted by the Center for Streamside Studies

at the University of Washington (fourth paper). 

One of the scale-related papers emphasizes that future

management of forests and watersheds in the Pacific

Northwest can be most effective when it is placed in broad

time and space contexts, considers multiple goods and

services from these natural resource systems, and is based

on effective communication amongst the many relevant

audiences. An example of a large-scale study is the Coastal

Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study (CLAMS). Another

study develops and applies a set of measures in an analysis

of the relative differences in value of wood production and

different measures of ecological integrity for alternative

forest policies and different ownerships in the Oregon

Coast Range. Results from a small-scale, or stand level,

study in southeastern Alaska suggest that mixed red alderconifer stands may provide improved understory plant production and availability for deer forage and valuable

habitat for small mammals and other wildlife.

Studies relating to silviculture presented at the workshop focus on wood quality, forest growth models, understory plant communities, and tree genetics. The first

silviculture-related study focuses on yield appearance products and the economic incentives associated with longer

rotations. Another study evaluates how silvicultural practices alter stem characteristics and wood properties for

western hemlock, red alder, black cottonwood, and western

redcedar. In order to evaluate compatibility of alternative

silvicultural systems with increasingly heterogeneous structures and mixed-species compositions under experimentation in the Pacific Northwest, one study compares seven

forest growth simulation models. A fourth study examines

understory species—specifically the response of understory

vegetation to changes in overstory density, flowering for

several forest shrub species, and growth of tree species in

forest understories. The final study in this set of papers,

focusing on tree genetic diversity, concludes that seed

orchards with 20 or more selections should provide the

same level of risks (potential for loss of genetic diversity)

as wild collected seed from the natural population. 

Four papers present information on nontimber forest

products (NTFP). In order to provide more information on

forest management and forest conditions affecting understory species, one paper uses forest inventory data to determine if forest condition and environmental variables provide

useful correlations with the abundance and cover of NTFP

plant species. A second paper assesses current inventory

methods and databases for understory species and assesses

the adequacy of these methods to provide information about

commercial quality and quantity of NTFP and, in addition,

determines how management prescriptions might affect the

supply of selected commercial understory species in Douglasfir habitats of western Oregon. Another paper describes a

theoretical model that outlines management and economic

factors relating to the productivity and harvest of edible

forest mushrooms, another NTFP. The fourth paper develops

and illustrates processes for involving NTFP stakeholders

(including commercial and noncommercial harvesters and

resource managers) and conducts research relevant to identified stakeholder interests and needs. 

The final set of papers presented in this proceedings

address social and economic issues. One paper describes

the general structure of a logic-based model for evaluating

6
the sustainability of forests at regional and national levels,

and illustrates how a logical formalism can be used to represent and evaluate compatibility among resource values

and uses. Another paper examines a means to address cost

effective management for biodiversity and wildlife. A third

paper reviews lessons learned from an assessment of temporal trends in forest inventory and analysis data within

western Oregon. The final paper summarizes key findings

of an in-depth study on use of and problems associated

with using the knowledge-based logic modeling system for

organizing and analyzing the social acceptability of natural

resource management decision processes.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

The research problem is twofold. First, how can we

assemble the scientific information that is available on the

compatibilities and tradeoffs between commodity production and the other values (e.g., nontimber forest products,

fish, and wildlife) that the public desires from our forests?

Second, how can we integrate key scientific findings to

enhance good stewardship of our forest lands, both public

and private? 

The outcome will be scientific information that land

managers can use to increase opportunities for producing

compatible bundles of goods and services made up of

wood, wildlife habitat, scenery, recreation, water quality

(including water as a commodity), and riparian habitat, in a

manner that is socially acceptable and economically viable.

This outcome will be consistent with the intent of the

Congressional appropriation language for this research initiative: 

“The production of commodity outputs from 

National Forest land is dropping dramatically. 

The Committee is concerned that research priorities

may not reflect the need to evaluate improved 

methods of increasing commodity production in 

an environmentally acceptable manner.” 

The Hypothesis

In developing the final WCI products, we will consider

testing the hypothesis: “Timber, nontimber forest products,

fish, and wildlife habitat can be simultaneously produced

for the same area in a socially acceptable manner.” This

hypothesis can be expanded to consider natural and managed systems across a range of scales, uniform and nonuniform landscapes, and both dynamic and static systems.

Inferences can also be drawn about the nature and extent 

of joint production at different geographic and temporal

scales. Inferences can also be drawn about how joint production capability varies by the inherent productivity of the

land (stand, watershed, province) and the legacies of past

land management.

Adopting this approach will enable a richer public dialogue about the ability of land management options to produce timber, nontimber forest products, fish, and wildlife.

The emphasis is on informing the broader public dialogue,

not just the land management community. 

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Century. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Agriculture. 193 p. 

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Northwest Research Station, Forestry Sciences

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98512-9193. 5 p.

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history revisited. Journal of Forestry. 96(7): 40-46.

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Silviculture for multiple objectives in the Douglas-fir

region. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-435. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. 123 p.

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economic, and social assessment. Washington, DC: U.S.

Department of the Interior; U.S. Department of

Agriculture; U.S. Department of Commerce; U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency. 729 p. [plus appendices]. 

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[Place of publication unknown]. [Publisher unknown].

41 p.

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M.G.; Billings, W.D., eds. North American Terrestrial

Vegetation. New York: Cambridge University Press.

434 p.

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Oregon and Washington. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-8.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 417 p.

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The history of DEMO: an experiment in regeneration

harvest of northwestern forest ecosystems. Northwest

Science 73 (Spec. Issue): 3-11.

Franklin, J.F.; Waring, R.H. 1981. Distinctive features of 

the northwestern coniferous forest: development, structure, and function. In: Waring, R.H., ed. Forests: fresh

perspectives from ecosystem research. Corvallis, OR:

Oregon State University Press. 59-86. 

Fujimori, T.; Kawanabe, S.; Saito, H. [et al.]. 1976. 

Biomass and primary production in forests of three

major vegetation zones of the northwestern United

States. Journal of Japan Forestry Society. 58: 360-373. 

Gregory, R.G. 1972. Forest Resource Economics. New 

York: John Wiley and Sons. 254 p. Chapter 13.

Halpern, C.B. 1995. Response of forest communities to 

green-tree retention harvest: a study plan for the vegetation component of the Demonstration of Ecosystem

Management Options (DEMO) study. [Seattle, WA]:

[University of Washington, College Forest Resources].

36 p. [plus appendix]. 

Halpern, C.B.; Raphael, M.G., eds. 1999. Retention 

harvests in Northwestern forest ecosystems: the

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125 p.

Isaac, L.A. 1943. Reproductive habits of Douglas-fir. 

Washington, DC: Charles Lathrop Pack Forestry

Foundation. 

Isaac, L.A. 1956. Place of partial cutting in old-growth 

stands of the Douglas-fir region. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-16.

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest

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Loucks, D.M.; Knowe, S.A.; Shainsky, L.J.; Pancheco, 

A.A. 1996. Regenerating coastal forests in Oregon: an

annotated bibliography of selected ecological literature.

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University, Forest Research Laboratory. 122 p. 

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McClellan, M.H.; Swanston, D.N.; Hennon, P.E. [et al.]. 

2000. Alternatives to clearcutting in the old growth

forests of southeast Alaska: study plan and establishment report. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-494. Portland,

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Research Station. 40 p.

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Columbia. Special Report Series 6. Victoria, BC:

British Columbia Ministry of Forests. 330 p. 

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Northwest. Landscape and Urban Planning. 59: 159-180

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between wood production and other values and uses on

forested lands. A Problem Analysis PNW-GTR-564.

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New York: John Wiley & Sons. 

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problem analysis in support of the Cooperative Forest

Ecosystem Research (CFER) Program. Corvallis, OR:

U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological

Society. 92 p. 

Tappeiner, J.C.; Huffman, D.; Marshall, D. [et al.]. 1997a. 

Density, ages, and growth rates in old-growth and

young-growth forests in coastal Oregon. Canadian

Journal of Forest Research. 27: 638-648.

Tappeiner, J.C.; Lavender, D.; Walstad, J. [et al.]. 1997b. 

Silvicultural systems and regeneration methods: current

practices and new alternatives. In: Kohm, K.A.;

Franklin, J. F., eds. Creating a Forestry for the 21st

Century: The Science of Ecosystem Management.

Washington, DC: Island Press. 151-164. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1997a. 

Land and resource management plan: Tongass National

Forest. R10-MB-338d. Juneau, AK.

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and biological environment).

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Tongass land management plan revision: record of decision [ROD]. R10-MB-338a. Juneau, AK.

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Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management.

1994a. Final supplemental environmental impact statement on management of habitat for late-successional

and old-growth forest related species within the range

of the northern spotted owl. Washington, DC: Volumes I

and II. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management.

1994b. Record of decision for the President’s forest

plan. Washington, DC: 74 p. [plus appendices].

Walter, H. 1985. Vegetation of the Earth and ecological 

systems of the geobiosphere, 3d ed. New York:

Springer-Verlag. 318 p.

Waring, R.F.; Franklin, J.F. 1979. Evergreen coniferous 

forests of the Pacific Northwest. Science 204: 1380-

1386. 

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of Douglas-fir in the Cascades of western Oregon. Res.

Pap. PNW-RP-1161. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station. 13 p. 

9
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SECTION A

KEYNOTE PAPERS

1, 5 Research Forester and 6 Research Fisheries Biologists, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 3200 SW

Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331

2 Professor and 3 Assistant Professor, Oregon State University, College of Forestry, Corvallis, OR 97331 4 Research Forester, Department of Natural Resources Conservation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 2.

CHALLENGES TO INTEGRATING WOOD PRODUCTION, 

BIODIVERSITY, AND OTHER SOCIOECONOMIC VALUES AT

BROAD SCALES: AN EXAMPLE FROM COASTAL OREGON 

Thomas A. Spies1, K. Norman Johnson2, Pete Bettinger3, William C. McComb4, 

Janet L. Ohmann5, and Gordon H. Reeves6

INTRODUCTION

Answering the question “Can we reduce tradeoffs

among wood production and ecological and other values?”

requires solving a number of conceptual and technical

problems. We can think of the process as following threads

back from general or strategic policy questions to increasingly fundamental and focused research questions. In this

paper we identify one approach to addressing the major

questions of producing wood in a manner compatible with

production of other forest resources. We use the Coastal

Landscape Analysis and Modeling Study (CLAMS) (Spies

et al. 2002) to illustrate some of the challenges in addressing

multi-resource assessments and briefly describe how to

meet these challenges. In CLAMS, we are using a variety

ABSTRACT

The process of assessing tradeoffs among different forest uses to help inform debates about sustainable forestry is complex and full of challenges. These challenges include: (1) definition of problems and formulation of a conceptual model,

(2) identification of policies and policy alternatives, (3) development of spatial information about regions, (4) development

of spatial and temporal projections of landscapes, (5) quantifying ecological responses, (6) integration of components, (7)

conducting scientific research in a public policy environment, and (8) institutional barriers. Our experience indicates that

meeting these challenges requires a combination of suitable institutional support; environmental crises; and tools and information to help visualize and analyze the problem. We meet these requirements in our Coastal Analysis and Modeling Study

(CLAMS). Our continued success rests upon other elements including patience and the ever-changing role and acceptance

of science in public debates. The time and effort required to work on this scale while simultaneously meeting scientific

standards and those of policy makers and managers is enormous. We don’t yet know how much this work influences policy

making and informs public debates, however, we are more aware of linkages among disciplines and information needs at

broad spatial scales. 

KEY WORDS: Integrated regional assessments, forest landscape management and planning, multi-ownership landscapes,

ecological indicators.

13

of linked spatial models to simulate the ecological and

socioeconomic effects of alternative forest policies 100

years into the future in the Oregon Coast Range, a 2.5

million ha multi-ownership province. Although other

approaches are clearly possible, we suggest that all efforts

must, in someway, address the following challenges: (1)

definition of problems and formulation of a conceptual

model, (2) identification of policies and policy alternatives,

(3) development of spatial information about regions, (4)

development of spatial and temporal projections of landscapes, (5) quantifying ecological responses, (6) integration

of components, (7) conducting scientific research in a public policy environment, and (8) institutional barriers. In the

following sections, we briefly describe these challenges

and our approaches to meeting them in CLAMS. 

Continues on page 16.
14

Table 1—Elements of components in conceptual modela

Natural Landscape/ Sociopatterns and Land-owner watershed Measures of economic External

Policies processes behavior condition bio-diversity outputs system

Federal Climate Landuse Stand Amount and Jobs by Population

Forest Plans change structure quality of sector growth

and habitat for

composition vertebrates

State Forest Geology, Harvesting Stand/patch Quality of Income by Timber

Practices Act soils rate and size and watershed sector prices

Rotation age pattern conditions to 

support

anadromous 

fish

State Forest Topographic Silvicultural Age class Amount and Timber Climate

Management effects system structure quality of volume and change

plans and pattern habitat for quality

selected 

plants, fungi, 

lichens and 

mosses

Floral and Thinning Streams and Ecological logging Wildfires

Faunal topography landscape- costs

patterns scale indices

Succession Planting Road density Population Recreational Pathogens

stock viability for opportunity

Northern spectrum 

Spotted owl 

Stand growth Harvest Unit Road Potential to Contingent Ocean effects

and mortality size distribution deliver large value of on

and quality woody biodiversity anadromous

debris to fish and other

streams vertebrates 

Woody debris Riparian Population

decay Management viability of 

other species 

Landslides

Debris Flows

Canopy gap

dynamics

Blowdown

Wildfire

Forest 

Pathogens

a Elements in bold are included in current version of the approach. 
15

Figure 1—Ownership patterns in the Oregon Coast Range physiographic province.
PROBLEM DEFINITION AND 

CONCEPTUAL MODEL

Problem definition is a critical element in scientific

studies. It is especially critical in interdisciplinary environmental studies where problems are “wicked” or seemingly

intractable because of uncertainty, diversity of perspectives,

and absence of a single true solution. Defining the problem

drives the assumptions and study course toward solutions

(Bardwell 1991; Janssen and Goldsworthy 1996). In order

to examine compatibility of wood production and other

values in CLAMS, we first must answer the fundamental

question: How can forest management policies, through

their influence on landowner actions, affect biological

diversity, watershed processes, and socioeconomic conditions? 

The motivation for this general question comes from

recent policy debates in the Pacific Northwest and from the

particular ownership and environmental patterns of the

Pacific Coast Range. The diversity of policies (Table 1)

and mosaic of ownerships (Figure 1) create a landscape

where the potential for spatial interactions and cumulative

effects is high. 

We developed a conceptual model that identified the

key components and linkages of our system, the location

and spatial scale of the work, and the time frames considered. We use a systems approach because it is particularly

well suited for multidisciplinary environmental problems

(Janssen and Goldsworthy 1996) focusing on interactions

among diverse components of a system. Our conceptual

model assumes that the structure, composition and dynamics of forest vegetation overlain on the physical environment (hydrology, topography) is key to understanding how

forest policies and management activities affect biological

diversity and socioeconomic conditions (Figure 2, Table 1).

Forest policy influences landowner behavior and has at

16

Figure 2—Conceptual model of components and linkages in CLAMS.
least partial control over some natural processes such as

forest development and wildfire. It also acts as the primary

feedback among biological diversity, social values, and

economic subsystems.

POLICY MAKERS, SCENARIOS, 

AND USERS

Past bioregional assessments such as the “Gang-of-Four”

(Johnson et al. 1991), Forest Ecosystem Management

Assessment Team (1993), and the Interior Columbia Basin

Ecosystem Management Plan (USDA Forest Service 1996),

have started with a specific set of questions from an identified policy-maker. CLAMS is an anticipatory assessment

(assessment done primarily by researchers anticipating

policy needs), yet, it is still important to identify policy

makers and policy questions to help insure their relevancy

and to prioritize questions which might guide the study.

For this reason, we identified four different policy-makers

that could use CLAMS results:

1. The Oregon Board of Forestry while regulating authority

for Oregon’s private and state lands, it considers all of

Oregon’s forest land in its objectives and analysis.

2. The State of Oregon, under Governor leadership, has

taken responsibility for recovery of the coho salmon

(Oncorhynchus kisutch). The Governor’s plan is a combination of improved State agencies practices, forest

landowners voluntary measures, and State legislature

and forest industry funding of planning and monitoring.

3. The federal land management agencies (Forest Service

and Bureau of Land Management) responsible for implementing the Northwest Forest Plan (FEMAT 1993). 

4. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the

National Marine Fisheries Service responsible for recovering several wide ranging species in the CLAMS area

—the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina),

marbled murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) and

coho—listed under the Endangered Species Act as

threatened or endangered. 

17

Table 2—Forest policies, goals, and strategies dealing with biological diversity in the Oregon Coast Range by major

ownership categories 

Ownership Policies Goalsa Strategies 

USDA Forest Service NW Forest Plan Late successional/ Reserves,

Forest Plans Old-growth Forests, Matrix,

T&E Species, Green-tree retention,

Aquatic ecosystems, Stream buffers,

Commodities Adaptive Management

Areas

BLM Same as above Same as above Same as above but 

with different matrix

prescriptions

State of Oregon Forest Plans Healthy forests, “Structure-based”

Indigenous species, active management,

Abundant Timber, HCP

T&E species

Private Industrial State Forest Practices Growth and harvest of Limited retention of

Act trees, individual trees,

Protection of Limited stream-side

environment and protection for fishfish/wildlife bearing streams

Private Non-industrial Same as above Same as above Same as above 

a Goals are listed in approximate order of priorities.
It is important to identify the policies and potential

policy issues that the methodology will address. This step

helps to determine ecological and technical information

needs and define the spatial and temporal grain, extent, and

context of the problem. For example, analysis of riparian

forest policies requires information about first- and secondorder streams and vegetation within certain distances of a

stream. Consequently, we must have a high resolution

stream and vegetation layer and a simulation model that is

sensitive to riparian management and natural disturbances. 

Although our methodology is designed to address existing forest policies (Table 2), it should also prove useful to

policy-makers as they consider the development of new

forest policies, i.e., enable policymakers to “try out” new

policies before they adopt them and to consider more fundamental alternatives such as using natural disturbance

regimes to guide forest management (Landres et al. 1999).

Given the application of the model to a diverse region, it is

also important to identify stakeholders and involve them in

developing alternative scenarios. These stakeholders include

policy makers as well as watershed councils, landowners,

NGOs and other public groups. These groups will have

different capacities of using the information. For example,

some may only want maps indicating distribution of certain

resources, while others may want data for their own analyses,

and some may want to be actively involved in modeling

different scenarios. 

SPATIAL INFORMATION ABOUT

REGIONS

Developing digital spatial information about the current conditions of a large area is an important foundation

of regional assessments (Lee 1993). Spatial information

is needed because many resources are sensitive to spatial

pattern. Furthermore, depicting policy effects on maps is a

particularly effective form of communication. High quality

spatial data bases typically do not exist for large regions,

so regional assessments frequently devote significant

resources to spatial data development. Remote sensing and

GIS technologies have made it possible to assemble spatial

data bases of many kinds but the task is time consuming.

It is important at the outset to identify the boundaries of

the area, and the type and spatial resolution of information

needed. Not all scale and resolution questions can be

answered in the planning stages, however. Some scale

issues cannot be dealt with until ecological response models

are developed and until fundamental biophysical data

sources are obtained and evaluated. For example, while

high resolution satellite imagery (e.g., 25 m Landsat TM

imagery) and Digital Elevation Models (DEM’s) at 30 and

10 m may be available for large areas, they may have a

coarser or finer resolution than is needed by the biophysical

models. Matching data needs with data acquisition is an

interactive process given technological, time, and budget

constraints.

We used a method (Ohmann and Gregory 2002) similar

to the “most similar neighbor method” (Moeur and Stage

1995) to map forest structure and composition across all

ownerships. Multivariate, direct analysis (Ter Braak 1986) is

used to quantify relations between tree species and structure on inventory plots and remotely sensed and other spatial

data such as climate and topography. Each pixel is then

assigned the most similar inventory plot based on the multivariate relationships. The method has the following advantages for spatial simulation: complete tree lists, which are

required by the stand simulation models, are assigned to

each pixel, and the ecological variability of the tree lists

(inventory data) is maintained in the spatial model (i.e.,

covariance structure and range of variation).

In addition to the vegetation data, we also needed digital elevation models, streams, roads and land use, all of

which required additional development to make them suitable for our use. We still lack an adequate road layer for

the region. 

LANDSCAPE PROJECTIONS

Landscape simulations are central to assessing the longterm implications of current forest policies and/or developing new ones. We developed a landscape simulator LAMPS

(LAndscape Management and Policy Simulator) (Bettinger

and Lennette 2002) to project potential future conditions

(Figure 3) but had to solve six problems to do so:

1. Estimating initial conditions consistent with data

requirements of forest dynamics models (Ohmann and

Gregory 2002).

2. Creating a spatial structure over various domains of

scale important to management and resource responses.

Functional units in the simulation model are spatially

hierarchical ranging in size from a single 25-m pixel to

millions of ha (Table 3). 

3. Characterizing Landowner Behavior. To simulate forest

management behavior, we segregated landowners into

four groups: federal, state, forest industry, and nonindustrial private landowners. Other landowners, such as

counties, were put into one of these groups based on

whose management practices their management most

closely resembled. 

18
19

Figure 3—Simulation of changes in forest size classes for 1995-2095 under current policies using the LAMPS model.

Table 3—Hierarchy of spatial units used in LAMPS model 

Spatial unit Size range Criteria 

Basic simulation unit (BSU) 0.06 ~ 0.75 ha uniformity of vegetation 

Parcel (cutting unit) 4 ~ 20 ha uniformity of ownership and 

topography 

Harvest block 4 ~ 50 ha Depending on Aggregation of adjoining

ownership parcels with relatively high 

timber value 

Land allocation 4 ~ 1000’s ha Land owner plans 

Ownership 4 ~ 10,000’s ha Ownership patterns 
We then developed a digital map of the management

emphases of different owners in terms of their management goals, potential activities undertaken to achieve

these goals, and the constraints on these actions (Figure

1). For federal landowners, as an example, we recognized areas where harvest is prohibited, areas where harvest is allowed only to achieve ecological objectives,

and areas where ecological objectives are the primary

goal and timber harvest is the secondary goal, based on

the Northwest Forest Plan. As another example, we segregated forest industry lands into areas where timber

production was the primary goals (upland areas) and

areas near streams where timber harvest is constrained to

achieve basal area levels required under the State Forest

Practices Act (State of Oregon 1999). 

For each landowner, we estimated the likely management intensities (level of investment) that would be used

within each management emphasis from surveys (Lettman

and Campbell 1997; Lettman 1998a, 1998b) and interviews with representatives from the different landowner

groups. Although we assumed all landowners planted

their stands after harvest; intensity of precommercial

thinning, commercial thinning, and fertilization varied

among landowners. 

Once we estimated management intensity for each landowner, we estimated the size, and spatial pattern of

activities within the different management emphases,

especially regeneration harvest. The size distribution of

clearcuts on private lands came from recent history

(Cohen et al. 2002). The size distribution of regeneration

harvests on state lands, on the other hand, is a by-product

of the goal of maintaining a size distribution of interior

forest leave-patches, called for in the new state plans

(Oregon Department of Forestry 2001). The size distribution of regeneration harvests on federal lands reflects

the relatively small areas that fall outside the reserves. In

addition, clear-cut placement on all lands is controlled

so that clearcuts cannot occur in adjacent patches until a

specified period of regrowth transpires.

4. Account for natural disturbances. Incorporating natural

disturbances into the model is difficult and we did so

sparingly. Although terrestrial disturbances from wildfires is an important natural process, they are not included in the current version of the simulation model. Fire

intervals are long, over 200 years, (Wimberly et al. 2000)

and difficult to predict especially with fire control policies. Floods, landslides, and debris flows are critical

drivers of stream habitat and are a focus of finer-scale

modeling efforts nested within the larger scale model.

We also simulate stochastic small patch disturbances

(0.06 to 0.75 ha in size) from a variety of sources including wind and pathogens. The finest scale gap disturbances (<0.6 ha) are incorporated into the stand-level

models. 

5. Estimate stand growth and succession. We use a growth

and yield model (ORGANON) [Hann et al. 1995] and

an ecological succession model (ZELIG) [Urban et al.

1999] to project the development of forest stands across

the entire assessment area. The growth and yield model

is used for forest management regimes characterized by

young stands on short rotations (<80 years) and intensive

forest management. The ecological succession model is

used for management where stands are grown on longer

rotations or allowed to grow without harvest or manipulation until stochastic disturbances occur. These models

are run non-spatially on every combination of stand types

(inventory plots) and management regimes. Results of

each projection are stored in a lookup table used in the

landscape simulations. 

6. Schedule management activities. We simulated forest

management activities by scheduling them in accordance

with management intentions. For forest industry owners,

who historically have produced a relatively even amount

of timber volume every year across owners, we can use

an “even-flow” constraint to define how much industry

volume is harvested in each period. At the start of the

modeling process, logging costs are defined and slope

classes are used to determine if cable or ground-based

systems will be used on each parcel. 

The potential harvest volume and log size is determined

for each parcel and its value is then determined by subtracting logging, sale preparation and road maintenance

costs from the potential harvest revenue. Where economic income is a high priority, parcels with the highest economic values are selected for first harvest and are used

as seeds for creating larger harvest blocks ranging up to

19.8 ha. 

DETERMINING ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Scientifically-based, ecological measures and indicators

are critical parts of policy assessments. However, unlike

economic measures, we typically lack comprehensive

measures of ecological response and socioeconomic values

of biological diversity helpful for informing policy debates

on large spatial scales (Norton 1998). Generally, biodiversity indicators for regional assessment are developed

through expert judgment based on synthesis of general

habitat descriptions or scattered empirical habitat relationship studies.

20
Measures of biological diversity in forests fall into three

broad classes: species/populations; communities based on

broad classes of vegetation; and ecosystem and landscape

measures that deal with patterns and processes (Hunter 1990;

Noss 1990; Franklin 1993; Silbaugh and Betters 1995). We

use all three classes. 

Species/population—We focused our efforts on 30 focal

species based on a variety of criteria. For each species, we

develop a habitat suitability index based on stand and landscape level features. We focus primarily on habitat because

of the lack of data to develop population viability models.

We have developed these habitat models using individual

habitat components (e.g., density of large trees or snags),

rather than broad vegetation classes (e.g., early successional

or old-growth) to make them more sensitive to different

silivicultural practices (McComb et al. 2002). 

Community level—We use species groups and total

community measures rather than single species and then

associate them with vegetation classes (e.g., early successional, late successional), which are mapped (Carey et al.

1999; O’Neil et al. 2000). These multi-species approaches

can bridge the gap between single species and

ecosystem/landscape approaches. 

Ecosystem/landscape level—In this approach, abundance, distributions, and spatial pattern of fine-scale habitat

elements (e.g., snags and old-growth trees) and coarse-scale

21

Table 4—Dimensions and characteristics of integration in CLAMS

Dimension Characteristics and issues 

Scope and focus of project Conceptual model of states, outputs and 

linkages and externalities

Spatial Location, spatial resolution, strata, translations 

across scale, extrapolation to other areas

Temporal Horizon, time steps, history, future projections, 

duration

Disciplinary Language, scale linkages, problem focus 

science questions vs. policy questions; least 

common denominator problem

Technological Formats, software compatibility/flexibility,

capacity, display capability, user friendliness, 

data quality

Social—team level Trust; team identity and common vision; 

motivation, leadership, communication, scientist 

availability and patience, research support

Social—user/stakeholder Need; trust, communication, understanding, 

expectations, feedback

External communications and feedbacks Audiences: scientific, resource management; 

political, policy; publics; scientific, policy and 

public review, What are common denominators 

of results that transcend audience?

Institutional Funding; reward system; Identifying clients and 

users.
community and ecosystem types form the criteria for

assessing current and future conditions (Haufler 1994). In

addition, processes such as disturbance regimes can be

evaluated in terms of how much current disturbance

regimes differ from past regimes (Landres et al. 1999;

Wimberly et al. 2000). 

INTEGRATION

Integration of diverse disciplines is a critical challenge

in regional assessments of natural resources (Clark et al.

1999). Not all efforts require highly integrated studies, but

management problems are becoming increasingly complex

and multidimensional. Policy makers often must find ways

to balance a wide range of divergent interests. The process

of pulling together multidisciplinary assessments is typically

a large undertaking. High levels of integration of the parts

require considerable time and resources (Bettinger and

Boston 2001; Cohen and Bailey 1997). 

In the CLAMS effort we recognize that integration

efforts must occur in many dimensions of the study (Table

4). The general integration framework is set by the conceptual model, but many dimensional details and problems

remain. For example, in the spatial dimension, study area

boundaries, minimum mapping units and summary strata

must be acceptable to all disciplines and compatible with

analysis and display technologies. 

SCIENCE IN A PUBLIC POLICY

ENVIRONMENT

The role of environmental science and technology in

public policy issues is essential but controversial (Meffe

and Viderman 1995; Baskerville 1997; Nelson 1999; Kaiser

2000). It is a major challenge to develop scientific and

technical information that facilitates solutions to problems

rather than inhibiting or limiting the solution space. In the

past, the scientific models were too narrowly defined to

deal with broad and complex policy issues. Efforts based

on an approach of using complex models to provide the

answer were not successful (McLain and Lee 1996)

because stakeholders did not understand or trust the models.

Yet, science has an important role to play in regional

assessments (Swanson and Greene 1999). The problem

often boils down to two questions: How much of the scientific process can be incorporated into policy issues?; and

What is the role of science and scientists and technology

in public policy debates? 

Policy assessments typically contain some elements of

the scientific process, but not all. For example, hypotheses

about policy outcomes may be stated and “tested” with

analyses or models, but the uncertainty and error in the

models is frequently unknown. Subsequent testing of vital

assumptions and long-term monitoring of the effectiveness

of a chosen policy typically does not occur. It is often not

clear how the level of error that is relevant to management

differs from the error standards in scientific studies (Lee

1993). 

The role of science and scientists in policy debates and

assessments is evolving toward a “civic science” (Lee

1993) in which the scientific process is not only more visible to the public but has political support, is meshed with

political pragmatism, and involves policymakers and stakeholders in identifying alternatives to study, or specifying

parameters of the models to be tested. The value of scientific

models in assessments is increased if they are used to help

set frameworks or forums for shared learning (McLain and

Lee 1996). Scientists can also take on more of an advocacy

role for a particular policy action, however, this is controversial and many scientists who do this qualify their opinions as reflecting their personal values (Kaiser 2000). A

less controversial advocacy role is to promote the consideration of scientific knowledge in the debates. Once a policy

is implemented, scientists can provide a “science consistency

check” to evaluate how well managers are implementing

the policy in ways that are consistent with the scientific

findings and recommendations (Mills and Clark 2001).

INSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGES

Institutional support is often a major hurdle to conducting large integrated anticipatory assessments. Funding is

the obvious hurdle but a less obvious hurdle is what institution(s) should provide people whose job is to conduct these

types of analyses and interact with interested parties about

the results. Without public or private funding, large integrated and costly assessments will not happen. Most competitive funding sources are not well-suited to undertake

long-term and risky integrated research projects that are

closely tied to policy/management issues. 

In CLAMS, our funding comes primarily from federal

and state research and management agencies involved in

forest policy crises who see the value of this type of work.

Consequently, we have a level of funding (about $750,000/

year) well beyond the typical competitive grant. However,

when distributed across 10-12 scientists, this is not much

support on a per scientist basis. We rely heavily on tenured

22
university professors and U.S. Forest Service research

scientists who have the freedom and support to work on

integrated assessments. 

A more formidable institutional challenge is transporting

the processes and approach to address new questions or

examine other geographic areas. For example, who will

encourage use of the models or make the changes necessary

to successfully implement them and modify them to address

new questions (Bettinger 1999). These are institutional problems that are not yet solved. Other hurdles are the problems

of working across institutional cultures and reward systems.

For example, it is more difficult for assistant professors in

universities to be team members of large projects that are

slow to publish and publish large multi-author studies, than

for senior faculty or agency scientists. 

CONCLUSIONS

The process of developing tools and information to

assess the effects of environmental policies and inform the

debates about sustainable land management over multiple

owners is complex and challenging. The challenges include

definition of the problem and development of a conceptual

model; identification of policies and policy makers; development of spatial information about regions; development of

spatial and temporal projections of landscapes; development of measures of ecological effects; integration; and

involvement of science in a public policy environment. Our

experience shows while these challenges can be met, projects

such as this require a combination of suitable institutional

support; environmental crises that motivate policy makers

to support research, and tools and information to help visualize and analyze the problem, and potential solutions. The

continued success of the CLAMS project rests upon having

met these challenges, but it also must rely on patience (Lee

1993) and the ever-changing role and acceptance of science

in public debates. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This manuscript has benefited from discussions with

members of the CLAMS team. Funding from the PNW

station, under the Northwest Forest Plan and the Wood

Compatibility Initiative, and the College of Forestry at

Oregon State University have given us the opportunity to

address these broad-scale questions. We thank Fred Swanson

and Jamie Barbour for comments on an earlier draft. 

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25

1 Research Wildlife Biologist, 2 Research Fisheries Biologist, 3 Wildlife Biologist (formerly), and 4 Fisheries Biologist, USDA Forest Service, 

PNW Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3625 93rd Avenue SW, Olympia WA 98512-9193; mraphael@fs.fed.us, pbisson@fs.fed.us,

ljones02@fs.fed.us, and afoster01@fs.fed.us, respectively.

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 3.

EFFECTS OF STREAMSIDE FOREST MANAGEMENT

ON THE COMPOSITION AND ABUNDANCE OF STREAM 

AND RIPARIAN FAUNA OF THE OLYMPIC PENINSULA

Martin G. Raphael1, Peter A. Bisson2, Lawrence L.C. Jones3, and Alex D. Foster4

INTRODUCTION

Management of streamside vegetation is a major component of the Northwest Forest Plan for federally managed

lands (FEMAT 1993) and plans for management of state

and private lands [e.g., Washington State’s Habitat Conservation Plan (WDNR 1997)]. One of the fundamental concepts behind the conservation strategy embodied in the

Northwest Forest Plan and other plans is the importance of

riparian habitat buffers in providing functional stream and

streamside ecosystems. These buffers, as proposed by the

scientific analysis team (Thomas et al. 1993) and FEMAT

(1993) are meant to conserve habitat conditions not only

for at-risk stocks of fish but also a diverse range of riparianassociated organisms including lichens, liverworts, fungi,

vascular plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates (USDA and

USDI 1994). The size of these buffers, and their placement

ABSTRACT

We conducted a retrospective study of the influence of timber harvest on vertebrate assemblages in and adjacent to small

streams on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 1996 to 1999. Sixty-two sites were selected, with adjacent sites representing old-growth conditions and five site conditions resulting from silvicultural treatments: young, mature, thinned mature,

buffered old, and buffered mature sites. To determine site-level patterns of species composition and structure, we developed

an integrated sampling design targeting specific vertebrate taxa along and perpendicular to the axis of the stream. We also

characterized the vegetation and habitat characteristics of streams and streamside buffers. Instream and near-stream amphibians were the best indicators of stream and streamside habitat condition, probably because of their low mobility, tendency to

reside in or return to specific locations, lengthy larval period, ability to populate beyond obstacles to movement, and narrow

limits of environmental tolerance. Small buffers contributed to site structural diversity, but fish communities were highly

variable and not strongly related to buffer width. Effects of forest management on headwater stream and riparian-associated

vertebrates were often difficult to assess, probably because other factors such as local geomorphic features, weather patterns,

long-term disturbance histories, and characteristics of surrounding landscapes obscured these patterns. 

KEY WORDS: Amphibians, birds, fish, mammals, riparian, buffer.

27

on all stream orders including headwater and intermittent

streams, has resulted in the reservation of a large portion 

of the landscape, ranging from 30% to 70% of the federal

land base (USDA and USDI 1994). Although the size of

these buffers was determined from a thorough review of

existing literature, little field data were available comparing

the efficacy of alternative buffer designs. Understanding

relations between biodiversity and watershed function and

condition may lead to opportunities to better balance commodity production and protection of streamside habitat. 

As a preliminary effort toward better understanding the

importance of riparian buffers in providing habitat for associated organisms, we initiated a retrospective study of

responses of aquatic and terrestrial organisms to various

streamside management options. Experimental manipulation of riparian systems, which would evaluate conditions
both before and after treatment, is a preferable approach,

but such treatments were not possible on federally managed lands. Although we still hope to initiate such experimental work, we believe a retrospective approach to past

management practices is a necessary precursor to a manipulative study.

METHODS

Sixty-two study sites were located on the west and south

sides of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, on state, federal, and private lands outside the Olympic National Park

(Figure 1). A study site included a 300-m stream reach plus

the surrounding stands. We chose 300 m as our standard

because we suspected a shorter reach would likely reflect

the effects of upstream influences rather than the channel

and adjacent stands. Streams were usually first to third

order and less than 3 m across the wetted portion. We

selected areas representing six site conditions:

1. Old sites: unmanaged with intact forest on both sides of

the stream.

2. Buffered old sites: old forest with adjacent clearcuts

leaving buffers of 10 to 30 m.

3. Mature sites: second-growth stands that were 35 to 100

years old with no adjacent harvest.

4. Thinned mature sites: intact second growth with commercial thinning.

5. Buffered mature sites: second growth with adjacent

clearcuts leaving 10- to 30-m buffers of second-growth

forest.

6. Young sites: cutover sites with no intact buffers, generally up to 35 years old. 

Site types were not equally distributed across the study

area because of differing ownerships and management

practice histories. Bisson et al. (2002, in this preceedings)

offer more details on site types and buffers. 

Our approach was a retrospective analysis that examined existing forest condition resulting from past management practices with different intervals since logging, with

and without streamside buffers. The null hypothesis was

that there would be no association between the relative

abundance and species richness of small-stream vertebrates

and the condition of the streamside forest. Acceptance of

the null hypothesis would suggest that buffers of late-successional forest would not be needed to conserve populations of stream-dwelling or streamside vertebrates inhabiting

small streams. Rejection of the null hypothesis would indicate that certain riparian treatments do not support populations of the native vertebrate fauna.

The overall sampling design was an integrated approach

to sample common, readily detectable vertebrate species in

the stream, near-stream, and upslope environments. Our

design was a broad approach to sample a variety of taxa

rather than intensively sample a few specific sites; because

of this, some taxa that require more specialized sampling

were not captured frequently enough for analysis. To accommodate spatial variability, sampling was conducted along

and perpendicular to the axis of the stream. All sampling

was in or adjacent to the 300-m stream reach. In-channel

sampling was conducted for fishes and amphibians, whereas

above-channel sampling was performed for amphibians,

birds, and mammals. Not all sampling methods were conducted at each site, owing in part to the limitations of

specific sampling methods. Bisson et al. (2002, in this proceedings) discuss stream habitat characterization and fish

sampling in detail, so that will not be repeated here, except

to say that fish sampling was a habitat-based electrofishing

method.

Two methods were used to sample amphibians: instream

belt surveys and streambank surveys. Instream surveys

targeted stream-dwelling forms: Cope’s giant salamander

(Dicamptodon copei), Olympic torrent salamander

(Rhyacotriton olympicus), and tailed frog (Ascaphus truei).

Instream surveys consisted of thirty 1-m long belts spaced

at 10-m intervals per site. The belts spanned the area

between the wetted edges of the main channel, plus all

braids and seeplike habitats. The basic method is an intensive search and seine technique (Bury and Corn 1991;

Jones and Raphael, in review5) during summer low flow.

Streambank surveys targeted the western red-backed salamander (Plethodon vehiculum), Van Dyke’s salamander (P.

vandykei), ensatina (Ensatina eschscholtzii), and Olympic

torrent salamander. Most streambank surveys were conducted during spring, but some were conducted during fall.

They consisted of a series of three transects, aligned at

every third instream belt, that went upslope from the wetted

edge of the stream to 35 m above the valley (inner gorge)

wall, or treeline, if a distinct valley was absent. All potential cover objects within transects were searched for

28

5 Jones, L L.C.; Raphael, M.G. [In review]. Systematic spotlight survey: a non-destructive method for detecting stream-associated amphibians.

Herpetological Review. On file with Martin G. Raphael, Olympia Forestry Sciences Laboratory.
amphibians. In both methods, animals were captured, then

identified, measured, weighed, and released. Seeplike habitats were sampled by both methods, which is why the

Olympic torrent salamander was a target species for either

method. 

Birds and mammals were sampled along transects that

ran parallel to the axis of the stream. We established two

transects along each stream reach, one close to the stream

(generally within 20 m) and one upslope, spaced 100 m

apart. In this paper, we report only results from the nearstream transect. Transects began at a point perpendicular to

the first belt and ended at a point perpendicular to the last.

For birds, there were four sampling stations on each transect, spaced at 100-m intervals. Each station was visited

three to six times during the spring survey period. We used

a variable-radius, circular plot method (Reynolds et al.

1980). Observers recorded all birds detected at or between

stations, primarily from aural detections. They recorded

species, distance, and direction from the station. Small

mammals were trapped with Sherman live-traps. Two traps

were placed at 10-m intervals along transects for a total of

62 traps per transect. Traps were baited with oats, molasses,

and peanut butter, and checked for five consecutive days.

Observers wore protective gear, including goggles, gloves,

and high efficiency particulate air (HEPA)-filter respirators

to guard against epizootic pathogens. Mammals were captured, identified, marked, measured, weighed, and released.

The deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) and Keen’s

mouse (P. keeni) were differentiated by range in tail length

(Allard et al. 1987): we assigned adults with tails less than

96 mm to P. maniculatus and those with tails at least 102

mm to P. keeni. Subadults were not identified to species

and were not included in results presented here. We will

address the distribution, abundance, and morphological

characteristics of this genus more thoroughly in a subsequent paper.

We used data from all sites in this paper. Detection

indices were standardized for differences in effort. For consistency among fishes and amphibians, we computed an

index of mean detections per 100 m2. For in-channel data,

fish detections were from electrofishing and amphibian

data were from instream belt surveys, although each method

often detected the other taxon. Because Olympic torrent

salamanders were targeted by two methods, we included

results from both methods. All transect data for streambank

surveys were combined for each site. For birds and mammals, we used only the near-stream transects for comparison.

We computed relative abundance of birds as total detections

up to 50 m from the station per 10 station-visits. Because

many of the forested buffers were less than 50 m wide, bird

observations include individuals that could have been located

in the buffer itself or in adjacent cutover forest. Mammals

are reported as first captures per 100 net trap-nights. For

fishes and amphibians, our comparisons addressed target

species. For birds and mammals, our comparisons addressed

species with greater than 20 detections.

In this paper, we emphasize site- and reach-level variables, whereas a companion paper (Bisson et al. 2002, in

this proceedings) reports within-stream and watershed

attributes. For consistency, we will use onsite habitat variables from our stream characterization surveys (Bisson et

al. 2002, in this proceedings). Our principal nominal data

include site type, dominant parent rock type (igneous, sedimentary, unconsolidated glacial), and stream classification

(cascade, step-pool, pool-riffle, plane-bed) (Montgomery

and Buffington 1993). All nominal data were compared

nonparametrically, as most comparisons had non-normal

distributions or heterogeneous variances, or both. For comparisons of measures of relative abundance in relation to

categorical attributes of sites (e.g., forest condition or parent rock), we computed the Kruskal-Wallis H statistic,

which is based on mean ranks. For continuous variables,

including stream width, mean stream gradient (measured

along the reach), and elevation (at first belt), we computed

nonparametric correlations of relative abundance of each

species and the site attribute by using Spearman’s rho. To

compare species richness among sites, we counted all

species encountered at each site then computed means

across all sites within each of the six site conditions. We

used a hierarchical cluster analysis based on Euclidian distances to assess similarity of bird communities among the

six site conditions. For this analysis, we first computed

mean abundance of each species in each of the six site

classes and then computed Euclidian distance from mean

abundance. Data were analyzed with Statistical Package for

the Social Sciences (SPSS)6, version 10.01. Tests were

two-tailed, and we identified as significant those variables

whose association with vertebrate abundance resulted in a

Type 1 error of less than 10 percent. 

29

6 The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of

any product or service.
30

Figure 1—Study sites on the Olympic Peninsula,

Washington. Names of major river basins in

which study sites occurred are given.

Figure 2—Comparison of stream gradient among site conditions,

Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 1996–1999. Values represent means

and 95 percent confidence intervals; numbers of sites are indicated

on x-axis. Abbreviations are MAT (mature sites), MBF (buffered

mature sites), MTH (thinned mature sites), OBF (buffered old sites),

OLD (old sites), and YNG (young sites).
RESULTS

We established 62 sites distributed within the Olympic

Peninsula, generally at elevations below 700 m (Figure 1).

Sample sizes of the six forest conditions were old forest, 

n = 13 sites; buffered old forest, n = 10 sites; mature forest,

n = 15 sites; buffered mature forest, n = 8 sites; thinned

mature forest, n = 6 sites; and young forest, n = 10 sites.

Site conditions differed among these sites: old forest sites

differed from the managed sites; they had smaller streams

with steeper gradients (Figure 2). 

The number of sites we sampled ranged from 38 for

stream amphibians to 52 for fishes (Table 1). Sample sizes

of each site condition for each taxonomic group are summarized in Table 2. Responses of major groups of organisms, and species within these groups, were highly variable

with respect to site conditions (Table 2). Relative abundance of none of the fish or mammal species differed significantly among site conditions (summarized with other

stream attributes in Table 3). Relative abundances of about

half of the species of birds and terrestrial amphibians differed significantly among site conditions; abundances of all

of the stream-dwelling amphibians differed significantly

among site conditions. 

Although abundance of fishes did not differ significantly

by site type, they differed among all other stream attributes

except stream width (Tables 3 and 4). Abundance of fishes

also differed significantly by elevation. Parent rock appeared

to be more important for fishes than for other vertebrate

classes. 

Among both stream-dwelling and terrestrial amphibians, species were most abundant at old-forest sites; abundance was lowest in young sites (cutover sites with no

buffer) and intermediate in mature sites, including buffered

and thinned conditions (Table 2). Abundance of amphibians

was generally lower in buffered sites versus unbuffered

sites in each forest age class, but these relations are difficult to interpret because of confounding influences of elevation, stream width, and stream gradient (see below).

However, Van Dyke’s salamander was only detected in old

and buffered old sites (with qualitatively higher densities in

old), regardless of elevation and gradient. Van Dyke’s and

Olympic torrent salamanders were both associated with

higher elevations and gradients (Table 4). In most cases,

Olympic torrent salamanders showed similar patterns from

both detection methods. However, some differences were

probably because of the tendency of the terrestrial sampling

method to detect adults (55%), which favor the water’s

edge, whereas most of the instream detections were larvae

(70%), which are typically found in deeper water.

Responses of birds to forest conditions along streams

were highly variable. Of the 20 species whose abundances

differed significantly among site conditions (Table 2), a

majority (13 species) reached their qualitatively highest

abundance in mature sites with buffers. Mean number of

species detected per site was also highest in mature sites

with buffers; richness was similar among other site types

(Figure 3). By using mean abundances of all common birds

to compute similarities of avian communities among the

six site types, we found that old forest, buffered old forest,

and mature sites were most similar to each other; avian

communities of buffered mature and young sites were also

similar to each other; birds in mature thinned sites were

least similar to any other site type (Figure 4). 

Abundance of 21 of the 34 bird species was correlated

with at least one of the physical stream features. Abundance

of birds was generally greater at lower elevation sites with

31

Table 1—Number of study sites, capture results, and sampling effort for each primary sampling method, Olympic

Peninsula, Washington, 1996–1999

Number of Total number Number of

Method study sites of species detections Total effort

Aquatic amphibians 38 6 1,909 1,032 1-m belts; 2 082 m2

Terrestrial amphibians 41 11 1,687 42 835 m2 area search

Birds 52 70 2,815 1,164 plot visits

Mammals 49 17 768 13,082 trapnights

Fishes 52 5 1,403 17 660 m2 search
32

Table 2—Mean detection indices of common vertebrates species in and near streams, by site condition, with 

χ2 and P-values from Kruskal-Wallis tests, Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 1996–1999. (continued on next page)

Buffered Buffered Thinned

Taxonomic class and species Old old Mature mature mature Young χ2 P

Fishes (n = 52 sites): (12)a (10) (12) (4) (5) (9)

Cutthroat trout 

Oncorhynchus clarki clarki 1.24 9.30 6.82 7.85 7.14 5.71 8.16 .15

Coho salmon 

Oncorhynchus kisutch 2.91 .81 2.13 0 0 0 2.87 .72

Coastrange sculpin 

Cottus aleuticus 1.92 1.55 6.00 0 9.28 .91 6.53 .26

Torrent sculpin 

Cottus rhotheus 1.13 .24 16.67 .59 10.31 2.21 2.52 .77

Amphibians, stream 

(n = 38 sites): (10) (4) (10) (3) (4) (7)

Tailed frog 

Ascaphus truei 96.87 5.81 32.07 0 0 8.90 12.79 .03

Cope’s giant salamander 

Dicamptodon copei 59.31 9.60 38.72 5.76 0 18.97 16.70 .01

Olympic torrent salamander 

Rhyacotriton olympicus 22.01 0 41.17 0 0 5.22 13.74 .02

Amphibians, terrestrial 

(n = 41 sites): (11) (6) (9) (4) (4) (7)

Olympic torrent salamander .73 .02 .11 .11 0 .06 14.08 .02

Ensatina 

Ensatina eschscholtzii .13 .07 .09 .23 .20 0 6.37 .27

Van Dyke’s salamander 

Plethodon vandykei .56 .09 0 0 0 0 18.50 <.01

Western red-backed salamander 

Plethodon vehiculum 4.10 2.11 3.89 1.88 2.61 1.05 7.68 .18

Birds (n = 52 sites): (10) (9) (11) (8) (6) (8)

Blue grouse 

Dendragapus obscurus 0 .09 .08 .16 .14 .05 1.57 .90

Band-tailed pigeon 

Columba fasciata .08 0 0 .16 0 .05 9.44 .09

Vaux’s swift 

Columba fasciata .29 .32 0 .21 .14 .07 4.58 .47

Rufous hummingbird 

Selasphorus rufus .46 .05 .37 1.30 .28 .27 11.31 .05

Hairy woodpecker 

Picoides villosus .21 .28 .19 .63 1.25 .10 10.43 .06

Northern flicker 

Colaptes auratus .04 0 .04 .05 0 0 2.58 .77

Willow flycatcher 

Empidonax traillii 0 0 0 .05 0 0 5.50 .36

Hammond’s flycatcher 

Empidonax hammondii .04 .14 .08 0 0 0 4.51 .48
33

Table 2 (continued)—Mean detection indices of common vertebrates species in and near streams, by site condition,

with χ2 and P-values from Kruskal-Wallis tests, Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 1996–1999. (continued on next page)

Buffered Buffered Thinned

Taxonomic class and species Old old Mature mature mature Young χ2 P

Pacific-slope flycatcher 

Empidonax difficilis 5.31 5.32 4.95 5.89 5.90 3.01 4.94 .42

Gray jay 

Perisoreus canadensis 0 .09 .04 0 .28 0 3.64 .60

Steller’s jay 

Cyanocitta stelleri .17 .56 .16 1.00 .07 .45 9.88 .08

Chestnut-backed chickadee 

Poecile rufescens 1.86 2.45 3.48 2.14 5.97 .83 6.72 .24

Brown creeper 

Certhia americana .42 .65 .11 .10 .14 0 11.12 .05

Winter wren 

Troglodytes troglodytes 7.82 7.08 7.77 6.35 10.49 3.96 9.57 .09

American dipper 

Cinclus mexicanus .07 .37 0 .21 0 .78 15.4 .01

Golden-crowned kinglet 

Regulus satrapa 1.78 2.64 3.70 .63 10.63 .98 23.66 <.01

Swainson’s thrush 

Catharus ustulatus .13 .51 .57 1.61 .35 1.16 16.60 .01

American robin 

Turdus migratorius .25 .51 .15 1.35 .63 .87 9.70 .08

Varied thrush 

Ixoreus naevius 1.01 .69 .38 .63 .14 .78 7.517 .19

Cedar waxwing 

Bombycilla cedrorum 0 .14 .08 .89 0 .21 7.22 .21

Warbling vireo 

Vireo gilvus 0 .19 0 .31 0 .69 11.54 .04

Hutton’s vireo 

Vireo huttoni 0 .09 .19 .47 .49 .37 6.81 .24

Orange-crowned warbler 

Vermivora celata 0 0 0 .26 0 0 23.35 <.01

Black-throated gray warbler 

Dendroica nigrescens 0 0 .27 .05 .56 .10 6.32 .27

Hermit warbler

Dendroica occidentalis 0 .09 .11 0 .07 0 4.55 .47

MacGillivray’s warbler 

Oporornis tolmiei 0 .09 0 .73 .21 .16 16.67 .01

Wilson’s warbler 

Wilsonia pusilla 0 .37 .42 2.19 .14 1.13 29.24 <.01

Western tanager 

Piranga ludoviciana 0 .28 .14 1.04 .21 .05 10.53 .06

Black-headed grosbeak 

Pheucticus melanocephalus .10 .09 0 .31 0 .10 14.23 .01

Spotted towhee 

Pipilo maculatus 0 0 0 .68 .07 .05 21.37 <.01

Song sparrow 

Melospiza melodia 0 .14 0 2.56 .14 1.13 20.65 <.01
flatter gradients (Table 4). The only exception among those

species with significant correlations was the American dipper (Cinclus mexicanus), which was more abundant in sites

with steeper gradients and at higher elevations. The dipper

was also more abundant in wider streams. This species is

unique among the birds we sampled in being a true aquatic

species that forages on aquatic organisms that it dives to

obtain. The dipper was most abundant in cutover, young

sites (Table 2).

Total small-mammal captures averaged 5.9 individuals

per 100 trap-nights; mean captures did not differ among

site conditions (Figure 5). We found no significant differences in relative abundance of the five common mammalian species among site conditions (all P-values > 0.10).

Capture rates of four of the five species were correlated

with physical stream features. Keen’s mouse was more

abundant in smaller streams at lower elevations. The deer

mouse was also more abundant in smaller streams, but its

34

Table 2 (continued)—Mean detection indices of common vertebrates species in and near streams, by site condition,

with χ2 and P-values from Kruskal-Wallis tests, Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 1996–1999.

Buffered Buffered Thinned

Taxonomic class and species Old old Mature mature mature Young χ2 P

White-crowned sparrow 

Zonotrichia leucophrys 0 0 0 .16 0 0 11.22 .05

Dark-eyed junco 

Junco hyemalis .04 .46 .18 .63 .28 1.04 16.30 .01

Red crossbill 

Loxia curvirostra .04 .28 .06 .21 0 .10 6.26 .28

Mammals (n = 49 sites): (10) (8) (10) (8) (5) (8)

Montane (dusky) shrew 

Sorex monticolus .28 0 .44 .06 .25 .27 7.809 .17

Trowbridge’s shrew 

Sorex trowbridgii .43 .31 .66 .43 .72 .63 2.68 .75

Deer mouse 

Peromyscus maniculatus .86 .31 1.26 .69 .41 .40 2.07 .84

Forest deer mouse 

Peromyscus keeni 3.45 3.23 5.11 3.42 5.06 2.05 3.88 .57

Pacific jumping mouse 

Zapus trinotatus .04 .11 .23 .17 .21 .58 10.95 .05

a Sample sizes (numbers of sites) are shown in parentheses for each taxonomic class.

Table 3—Percentages of species by taxonomic group having a significant Spearman rho or Kruskal-Wallis χ2 (P ≤

0.10) for relation of relative abundance to stream and site attributes, Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 1996–1999

Attribute

Stream

Species class Site condition Stream width Gradient Parent rock Elevation classification

Fish 0 0 50 50 75 75

Amphibians:

Stream 100 67 100 33 100 100

Terrestrial 50 0 50 0 50 25

Birds 59 15 26 21 35 6

Mammals 20 40 40 20 60 20
35

Table 4—Associations between species’ relative abundance and site attributes using Spearman rho correlation or

Kruskal-Wallis χ2 analysis, Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 1996–1999 (continued on next page) 

Stream Stream Stream

Class and speciesa Elevation width gradient classification Parent rock

Fishes (n = 52 sites):

Cutthroat trout -.29 (0.04)b -.29 (0.04) 11.8 (<0.01)

Coho salmon 5.78 (0.06)

Coastrange sculpin -.43 (<.01) 8.01 (.05) 8.59 (.01)

Torrent sculpin -.30 (.03) -.27 (.06) 7.37 (<.06)

Amphibians, stream (n = 38 sites):

Tailed frog .53 (<.01) .44 (<.01) 12.72 (.02) 9.6 (<.01)

Cope’s giant salamander .26 (.07) .33 (.02) .50 (<.01) 7.94 (.02)

Olympic torrent salamander .32 (.02) -.46 (<.01) .55 (<.01) 9.65 (<.01)

Amphibians, terrestrial (n = 41 sites):

Olympic torrent salamander .27 (.09) .46 (<.01) 7.1 (.07)

Van Dyke’s salamander .29 (.06) .35 (.03)

Birds (n = 49 sites):

Blue grouse

Band-tailed pigeon

Vaux’s swift -.28 (.07)

Rufous hummingbird 5.22 (.06)

Hairy woodpecker -.28 (.07)

Northern flicker -.26 (.10)

Willow flycatcher

Hammond’s flycatcher

Pacific-slope flycatcher -.31 (.05)

Gray jay 4.81 (.09)

Steller’s jay

Chestnut-backed chickadee -.55 (<.01)

Brown creeper .28 (.07)

Winter wren

American dipper .28 (.07) .43 (<.01) 5.22 (.07) 

Golden-crowned kinglet -.25 (.10) 7.45 (.02)

Swainson’s thrush -.27 (.08) .50 (<.01) 9.23 (.03)

American robin -.32 (.04) -.35 (.04)

Varied thrush

Cedar waxwing

Warbling vireo .23 (.07)

Hutton’s vireo -.53 (<.01) 6.60 (.09) 8.28 (.02) 

Orange-crowned warbler -.26 (.09)

Black-throated gray warbler

Hermit warbler

MacGillivray’s warbler -.26 (.10)

Wilson’s warbler -.36 (.02)

Western tanager -.32 (.04)

Black-headed grosbeak -.30 (.05) -.33 (.03)

Spotted towhee -.36 (.02)
abundance was not correlated with elevation or stream gradient. The dusky shrew (Sorex monticolus) was more abundant at higher elevations in steeper streams. Abundance of

the Pacific jumping mouse (Zapus trinotatus) increased

with lower elevations. Abundance of Trowbridge’s shrew

(Sorex trowbridgii) did not differ significantly with any of

the physical attributes of streams. 

DISCUSSION

We found that site condition did not have a strong effect

on fishes or mammals. Among birds whose relative abundance differed among site conditions, most species reached

qualitatively highest abundance in the buffered mature

sites; one species, varied thrush (Ixoreus naevius), reached

highest abundance in old, unmanaged sites. The relatively

large number of bird species reaching highest abundance

with buffered mature site conditions suggests that these

sites offered a diversity of habitats, including large trees,

brushy conditions, open ground, a forest edge, and a riparian to upland interface. These results indicate that fish,

birds, and mammals (at least the more common species

that were abundant enough to make valid comparisons)

persisted in sites after logging whether or not buffers were

present. 

36

Table 4 (continued)—Associations between species’ relative abundance and site attributes using Spearman rho correlation or Kruskal-Wallis χ2 analysis, Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 1996–1999 

Stream Stream Stream

Class and speciesa Elevation width gradient classification Parent rock

Song sparrow -.38 (.01) -.28 (.07)

White-crowned sparrow

Dark-eyed junco -.28 (.07)

Red crossbill

Mammals (n = 49):

Dusky shrew .24 (.09) .25 (.09)

Trowbridge’s shrew

Deer mouse -.55 (<.01) .29 (.07) 8.64 (.03)

Forest deer mouse -.51 (<.01) -.54 (<.01) 6.75 (.04)

Pacific jumping mouse -.26 (.07)

a Only species with at least one significant association (P ≤ 0.10) are listed. b P-values are indicated in parentheses.

Figure 3—Mean numbers of species of common birds (A) and total abundance (B) among site conditions, Olympic Peninsula, Washington,

1996–1999. Values represent means and 95 percent confidence intervals.

Abbreviations are MAT (mature sites), MBF (buffered mature sites),

MTH (thinned mature sites), OBF (buffered old sites), OLD (old sites),

and YNG (young sites).
37

Figure 4—Dendrogram showing relative similarity of site conditions based on mean abundance of common birds,

Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 1996–1999.

Figure 5—Mean total abundance (captures per 100 trap-nights) 

of small mammals among site conditions, Olympic Peninsula,

Washington, 1996–1999. Values represent means and 95 percent

confidence intervals. Abbreviations are MAT (mature sites), MBF

(buffered mature sites), MTH (thinned mature sites), OBF (buffered

old sites), OLD (old sites), and YNG (young sites).

Amphibians, in contrast, were responsive to differences

in site condition, and all species were found in highest

abundance in old sites. In all cases except Olympic torrent

salamander (instream sample only) and ensatina (a terrestrial species that is associated with upland habitats), highest

abundances were reached in old sites. Abundance of these

species declined to lowest levels in young sites with no

buffers. Abundance was intermediate in mature (secondgrowth) sites, suggesting that most of these species are

capable of at least partial recovery after logging along

streams. However, Van Dyke’s salamander, a terrestrial

species inhabiting the riparian zone, was not found in any

previously logged site lacking a buffer. Riparian buffers 

did not seem to provide the same habitat as uncut forest for

stream-dwelling species; their abundances were lower in

young sites and both buffered old sites and buffered mature

sites compared with mature sites. Van Dyke’s salamander

was found in buffered old sites, but at much lower levels

than old sites. 

We caution that results of our study should not be

extended beyond the species we were able to sample adequately. We do not conclude, for example, that all mammal

species are not sensitive to streamside management. Our
results apply only to the five species we were able to capture at sufficient rates. Had we used different sampling or

trapping methods targeted for more specialized species, we

may have found different results. For example, we captured

only five common water shrews (Sorex palustris) and three

marsh shrews (S. bendirii) on near-stream transects. These

species are closely associated with riparian systems, having

morphological adaptations for a semiaquatic life (Verts and

Carraway 1998); water shrews usually occur at elevations

higher than many of our study sites (Conaway 1952).

Captures of these shrews were insufficient to assess effects

of riparian management. Overall, capture rates of 12 of the

17 species of mammals we trapped were too few to draw

meaningful conclusions. 

We are aware of only one other study of the vertebrate

response to riparian buffers in Washington. O’Connell et al.

(2000), in their study of riparian sites in managed forests of

the Cascade Range of Washington, found that total abundance and species richness of birds and small mammals

using areas close to streams before any timber harvest were

comparable to the number and kinds after harvest. At the

species level, O’Connell et al. (2000) found that abundance

of Pacific jumping mouse increased in buffers along streams

after harvest; our data, although not conclusive, are consistent with their observation. Pearson and Manuwal (2001),

reporting on results from the western Cascade Range as

part of the same O’Connell study, found that diversity of

breeding birds increased on sites with narrow buffers relative to non-harvested control sites after logging. In their

study, total bird abundance did not differ between treatments and controls. Our results were consistent with both

of these findings. Pearson and Manuwal (2001) also found

that species turnover was greater in sites with narrow

buffers; we did not measure species turnover in our study. 

38

Figure 6—Diagrammatic cross section of the western Olympic Peninsula, Washington, 1996–1999, showing generalized differences in physical and management history attributes. WA DNR = Washington State Department of Natural Resources
Among the vertebrates, amphibians and fishes were

most sensitive to physical attributes of streams. This may

help explain some of the observed abundance patterns.

Figure 6 is a diagrammatic representation of a cross section

of the Olympic Peninsula. The peninsula can be viewed as

a series of concentric circles. The forested portion of the

inner circle (the peninsula’s interior) is dominated by

unharvested, late-successional forests of Olympic National

Park. Streams tend to be small, steep-walled, and dominated by igneous and sedimentary rock. The outermost circle

tends to be low-elevation, low-gradient, industrial forest

land, with larger streams and rivers dominated by glacial

and alluvial soils. Most of our sites were distributed along

the midrange of this continuum (moderate elevation and

gradient). Not surprisingly, amphibians dominate the interior,

while fishes dominate the low-lying areas. Also, fishdominated systems have received the most protection, in

the form of buffers.

Because of the importance of physical attributes of

streams and topography on vertebrate abundance, conclusions about the effects of stream buffers per se must be

considered tentative. Further work will be needed to separate the confounding influences of buffer condition, stream,

and watershed attributes (see Bisson et al. 2002, in this

proceedings, for further information on site and watershed

influences on fish and amphibians). Although we cannot

say that small streamside buffers ameliorate the impacts of

logging, their presence may make a difference. An example

from our study is the Van Dyke’s salamander. It was not

found in any sites that had been previously logged. It was,

however, present in unlogged stream buffers, and we even

documented reproduction at one of the sites (Blessing et al.

1999). This suggests that retention of the buffer trees, with

buffer widths considerably smaller than those prescribed on

federal lands under the Northwest Forest Plan, provided

refugia for some individuals, and provides a source for

recolonization as the forest canopy develops and the stream

environment stabilizes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station provided funding for this work under auspices of

the Northwest Forest Plan and the Wood Compatibility

Initiative. Additional funding was provided by grants from

the University of Washington, Olympic Natural Resources

Center. We thank Elizabeth Milliman, Karen Holtrop, Larry

Ogg, and Rich McConnell (Olympic National Forest);

Steve Dilley (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service); Bruce Bury

(U.S. Geological Survey); Sue Bolton (University of

Washington Center for Streamside Studies); Scott Horton

(Washington Department of Natural Resources); and Phil

Peterson (Simpson Timber) for their assistance in identifying sites or for administrative help. David Peter provided

assistance with vegetation mapping. Our study would not

have been possible without a cadre of dedicated field assistants; we thank all of them for their help. Tim Max provided statistical advice; John Shumway provided assistance

acquiring and interpreting geological data. Rick Jordan

provided GIS assistance. We thank Scott Horton, Kathy

O’Halloran, and Timothy Quinn for comments on an earlier

draft of this paper.

LITERATURE CITED

Allard, M.W.; Gunn, S.J.; Greenbaum, I.F. 1987. 

Mensural discrimination of chromosomally characterized Peromyscus oreas and P. maniculatus. Journal of

Mammalogy. 68: 402-406.

Bisson, P.A.; Raphael, M.G.; Foster, A.D.; Jones, L.L.C. 

2002. Influence of site and landscape features on vertebrate assemblages in headwater streams of the Olympic

Peninsula. In: Johnson, A.C.; Haynes, R.W.; Monserud,

R.A.; eds. Congruent Management of Multiple Resources:

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Workshop.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-563. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station: 61-72.

Blessing, B.J.; Phenix, E.P.; Jones, L.L.C.; Raphael, M.G. 

1999. Nests of Van Dyke’s salamander (Plethodon

vandykei) from the Olympic Peninsula, Washington.

Northwestern Naturalist. 80: 77-81.

Bury, R.B.; Corn, P.S. 1991. Sampling methods for 

amphibians in streams in the Pacific Northwest. Gen.

Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-275. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. 29 p.

Conaway, C.H. 1952. Life history of the water shrew 

(Sorex palustris navigator). The American Midland

Naturalist. 48: 219-248.

Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team 

[FEMAT]. 1993. Forest ecosystem management: an

ecological, economic, and social assessment. Portland,

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture; U.S. Department

of the Interior [et al.]. [Irregular pagination].

39
Montgomery, D.R.; Buffington, J.M. 1993. Channel classification, prediction of channel response, and assessment

of channel condition. Seattle: University of Washington;

final report; Timber Fish and Wildlife Report TFWSH10-93-002. 84 p.

O’Connell, M.A.; Hallett, J.G.; West, S.D. [et al.]. 2000. 

Effectiveness of riparian management zones in providing habitat for wildlife. Seattle: University of

Washington; final report; Timber Fish and Wildlife

TFW-LWAG1-00-001. 459 p.

Pearson, S.F.; Manuwal, D.A. 2001. Breeding bird 

response to riparian buffer width in managed Pacific

Northwest Douglas-fir forests. Ecological Applications.

11: 840-853.

Reynolds, R.T.; Scott, J.M; Nussbaum, R.A. 1980. A variable circular-plot method for estimating bird numbers.

Condor. 82: 309-313.

Thomas, J.W.; Raphael, M.G.; Anthony, R. [et al.]. 1993. 

Viability assessments and management considerations

for species associated with late-successional and oldgrowth forests of the Pacific Northwest. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. 523 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service; U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management.

1994. Record of decision for amendments to Forest

Service and Bureau of Land Management planning

documents within the range of the northern spotted owl.

[Place of publication unknown]. 74 p. [plus Attachment

A: standards and guidelines].

Verts, B.J.; Carraway, L.N. 1998. Land mammals of 

Oregon. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

668 p.

Washington Department of Natural Resources (WDNR). 

1997. Final Habitat Conservation Plan. Washington

State Department of Natural Resources, Olympia,

Washington.

40
1, 2 Research Foresters, USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, Land Use and Land Cover Dynamics Team, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis,

Oregon 97331; e-mail: ralig@fs.fed.us and jkline@fs.fed.us.

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 4.

SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS INFLUENCING LAND USE AND 

MANAGEMENT CHANGES IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST

Ralph J. Alig1 and Jeffrey D. Kline2

INTRODUCTION

Human activity, in addition to climatic and other natural

forces, is a dominant factor affecting ecological change on

land. Growing human populations and their associated use

and consumption of natural resources affect economic and

ecological compatibility options associated with managing

natural resource use on a fixed land base. Natural resource

management and policy become increasingly important for

the long-term sustainable use of our natural resources while

maintaining desired levels of human welfare. Our land use

research is designed to help support analyses of the economic and ecological compatibility, and the tradeoffs

among different goods and services, when considering

future natural resource management and policy alternatives. Land use and land cover changes can greatly influence the possible mix of outcomes and reflect an array of

production possibilities, institutional considerations, land

management actions, demands, and societal values. 

ABSTRACT

We have developed models describing relationships between socioeconomic forces and land use and management

changes in the Pacific Northwest. How land is allocated among different uses is a reflection of socioeconomic forces that

motivate human settlement and the land management decisions of private landowners. Private landowners are heterogeneous in nature. Their objectives and land use decisions have significant implications across a regional landscape with

mixed ownerships, especially concerning sustainability issues and risk-related factors associated with human disturbance of

terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Our models provide long-range projections of land use change, serving as key inputs into

other models of terrestrial and aquatic processes. They describe the probability of developing forests and farmland in the

region into residential, commercial, or industrial uses as a function of spatial socioeconomic variables, landownership patterns, and geographic and physical land characteristics. Results suggest that development of forest and farmland is most

likely on lands located near population centers and increases in likelihood with the size of those population centers. We

project that nonindustrial private forestlands are the most likely to be developed over the next 50 years. 

KEY WORDS: Land use change, rural development, population growth.

41

Examining land use changes can be an important part

of research concerning forest management and policy. Land

use changes can help society adjust to changing demands

for and supplies of forest commodities. Relationships

between land uses and ecological systems are important

considerations when forging forest management actions,

policy alternatives, and enhancing ecological systems. We

provide a synthesis of findings from data analyses and

modeling the impacts of socioeconomic factors on private

land use changes in the Pacific Northwest. We discuss how

such changes can affect outcomes on the land base. 

HISTORICAL LAND USE IN THE PACIFIC

NORTHWEST

Private land in the Pacific Northwest (PNW), Westside

(west of the crest of the Cascade range in Oregon and

Washington) is allocated among land uses in fairly similar

percentages in western Oregon and western Washington

(Figure 1). Forest industry-owned timberland is just less
than half of the private land base in both cases and nonindustrial private-owned timberland covers about one-fifth.

Western Oregon has a higher percentage of farmland (23%

vs. 16%), while western Washington has a higher urban

percentage (12% vs. 9%). Forestland area in the Pacific

Northwest declined by more than one million hectares, 

or about 5% from 1952 to 1997 (Smith et al. 2001). The

largest losses are due to development (USDA Natural

Resources Conservation Service 2001). Washington lost

8% of its forestland between 1952 and 1997, quadrupling

Oregon’s rate (Smith et al. 2001). Most forestland losses

have been on nonindustrial private owned land converted

to agriculture or to urban and other development. Because

nonindustrial private owners tend to own a significant

share of lower elevation forestland within riparian areas

(Bettinger and Alig 1996), forestland losses on nonindustrial private lands often impact aquatic ecosystems. 

Although significant forestland clearing for agriculture

is unlikely in the future, continued expansion of urban

development into historically forested areas is likely (Alig

and Healy 1987; Alig et al. 1999a, Kline et al. 2001).

Populations in Oregon and Washington have increased

faster than the national average in recent years. Most of

this increase is in the western part of the region along the

I-5 corridor. Portland, for example, was one of the fastest

growing cities in the United States over the last decade.

Projections suggest that the Pacific Northwest, Westside

region’s population will continue to grow (Figure 2), converting forestland to developed uses. Such change can lead

to a range of environmental stresses such as habitat fragmentation, wetland loss, loss of biodiversity, and water pollution. It can also increase the likelihood of property loss

associated with forest fires near homes. 

SOCIOECONOMIC TRENDS 

Dynamics in the Pacific Northwest are linked to national

and global changes. World growth in human populations

and income has resulted in social, economic, and technological changes that profoundly affect the global management and use of natural resources. The world population

will continue to grow, possibly from six billion in 2000

to about nine billion by 2050 (United Nations Population

Division 2000). The U.S. population is also projected to

grow significantly, particularly in the southern and western

regions of the country, by more than 120 million people by

2050 (U.S. Census Bureau 2002). Projected increases in

42

Figure 1a—Current composition of land uses on private land, western

Oregon.

Figure 1b—Current composition of land uses on private land, western

Washington.
population and income will, in turn, increase demands for

residential and other developed uses of land as well as for

use of renewable resources. 

A number of socioeconomic factors motivate land use

change, including population and personal income growth,

demographics, and supply and demand of forest and agricultural commodities. These factors can have important

spatial dimensions. For example, because population

growth is likely the most significant factor motivating

future land use changes, it has important spatial characteristics. Currently, 17% of the U.S. land comprising coastal

areas (within 50 miles of the coastline) holds 53% of the

U.S. population. The largest projected increases in population over the next several decades are also for coastal areas.

This trend will have important implications for aquatic

habitat, wetlands, and water recreation. 

Changing demographics will also influence future land

use change. In addition to population growth, the U.S.

population is aging. An aging population will lead to an

increasing number of retirees, potentially increasing demands

for retirement or second homes, some involving migration

based on demands for amenities. On average, Americans

are also growing wealthier (U.S. Census Bureau 2000).

Personal income in the U.S. has grown significantly since

World War II, with personal incomes in the PNW growing

faster than the national average. Projected increases in

personal income will increase demands for renewable

resources while also fueling further conversion of forests

for developed uses (Alig and Healy 1987). 

LAND USE RESEARCH UNDER THE

WOOD COMPATIBILITY INITIATIVE

Empirical Models of Land Use Change

Land use research over the last decade relied on variations of the area-base approach, which describe the proportions of land in different use categories within defined

geographic areas, usually counties, as a function of socioeconomic and land characteristics variables (e.g., Alig 1986;

Hardie and Parks 1997; Plantinga et al. 1999). Conceptually, these empirical models are based on land rent theory

whereby private owners are assumed to tend to choose the

land use that offers the highest present net value of the

future stream of net returns. For example, if population

increases lead to greater urban land rents relative to forest

rents, some forestland would probably convert to urban

uses. 

In recent years, land rent theory has formed the conceptual foundation of more spatially explicit land use modeling methods developed to take advantage of the finer

spatial resolution available from geographic information

system data (e.g., Bockstael 1996; Nelson and Hellerstein

1997; Wear and Bolstad 1998). These models rely on spatially-defined land use and other data to estimate empirical

models to project the rate and location of land use changes

on finer spatial scales than previously capable by area-base

models. This new capability has greatly expanded opportunities for collaboration between economists and ecologists

to conduct landscape-level analyses to jointly assess economic and environmental policy scenarios. We developed

empirical models describing historical land use changes in

the PNW Westside to aid in characterizing potential future

land use change likely to result from changing socioeconomic factors. The models were used to characterize potential future land use changes in western Oregon and western

Washington (Kline and Alig 2001) for the 2000 Resources

Planning Act (RPA) Assessment (USDA Forest Service 2002)

and for the Oregon Coast Range as part of the Coastal

Landscape and Analysis Modeling Study (Kline et al.

2001). 

Conceptually, the value of land in urban uses is viewed

as a function of the spatial proximity to city centers (e.g.,

Mills 1980; Capozza and Helsley 1989). Although spatial

proximity does influence the costs associated with transporting forest and agricultural commodities to market,

43

Figure 2—Projected population, Pacific Northwest, Westside. 
modern society associates spatial proximity more with

maximizing the difference between the costs associated

with commuting to work and quality of life factors such

as housing and neighborhood amenities. Empirical specifications generally have described urban rents using population density (e.g., Alig 1986; Parks and Murray 1994;

Hardie and Parks 1997) or the proximity of land to cities

likely to influence the conversion of undeveloped land to

urban uses (e.g., Bockstael 1996; Plantinga et al. 1990).

However, data used to compute population density variables rarely are sufficiently disaggregated geographically

in rural areas to adequately describe the spatial heterogeneity inherent in population growth. Variables that simply

measure the proximity of land to select cities do not

describe how each city’s impact changes as its population

grows or declines. 

In light of these challenges, we developed empirical

models describing historical land use change based on a

gravity index (Haynes and Fotheringham 1984) describing

the urbanization potential of forest and agricultural land as

a combination of population and proximity to existing

cities. The gravity index was combined with additional

explanatory variables describing forest and agricultural

land rents, household income, ownership characteristics,

and land use zoning. This was the foundation for estimating probit models describing the conversion of forest and

agricultural lands to urban uses as described by land use

data available from the USDA Forest Service’s Forest

Inventory and Analysis (FIA) Program. The estimated

empirical models enable us to project the rate and location

of future conversion of forest and agricultural lands to

developed uses by computing new gravity index values

based on the projected future populations of cities in the

study region (Kline and Alig 2001; Kline et al. 2001). These

projections can be depicted as geographic information

system maps that facilitate their incorporation into other

models describing economic and ecological conditions and

processes.

Forest Cover Changes

Changes within the land base retained in forests over

time consist of transitions in forest cover types that are

caused by a combination of natural and human-caused

disturbances. Such changes can also affect joint production

possibilities for different ecosystems. Earlier literature

dealing with forests focused on forest succession and natural

disturbances, with emphasis on natural forces prompting

forest type changes. However, human-caused disturbances,

such as timber harvests, dominate most Pacific Northwest

forests (Alig et al. 2000). Over the last FIA survey cycle,

human-caused disturbances in the PNW Westside were

more frequent by at least an order of magnitude than were

natural disturbances. Harvesting on private lands was about

2 to 10 times more likely than full or partial-replacement

disturbances due to wildfire—the primary natural disturbance agent in the past. In the roughly ten years between

FIA surveys, timber harvests affected about 20% of private

timberland while wildfire affected less than 1%. 

Given this disturbance history, clear-cutting Douglas-fir

stands on forest industry-owned lands resulted in 15%

stand replacement by hardwoods (primarily red alder),

while another 3% was converted to other types (Alig et al.

2000). Clear-cutting red alder stands on forest industry

lands resulted in 72% replacement by other forest types. In

contrast, only 42% of red alder stands on nonindustrial

private forestlands changed forest types after clear-cutting,

reflecting fewer intentional conversion efforts after harvest

among these owners. Even for undisturbed stands (e.g., no

harvest), 12% of Douglas-fir stands on forest industry lands

and 23% on nonindustrial private lands changed forest type.

Such findings suggest that recognition of ownership differences can be important, beyond coarser public and private

classifications most commonly used.

Forest Ownership Changes

A long-standing issue in forest resource supply studies

is private forest owner behavior and how it might be affected

by incentives and institutional factors. We need to consider

how changing owner characteristics and objectives might

impact forest resources. Nonindustrial private forest owners,

in particular, tend to possess multiple objectives causing

them to respond to socioeconomic forces and policies in

complex and sometimes unpredictable ways (e.g.,

Kuuluvainen et al. 1996). Our research conducted in the

Pacific Northwest suggests that many nonindustrial private

forest owners in Oregon and Washington are motivated by

aesthetics and recreation in addition to, or in place of, timber

production objectives in their forest management decisions

(Kline et al. 2000a, 2000b). As a result, targeting incentive

programs toward select groups of nonindustrial private

owners with nontimber objectives could enhance nontimber

services (e.g., recreation). 

Other researchers have found that financial incentives

are not as critical to owners’ decisions in foresting riparian

zones as some have suggested. Other factors may include

“neighborly concerns’’ and concerns about restrictions on

land management and loss of flexibility (Kingsbury 1999).

Behavior by the diverse nonindustrial private forest owner

group is also affected by whether owners live on their

44
forested property in contrast to absentee owners. Another

factor is increasing density of people per forested unit,

especially in areas such as the Puget Sound region. 

The main forest ownership change in the Pacific

Northwest has been between forest industry and nonindustrial private forest owner classes. Land exchanges among

private owners have been more common than exchanges

between private and public owners (Zheng and Alig 1999).

For example, FIA surveys in western Oregon indicate a net

shift of about 300,000 ha from nonindustrial private to forest

industry owners from 1961 to 1994. Forest industries own

most of the private timberland in the region, and generally

manage their forestland more intensively for timber production than do nonindustrial private owners. 

Land Management Intensity

Within a given forest type, investments in forest management can significantly influence options regarding the

mix of goods and services produced on forestland. Management intensity includes the timing and type of harvests,

which over time, have differed notably by ownership in the

Pacific Northwest and with regard to the number and timing

of various silvicultural operations conducted on individual

stands. Investments in improved planting stock on private

land have often resulted in higher forest production per ha,

potentially lessening pressures on other areas looked upon

for nontimber goods and services. From a broad perspective, demands for different mixes of forest-based goods and

services are likely to shift over time with a growing and

wealthier population. Because some forest-based processes

are decades or centuries in length, planning forest investments with adequate lead-time is critical. 

An increasingly important consideration for forest policy

analysts is the potentially significant impact that population

growth and resulting land use changes will have on forests

as they are converted to residential and other developed

uses. Researchers believe that forestlands located near lowdensity residential and other development become less

productive due to their fragmentation into smaller management units, and changes in the characteristics and management objectives of newer, more urban-minded forest owners.

Empirical studies have found that the propensity of nonindustrial private forest owners to harvest timber (Barlow et

al. 1998) and manage for commercial timber production

(Wear et al. 1999) is negatively correlated with population

densities. Policymakers also hypothesize that such development also has the potential to increase wildfire risk associated with increased human habitation and activity in forests

(Lorensen et al. 1993). We are examining the impact of

potential low-density residential development on the productivity of forestland to anticipate how an increasing population in the Pacific Northwest and the resulting expansion

of urban land uses into traditionally rural areas is likely to

impact the timber-producing capability of forests in the

region. 

We estimated several empirical models describing the

propensity of forest owners in western Oregon to harvest

timber and conduct silvicultural activities, such as thinning

and planting, as a function of stand characteristics, site

quality, access, ownership characteristics, and the density

of residential and other development within the immediate

vicinity of forestland. The models suggest that the density

of nearby development does not measurably affect timberharvesting activities of private forest owners in western

Oregon (Azuma et al. 2002). However, the models do suggest that the density of development near forestland may

have a small but measurable negative impact on the likelihood that forest owners thin existing stands of planted trees.

The results suggest that although future development may

recently have had a limited impact on timber harvesting, it

has the potential to reduce investment in forest management activities in the future.

Land Use Zoning Influences on Forests

Additional research conducted under the Wood

Compatibility Initiative examined the potential influence

that land use zoning might have on forests. For example,

we examined how well Oregon’s land use planning program

has protected forest and farm lands from development

since its implementation in 1973. We developed an empirical

model of historical land use change before and after the

program. We based it on socioeconomic factors, land rent,

and landowners’ characteristics, and the location of land

within forest and exclusive farm use zones mandated by

the program. Although results suggest that Oregon’s land

use planning program has concentrated development within

urban growth boundaries since its implementation, its success at reducing the likelihood of development on lands

located within forest and exclusive farm use zones remains

uncertain (Kline and Alig 1999).

In another study, we examined how land-use zoning

laws that mandate compactness of development might

influence future land use changes and timber production

on forestland. The analysis was part of a larger research

project designed to quantify potential future fiscal, agricultural production, and timber production impacts of alternative land use zoning scenarios in the Willamette Valley,

Oregon. The project compared two scenarios: a historic

trend scenario characterized by likely future land use change

according to existing land use zoning; and an alternative

45
land-conserving scenario characterized by modified land

use zoning to induce more compact development. The historic scenario was designed to result in 10,000 more new

houses to be built on Willamette Valley forestland over the

next 50 years compared to the alternative land-conserving

scenario (Kline and Alig 2000). 

Our analysis suggests that timber production impacts

that might result from the alternative scenario rather than

the historic trend scenario are relatively minor when compared to total timber production in the region. Area of

forestland lost to residential development in the Willamette

Valley under the historic trend scenario is estimated to

increase from a range of 17,407 to 27,727 ha by 2050, and

is relatively consistent with historic trends. Area of forestland lost under the alternative land-conserving scenario is

estimated to increase from a range of 8,071 to 11,511 ha.

Although the proximity of new residential development to

forestland can potentially impact timber production, our

analysis suggests that the most productive timberland in the

Willamette Valley region tends to be located far from existing cities and generally will remain unaffected by residential development over the next 50 years. As a result, we

found that modifying existing zoning laws to induce more

compact development in the Willamette Valley is unlikely

to significantly alter potential future timber production on

forestlands in the region (Kline and Alig 2000). 

PROJECTIONS OF LAND USE CHANGE

We prepared 50-year land use projections, using empirical spatial models describing the probability that forests

and farmland in western Oregon and western Washington

would be developed for residential, commercial, or industrial uses. The probabilities were a function of socioeconomic and location factors, ownership, and geographic and

physical land characteristics (Kline and Alig 2001). The

projections were used in the 2000 RPA Assessment in support of analyses of production possibilities for multiple

resources from the region’s forestland base (USDA Forest

Service 2002). Projected total reductions in areas of forestland from the base year 1997 to 2050 are 1.0% in western

Oregon and 1.0% in western Washington. Projected total

reductions in farmland area are 4.1% in western Oregon

and 13.2% in western Washington. Urban areas in western

Oregon and western Washington are projected to increase

by 17.7% and 22.5%, respectively. From 1997 to 2050,

areas of timberland in western Oregon and western

Washington are projected to decrease 0.3% and 0.0% for

forest industry-owned timberland and 1.8% and 2.5% for

nonindustrial private-owned timberland. The most significant reductions in forest area are on land classified as “other

forest” (i.e., forest land other than timberland and productive reserved forest land [Smith et al. 2001]). From 1997 to

2050, the relatively small portion of forestland classified

as “other forest” is projected to decline 7.5% in western

Oregon and 8.9% in western Washington. 

The projections suggest that urban land uses will continue to expand with increasing population in the Pacific

Northwest, Westside region. Lands located closest to larger,

more rapidly growing cities will face the greatest likelihood of conversion to urban uses over time. The largest

percentage reductions in area are for farmland (vs. forests),

because farmlands in the region often are located closer to

existing cities. Most forest losses to urban uses are projected

on timberland owned by nonindustrial private forest owners

(Kline and Alig 2001). With respect to policy options, local

governmental planners rate agricultural zoning, forestry

zoning, and mandatory review of projects involving land

use conversion as most effective in influencing development in the Pacific Northwest (Cho et al. 2001).

The projections of land use change are also used to

assess impacts on wildlife habitat and bird populations in

Oregon and Washington, considering both forest and agricultural biodiversity. Work in progress on impacts of

afforestation on biodiversity (e.g., Matthews et al. 2002)

indicates that the projected reductions in forest and farmland could lead to a one percent loss in forest-based birds

in both states. However, the projected losses are larger for

farmland birds, 3.5% in Oregon and 13% in Washington,

based on larger reductions in agricultural land relative to

what is available. Future work will attempt to address

which individual species might decrease at a relatively

high rate statewide. 

FUTURE RESEARCH

We are currently extending our land use research to

examine the influence of land use change and forest fragmentation on private forest management and on terrestrial

and aquatic habitat conditions. This work includes integrating econometric land use models with other models

describing ecological conditions and processes. This new

research will analyze a variety of issues related to the foresturban interface, including fire risk, biodiversity conservation, and the effectiveness of economic incentives to promote

protection and enhancement of endangered species habitat.

Examining land use changes within the context of changing

ecological conditions and processes can contribute to evaluating the future economic and ecological sustainability

of alternative forest management and policy scenarios.

Acknowledging the diversity inherent in the characteristics

46
and objectives of forest owners and the broad array of

competing public and private interests in forestlands can

help to enhance future forest policy. Giving more deliberate

consideration of public opinions and preferences regarding

alternative forest management and policy outcomes is also

important. 

Demand for wood products is expected to increase in

the future (USDA Forest Service 2002). Efforts to align

commercial timber production with conservation objectives

have led to increased interest in what is called “sustainable

forestry.” Similar efforts exist in the context of other major

land uses, and invoke similar concepts such as “sustainable

agriculture” and “sustainable growth.” When considering

the management of forest systems for multiple uses within

ecological constraints, consideration of the interconnections between forestry and other economic sectors (e.g.,

capital markets) becomes increasingly important. Changing

product markets and institutional factors affect sustainability

issues and information crucial in collective natural resource

decision-making. The growing area of productive tree plantations in the South that will provide a larger share of the

nation’s timber harvest is a key trend in the U. S. forest

sector (Alig et al. 1999b; USDA Forest Service 2002). This

will perhaps allow some forestlands in other regions, such

as the Pacific Northwest, to be used increasingly for nontimber purposes. Private timberlands have the biological

potential to provide larger quantities of timber than they do

today (Alig et al. 1999b). In addition to interregional connections, linkages across sectors also can impact compatibility options in the Pacific Northwest. Improvements in

U.S. agriculture have allowed greater production on a fairly

constant cropland base and other agricultural land (e.g.,

pastureland) may be available for afforestation. 

As the human population increases, competition among

forest, agricultural, and urban uses for a fixed land base

will intensify. Increasingly, we will need to examine economic and ecological compatibility issues in an analytical

context that includes agricultural and urban land uses along

with forest uses. Many environmental policy issues already

involve both forest and nonforest factors. For example, the

conditions of aquatic systems are significantly affected by

agriculture, grazing, and urban land uses in addition to upslope forest management. In many cases, significant opportunities for improving aquatic habitat may exist on these

nonforest lands. Current research and policy, however, tend

to focus on public and private forest management. Inclusion

of all potential land uses in analyses of economic and ecological compatibilities of alternative natural resource policies

would enable a more complete assessment of the economic

and ecological tradeoffs associated with managing natural

resources while maintaining economic and ecological “sustainability.” In some cases, modifying management actions

on nonforest lands may yield greater marginal benefits at

lower marginal costs than modifying management actions

on forestlands. New options for improvements in natural

resource conditions are possible if we can better mesh

competing interests in and uses of land. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: 

We appreciate the assistance of several cooperators—

Drs. Andrew Plantinga and Junjie Wu of Oregon State

University and Raymond O’Connor of the University of

Maine—in providing information summarized in this

paper.

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49

1 Research Pathologist, 4 Hydrologist, 5 Research Avian Biologist, 7 Research Wildlife Biologist, 8 Forest Ecologist, 10 Research Fish Biologist, 11 Research Ecologist, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Juneau, AK, address correspondence to phennon@fs.fed.us. 1 Research Pathologist, 6 Entomologist, State and Private Forestry, Juneau, AK. 2 Research Aquatic Ecologist, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Wanatchee, WA.

3 Research Silviculturist, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.

9 Postdoctoral Hydrologist, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 5.

MIXED ALDER-CONIFER FORESTS: MANAGING UPLAND ECOSYSTEMS

IN SOUTHEAST ALASKA FOR WOOD PRODUCTS, WILDLIFE, AND FISH

Paul Hennon1, Mark Wipfli2, Robert Deal3, Adelaide Johnson4, Toni De Santo5, Mark Schultz6, 

Tom Hanley7, Ewa Orlikowska8, Gomi Takashi9, Mason Bryant10, and Rick Edwards11

WHY STUDY RED ALDER?

Clearcutting has been the dominant regeneration method

in Southeast Alaska forests since the 1950s. The resulting

dense, uniform regrowth that develops has largely negative

consequences for wildlife and fish (Wallmo and Schoen

1980; Schoen et al. 1981,1988; Hanley 1993; Dellasala et

al. 1996). Canopy closure in these dense forests generally

occurs 25 to 35 years after cutting, and is followed by a

nearly complete elimination of understory vegetation,

important for wildlife, for 100 years or longer (Alaback

1982; Tappeiner and Alaback 1989). After canopy closure

above small streams, trophic status changes from autotrophic (dominated by organisms that manufacture their

own energy) to heterotrophic (dominated by consumers)

(Sedell and Swanson 1984; Hetrick et al. 1998a, 1998b).

ABSTRACT

Historically, red alder (Alnus rubra) Bong. has been viewed as an undesirable tree species and has been actively removed

from managed forests. Several recent studies suggest that the presence of red alder may help alleviate some of the problems

associated with fish and wildlife habitat that develop in the dense conifer-dominated young-growth forests that typically

grow after clearcutting. Our study uses an integrated approach to evaluate to what extent red alder may influence trophic

linkages and processes in managed young-growth ecosystems. Key components of this study include how logging and natural disturbance favor the regeneration of alder and how different mixtures of alder are associated with timber productivity,

woody debris recruitment, terrestrial and aquatic invertebrate abundance, and fish and wildlife habitat. By using one independent variable in all components of this study (i.e., amount of red alder), we simultaneously contrasted many possible

responses across this gradient to develop a general response model. Managers may use this model to choose a desirable

level of red alder in a particular landscape to meet simple or multiple resource objectives. Both compatibility and tradeoffs

among resources will be clearly evident. Active management (i.e., thinning with species bias or planting) can be used to

achieve different amounts of alder in managed forests.

KEY WORDS: Red alder, woody debris, invertebrates, fish habitat, wildlife habitat.

51

The removal of streamside timber also reduces the amount

and size of large wood recruited into streams, with a subsequent loss of bird habitat and fish habitat (Bryant 1985;

Bisson et al. 1987). 

Recent studies of young-growth stands of red alder

(Alnus rubra Bong.) mixed with conifers indicate that the

presence of alder may mitigate some of the impacts of

clearcutting in southeast Alaska. Mixed alder-conifer stands

have species-rich, highly productive understory vegetation

with biomass similar to that of old-growth stands of the

region (Hanley and Hoel 1996; Deal 1997; Hanley and

Barnard 1998). Habitat quality for small mammals in evenaged alder-conifer stands may be equal to that of old-growth

forests (Hanley 1996). Although inclusion of alder will not

mitigate all wildlife-habitat problems (e.g., lack of snow
interception for deer winter range), it may provide more

benefits than will thinning of even-aged conifer stands.

Attempts to reestablish understory herbs and shrubs through

thinning without the presence of red alder in young-growth

forests have led to conifer regeneration and little new

herbaceous colonization. Red alder may convey further

benefits in riparian forests by producing more prey for

salmon than conifer riparian forests (Wipfli 1997). This is

significant because over half of the prey biomass ingested

by juvenile salmonids in southeast Alaska is terrestrial and

originates from adjacent riparian vegetation. If similar

processes occur in upland forests, the presence of red alder

may increase invertebrate production, providing more food

for animals such as birds, bats, small mammals, and fish, in

turn affecting their abundance and production. Headwaters

are also important sources of food (invertebrates) for fish

in downstream, salmon-producing habitats (Wipfli and

Gregovich 2002). If alder in these uplands increases local

prey abundance, then it indirectly should provide more prey

for downstream fishes via the fluvial transport of prey from

uplands to fish in habitats downstream.

DESIGNING AN INTEGRATED STUDY

Our goal was to simultaneously evaluate different

resources in young-growth stands across a range of tree

composition from pure conifer to nearly pure red alder.

Along this gradient of alder occurrence, we hoped to determine where resources such as timber, wildlife habitat, and

fish habitat were nearly or fully compatible, and where

they were not, to estimate tradeoffs if one resource was

selected above others. 

With the limitations imposed by a two-year project, we

restricted the study to one stand age and one geographic

area, 45-year-old stands in the Maybeso Valley of Prince of

Wales Island. We included a number of disciplines, however,

which expanded the complexity of this study. As a group,

we constructed a list of goals that we expected to accomplish for this project: 

• assess physical disturbances, both natural and humaninduced, associated with red alder establishment. 

52

Figure 1—Conceptual diagram illustrating how red alder influences wood, wildlife, and fish productivity. This diagram indicates how each discipline links

with others to build an integrated study. 
• compare biomass of understory vegetation and forage

for herbivores and invertebrates in young-growth

forests with different mixtures of red alder.

• assess the affect of mixed red alder-conifer forests on 

the abundance of aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial

invertebrates that provide food for fish and birds.

• investigate the mode of death of red alder and other 

trees (i.e., die standing, uprooting or bole snapping)

that leads to different structures of woody debris.

• assess red alder’s impact on woody debris and sediment input in streams. 

• investigate whether red alder in mixed stands 

enhances conifer growth and total wood production.

• synthesize findings by describing the simultaneous 

beneficial and detrimental influences of red alder to

several key resources across a range of its occurrence

in mixed-species stands. 

At first, the approach of including 10 discipline areas and

a list of uncoordinated goals created chaos. Eventually, we

designed a flow diagram that incorporated the goals above,

showed linkages among the discipline areas, and produced

three key resource outputs (Figure 1). This structure helped

each scientist understand the role of their discipline in the

overall study. The diagram became a blueprint for articulating program flow, including a budget planning framework,

illustrating how the various parts of our research project

were integrated. The linkages between disciplines and the

manner in which they build to a larger, more complete

story became the most interesting parts of this research

project. This diagram also indicates with whom each scientist needed to collaborate most closely (i.e., data inputs and

outputs along the flow of arrows). Discussions among scientists quickly focused on the type of data needed at each

step. 

It was helpful to develop the general structure early in

the planning phase of our research. This enabled us to evaluate if there were essential missing pieces of information

and fill them. Also, data collection procedures were modified, sometimes extensively, to make data more meaningful as they were shared with the next users along the flow

lines of the diagram. 

KEY ECOLOGICAL THEMES

Several topics of our study were elevated to key ecological themes as they are used to evaluate important outputs

and, we believe, demonstrate well-planned integration. These

do not represent all aspects of our research. For example,

how wood production ranged with varying amounts of red

alder was a major component of our study that was assessed

with traditional methods within one discipline. The ecological themes were more complex, however; they account for

areas where a line of research flows through three or more

disciplines to evaluate an important output. 

First, we developed each theme (Figure 2) with a qualitative description of the type and magnitude of disturbance

that gave rise to the mixture of tree species currently growing in the study forests or along stream reaches. Clearcutting

of the previous forest in the late 1950s was common to all

of our study sites. Soil disturbance from logging and patterns

of landslides and alluvial processes varied among sites,

however. This variation in both logging and natural disturbance explained differences in the amount of red alder

growing in our stands and along stream reaches. Next, we

intensively sampled the live overstory trees in nine forest

stands and along 19 stream reaches as a measure of the

amount of red alder (i.e., percentage of volume or basal area),

the independent variable for nearly all analyses. Data from

overstory tree composition fed into estimates of wood production, and into the three key theme areas (Figure 2),

which diverge to examinations of how the proportion of

alder in these forests may influence processes in the forest

canopy, forest floor, and headwater streams. 

The first major theme covered forest canopy, insects,

and birds. Terrestrial insects that feed on tree boles or in

the canopy of stands were trapped and quantified throughout the growing season in 12 of our study areas. Bird abundance and species richness also were sampled at the same

sites. We hypothesize that forests with a greater proportion

of red alder will produce a greater biomass of invertebrates

living in the middle and upper canopies and also will support a greater number of birds. Our objective is to describe

the relationship (i.e., curve) between insect biomass and

concentration of birds along the gradient of proportion of

red alder.

The next theme examined overstory-understory plant

relationships with an emphasis on one aspect of deer habitat. We sampled the species composition and biomass of

understory vegetation on the same plots where overstory

tree composition was sampled. We hypothesize that a

greater biomass of understory plants, including key forbs

preferred as browse by deer, is positively correlated with

increasing amounts of red alder in young-growth forests.

Preliminary results from this study indicate that nearly pure

red alder stands host a large biomass of brush species (e.g.,

Vaccinium spp., Rubus spectabilis) and that moderate

amounts of red alder are associated with the highest biomass of understory plants considered the most desirable

browse species.

53
Our last major theme follows the fate and ecosystem

use of wood in headwater streams that flow through younggrowth forests to fish-bearing streams. It begins with a

detailed assessment of the trees that are dying in these

forests. The number and size of dead trees, and how they

die (i.e., uprooting or standing) dictate the pattern of active

recruitment of woody debris along stream reaches. Data on

tree death are compared to a meticulous evaluation of

woody debris in the same streams. We considered two

major functions for wood in streams, biological and physical. The biomass of aquatic invertebrates produced by

decaying alder and conifer wood was measured experimentally. We placed segments of alder and conifer wood of two

decay wood classes in steams and counted invertebrates

that eventually made colonization. Export of invertebrates

and organic detritus from headwater streams to downstream fish habitats also was sampled. This was done to

determine how alder affects the trophic linkages between

upland forests and headwaters, and downstream fish-bearing food webs. 

The physical roles of woody debris in streams include

trapping sediment and helping to create pools and other

stream habitat-enhancing structures. Thus far, we are

learning that tree mortality for both alder and conifers is

restricted to the smallest trees along these stream reaches.

Large trees, especially Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.)

Carr.), are growing in these forests, but they are not yet

dying. Therefore, the woody debris currently being recruited is small in size; also, newly recruited woody debris is in

a decayed state before entering streams because trees die

standing and deteriorate before falling. Dead wood of alder

appears to produce more aquatic invertebrates than does

conifer wood. Large pieces of legacy wood (i.e., entering

streams before or at the time of logging) are decaying

slowly in streams and appear to provide the physical roles

that the dead young-growth trees can not. 

LIMITATIONS OF A TWO-YEAR STUDY

Although this study is broad in terms of the disciplines

represented, its scope is limited to one geographic area and

54

Figure 2—Several key ecological themes in the wood compatibility research on the role of red alder in young-growth forests of Southeast Alaska. Note

that these themes do not capture all aspects of our study (e.g., wood production); they highlight areas where we attempted to track an important resource

output through three or more disciplines. Names in parentheses denote lead scientists for that study area. 
a particular forest age and stage of stand development.

Only forest stands and streams in and around the Maybeso

Valley of Prince of Wales were selected for study. From

these areas, only stands that were about 45 years old (e.g.,

harvested in the late 1950s) were sampled. Destructive

sampling of individual trees was used to ‘grow trees back

in time’ and reconstruct the heights of trees back to the

time that the site was regenerated. This approach allowed

us to compare differences in height growth and relative

dominance between alder and conifers as stands matured.

Photo interpretation aided in the identification of historical

disturbance associated with landslides; field observations

were used to identify recent disturbance from landslides

and floods. All other aspects of the study, however, serve

as a snapshot in time of existing conditions in a closedcanopy young-growth forest.

We have knowledge from mixed alder-conifer forests

that suggest very different conditions of tree growth and

mortality in stands of similar ages on other islands and the

mainland of Southeast Alaska, especially those inhabited

by porcupines (Eglitis and Hennon 1997). Porcupines thrive

in many of these mixed-species young-growth stands, feeding on conifer bark in winter. They preferentially attack the

largest and most vigorous conifers, sometimes killing or

deforming the majority of these trees, which creates a different pattern of tree mortality and woody debris recruitment than we found on Prince of Wales Island where

porcupines animals are absent. This difference would have

obvious implications for managers wishing to maintain

timber productivity or grow large trees for future woody

debris recruitment. 

Few components of this study exercise control by

experimental treatments. We found stands and stream

reaches with differing amounts of alder and measured a

range of variables. Our measurements of these variables

are not considered “responses” because we did not perform

treatments. Some of our dependent variables show trends

along the gradient of amount of alder, but they may be

associated with other conditions with which alder itself is

associated. Our findings, therefore, will be used to develop

hypotheses to test with experimental treatments, the next

likely step in this research. 

55

Figure 3—Conceptual depiction of how various resources may vary across the gradient of tree composition (e.g., percentage of basal area of red alder) in

young-growth forests from pure conifer to nearly pure red alder. Once supported by data from our sampling, we will use this approach to simultaneously

evaluate compatibility (and tradeoffs) among key resources such as timber, large woody debris recruitment and aquatic invertebrates in headwater streams,

production of forage species for deer, and abundance of birds.
INTEGRATING COMPONENTS AND USE

OF INFORMATION BY MANAGERS

Managers may have a new appreciation for the potential

beneficial roles of red alder in the forest ecosystems of

Southeast Alaska. Rather than attempting to eradicate red

alder as an undesirable weed, there may be instances where

managers can manipulate sites or existing vegetation to

favor the establishment or maintenance of red alder. Altering

the composition of young-growth forests to encourage a

component of red alder may help improve habitat for deer,

songbirds, and fish, thereby offsetting some of the negative

consequences and main criticisms of timber harvesting,

particularly clearcutting.

The approach to our multidisciplinary study was to

share one independent variable, the amount of red alder

(i.e., as a percentage of volume or basal area of live trees),

in all aspects of our sampling. By doing so, we constructed

a model that depicts how each of our important resources

varies along the continuum of amount of alder (Figure 3).

Once our analyses are complete, we will replace the variables displayed in Figure 3, resources A to D, with actual

resources (i.e., timber, deer browse, birds, large woody

debris, etc.) representing values based on our field measurements. Managers could use the eventual predictive

model as a tool for selecting the amount of red alder that is

associated with single or multiple resources at the stand or

stream-reach scale. With more research based on experimental methods, we might then use the word “response”

rather than “association” in the application of this model. 

The compatibility and tradeoffs among multiple resources

should be clearly evident. For example, resources C and D

appear compatible with one another across most of the red

alder gradient (Figure 3). Examples of these resources

may be bird and fish habitat, as both may be responding

favorably to increased inputs of invertebrates associated

with more alder. Note that a resource such as fish habitat

(e.g., Resource D) is potentially optimized with a mixture

of benefits derived from red alder (i.e., inputs of both terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates) and from conifers (i.e.,

inputs of larger, more persistent coarse woody debris).

Resources A and D are incompatible at some parts of

the alder continuum (e.g., in nearly pure conifer conditions),

but fairly compatible at levels of nearly equal amounts of

alder and conifers. Note, however, that achieving this compatibility produces minor tradeoffs for both resources as

neither is near its maximum value. We expect that the volume of timber growing will diminish but deer forage may

increase with higher proportions of alder (e.g., resources A

and D, respectively). The falloff in timber is likely less

severe with a more balanced mix of conifers and alders

than in stands approaching a pure alder condition where

total timber production is lowest. The production of alder

as a timber resource should be recognized in its own right,

however. It has become a valuable wood in the Pacific

Northwest. Preliminary results indicate that the optimum

production of deer browse is at something short of the pure

alder condition, as was the case for fish habitat. A manager

may want to give up a small amount of total timber production to meet deer habitat requirements by selecting mixedspecies conditions at a particular point along the alder

continuum. This is an example of a quantified tradeoff. The

degree to which a manager might choose to favor one

resource or the other is likely be dictated by the management objective for that particular stand or stream reach.

Conceivably, it is possible to achieve true multiple resource

management, even at the scales of stands or stream reaches,

with only minor reductions in any key resource, to the

point where nothing is really “traded off.” By understanding resource outputs associated with stands varying in

amounts of red alder, managers may take information and

scale up to watershed or larger scales for purposes of forest

planning. Managers should pay careful consideration to

which forests in the landscape would benefit the most by

the presence of red alder. 

Armed with knowledge that red alder is potentially beneficial in a managed forest, how would a manager manipulate the composition of a stand? Opportunities for increasing

alder in forests involve encouraging its reproduction in new

harvested areas or disturbed areas and favoring alder when

thinning existing forests where the tree species already

occurs. Developing methods for favoring the regeneration

of red alder in new harvest sites are beyond the scope of

this study. Because of concerns about sedimentation, managers might be reluctant to intentionally create soil disturbance along streams in an effort to regenerate red alder.

Riparian forests, however, are perhaps where red alder is

most needed. Planting of red alder seedlings or cuttings is a

method of regeneration that avoids the issue of sedimentation. As a pioneer species, red alder requires nearly full

exposure to sunlight and, as planting stock, would grow

only if planted in a harvested or heavily disturbed exposed

environment. Planting red alder in clearcuts and commercially thinned young-growth forests is planned for 2002 on

the Tongass National Forest.

Thinning to favor red alder will likely succeed to promote the species in Southeast Alaska on sites where it is

already established. An interesting pattern of red alder regeneration is present throughout harvested landscapes of

56
Southeast Alaska. It is common in young-growth stands

that regenerated before 1970 and is rare or absent on sites

regenerated after that date. These latter sites are often completely dominated by conifers, except where alder grew

back on closed logging roads. The 1970 date corresponds

to a time when yarding practices changed from variable

methods, where logs were often dragged across the forest

floor and streams, to a high lead system of yarding where

logs were partially suspended12. Much less soil disturbance

occurred in the post-1970 logging. The current trend towards

partial harvest or clearcutting with helicopter yarding also

will result in minimal soil disturbance. Also, harvesting

that avoids streams and steep slopes minimizes the chance

for natural regeneration of red alder. Thus, unless the location and type of yarding changes, efforts by managers to

promote the occurrence of red alder will focus on the

pre-1970 harvested sites, such as our study sites in the

Maybeso Valley of Prince of Wales Island. 

NEXT STEPS FOR RED ALDER RESEARCH

Our study generated ideas about the beneficial roles that

red alder can play in managed young-growth forests. These

ideas could serve as hypotheses for testing in a more rigorous study involving stand level treatments with experimental control. Such an approach could lead to more confidence

about which factors are real responses to the presence of

red alder and which are merely associated with the same

site factors that favor red alder regeneration or growth. 

Another extension of the current study is to follow the

fate of red alder as stands age. Observation from Oregon,

Washington, and British Columbia suggest that red alder

dies out of even-age stands before 100 years (Newton and

Cole 1994). We have found several older forest stands in

Southeast Alaska (e.g., 85 years old at Whitewater Bay,

Admiralty Island and 110 years old at Goose Cove,

Chichagof Island) where walk-through observations suggest

that red alder is still very much alive. We also need to

know how long after timber harvesting the legacy wood in

streams contributes its physical roles. The legacy wood in

streams that run through the 45-year-old harvest units

appears very functional. At what point will it decay, or will

it persist and retain function until large trees begin to die in

these even-age stands once they are over 100 years old? By

allowing a glimpse of future conditions, study of these older,

even-age stands could begin to provide ideas for the best

current management of stands at ages similar to those we

studied (e.g., 45 years old). 

Research on red alder can be extended to landscape and

regional scales because red alder is easily detected using

remote sensing techniques (e.g., supervised classification

of false color infrared images). With an understanding of

the distribution of red alder in young-growth and old-growth

forests, we can begin to discern ecological differences

between natural disturbance and human-caused disturbance

in landscapes. Along with the information gained from this

study on the role of red alder at the scale of stand and

stream reach, this knowledge will be useful in directing

restoration projects. 

CONCLUSIONS

Our multidisciplinary research will produce a predictive

model for managers to simultaneously evaluate compatibility and tradeoffs of key resources across a continuum of

red alder occurrence in young-growth forests of Southeast

Alaska. Managers might use this model to target optimal

levels of one resource or attempt to achieve the best compromise among several important resources. Our preliminary results are encouraging; live and dead red alder are

biologically active substrates that generally appear to favor

fish and wildlife. Mixed alder-conifer forests produce large

conifer trees that are valuable both commercially and ecologically. Once viewed as a weed that merely competed

with conifers, red alder may hold the key to achieving mutual

compatibility among several key resources in managed

young-growth forests. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Richard Zaborske, Jim Russell, and Sandy

Boyce for helpful comments on a draft of this manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

Alaback, P.B. 1982. Dynamics of understory biomass in 

Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests of southeast

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Bryant, M.D. 1985. Changes 30 years after logging in large

woody debris, and its use by salmonids. In: Riparian

ecosystems and their management: reconciling conflicting uses. Johnson, C.D.; Ziebell, D.R.; Patton, P.F. [et

al.], eds. Fort Collins, CO: US Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range

Experiment Station: 329-334.

57

12 Russell, Jim. 2001. Personal Commuication. Supervisory Silviculturist, Sitka Office, Tongass National Forest, USDA Forest Service, Sitka, AK.
Bisson, P.A., Bilby; R.E.; Bryant, M.D. [et al.]. 1987. 

Large woody debris in the Pacific Northwest: past, 

present, and future. In: Proceedings of the Symposium

Streamside Management: Forestry and Fishery

Interactions. Feb. 12-14, 1986. Seattle, WA: University

of Washington: 143-190.

Deal, R.L. 1997. Understory plant diversity in riparian 

alder-conifer stands after logging in southeast Alaska.

Research Note PNW-RN-523. Portland, OR: US

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station.

Dellasala, D.A.; Hagar, J.C.; Engel, K.A. [et al.]. 1996. 

Effects of silvicultural modifications of temperate rainforest on breeding and wintering bird communities,

Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. Condor. 98:

706-721.

Eglitis, A.; Hennon, P.E. 1997. Porcupine feeding damage 

in precommercially thinned conifer stands of central

southeast Alaska. Western Journal of Applied Forestry.

12: 115-121.

Hanley, T.A. 1993. Balancing economic development, 

biological conservation, and human culture: the Sitka

black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis) as an

ecological indicator. Biological Conservation. 66: 61-67.

Hanley, T.A. 1996. Small mammals of even-aged, red 

alder-conifer forests in southeastern Alaska. Canadian

Field Naturalist. 110(4): 626-629.

Hanley, T.A.; Bernard, J.C. 1998. Red alder, Alnus rubra, 

as a potential mitigating factor for wildlife habitat following clearcut logging in southeastern Alaska.

Canadian Field Naturalist. 112(4): 647-652.

Hanley, T.A.; Hoel, T. 1996. Species composition of oldgrowth and riparian Sitka spruce-western hemlock

forests in southeastern Alaska. Canadian Journal of

Forest Research. 26: 1703-1708.

Hetrick, N.J.; Brusven, M.A.; Meehan, W.R.; Bjornn, T.C. 

1998a. Changes in solar input, water temperature, periphyton accumulation, and allochthonous input and storage after canopy removal along two small salmon

streams in southeast Alaska. Transactions of the

American Fisheries Society. 127: 859-875.

Hetrick, N.J.; Brusven, M.A.; Bjornn, T.C. [et al.]. 1998b. 

Effects of canopy removal on invertebrates and diet of

juvenile coho in a small stream in Southeast Alaska.

Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 127: 876-888.

Newton, M.; Cole, E.C. 1994. Stand development and 

successional implications: pure and mixed stands. In:

the biology and management of red alder. Hibbs, D.E.;

DeBell, D.S.; Tarrant, R.F., eds. Corvallis, OR: Oregon

State Univ. Press.

Sedell, J.R.; Swanson, F.J. 1984. Ecological characteristics 

of streams in old-growth forests of the Pacific Northwest.

In: Fish and wildlife relationships in old-growth forests.

Meehan, W.R.; Merrell, T.R.; Hanley, T.A., eds. Proceedings of a symposium. Alaska District, American

Institute of Fishery Research Biologists; Northwest section. Juneau, Alaska: Wildlife Society; Alaska Council

on Science and Technology: 9-16.

Schoen, J.W.; Kirchhoff, M.D.; Hughes, J. H. 1988. 

Wildlife and old-growth forests in southeastern Alaska.

Natural Areas Journal. 8: 138-145.

Schoen, J.W.; Wallmo, O.C.; Kirchhoff, M.D. 1981. 

Wildlife-forest relationships: is a reevaluation necessary? Transactions of the North American Wildlife and

Natural Resources Conference. 46: 531-544.

Tappeiner, J.C. II; Alaback, P.B. 1989. Early establishment 

and vegetative growth of understory species in the western hemlock-Sitka spruce forests of Southeast Alaska.

Canadian Journal of Botany. 67: 318-326.

Wallmo, O.C.; Schoen, J.W. 1980. Response of deer to 

secondary forest succession in southeast Alaska.

Ecology. 26(3): 448-462.

Wipfli, M.S. 1997. Terrestrial invertebrates as salmonid 

prey and nitrogen sources in streams: contrasting oldgrowth and young-growth riparian forests in southeastern Alaska, USA. Canadian Journal of Fisheries Aquatic

Science 54: 1259-1269.

Wipfli, M.S.; Gregovich, D.P. 2002. Export of invertebrate 

and detritus from fishless headwater streams in

Southeast Alaska: implications for downstream fishbearing food webs. Freshwater Biology. In press.

58
SECTION B

AQUATIC STUDIES

1 Research Fish Biologist, USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3625 93rd Avenue SW, Olympia WA 98512-9193;

pbisson@fs.fed.us

2 Research Wildlife Biologist, USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3625 93rd Avenue SW, Olympia WA 98512-

9193; mraphael@fs.fed.us

3 Fish Biologist, USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3625 93rdAvenue SW, Olympia WA 98512-9193; afoster01

@fs.fed.us

4 Formerly Wildlife Biologist, USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3625 93rdAvenue SW, Olympia WA 98512-

9193; ljones02@fs.fed.us

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 6.

INFLUENCE OF SITE AND LANDSCAPE FEATURES ON 

VERTEBRATE ASSEMBLAGES IN SMALL STREAMS

Peter A. Bisson1, Martin G. Raphael2, Alex D. Foster3, and Lawrence L.C. Jones4

INTRODUCTION

Riparian zones are recognized as fundamentally important interfaces between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems

(Agee 1988; Gregory et al. 1991; FEMAT 1993; Naiman et

al. 2000). In addition to mediating the transfer of materials

between land and water, riparian zones provide key habitat

elements for many species of fish and wildlife. Virtually 

all aquatic species and many terrestrial plant and animal

species closely associated with riparian zones are sensitive

to management-induced changes in riparian condition

(Thomas et al. 1979; Naiman et al. 1995). The way in

which these species respond to anthropogenic disturbance

is usually complex and strongly influenced by ecological

processes at a particular site (Hayes et al. 1996); therefore,

ABSTRACT

The relative influence of site- and landscape-level habitat features on fishes and stream-dwelling amphibians was evaluated at 62 headwater streams on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington state. Watershed areas at the study sites ranged from

16 to 2,817 ha (average 265 ha) and the catchments had varied geologic, land use, and natural disturbance histories. Sitelevel features included stream habitat type, channel substrate, and riparian forest condition. Landscape-level features included forest age, drainage characteristics, elevation, road density, and landslide frequency. There were important differences in

habitat associations among species within the two major headwater vertebrate groups (fishes and amphibians) as well as

between the two groups themselves. In general, fishes were more strongly influenced by in-stream habitat parameters than

by riparian or watershed variables. Stream-dwelling amphibians, however, were influenced by riparian and watershed features and were less affected by in-stream habitats. Thus, fishes may be the best overall indicators of site-scale stream conditions; amphibians seem to be more sensitive indicators of landscape-scale riparian and upland features. Preliminary

comparison of the information value of different landscape-level variables (their importance to stream-dwelling vertebrates

relative to the cost of obtaining them) showed that certain variables had much greater utility for landscape-scale assessments than others.

KEY WORDS: Streams, fish, amphibians, riparian, watersheds.

61

it is often difficult to predict how a particular aquatic-riparian ecosystem will change following a management activity.

Recent studies have demonstrated a reduction in aquatic

and terrestrial biodiversity in watersheds containing primarily young, managed forests (Reeves et al. 1993; Thomas et

al. 1993), and the emerging application of ecosystem-based

forestry in the Pacific Northwest has embraced deliberate

attempts to restore riparian areas to conditions more like

those produced by natural processes (FEMAT 1993;

Quigley et al. 1996).

Despite the acknowledged importance of riparian zones

to fish and wildlife, relatively few studies have examined

the response of riparian systems to management alternatives for commodity production, riparian protection, or
restoration. The Coastal Oregon Productivity Enhancement

(COPE) program in Oregon sponsored investigations of

riparian rehabilitation, chiefly involving the re-establishment

of conifers in alder- and brush-dominated riparian zones5,

and similar research programs have begun in coastal areas

of Washington (Berg 1995). In addition to the challenge of

re-establishing conifers in riparian zones dominated by

deciduous trees or herbaceous vegetation, a number of other

important questions exist pertaining to riparian management,

e.g., what buffer widths and configurations are needed to

protect fish and wildlife habitat along different stream

types, what proportion of riparian zones should remain in

different seral stages over broad landscapes, whether acceleration of mature forest and old-growth conditions can be

achieved through thinning and other silvicultural treatments

in a cost-effective manner, and whether riparian vegetation

can be deliberately managed for the benefit of aquatic or

terrestrial wildlife. 

The Riparian Ecosystem Management Study (REMS)

examined the effect of different streamside buffers on the

major aquatic- and riparian-associated vertebrates, i.e.,

fishes, amphibians, birds, and small mammals. A total of

62 streams and associated riparian zones were examined on

Washington’s Olympic Peninsula from 1996 to 1999. Most

of our study sites were located in small watersheds, and in

fact, about one-third of the streams were too small or too

steep to support fishes. Nevertheless, such small streams

comprise a majority of the stream network and their riparian zones can occupy a significant portion of the landscape

in areas with high drainage densities. The fundamental

question we asked was: Does the structure of managed

riparian zones in small streams influence the presence

and/or abundance of aquatic and riparian-associated

vertebrates?

62

Figure 1—Location of study sites on the Olympic

Peninsula, Washington state. Names of major river

basins in which study sites occurred are given.

The crosshatched area bounds Olympic National

Forest and Olympic National Park.

5 COPE Report, Vol. 9, No. 3, Aug. 1996.
Although REMS was designed to evaluate vertebrate

responses to riparian conditions at the site level (typically,

300 m reaches), we could not ignore the possibility that

fishes and amphibians may have been influenced by broadscale characteristics of the watersheds they inhabited, irrespective of the condition of the immediately adjacent

riparian zone. Because our initial analysis of the relationship between different vertebrates and site-level features

left many unanswered questions regarding what environmental factors were most influential, we expanded the

assessment to include landscape-scale features such as forest age, drainage characteristics, elevation, road density,

and disturbance history. This paper reports on the relative

influence of site- and landscape-level habitat characteristics

on headwater stream vertebrates. Correlation analysis was

used to determine the association between abundance of

different organisms and site- and landscape-level parameters. We further compared the information value of different parameters (i.e., their overall importance to streamdwelling vertebrates) to the relative cost of estimating those

parameters, in order to identify cost-effective landscapelevel indicators of environmental suitability for these organisms. Additional information about the study is found in a

companion paper (Raphael et al. 2002, in this proceedings).

STUDY LOCATION AND METHODS

Study Sites

A total of 62 sites consisting of 300-m reaches of stream

channel and adjacent riparian zone was selected in firstto third-order, forested streams on Washington’s Olympic

Peninsula (Figure 1). Most streams were small, 1 to 7 m

wide; a few slightly larger streams were 7 to 11 m wide.

Elevations of study sites ranged from 120 to 720 m.

Riparian conditions at each site were assigned to six different

classes depending on whether they were (1) unmanaged

with intact forest on both sides of the stream, (2) old forest

buffers 16 to 150 m wide (mean = 65 m) within adjacent

clear-cuts, (3) second-growth forest 35 to 100 years old

with no adjacent harvest, (4) intact second-growth forest

63

Table 1—Top: common names of headwater stream vertebratesa. Bottom: site- and landscape-scale variables examined in this study

Taxa

Fishes Amphibians Assemblages

Cutthroat trout Tailed fiog All fish species

Torrent sculpin Cope's giant salamander All stream-dwelling

Coastrange sculpin Torrent salamander amphibian species

Environmental variables

Site Landscape

In-stream Riparian Watershed

Stream channel gradient Canopy density % watershed in early-seral forest

% channel in scour pools % riparian early-seral forest % watershed in mid-seral forest

% channel in fast-water habitats % riparian mid-seral forest % watershed in late-seral forest

(riffles, cascades) % riparian late-seral forest Road density

% channel in glides Drainage density

% channel in silt and sand Watershed area

substrate Elevation at base 

% channel in gravel and pebble % watershed area in recently active landslides

substrate % watershed area in southerly aspect 

% channel in large and small % watershed area with steep slopes (>60%)

cobble substrate 

% channel in boulder and

bedrock substrate

a Other taxa (e.g., coho salmon, western redback salamander) were occasionally sampled in the streams, but their frequencies were too low to be included

in the analyses.
64

Table 2—Description of site- and landscape-scale (watershed) parameters used in the analysis

Variable Variable Type Description

Site variables

Stream gradient In-stream An average of five or more clinometer measurements along the study 

reach.

% channel in scour In-stream Ratio of scour pools (eddy, lateral, mid-channel, plunge) to the total of 

pools all habitat units along the study reach.

% channel in fast water In-stream Ratio of fast water habitats (rapids, riffles, cascades, chutes and falls) to 

habitats the total of all habitat units along the study reach.

% channel in glides In-stream As above, includes other non-turbulent, fast water habitats such as sheets

and runs as well as glides.

% channel in silt and In-stream Visually estimated % of the wetted substrate in particle sizes <1 to 2mm.

sand substrate

% channel in gravel and In-stream Visually estimated % of the wetted substrate in particle sizes 3 to 64mm.

pebble substrate

% channel in large and In-stream Visually estimated % of the wetted substrate in particle sizes 65 to 

small cobble substrate 256mm.

% channel in boulder In-stream Visually estimated % of the wetted substrate in particle sizes >256mm.

and bedrock substrate

Canopy density Riparian An average of five or more measurements taken along the channel of 

each study reach with a canopy densiometer.

% riparian early-seral Riparian The percentage of the riparian zone adjacent to the study reach in earlyforest seral forest <30 years old.

% riparian mid-seral Riparian The percentage of the riparian zone adjacent to the study reach in midforest seral forest 31 to 100 years old.

% riparian late-seral Riparian The percentage of the riparian zone adjacent to the study reach in lateforest seral forest greater than 100 years old.

Landscape variables

% watershed early-seral Watershed A ratio of area of the watershed occupied by early-seral forests less than 

forest 30 years old to the total watershed area.

% watershed mid-seral Watershed A ratio of area of the watershed occupied by mid-seral forests 31 to 100 

forest years old to the total watershed area.

% watershed late-seral Watershed A ratio of area of the watershed occupied by late-seral forests greater 

forest than 100 years old to the total watershed area.

Road density Watershed Ratio of road length to watershed area expressed as km/km2.

Drainage density Watershed Ratio of the length of streams to the total watershed area, expressed as 

km/km2.

Watershed area Watershed The two-dimensional area of the catchment, as measured from the down

stream end of each study reach.

Elevation Watershed Elevation at the downstream end of each study reach

Recently active Watershed A ratio of the area of recently active landslides to the total watershed 

landslides area, as estimated from aerial photos up to 30 years old.

% watershed in Watershed Derived from DEM, a ratio of area of watershed slope 

southerly aspect aspects between 90° and 270°, to the total watershed area.

% watershed in slopes Watershed Derived from DEM, a ratio of area of watershed slopes steeper than 

greater than 60% 60%, to the total watershed area.
with commercial thinning, (5) second-growth buffers 14 to

32 m wide (mean = 22 m) within adjacent clearcuts, and

(6) logged sites up to 35 years old, lacking riparian buffers.

Channel unit surveys (Hawkins et al. 1993) were conducted along the entire length of each stream reach and the

dominant streambed substrate was estimated visually. Sites

were located on lands administered by the Olympic National

Forest, Washington State Department of Natural Resources,

and private industrial forest landowners. We studied 3 fish

species, 3 amphibian species, 2 vertebrate assemblages

(fishes, amphibians), 8 in-stream habitat variables, 4 riparian

forest variables, and 10 landscape variables (Table 1). An

explanation of the environmental variables is presented in

Table 2.

Within the context of this investigation we found no

streams that had large Northwest Forest Plan buffers (either

1- or 2-site potential tree heights wide), so we were unable

to evaluate that particular buffer treatment. Virtually all

study sites were in unmanaged watersheds or areas previously logged according to older buffer strip guidelines that

permitted timber harvesting to within 10 to 30 m of the

channel. Furthermore, we found that even riparian buffers

of mature or old forest had often experienced considerable

windthrow. Most of the riparian zones we examined, even

those on National Forest, had been managed with a heavy

emphasis on wood production.

Vertebrate Samples

Fish were sampled by electrofishing using a complete

removal summation method. Several randomly selected

channel units of each type (Hawkins et al. 1993) present in

the reach were repeatedly sampled until no more fish were

captured; the combined number of captures represented the

estimate for the channel unit. The average density of each

fish species in a particular type of channel unit was then

extrapolated to the reach as a whole based on the areal percentage of that channel unit type in the stream. Estimated

fish densities for each channel unit type, weighted according to the frequency of that type in the overall reach, were

combined to produce a stratified estimate of the average

fish density throughout the reach. Approximately 40% of

the 62 sites we examined possessed no fish, either because

they were upstream from an impassable barrier that prevented fish colonization or because they were intermittent

and did not provide sufficient surface flow for fish habitation during summer.

Amphibian surveys utilized a randomized transect sampling design. Transects or belts, located perpendicular to

the stream channel, were located at 10 m intervals along

each study reach. Belts were 1 m wide with variable lengths

depending on the wetted width of the stream at that specific

location along the channel. Transects were extended beyond

the wetted channel for short distances where there were

springs or seeps along the channel edge.

Environmental Parameters

GIS data layers were used to characterize environmental

parameters at the landscape level. Catchment areas were

delineated from 10-m digital elevation models (DEMs)

obtained from the Olympic National Forest (ONF). Road

data were from transportation system maps developed by

the ONF in 1990, then updated with 1997 digital orthoimagery. Forest stand age was derived from a combination

of stand data from several watershed analyses conducted

on the Olympic Peninsula from 1994 to 1997, and all stand

maps were combined and updated with 1997 digital orthoimagery. Stream networks were derived from a hydrography cover created in 1992 by the ONF and updated with

1997 ortho-imagery at 10-m DEMs. Landslide coverages

were also derived from recent watershed analyses on the

Olympic Peninsula. Landslide locations were verified with

low elevation aerial photographs taken between 1970 and

1999.

Analyses

We utilized a retrospective approach involving comparisons of many sites with different times since logging and

different buffer characteristics, instead of long-term analyses of a few sites before and after logging (i.e., the “substituting space for time” approach). The null hypothesis was

that there would be no association between the abundance

of small stream vertebrates and the characteristics of the

adjacent riparian zone assessed in this study. Rejection of

the null hypothesis would indicate that certain types of

riparian stand conditions affect the composition of some

vertebrates.

We used a non-parametric correlation coefficient,

Spearman’s rho, to measure the strength of association

between rank-ordered data. The more commonly used parametric correlation coefficient, Pearson’s coefficient, was not

used because it assumed a linear relationship between two

variables, and it was clear from initial scatter plots that

associations between vertebrate densities and many variables in the REMS data set were not linear. We standardized all species and assemblage densities to the number of

organisms per 100 square m of the wetted stream channel.

Tests were two-tailed, and we identified as significant those

variables whose association with vertebrate abundance

resulted in a Type 1 error of less than 10%. Zero captures

65
66

Table 3—Association between headwater stream vertebrates and site- and landscape-scale variablesa

Species/sample size In-stream Riparian Watershed

Cutthroat trout, n = 27 Stream gradient (+) Watershed area (-)

% scour pools (+)

% glides (-)

% small/large cobble (-)

Torrent sculpin, n = 15 % scour pools (+) % of riparian zone in % of watershed in late-seral forest(-) 

% fast water habitats (-) mid-seral forest (+) Watershed area (-)

% glides (-) % of riparian zone in Recently active landslides (-)

% gravel and pebble late-seral forest (-)

substrate (-)

Coastrange sculpin, n = 17 % scour pools (+) % of riparian zone in % of watershed in late-seral forest (-)

% fast water habitats (-) late-seral forest (-) Elevation (-)

% glides (-) Drainage density (-)

% silt and sand 

substrate (+)

% pebble and gravel 

substrate (-)

Tailed frog, n = 20 % boulder and bedrock % of riparian in late- Elevation (+)

substrate (+) seral forest (+) Watershed area (+)

% of watershed with steep slopes (+)

Cope’s giant salamander, % silt and sand Road density (-)

n = 24 substrate (+) Recently active landslides (+)

Drainage density (-)

Torrent salamander, n = 16 Stream gradient (+) % of watershed with steep slopes (+)

% small and large Elevation (+)

cobble substrate (-)

% boulder and bedrock

substrate (-)

All fishes combined, n = 37 % scour pools (+) % of riparian zone in % of watershed in late-seral forest (-)

% fast water habitats (-) late-seral forest (-) Elevation (-)

% glides (-) Recent landslide activity (-)

% silt and sand Southerly aspect (+)

substrate (+)

% pebble and gravel

substrate (-)

All stream-dwelling % silt and sand % riparian in early- % of watershed in seral forest (-)

amphibians substrate (+) seral forest (+) % of watershed in late-seral forest (+)

combined, n = 29 Stream gradient (+) % riparian in late- Road density (-)

seral forest (+) Elevation (+)

a Only variables with Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients having a probability less than 0.10 are shown; all other associations were considered nonsignificant. Plus signs in parentheses indicate a positive correlation between organism density and a variable. Minus signs indicate a negative correlation.

Sample sizes refer to the number of sites in which taxa occurred.
were included in the analyses and all independent variables

(Table 1) were included in the model. Statistical tests were

performed using SPSS6 software.

Some of the landscape-scale parameters in the analysis

were expensive and time consuming to quantify, often

requiring hours of map reading and digitizing. Furthermore,

field surveys required many hours of labor, data transcription, and analysis. Because some parameters turned out to

have more influence on headwater vertebrates than others,

we also compared the “information value” of the variables

that were studied, i.e., their weighted average value in

correlation analysis of all taxa (irrespective of sign) to the

relative cost of obtaining quantitative values for them.

Equipment costs were not included; we based our estimates

solely on the number of hours required to measure or otherwise quantify each parameter. The goal was to assess the

relative cost and benefit of including different site- and

landscape-scale features in the analysis of vertebrate

abundance.

RESULTS

Fishes

There were important differences in habitat associations

between species within major groups (fish and amphibians)

as well as between species themselves. In general, fishes

were more closely associated with in-stream habitat parameters than with adjacent riparian or watershed variables

(Table 3). Cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki)

preferred small watersheds and streams with abundant

pool habitat. Their lower densities in streams with glides,

habitats with cobble substrate, and larger watersheds may

have been indicative of reduced abundance in low-gradient,

alluvial streams. Cutthroat trout were not sensitive indicators of riparian forest condition.

Torrent sculpins (Cottus rhotheus) preferred streams in

small watersheds with abundant pool habitat, mid-seral

riparian forests (not late-seral riparian forests), and watersheds

in which there was little mass wasting (landslides). Like

cutthroat trout, torrent sculpins were less abundant in lowgradient streams dominated by glide habitat and substrates

of moderate size (Table 3). The negative association

between torrent sculpins and fast-water habitats could not

be explained and may have been caused by factors that

were not examined, including interactions with native

amphibians.

Coastrange sculpins (C. aleuticus) primarily inhabited

low elevation alluvial streams with abundant pool habitat.

They preferred habitats with fine-grained substrates to

those with coarse-grained substrates. Coastrange sculpin

densities were reduced in streams with late-seral riparian

forests and old-growth dominated watersheds.

Amphibians

Tailed frogs (Ascaphus truei) were associated with

boulder-dominated streams in high-elevation watersheds

with steep gradients and riparian zones dominated by lateseral forests (Table 3). If elevation was associated with

cooler stream temperatures, tailed frogs may have been

responding to colder waters in high-elevation streams, as

this species is known to prefer cold water (Corkran and

Thoms 1996).

There was no apparent relationship between the streamdwelling Cope’s giant salamander (Dicamptodon copei) and

forest age within either the riparian zone or the entire watershed. There was reduced giant salamander abundance in

watersheds with high road density and high drainage density.

Greater Cope’s giant salamander densities in watersheds

with recent landslides and in habitats with fine-grained substrate suggest this species responds positively to both fine

and coarse sediment inputs, but the reason for this apparent response could not be determined with the data at hand.

Olympic torrent salamanders (Rhyacotriton olympicus)

preferred high-elevation watersheds with steep topography

and high gradient stream channels. They appeared to avoid

habitats with coarse-grained substrates (Table 3). There

was no correlation between the abundance of torrent salamanders and the composition of riparian or upland forests.

Vertebrate Assemblages

Abundance of all fishes combined was greater in streams

with frequent pools and fewer riffles and glides (Table 3).

The positive association between fish assemblages and

sand and silt substrate was probably also related to pools

since pool habitat possessed deeper, slowly moving water

where fine particles settled out. Overall fish density was

reduced in coarse-grained, fast water and glide habitats,

suggesting that riffles and cascades were less favorable

habitats than pools. Fishes were also generally less abundant in streams with late-seral riparian and upland forests,

as well as in high-elevation watersheds and those with

recent landslide activity. The somewhat weak but significant correlation between fish abundance and watersheds

67

6 The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of

any product or service.
with southern aspect (which would receive greater solar

input) is consistent with the hypothesis that fish populations in headwater streams respond positively to increased

solar radiation, resulting in elevated primary and secondary

production (Gregory et al. 1987).

Amphibians as a group were more abundant in steep,

montane streams than in low gradient coastal streams.

Their positive association with sand and silt substrate suggested that most amphibians selected depositional habitats

away from swift, turbulent areas of flow. Tailed frog tadpoles were an exception; they preferred turbulent cascade

habitat with coarse substrate. Overall, amphibians favored

streams with late-seral riparian and upland forests and

avoided those with early-seral forests (Table 3). Abundance

was greater in high-elevation watersheds but reduced

where road densities were above average. The apparent

preference of stream-dwelling amphibians for watersheds

with late-seral forests and low road density is consistent

with the hypothesis that they prosper in landscapes where

human disturbance is minimized.

Fishes appeared to be more responsive to local conditions than to landscape-scale features, while amphibians

were less sensitive to site conditions and were more influenced by the characteristics of the landscape (Figure 2). 

On average, about five in-stream and riparian site parameters significantly influenced each species, although the

parameters themselves differed from species to species. At

the watershed scale only about two features, on average,

influenced fishes. Amphibians, however, appeared to be

more sensitive to landscape-scale parameters than to local

conditions. While the reasons for this difference in sensitivity to site and landscape features between fishes and

amphibians is not entirely clear, it may have been related to

the strict dependence of fish on aquatic habitats, while some

amphibians also rely on terrestrial habitats and their movements may have included some upland areas. Thus, amphibians as a group may better integrate overall watershed

condition.

Some landscape-scale parameters had greater influence

for vertebrate abundance than others, and some were considerably more costly to estimate. The relative cost of

obtaining the estimates for landscape-scale parameters was

plotted against the information value, i.e., their average

score in correlation analysis, of these estimates for headwater vertebrates in our study (Figure 3). We also included

two site-level parameters–riparian vegetation and channel

gradient–that could have been estimated from air photos or

DEM analysis instead of the ground-based methods used in

this study, and thus included in landscape assessments. As

expected, on-site surveys provided very useful information.

However, on-site data were far more expensive to obtain

than remote-sensed or map data (Figure 3). Age of riparian

vegetation, watershed elevation, and the forest age distribu68

Figure 2—Comparison of the average number of 

site-scale and landscape-scale variables (Table 1) 

significantly influencing fish and amphibian species

in headwater streams on the Olympic Peninsula.
tion within the watershed had moderate to high information

value. The importance of elevation tended to be high for

fishes, and forest characteristics were often valuable for

interpreting amphibian abundance. However, the seral age

of forest stands was relatively expensive to quantify, both

from ground-based surveys and from GIS analyses. The

frequency of recent landslides, watershed area, hillslope

gradient, drainage density, and road density all had low to

moderate average information value, with mass wasting

(landslides) being the most expensive to quantify because

landslide coverage must be estimated from air photos.

Watershed aspect was relatively inexpensive to measure

but yielded little information about environmental suitability for headwater vertebrates.

We do not wish to infer that only the parameters scoring

high in correlation analysis are worth pursuing, or that

those parameters of low information content should not be

investigated. Rather, we suggest that this crude cost-benefit

analysis may help planners prioritize environmental parameters in landscape assessments of the effects of forest management on headwater vertebrates, and provide hypotheses

for other investigators attempting to understand the abundance of fishes and amphibians in small watersheds.

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

Results of the study were not consistent across different

types of organisms. For fishes, there was little association

between species abundance and riparian forest age or the

percentage of late-seral forest in the watershed; however,

fishes tended to be strongly influenced by the condition of

in-stream habitat. Although the riparian forest probably

influenced in-stream habitat, our results suggested that the

number and size of pools and other habitat parameters

important to fishes was likely controlled by a number of

other factors, including recruitment of logs and large boulders to the channels by landslides, debris flows, and other

disturbance mechanisms. Other parameters associated with

the local abundance of fishes in these headwater systems

included the elevation of the watershed, gradient of the

channel, and the amount of primary production (aquatic

plant production as controlled by light and nutrients).

Overall, headwater fish populations were highly variable

from site to site, which was expected in these disturbanceprone environments (Zalewski and Naiman 1985). Thus, at

the site-level, we did not reject the hypothesis that the characteristics of the riparian forest had no influence on fish

abundance in Olympic Peninsula streams.

69

Figure 3—Cost-benefit comparison of various

landscape-scale parameters. Information value is

the relative influence of each parameter on headwater vertebrates.
Amphibians, however, proved to be more responsive

than fishes to riparian forest condition and the amount of

late-seral forest in their watersheds. Some amphibians were

found to be adaptable generalists, while others were more

sensitive to forest management in or near the riparian zone

(see Raphael et al. 2002, in this proceedings). Our study

suggested that stream-dwelling amphibians were negatively

affected by timber removal near small streams. Riparian

areas composed of young, early-successional forests did

not support amphibian populations at the densities observed

in late-seral sites. Buffers of old-growth trees apparently

provided habitat refugia for some species and were valuable source areas for recolonization. On the whole, results

support the hypothesis that the characteristics of riparian

buffers do influence amphibian abundance in Olympic

Peninsula streams.

It was clear from our study that the relationship between

forest management and the integrity of aquatic and riparian

ecosystems was complex. We doubt that it is possible to

produce a model or series of models that would predict,

quantitatively and with a high level of certainty, the response

of headwater aquatic- and riparian-associated vertebrates to

management actions at the landscape scale, unless those

management actions involved such drastic changes that

there would be significant and irreversible alteration of the

environment. Likewise, our research suggests that it would

be difficult to tailor management actions at the site level to

produce desired changes in small stream vertebrates at the

population level. In other words, it seems unlikely that

varying the age of riparian buffers at the scale of an

operational unit (e.g., 20-100 ha) will predictably and measurably affect the distribution or abundance of most streamdwelling vertebrate populations within the management

area. This is because there will be a spatial mismatch

between the distributional boundaries of vertebrate populations and the boundaries of stand-level operations, and

because most organisms are free to move from unfavorable

to favorable habitats (Schlosser and Angermeier 1995).

Local reductions or increases in suitable habitat resulting

from stand-level operations may be too small to affect

overall population abundance within remaining patches of

habitat.

On the other hand, consistent changes in riparian forest

properties across large areas may be sufficient to influence

population change. If changes in riparian forest structure

and composition are pervasive enough to eliminate habitat

refugia, populations of headwater vertebrates could decline

because suitable habitat is not present throughout their

native range and there are insufficient travel corridors to

allow for recolonization (Fausch and Young 1995).

Because of the unique habitat requirements of different

species, linkages between management actions and species’

abundance requires understanding at the local population

level. For certain species, e.g., resident headwater trout or

amphibians with limited distributions, breeding populations

can be confined to relatively small areas. For others, e.g.,

anadromous salmon or neotropical migrant birds, population boundaries are very large. Our study suggests that predictable relationships between species abundance and

management activities will require calibration with locally

derived data. 

A single broadscale measure of ecological performance

probably does not exist for headwater vertebrates. Landscapescale measures of ecosystem condition and performance

such as the percentage of a watershed in late-successional

forest, the time since the last major disturbance, or the density of roads in an area, may be important to aquatic- and

riparian-associated vertebrates but they are insufficient, by

themselves, to explain changes in populations over time.

Most headwater organisms are controlled by multiple biotic

and abiotic factors, each of which can be more or less

important during different periods of the life cycle or over

different years (Reeves et al. 1998). Significant associations

between some organisms and certain landscape measures

were detected in our study, but it is incorrect to assume that

a quantitative shift in a single landscape variable (e.g., %

old-growth forest, buffer width, density of logging roads)

will produce a predictable shift in a species of interest.

Although we conducted correlation analyses between

populations and watershed characteristics, none of the

watersheds in which sites were located possessed buffers of

uniform width and stand age throughout the drainage network. Therefore, we do not have a real basis for assessing

the compatibility or tradeoffs between riparian buffer characteristics and vertebrate communities at the ecoregion

level. The Olympic Peninsula, where this study was carried

out, contains a large inner core of unmanaged, pristine forest

(Olympic National Park) surrounded by lands that have

been intensely managed for wood production. We found

comparatively few major differences among the vertebrate

populations of headwater streams regardless of buffer properties, but results might have been different if the large,

central refuge area of Olympic National Park had not been

present.

Our failure to detect consistent differences among riparian treatments was influenced by the limited size of our

study sites, usually about 300 linear meters of stream and

riparian zone. In spite of our efforts to locate watersheds in

which riparian treatments were applied more uniformly

across the landscape, or to arrange for deliberate riparian

70
management experiments involving manipulation at a much

larger scale, we were unable to locate any study areas that

possessed uniform buffers throughout the stream system.

Complex patterns of land ownership on the Olympic

Peninsula involving public, state, private industrial, small

private, and tribal forest lands, each with different riparian

management prescriptions, further exacerbated the problem

of finding study sites with uniform conditions. In this

sense, our study was unable to answer the general question:

“Does the structure of managed riparian zones in small

streams influence the presence and or abundance of aquaticand riparian-associated vertebrates?” because we could

not examine biophysical responses at a scale appropriate 

to the question.

Finding the right approach to this question remains

problematic. The prospect of locating study sites large

enough to experimentally implement different buffer treatments at a scale permitting evaluation of variable buffer

widths or tree spacing on vertebrate populations is daunting. The alternative approach, relying on simulation modeling or landscape analysis to predict those same effects,

often involves many untested (and often incorrect) assumptions. We believe knowledge of life cycles and species’

habitat requirements is a necessary precursor to large-scale

modeling; therefore, we advocate continued investigations

at the species level while exploring alternate methods of

scaling up hypothesis testing to the assemblage and landscape level using a combination of controlled small watershed studies, as in the Hubbard Brook or Alsea Watershed

investigations, and new methods of landscape analysis.

Information derived from such studies will more effectively inform decision-makers charged with balancing the

tradeoff between wood production and environmental protection of headwater aquatic and riparian ecosystems.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge the USDA Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Research Station for financial support

through the Wood Compatibility Initiative and Northwest

Forest Plan research programs. Additional financial support

was provided by grants from the University of Washington’s

Olympic Natural Resources Center. Many people assisted

with fieldwork, including Larry Lehman, Allison Magee,

Chris Clemons, Don Woolery, James Kaiser, and Susan

Brubeck. Scott Horton, N. Phil Peterson and Larry Ogg

helped with landslide mapping, Tim Max provided statistical advice, and David Peter assisted with landscape-level

vegetation characterization. We thank Bob Bilby, Steve

Wondzell, and Charlie Crisafulli for insightful reviews and

helpful suggestions for this paper.

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Quigley, T.M.; Haynes, R.W.; Graham, R.T., tech. eds. 

1996. Integrated scientific assessment for ecosystem

management in the interior Columbia Basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Gen. Tech. Rep.

PNW-GTR-382. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station. [irregular pagination].

Raphael, M.G.; Bisson, P.A.; Foster, A.D.; Jones, L.L.C. 

2002. Effects of streamside forest management on the

composition and abundance of stream and riparian

fauna of the Olympic Peninsula. In: Johnson, A.C.;

Haynes, R.W.; Monserud, R.A.; eds. Congruent

Management of Multiple Resources: Proceedings from

the Wood Compatibility Workshop. Gen. Tech. Rep.

PNW-GTR-563. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station: 27-40.

Reeves, G.H.; Everest, F.H.; Sedell, J.R. 1993. Diversity of

juvenile anadromous salmonid assemblages in coastal

Oregon basins with different levels of timber harvest.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 122:

309-317.

Reeves, G.H.; Bisson, P.A.; Dambacher, J.M. 1998. Fish 

Communities. In: Naiman, R.J.; Bilby R.E., eds. River

ecology and management. New York: Springer-Verlag:

200-234.

Schlosser, I.J.; Angermeier, P.L. 1995. Spatial variation in 

demographic processes of lotic fishes: conceptual models, empirical evidence, and implications for conservation. American Fisheries Society Symposium. 17:

392-401.

Thomas, J.W.; Maser, C.; Rodiek, J.E. 1979. Riparian 

zones. In: Thomas, J.W., ed. Wildlife habitats in managed forests: the Blue Mountains of Oregon and

Washington. Agriculture Handbook 553. Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

with U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land

Management and the Wildlife Management Institute:

40-47.

Thomas, J.W.; Raphael, M.G.; Anthony, R. [et al]. 1993. 

Viability assessments and management considerations

for species associated with late-successional and oldgrowth forests of the Pacific Northwest. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. 523 p.

Zalewski, M.; Naiman, R.J. 1985. The regulation of riverine fish communities by a continuum of abiotic-biotic

factors. In: Alabaster, J.S., ed. Habitat modifications

and freshwater fisheries. London, England: Butterworth:

6-9.

72
1 Mathematical Statistician. Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331 (e-mail:

pcunningham@fs.fed.us).

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 7.

A SURVEY OF RESEARCH ON RIPARIAN RESPONSES TO SILVICULTURE

Patrick G. Cunningham1

INTRODUCTION

Current environmental issues are leading federal forest

managers and researchers in the Pacific Northwest along

new paths of management, research, and collaboration. The

Northwest Forest Plan (USDA and USDI 1994) provides 

a framework under which these new paths are explored.

Experience, in some cases, provides some common-sense

adaptations of traditional forest management activities into

new problem-solving approaches, such as silvicultural prescriptions to achieve ecosystem management objectives

useful in addressing some current environmental issues. 

Some of the issues that managers and researchers are

facing in the Pacific Northwest deal with understanding

riparian area processes and management, and the role of

forest stand management in young stands for aquatic and

terrestrial habitat, wildlife, and ecosystem processes. Some

of the questions that researchers and managers are facing

related to riparian management issues are listed below.

ABSTRACT

Some of the most critical issues that federal land managers and researchers are facing in the Pacific Northwest are 

centered around riparian processes and management, and how upslope management activities affect riparian systems.

Researchers are developing a literature on riparian-related questions dominated by observational studies of riparian-area

processes, vegetation, and wildlife species. Some experiments were conducted, and more are on the way. Issues that led to

the development of the Northwest Forest Plan motivated many of these past and present studies. Very few of these studies,

however, have examined the relation between upslope forest stand management and its effects on riparian ecosystems. The

Bureau of Land Management density-management and riparian-buffer studies are among the few exceptions to this development. Some questions are emerging from this and other work that, when addressed, will help researchers and managers

better understand the interactions between upslope forest management and riparian ecosystems. 

KEY WORDS: Riparian area, stand density management, upslope-riparian interactions, Aquatic Conservation Strategy,

Northwest Forest Plan.

73

1. How are wildlife species, riparian areas, and streams

affected by different upslope management options?

2. How do wildlife species, riparian areas, and streams

respond to different kinds of management in riparian

areas?

3. Can buffers around riparian areas protect these systems

from adverse effects of management?

4. What are the benefits and costs of various riparian buffer

widths? 

5. Are general guidelines for riparian buffer widths and

management desirable or even possible?

These and other questions are guiding current research

on riparian processes and management in the Pacific

Northwest. After introducing some of the important literature on problems related to riparian ecology in the Pacific

Northwest, I introduce some issues about riparian area

function and management, and some research projects that

are addressing these issues and the above-stated questions. 
Several syntheses pertaining to riparian ecosystems are

available in the literature. Gregory et al. (1991); Naiman et

al. (2000); and Swanson et al. (1982) concentrate their

syntheses on the northwestern United States and Canada.

Hohler et al. (2001) addresses riparian-related research that

was conducted under guidelines from the Northwest Forest

Plan (USDA and USDI 1994). Naiman and Decamps (1997)

synthesize a large body of knowledge about riparian ecosystems and management from many countries. They extend

the discussion of riparian issues beyond forest ecosystems

to agricultural and industrial contexts . 

RIPARIAN FUNCTIONS AND PROCESSES

Riparian ecosystems are described as the area of interaction, or transition, between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (Gregory et al. 1991; Swanson et al. 1982). Naiman

and Decamps (1997) describe riparian zones as extending

from the low-water marks of streams through that part of

the terrestrial landscape in which vegetation and soils are

influenced by the presence of high water or high water

tables. Definitions of riparian zones, however, vary among

researchers. They are described as areas that are both difficult (Gregory et al. 1991) and easy (Naiman et al. 2000) to

distinguish from their adjacent terrestrial ecosystems. Some

riparian areas appear more similar to their surrounding

upland forest ecosystems than do others. Riparian ecosystems comprise many communities, processes, and interacting structures (Gregory et al. 1991). 

Forman and Godron (1986) and Forman (1995) view

riparian areas from the perspective of landscape ecology as

corridors that serve many purposes including travel routes

for wildlife, buffers for minimizing downstream flooding,

filters for dissolved nutrients, and many other functions.

Machtans et al. (1996) provided evidence to partially support the role of riparian areas as travel corridors for some,

mostly juvenile, songbird species in Alberta, Canada. Some

of the landscape functions of riparian areas, however,

including the travel role of corridors, which are widely

touted as important landscape functions of riparian areas,

are not yet sufficiently tested and serve only as conceptual

models. Vegetation in riparian areas performs many important landscape and other ecological functions, including

wood inputs to streams for developing complex structure

for fish habitat and sediment control, shade for maintaining

relatively low stream temperatures, organic materials for

aquatic and terrestrial organisms, stream bank stability, and

many other ecosystem functions (Beschta 1991; Gregory et

al. 1991).

OUR PAST

Many researchers ignored vegetation in headwater

stream environments in mountainous, forested terrain until

the 1980s because of their small relative sizes and their low

value of resources relative to upland resource values

(Swanson et al. 1982). Research intensity in riparian ecology

along these headwater streams has increased in recent

years, partly in response to issues that led to the development of the Northwest Forest Plan for western Washington,

western Oregon, and northern California (FEMAT 1993,

USDA and USDI 1994). This research has included studies

of riparian vegetation in the Oregon Coast Range (Minore

and Weatherly 1994; Pabst and Spies 1998; Pabst and Spies

1999), microclimate (Brosofske et al. 1997; Danehy and

Kirpes 20002; Dong et al. 1998), amphibian responses to

clearcutting (Bury and Corn 1988), bird species responses

to clearcutting (Hagar 1999), and riparian management

(Chan et al. 1997; Hibbs and Giordano 1996). Other studies

conducted in upslope ecosystems, such as Chen et al. (1995),

were influential in riparian decision-making. 

Many of these studies provide information suggesting

that forested riparian areas are different from upslope

forested ecosystems in many different ways. Among these

differences are the changing character of vegetation immediately along streams and the rapid disappearance of riparian vegetation with increasing distance from some streams

(Minore and Weatherly 1994; Pabst and Spies 1999),

declining populations of riparian amphibians and some

birds with increased timber harvesting near streams (Bury

and Corn 1988; Hagar 1999), and large differences in

microclimate conditions between upslope buffer edges and

streamsides when clearcutting is done near streams

(Brosofske et al. 1997; Dong et al. 1998).

Bury and Corn (1988) suggested the benefits of riparian

buffers to aquatic and riparian wildlife species in headwater

ecosystems. They call for research designed specifically to

determine appropriate riparian-buffer widths. Research by

Brosofske et al. (1997); Dong et al. (1998); Hagar (1999);

and O’Connell et al. (2000) suggest installing buffers

between streams and timber harvest units. Brosofske et al.

(1997) and Dong et al. (1998) use information from Chen

74

2 Danehey and Kirpes (2000) report on a riparian microclimate study conducted on private forest lands after thinning in eastern Washington and Oregon.
et al. (1995), along with their own microclimate analyses,

to suggest that riparian buffer widths in their study areas

should be at least 45 m, and in some cases as wide as 300

m. Hagar called for buffers at least 40 m wide and no

reductions of large-tree density inside the buffer to protect

bird populations. For western Washington state and private

industrial forests, O’Connell et al. (2000) suggest that

riparian buffers should be at least 30 m wide. Forman

(1995) also suggested relatively wide buffers, although he

does not provide specific width recommendations. Forman

(1995) suggested that because most of the water, sediment,

dissolved particles and other stream inputs originate high in

watersheds, buffers around headwater sources and intermittent streams should be the widest of any in the watershed

to protect against rapid changes in stream inputs. 

The Northwest Forest Plan, through its Aquatic

Conservation Strategy, provided interim guidelines for

riparian reserve widths until they could be adjusted based

on information gained from watershed analysis (USDA

and USDI 1994). A site-potential tree, “a tree that has

attained the average maximum height possible given site

conditions where it occurs” is the basic unit of reference

for the guidelines (FEMAT 1993). For streams, the interim

guidelines for riparian-reserve widths are (USDA and

USDI 1994):

• fish-bearing streams (the area on each side of the stream

equal to the height of two site-potential trees, or 90 m

slope distance, whichever is greater);

• permanently flowing nonfish-bearing streams (the area

on each side of the stream equal to the height of one sitepotential tree, or 45 m slope distance, whichever is

greater); and

• seasonally flowing or intermittent streams (the area on

each side of the stream to a distance equal to the height

of one site-potential tree or 30 m slope distance,

whichever is greater). 

Interim guidance from the Aquatic Conservation Strategy

(USDA and USDI 1994) recommends buffers for intermittent streams that are narrower than buffers for perennial,

fish-bearing streams. Forman (1995), however, recommends the widest width for buffers around these same

intermittent stream and seep areas.

Much of the research relating silvicultural activities and

adjacent riparian ecosystems has involved clearcutting in

upslope forests and near streams (Brosofske et al. 1997;

Bury and Corn 1988; Dong et al. 1998; Hagar 1999;

O’Connell et al. 2000). Clearcutting, however, is no longer

the dominant forest-management method for a large proportion of federal forest lands managed under the Northwest

Forest Plan; rather, along with providing riparian buffers

for a broad range of conservation purposes, the Northwest

Forest Plan also directs land managers to develop oldgrowth characteristics in managed stands on federal forest

lands (USDA and USDI 1994). At least for the near future,

little if any clearcutting is planned for outside matrix lands,

and harvests in the matrix will generally include green-tree

retention objectives. 

Tappeiner et al. (1997) suggested that to best obtain

old-growth characteristics in managed forests it is necessary to implement density-management prescriptions on

existing plantations and naturally regenerated lands previously managed primarily for wood production. Unlike

commercial thinning prescriptions, which are used primarily

to release trees from competition and produce revenue,

density management prescriptions use thinning to create

habitat, stand diversity, stand structure, and to support

accelerated growth of overstory and understory trees. Hayes

et al. (1997) summarizes the research on the relation of

various wildlife species to young-stand thinning, including

some riparian-dependent species, and concludes that for

some species of insects, birds, and small mammals, youngstand thinning can enhance habitat and promote species

abundances. 

Little research has centered on harvest methods in the

Pacific Northwest other than clearcutting and their relations

to riparian ecosystems, and researchers and managers have

little experience in riparian silviculture in Pacific Northwest

forests. This leaves researchers and managers with little

empirical evidence to support decisions about stand density

management near streams and about riparian buffer widths

when harvest methods other than clearcutting are used.

Knowledge is needed on the relationship between densitymanagement prescriptions and riparian ecosystem conditions.

Several operational-scale experiments have occurred in

recent years in the Pacific Northwest to address questions

about stand and habitat development in young plantations,

and, in some cases, development of old-growth characteristics. Among these experiments are the demonstration of

ecosystem management options (DEMO) (Halpern and

Raphael 1999), the forest ecosystem study (Carey et al. 1999),

the Bureau of Land Management density-management

study3, 4, and several other studies. These experiments

75
include thinning treatments in existing young stands to

develop growing conditions for understory vegetation layers

and habitat for various species of birds, mammals, and

amphibians. They are done at similar scales, and their

designs have some similarities. In addition to these studies

in the Pacific Northwest, researchers in northern California

have installed an operational-scale thinning experiment in

the Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest (Oliver 2000).

The Blacks Mountain experiment is in a ponderosa pine

ecosystem and also includes prescribed fire and livestock

grazing treatments (Oliver 2000). 

In addition to these upslope studies, the Washington

State Department of Natural Resources, through its Timber,

Fish, and Wildlife agreement, sponsored an experiment of

upslope clearcutting and alternative riparian management

affects on wildlife in western Washington (O’Connell et al.

2000). Also, Cissel et al. (1998) and Cissel et al. (1999)

have designed and are implementing a landscape-management case study on the Blue River watershed in the

Willamette National Forest that includes guidelines for

managing upslope forests and riparian areas. The densitymanagement study, however, is distinguished from all of

the other experiments because it has a companion study

(the riparian buffer study) that examines riparian area

management, riparian processes, and aquatic and ripariandependent species, and their relations to alternative upslope

density management activities5. 

These studies are addressing some of the questions

presented at the beginning of the paper, but it is too early

to know what kinds of answers will develop. These studies

will also produce new questions to further develop understanding of riparian processes and upslope-riparian interactions.

THE CONCEPT OF RIPARIAN RESERVES

The concept of riparian reserves in the context of managing under the Northwest Forest Plan remains poorly

defined. Some managers and researchers also use the term

riparian buffer when referring to riparian reserves, but the

terms are not used interchangeably by all. The Northwest

Forest Plan documents are not clear about the meanings of

these terms. For example, the Forest Ecosystem Management

Assessment Team defines riparian reserves as “designated

riparian areas found outside the late-successional reserves”

(FEMAT 1993). Such a definition leaves managers and

researchers wondering what, if any, activities they can do

inside these areas. 

Assuming that riparian reserves are managed differently

than adjacent upslope forests, several views are possible

for allowable management in riparian reserves, including:

1. no management;

2. light management (where “light” is defined in some 

specific quantitative or qualitative, and spatial and temporal way);

3. management for different priorities than for non-riparianreserve lands; or

4. management for major short-term disturbances rather

than relatively small areas to obtain long-term benefits

to processes and functions.

The effects of these different concepts of management

on riparian reserves and aquatic and riparian-dependent

species remain unknown. Such possibilities suggest opportunities for designing experiments to assess the effects of

the different alternative interpretations of riparian reserves.

Confusion over the meaning, purpose, and allowable

management activities inside riparian buffers is related to

questions about how wide riparian buffers should be in federal forests managed under the Northwest Forest Plan. If

riparian buffers are no-harvest areas, can they be narrower

than if they were managed using light-harvest methods?

Also, if density-management prescriptions are applied in

upslope forests, are riparian buffers needed at all?

Misunderstandings that are generated from such vague

management guidelines can lead to paralysis in decisionmaking. Under such conditions, interim guidelines become

default standards. Also, interim guidelines for riparian

76

3 Olson, D.H.; Hansen, B.; Chan, S.; Cunningham, P. 1999. A synthesis of forested headwater habitats and species: a case study of the compatibility of

resource production and protection. On file with: Deanna H. Olson, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station,

3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331. [Variable pagination].

4 Tappeiner, J.; Thompson, C. 1996. Study plan for the density-management studies. On file with John C. Tappeiner, Oregon State University, College of

Forestry, Corvallis, OR 97331.

5 Olson, D.H.; Hansen, B.; Ellenburg, L.; Sedel, J. [N.d.]. Density management study: riparian buffer component; aquatic habitats and vertebrate diversity.

Unpublished study plan, on file with: Deanna H. Olson, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 3200 SW

Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331.
reserve widths can consume most of the landscape in some

areas. For example, these reserves cover over 80% of the

federal coastal forests in Oregon (Chan et al. 1997). 

Research is needed on the ecological and economic

effects of the alternative views of riparian reserves, and on

how upslope management practices affect riparian function

and values. In addition, research is needed on the interactions among these effects. Confronting some of these effects

and their interactions can clarify the roles of upslope forests,

riparian areas, and aquatic ecosystems for policy and decision-making under the Northwest Forest Plan and beyond.

A LOOK AHEAD

The combined density-management and riparian-buffer

study is the first experiment in forests managed under the

Northwest Forest Plan to simultaneously address riparian

and upslope management issues. It is providing researchers

and managers with new knowledge about species and habitat before and after applying several different upslope density-management and riparian-buffer treatments. This study

is also serving other purposes for researchers and landmanagement agencies, including:

• demonstration sites for stand-density and riparian-area

management options,

• new methods for measuring responses to treatments,

• species and site-specific knowledge, and

• hypotheses for future research.

Knowledge from this and other studies will be useful 

in designing future experiments to further examine riparianarea function and management. Questions remain about

riparian processes and management. No single experiment

will provide all of the knowledge needed to understand and

manage these important areas. Observational, retrospective,

and modeling studies will also provide useful information

to help learn about these ecosystems and interactions.

One of the important issues in riparian management in

Pacific Northwest forests is related to the response of riparian ecosystems to management activities inside riparian

areas. Many riparian areas in the region, managed under

the Northwest Forest Plan, are currently dominated by red

alder (Minore and Weatherly 1994; Hibbs and Giordano

1996). As these alder stands begin to fall apart, many of

them will be replaced by salmonberry, not by conifers

(Hibbs and Giordano 1996). If managers want to see conifers

develop in these areas for stand structure and wood recruitment, researchers will need to develop knowledge about

the responses of riparian ecosystems to the kinds of silvicultural practices that will support conifer development in

these areas. Other questions about management activities 

in riparian areas are also in need of addressing.

CONCLUSION

Much literature exists, and research is continuing, on

upland silviculture, riparian vegetation, and wildlife species

for the forests managed under the Northwest Forest Plan.

Findings from some of the continuing studies are emerging,

yet large gaps remain in knowledge about riparian conditions, processes, and species—especially about how they

interact with each other. Along with the new findings, new

questions are starting to emerge that will direct the next

generation of research. As researchers refine the new questions into testable hypotheses, new designs for operationalscale research are needed.

At the same time, land managers are learning how to

manage differently than they have in the past, frequently

with the help of researchers. Some operational-scale experiments have been designed specifically to help managers

learn about the ecosystems that they manage at the same

time that these studies are helping researchers better understand complex systems, such as riparian areas. The next generation of experiments will need to continue to strengthen

the collaborative relationships between researchers and

managers. 

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management using historical fire regimes: Blue River,

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and regeneration in the coastal mountains of Oregon.

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shrubs in relation to land form and canopy cover in

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79

1 Research Ecologist, and 2 Plant Physiologist, USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331. 2 Forest Ecologist, Bureau of Land Management, Salem District, 1717 Fabry Rd. SE, Salem, OR 97306.

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 8.

RIPARIAN BUFFERS AND THINNING DESIGNS IN WESTERN OREGON

HEADWATERS ACCOMPLISH MULTIPLE RESOURCE OBJECTIVES

Deanna H. Olson1, Samuel S. Chan2, and Charles R. Thompson3

INTRODUCTION

Our western Oregon density management and riparian

buffer studies provide an opportunity for managers and

scientists to address the balance of multiple resource objectives in forested headwater subdrainages. These studies

were developed in direct response to a change in natural

resource management in the Pacific Northwest initiated by

the federal Northwest Forest Plan (USDA and USDI 1993,

1994). This regional paradigm for ecosystem management

was developed to focus on forest sustainability. On federal

lands, sustainability of forest biological resources, such as

forest-dependent species and ecosystem functions, became

paramount to wood production and its related socioeconomic imperative.

Implementation of forest ecosystem management is

ongoing and adaptive. Our joint studies have had several

roles in this implementation. Our work initially aided

ABSTRACT

We are investigating headwater riparian and upland forest management to achieve multiple resource objectives, primarily

accelerated development of old-growth habitat and rare species management. For stands 40 to 50 yrs old, a control and

three density management treatments are under study. Treatments include a mosaic of leave- and clearcut-islands within a

matrix of thinning to various densities. Within this template, four no-entry riparian buffer zones also are under investigation.

Companion studies utilize these two templates for biota and/or habitat characterizations; in particular, we are examining

amphibians, mollusks, fishes, microclimate, and microsite. The balance of resource objectives was apparent during study

implementation. For example, >100 species were evaluated by federal field units at the stand scale across 13 study sites, and

many became conflicts to study implementation. The common methods of conflict resolution involved leaving unthinned

areas, such as the study design elements of various sizes of riparian buffers and unthinned leave islands. The mosaic of

stand-scale conditions resulting from such designs effectively addresses sustainability. This is a cooperative study between

the U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, with

companion projects conducted by Oregon State University and U.S. Geological Survey partners.

KEY WORDS: Density management, riparian, buffer, headwater, microclimate, amphibians.

81

development of regional standards for research and monitoring under the Northwest Forest Plan because it was

among the first research projects proposed in the plan area.

Our projects also were the first riparian reserves harvested

under the plan in many northwestern Oregon field units,

again aiding development of procedures for plan implementation. In particular, regional planners and field units

implementing our study faced the goal of balancing

resource objectives. Numerous key resources were identified and became study “drivers,” “pivots,” or “barriers” to

project implementation. As resource conflict resolution

occurred, solutions were available to managers as subsequent analogous conflicts arose in their routine projects.

Here, we identify multiple resources that were evaluated

and managed for sustainability through implementation of

density management and riparian buffer designs. We offer

this as an approach for across-scale, multiple-resource 

forest sustainability.
BACKGROUND

Density Management in Headwater Forests

The Oregon density management studies address the

utility of various thinning designs to achieve accelerated

development of late-successional and old-growth (LSOG)

conditions in managed stands (see Tappeiner et al. 1997).

These studies were designed by the Bureau of Land

Management (BLM; C. Thompson, study coordinator) in

cooperation with Dr. John Tappeiner (Principal Investigator,

U.S. Geological Survey and Oregon State University) after

an assessment of the west-side forest management situation.

Much of this forestland was regenerated after intensive

clearcut harvest, and now resides in the plan’s late-successional reserve (LSR) land allocations. Since the LSR lands

are meant to emphasize habitat development over wood

volume production, the need to develop effective methods

to accelerate development of LSOG conditions was warranted. The thinning treatments were designed to generate

results to contribute to the dominant forest management

decisions expected for this region in the next one-to-three

decades. In addition to monitoring the development of stand

structure and composition over time in the various silvicultural treatments, evaluation of the wood production, operational and economic constraints of variable thinning designs,

and biodiversity assessments were integral components of

this work.

Two age classes of young stands were included in

investigations. Nine of 12 study sites implemented with

both density management and riparian buffer designs

(Figure 1) were young stands 30-50 years old: six on

Oregon BLM lands and three on the Siuslaw National

Forest. In the six BLM younger stands, three thinning treatments and a control were implemented (Figure 2). These

density management treatments included thinning to 80

trees per acre (TPA; 1 acre = 0.405 ha; “moderate density

treatment”), 120 TPA (“high density treatment,” and a mix

of 40, 80 and 120 TPA (“variable density treatment”).

Patch cuts, leave islands, and underplanted areas were

distributed in the thinned areas, and harvest layout and

tree marking guidelines were meant to protect stand structural features known to contribute to biodiversity. Three

BLM sites were in older managed stands, 60-70 years old.

One of these had never been thinned. This site represents a

case study of a first-entry thinning at an older stand age.

Two others were previously thinned, with a second entry

implemented with a single treatment and two controls

(never-thinned and once-thinned). These two sites conceptually represent a look into the future towards a possible

management direction for the previously described younger

stands in one-to-two decades, when a second entry thinning

may be appropriate. Although there are additional BLM

density management study sites in each age class, they did

not have sufficient streams within them to implement a

riparian buffer component for our study.

Riparian Management

Stream networks radiate throughout the west-side forest

landscapes of the Pacific Northwest, with headwater streams

present in most proposed timber sale areas. Despite their

frequency, research focusing on the ecological roles of zero

to second-order streams and subdrainages is scarce. In particular, the importance of headwaters to elements of the

Aquatic Conservation Strategy Objectives (USDA and

82

Figure 1—Distribution of 13 sites implementing the riparian buffer and

density management studies in western Oregon managed federal forests.
USDI 1994; Sedell et al. 1994) is unclear. For example, are

there critical resources or processes associated with headwaters? If so, what are they and how are they spatially distributed in the headwater aquatic network? Are there risks

to the integrity of these values with timber harvest, and

what management approaches are appropriate to attain

critical resource objectives? Upland forest riparian management approaches vary widely, including: (1) no protection; (2) restoration via stand conversion, thinning and

underplanting; (3) streamside protection zones of various

widths; and (4) patch reserves (e.g., Cissel et al. 1998).

Unfortunately few data are available to address the effectiveness of various headwater riparian management actions

in protecting aquatic resources. Additionally, most riparian

forest management approaches along larger streams were

developed within a regeneration harvest context. Limited

information is available for the effects of density management thinning designs on riparian values.

Streams at many sites in the Oregon density management

studies worked well for exploring riparian management

options within a forest thinning context. Four widths for

unthinned riparian “buffers” were chosen for study (Figure

3). Two of these stem from the guidance in the Northwest

Forest Plan (one and two site-potential tree height buffers;

range 200 to 480 ft; 1 ft = 0.305 m), while the other two

stem from less conservative guidance matched to site conditions (a 50 ft minimum variable-width buffer which

changes with topographic or vegetative conditions, relevant

to state forestry approaches, and about a 20 ft streamsideretention buffer which retains the first streamside tree to

provide bank stability from rooting strength, referenced in

the Augusta Creek Landscape Management Plan utilizing

extensive density management treatments, Cissel et al.

1998). 

83

Figure 2—Schematic diagram and aerial photograph of one Bureau of Land Management density management study site (“Bottom Line”) showing four

upslope treatments: unthinned control; high retention (density) thinning (120 trees per acre [TPA]); moderate retention thinning (80 TPA); and variable

retention thinning (with 40, 80, and 120 TPA areas). These views also depict the interim riparian reserve (RR, left) of the Northwest Forest Plan, the portion of those reserves that were planned for thinning (speckling, left figure), and the implemented unthinned riparian buffer (right, aerial photograph).
84

Figure 4—The riparian buffer study is being implemented within the moderate retention thinning treatment (80 trees per acre) at

sites that had sufficient stream lengths and upslope forest areas to allow a minimum of two buffer treatments. At this particular site

(“Green Peak”), three headwater streams permitted buffer treatments in the moderate retention unit (a one site-potential tree height

buffer, a variable width buffer and a streamside retention buffer).

Figure 3—The four unthinned streamside zones under investigation in our joint riparian buffer and density management studies.
Application of four alternative stream buffers within 

the three young stand density management treatments plus

control unit posed logistical problems due to restrictions on

stream length and configuration within a site (often composed of a square mile of BLM-administered land). Hence,

we focused the riparian buffer component within one upslope thinning treatment (80 TPA), with matched control

stream reaches (Figure 4). Additional criteria for the riparian buffer study included: a minimum of 3 stream reaches,

each with a minimum stream length of 22 site-potential

tree heights (approx. 500 ft) to implement a control and

two buffer treatments; at least 200 ft of treatment area was

needed adjacent to the buffer; and matched stream sizes

and conditions among treatment and control reaches.

Several companion studies are using the joint density

and riparian management components as templates to

examine specific questions. These include pretreatment

characterizations and post-treatment responses of: (1)

microclimate and microsite conditions - S. Chan, six sites;

(2) aquatic dependent vertebrates and habitats - D. Olson,

12 sites; (3) macro-invertebrates - A. Moldenke, Oregon

State University [OSU] and R. Progar, U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Boise, ID, selected sites; (4)

85

Table 1—Key findings of companion studies implementing research at the western Oregon density management and

riparian buffer study sites (from Neitlich and McCune 1997; Olson et al. 2000)

Project Key Findings

Microclimate and • Most of the change in microclimate from the stream to the upland forest occurs 

microsite - S. Chan within the first 45 ft from the stream. 

• Soil and water temperatures within the riparian buffer are similar between

thinned and unthinned stands. 

• Thinning to 80 TPA resulted in about a 2-6 C increase in air temperature, and 

about a 15-20% decrease in relative humidity, during the warmest and driest

period of the year. 

• Riparian areas had the most heterogeneous site conditions. 

• Stands now contain limited large down wood in early stages of decay.

Aquatic vertebrates and • Headwater vertebrate assemblages differ both longitudinally with stream flow 

habitats - D. Olson gradients and latitudinally from streams (distinct bank and upslope assemblages). 

• Several sensitive species and LSOG associated species occur in these managed

headwaters; some may be considered critical resources with persistence concerns; one, in particular, associated with discontinuous flow of uppermost 

stream network. 

• Faunal responses to treatments are undergoing analysis. 

• Upslope fauna appears reliant on legacy down wood.

Macroinvertebrates • Headwater invertebrate assemblages differ both longitudinally with stream flow

- A. Moldenke and gradients and latitudinally from streams. 

R. Progar • Near stream riparian zone arthropod assemblage contained all upslope biota.

• Small bodied Chironomidae and Mycetophiliidae dominated emergence from 

temporary streams. 

• Larger Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and trichoptera dominated emergence in 

perennial streams.

Lichens and bryophytes • Diversity and abundance hotspots are associated with gaps, hardwood trees, 

- P. Muir and B. McCune old remnant trees, and wolf trees. 

• Relictual species are associated with legacy features, and feature retention can 

retain such biodiversity 
86

Figure 5—Iterative resource evaluations occurred during project planning and implementation.

lichens and bryophytes - P. Muir and B. McCune, OSU,

selected sites. Also a new study, initiated in 2001, examines

the role of leave islands for diversity of vascular plants,

amphibians, mollusks, arthropods and related microclimate

and microhabitat features - S. Wessell and D. Olson, U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station, Corvallis, OR, and R. Schmitz, OSU,

four sites. Most of these projects are biologically focused

because we lack information on headwater biota and habitats, their unknown response to a mosaic of thinned and

unthinned areas, and the management need to balance timber harvest approaches with species protection and maintenance of ecosystem functions. Many key findings on the

headwater forest characteristics, dynamics, flora, and fauna

are emerging in these studies (Table 1), and likely will contribute to the adaptive management process for headwater

forest management.

MULTIPLE RESOURCES: FROM 

CONFLICTS TO DRIVERS, PIVOTS, 

AND BARRIERS

Although we were involved in these projects as

researchers to implement our various studies, our role is

often greater. Our studies are part of an active interagency

adaptive management process that integrates the joint production and protection of multiple resources. As the thinning and riparian buffer experiments were proposed and

implemented in western Oregon, the multiple resources that

were addressed spanned wood production, species of concern, habitats, and the politico-socioeconomic. Integration

of these multiple resource objectives often were translated

into proposed tradeoffs of concerns as single considerations

conflicted with others and subsequently became a “driver,”

“pivot,” or “barrier” to implementation.

We found that whether a resource conflict resulted in a

resource becoming a driver, pivot, or barrier was often contingent upon when in the process (Figure 5) it was recognized as an issue. Conflicts first arose during planning, in

1993-1995, as the study design intersected the path of the

Northwest Forest Plan. At the landscape level, the role of

federal land-use allocations was questioned. Which allocations were appropriate for study sites; for example, could

we implement sites in Late Successional Reserves (LSR’s)

because we were working to improve LSOG conditions?

Initially, sites in Tier 1 Key Watersheds and LSR’s were

deferred from eligibility due to the early “hands-off” view

of these lands under the Northwest Forest Plan. Later, it

was decided that research objectives were consistent with

management objectives for these allocations. One potential

Matrix site was disqualified because the timeframe of the

study and its proposed 30-year monitoring might have

affected later entry to the site. Thus, LSR and Matrix allocations were perceived as both study “drivers” and “barriers” in different contexts.

Resource conflicts that were considered barriers to

implementation generally were recognized at the larger

spatial scales during the screening of the landscape for

potential sites. Landscape screening criteria were primarily

species and habitat concerns. They reflected precautionary

principles applied during the early implementation of the

Northwest Forest Plan. For example, the following conditions were identified and often avoided for site selection:

key watersheds for listed fish, the zone of the marbled

murrelet, known activity areas of northern spotted owls,

and areas with extensive root rot, likely wind damage, soil

erosion and landslide potential. Serious concerns sometimes resulted in the honing of study objectives, or a pivot

in study implementation. Potential sites in the Coast Range

and western Cascade Range with extensive riparian

reserves also were initially perceived as potential conflicts

to site selection before they were recognized as research

opportunities.

Once landscapes were screened for potential eligibility

for site selection and individual sites were assessed, a new

set of issues arose. For example, while areas with known

northern spotted owl or marbled murrelet nests generally

were avoided during landscape screening, dispersal habitats

for owls and murrelets emerged as a concern for other

sites. Socioeconomics of sites also were projected relative

to operational constraints and implementation costs; marketability of sales units were affected by the complex

harvest design, need for new road construction, and the

potential logging system impacts (e.g., helicopter, suspension). To make a density management site marketable, the
87

Table 2—Species evaluated during study site implementation

Taxonomic Group 

(no. species or taxa) Species (common or scientific names)

Birds (13) northern spotted owl, marbled murrelet, bald eagle, northern goshawk, raven, pileated 

woodpecker, saw whet owl, American kestrel, western bluebird, peregrine falcon, snowy 

plover, brown pelican, Aleutian Canada goose

Mammals (12) Bats: Townsends big eared bat, pallid bat, fringed bat, long eared myotis, Yuma myotis, 

long legged myotis, Pacific western big eared bat 

Others: red tree vole, white footed vole, American marten, deer, elk

Amphibians (5) red legged frog, southern torrent salamander, Oregon slender salamander, clouded salamander, tailed frog

Fishes (5) coho salmon, steelhead trout, cutthroat trout, resident cutthroat trout, sculpin spp.

Mollusks (2) blue gray tail dropper, papillose tail dropper

Lichens (20) Hypogymnia oceanica, Lobaria oregana, L. pulmonaria, L. scrobiculatea, Nephroma 

bellum, N. helveticum, N. laevigatum, N. resupinatum, Pannaria leucostichtoides, P. 

saubinetii, Parmotrema chinense, Peltigera collina, P. pacifica, Plastimatia lacunosa, 

Pseudocyphellaria anomala, P. anthraspis, P. crocata, Ramalina thrausta, Sticta fulginosa, S. limbata.

Mosses (2) Buxbaumia piperi, Antitrichia curtipendula

Fungi (17) Gymnopilus punctifolius, Aphaeocollybia sp., Ramaria aurantiisiccescens, Otidea leporina,

Sarcosoma mexicana, Cantharellus formaosus, C. subalbidus, C. ciberius, Clavariadelphus

liqula, Phaeocollybia sp., Ramaria cyaneigranosa, Gomphus clavatus, G. floccosus,

Hydnum repandum, Phaeocollybia attenuata, Canthatellus tubaeformis, Helvella 

compressa 

Vascular plants (9) Orobanche pinorum, Monotropa uniflora, Hypopitys monotropa, Pityopus californica, 

Pleuricospora fimbriolata, Hemitomes congestum, Sparassis crispa, Botrychium virginianum, B. multifidum

Minority tree species (8) Pacific yew, western hemlock, western redcedar, red alder, bigleaf maple, myrtlewood, 

cherry, tanoak

Tree diseases/pests (4) laminated root rot, black stain root disease, Douglas-fir bark beetle, swiss needle cast

Noxious weeds (6) scotch broom, bull thistle, Klamath weed, tansy ragwort, Canadian thistle, hemlock dwarf 

mistletoe

Other (1) Oregon silverspot butterfly
88

economics of patch openings and inclusion of neighboring

parcels became important as mechanisms to increase yield

and market value. One site harvested primarily via helicopter methods may not have been purchased under later market conditions. Two other sites did not sell when first

offered, again due to market values of timber and the cost

of implementing the complex study design. They later sold

to a single bidder at the government-appraised price.

A preliminary assessment of the wood production in

these project areas is compiled in Table 2. Implementation

of the density management prescriptions resulted in greater

volume removed when compared to traditional thinnings,

largely due to the patch cuts ranging in size from 4 to 1

acre. At one site, the environmental assessment stated that

lumber was provided to the public while maintaining or

increasing the vigor and volume growth of the stand

through time. An increased timber benefit to the economy

of the county was projected. These increased timber benefits would apply to all study sites.

Stand- or project-scale implementation was the finest

scale at which the balance of resources was addressed. This

scale was much more involved, adaptive, and instructive

for the resource balancing act. Field units implementing

study sites evaluated a myriad of site conditions and concern topics for their environmental assessments. Across all

study sites, these included evaluations of species (n=103

species of 13 taxa; Table 3) and specialized habitats (e.g.,

wetlands, downed wood, snags, soil conditions, meadows).

Many of these conflicted with the study, some serving as

barriers to proceeding until an adequate resolution was

determined.

Application of the study’s various design elements was

the dominant mode of stand-level conflict resolution. In

particular, unthinned areas were used to mitigate for many

sensitive species and special habitats; protection was provided with unthinned riparian buffers, leave islands, and

control areas (Table 4). For example, protection of lichen

diversity “hotspots” (Neitlich and McCune 1997) was

implemented at some sites via leave islands. For some

potential conflicts, the thinning treatment was expected to

be either a relatively benign disturbance, or a short-term 

risk but a long-term gain in habitat conditions. After site

selection, almost all conflicting resource issues were

resolved. Interestingly, some of the resource conflicts

that were barriers at larger scales were resolved at the

fine scale. Development of standard scale-dependent criteria for resource evaluations is warranted. Which resourcemanagement objectives should be attained at the landscape

scale, and which objectives are better addressed at finer

spatial scales? As we have noted, landscape scale resource

attainment could result in precautionary approaches.

Alternatively, landscape planning could heighten site-level

risks for selected areas.

COMPATIBILITY

Resolving resource conflicts helped achieve the compatibility of multiple resources for joint production and

protection. This occurred in similar ways at each spatial

scale by either reserving lands for individual resources (in

some cases, for combinations of resources) or accepting

risk relative to a resource.

At the finest scale, resolving resource conflicts included

excising portions of the study site, or allocation of unthinned

treatments (control units, no entry riparian reserves, leave

islands, tree clumps) to some areas. Conflicts were addressed

during site implementation with marking guidelines and

operational changes. The complexity of the experimental

design, involving various riparian buffer widths, thinning

densities of 40, 80, or 120 TPA with patch openings and

leave islands of various sizes, and an untreated control,

provided flexibility to accommodate potentially conflicting

resources. Additionally, the spatial scale of the treatments

often were considered small enough to have acceptable

risks to some resources.

At the intermediate scale of site selection, the result of

resource conflicts also was the reserving of lands. In this

case, a site was either categorized as eligible or ineligible

for the silvicultural treatments of the study design. During

site selection, such eligibility decisions occurred in two

spatial units: (1) the project area - often a single section in

the BLM checkerboard ownership pattern; or (2) the larger

landscape as defined by the distribution of a resource.

Exclusion of areas with known resource conflicts was the

main resolution of conflicts at this level. 

During the early study design, as the objectives were

honed and the geographic scope of the study defined, a

similar conceptual reserving of the landscape was conducted

to restrict the eligibility of lands for site selection. This

large scale reserving also was contingent on large scale

resource distributions. 

MODEL FOR SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY

Implementation of these interagency density management studies can model adaptive forest management and

sustainable forestry. Forest managers, resource specialists,

and scientists’ procedures to resolve conflicting resource
89

Table 3—Examples of resource conflict resolutions (continued on next page)

Resource Resolution of Conflict

Northern Spotted Owl Sites excluded from study if a nest was found. Seasonal restriction of activities to 

reduce disturbance to foraging and nesting. Majority of treated area > 40% canopy 

closure.

Marbled murrelet Seasonal restriction, daily timing restriction to activities, majority of treated area > 

40% canopy closure.

General wildlife Patch cuts positioned to benefit wildlife (1 site), defective trees left (1 site), 2 residual 

trees per acre topped (1 site), seasonal restrictions, retention of previously topped

trees, roads blocked or gated to reduce disturbance, falling/girdling of additional

trees, maintain untreated area along main creek for amphibians and mollusks.

Fish Streamside retention buffer was not placed on streams with fish concerns (1 site), seasonal restriction (2 sites), trees felled into creek for habitat (1 site). Helicopter log 

instead of 6,300 ft new road construction, build new roads along ridges.

Blue gray tail dropper, Helped locate leave islands, untreated riparian area designated.

Papillose tail dropper, 

other Mollusks

Douglas fir bark beetle Seasonal restriction outside the adult beetle flight.

Laminated root rot Sites with heterogeneous forest condition from this disease were excluded from study, 

presence at a site was incorporated into patch clearcut islands. Treatment was the 

same as the rest of the stand in several cases.

Monotrope plants (5 spp) Unthinned control located to preserve one species, two one-half acre leave islands 

located for other species, 3-4 trees retained around site centers (maple clumps), some

unit boundaries were changed to provide protection.

Orobanche pinorum Reserve island established.

(Vascular plant)

Minority tree species Retained in study area, patch cuts positioned to assure regeneration of desirable 

seedlings, reserve patches represent unique characteristics, reserved hardwoods and

conifer < 5 in. dbh, retain limby/wolf trees, seasonal restriction and 40 ft max. log

length to protect residual stands, minimize landing size.

Buxbaumia piperi, Antitrichia Thirty sites, some protected by control unit, protected by retention of downed logs 

curtipendula (Mosses) (1 site). Leave island designated. Mosses located in control and high density thinning

treatment.

Fungi (15 spp.); Sparassis Helped locate leave islands, application of density management treatments rather crispa

than patch cuts where feasible, reserve clumps of trees, if leave islands bisected by 

logging corridors then they would be < 15 ft wide, protection by stream buffer zones;

Retention of 5-6 trees adjacent to or hosting the population.

Lichens Helped leave island placement, protected by stream buffer zones.
production and protection goals are noticed and adopted

elsewhere. Combined techniques such as leave trees, leave

islands, patch openings, multiple thinning densities, and

flexible riparian buffers are merged to tier harvests to site

and microsite conditions. For example, careful examination

of stream channels led to our variable width riparian buffer

zones, which bulge or narrow with topographic and vegetative conditions along stream channels. The site quickly

becomes a mosaic of conditions, reflecting the normal

range of conditions found in a watershed, province, or

region. At multiple spatial scales, areas identified for

preservation are retained while areas in which risk to various resources is not apparent or appears acceptable, different forest prescriptions are applied.

A challenge for the broad use of this fine-toothed

comb approach to “grooming” site-to-landscape conditions is identifying the resources that should be screened

per scale and identifying the scale-specific and acrossscale approaches for their integrated management. Our

combined density management and riparian buffer studies

are providing new information relative to unique resources

in headwater subdrainages, to contribute new knowledge

relevant to this challenge. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank John Tappeiner, Jim Sedell, Bruce Hansen,

Larry Larsen, Peter O’Toole, Floyd Freeman, Craig Snyder,

and Loretta Ellenburg for their instrumental roles in study

design and implementation. We thank our collaborators for

their input, partnership, and funding support, including

90

Table 3 (continued)—Examples of resource conflict resolutions 

Resource Resolution of Conflict

Streams and riparian areas Patch cuts positioned away from stream channels, no yarding in no-cut areas, marshy 

area protection by one row of conifers around perimeter, yarding away from streams,

inner gorge no cut zone, trees felled in leave areas are to be left. Ninety-three trees

>15” dbh identified for coarse woody debris and snag creation (1 site), minimize use

of riparian zone trees for anchoring or hanging cables, full suspension over streams

or wetlands.

Water quality, sedimentation landing construction > 50 ft from streams, yarding perpendicular to streams, one-end 

suspension.

Wetlands Diverted roads, affected riparian reserve boundaries, and affected leave island placement (1 site).

Meadow lithosol Habitats excluded from treatment (1 site).

Downed wood/snags Remain on site, damaged trees retained, snags created, trees felled for downed wood 

after first winter storm season.

Special forest products Selection of trees to 10 in. dbh made by silviculturist to focus on suppressed trees and 

intermediate crown classes (1 site). Firewood permits allowed.

Recreation No harvest uphill of main trail, no harvest within 50 ft of trail where possible, slash 

piles >100 ft from trail, no marking paint on trail side of trees, flag persons

employed during logging.

Fire Felling away from roads, slash piles burned by U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, 4 ft wide fuel break along private property boundary (1 site). 

Slash pulled back 25 ft from roads (1 site), debris burned at landings, patch openings, 

and within 50 ft of haul roads (1 site).
nine BLM Resource Areas, the BLM Oregon State Office,

the Siuslaw National Forest, and the Pacific Northwest

Research Station.

LITERATURE CITED

Cissel, J.H.; Swanson, F.J.; Grant, G.E.; Olson, D.H. [et al.].

1998. A landscape plan based on historical fire regimes

for a managed forest ecosystem: the Augusta Creek

study. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-422. Portland, OR:

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. 82 p.

Neitlich, P.N.; McCune, B. 1997. Hotspots of epiphytic 

lichen diversity in two young managed forests.

Conservation Biology. 11: 172-182.

Olson, D.H.; Chan, S.S.; Weaver, G.; Cunningham, P. 

[et al.]. 2000. Characterizing stream, riparian, upslope

habitats and species in Oregon managed headwater

forests. In: Wiggington, J.; Beschta, R. eds. Riparian

ecology and management in multi-land use watersheds.

International conference of the American Water

Resources Association, 30 August, Portland, OR.

AWRA Publication TPS-00-2, Middleburg, VA: 83-88.

Sedell, J.R.; Reeves, G.H.; Burnett, K.M. 1994. 

Development and evaluation of aquatic conservation

strategies. Journal of Forestry. 92: 28-31.

Tappeiner, J.C.; Huffman, D.; Marshall, D.; Spies, T.A.; 

Bailey, J.D. 1997. Density, ages, and growth rates in

old-growth and young-growth forests in coastal Oregon.

Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 27: 638-648.

U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of 

Interior. 1993. Forest ecosystem management: an ecological, economic, and social assessment. Report of the

Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team

[FEMAT]. U.S. GPO 1993-793-071. On file with:

Regional Ecosystem Office, 333 SW 1st Ave, Portland,

Oregon, 97208, U.S.A.

U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of 

Interior. 1994. Record of decision for amendments for

Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management planning documents within the range of the northern spotted

owl (Northwest Forest Plan). U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service and U.S. Department of

Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Portland,

Oregon, U.S.A. On file with: Regional Ecosystem

Office, 333 SW 1st Ave, Portland, Oregon, 97208,

U.S.A.

91

Table 4—Estimated volume of timber harvest (mmbf) and area treated for seven density 

management study sites (30-50 yrs) and three older “rethin” study sites (70-80 yrs)1

Wood Production (mmbf) Area

8.4 mmbf 389 acres thinned

1.5 mmbf, average 10 mbf/acre 220 acre project area, 163 acres thinned

1.3 mmbf 246 acre project area, 145 acres commercially thinned

1.8 mmbf 380 acre project area, 261 acres thinned

1.6 mmbf 403 acre project area, 135 acres thinned

1.9 mmbf 244 acre project area, 157 acres thinned

3.5 mmbf 312 acres project area, 241 acres thinned

0.94 mmbf 406 acre project area, 94 acres treated (70-80 yrs)

1.6 mmbf 182 acres thinned, 1 acre road clearcut (70-80 yrs)

4 mmbf 230 acre project area, 140 acres thinned (70-80 yrs)

1 Data come from environmental assessments 

1 Co-Director and 2 Research Scientist, Center for Water and Watershed Studies (formerly the Center for Streamside Studies), Box 352100 University of

Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2100 sbolton@u.washington.edu and cb@u.washington.edu, respectively 3 Berman, C. [N.d.] Assessment of landscape characterization methods. Manuscript in preparation. On file with: Cara Berman, Center for Water and

Watershed Studies, Box 352100, University of Washington, Seattle WA 98195-2100

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 9.

RESEARCH ON STREAMSIDE ISSUES THROUGH 

THE WOOD COMPATIBILITY INITIATIVE

Susan Bolton1 and Cara Berman2

INTRODUCTION

Through the Wood Compatibility Initiative (WCI), 

the Center for Streamside Studies (CSS) (now the Center

for Water and Watershed Studies) at the University of

Washington has undertaken a series of research efforts

addressing production and protection of forest, fish,

wildlife, and other aquatic and riparian resources. These

efforts consist of micro-habitat and habitat unit-scale mechanistic studies, trans-scale studies exploring hierarchical

linkages of structure and function, as well as the development of a landscape classification model (Berman3) linking

physical and biological processes across scales and integrating terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem components.

Information derived from these efforts provides information to support natural resource management decision-making. Projects focus on the interactive effects of structures

ABSTRACT

Through the Wood Compatibility Initiative (WCI), the Center for Streamside Studies (now the Center for Water and

Watershed Studies) at the University of Washington has undertaken a series of research efforts addressing production and

protection of forest, fish, wildlife, and other aquatic and riparian resources. These efforts consist of micro-habitat and

habitat-unit-scale mechanistic studies, trans-scale studies exploring hierarchical linkages of structure and function, as well

as the development of a landscape classification model linking physical and biological processes across scales and integrating terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem components. Wood Compatibility Initiative funded projects have involved collaboration with scientists at the Pacific Northwest Research Station, National Marine Fisheries Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service, Weyerhaeuser Company, the City of Seattle, the Lummi Nation and others. The Center for Streamside Studies has

addressed the role of large woody debris in streams, including stream input processes and hydraulic and biologic functions.

Other studies have investigated freshwater habitat condition and its relation to salmonid productivity and the role of

hyporheic flux in redd selection by salmonids. In collaboration with others, historic riparian stand condition, specifically

canopy cover related to stream shading, has been investigated as well as the role of geomorphic variability in affecting

stream temperatures. This paper summarizes the results from WCI studies initiated over the past four years.

KEY WORDS: Center for Streamside Studies, Center for Water and Watershed Studies, riparian research, rivers.

93

and processes across ecosystem elements and scales and at

different places within the stream network. It is these synthetic studies that are necessary to respond to today’s complex management landscape.

Center for Streamside Studies projects examined the

distribution of large woody debris in streams across various

ecoregions in Washington, and hydraulic and biologic functions of natural versus engineered wood. Other studies

investigated freshwater habitat condition and its relation 

to salmonid productivity and the role of hyporheic flux in

redd selection by salmonids. In collaboration with Upper

Columbia River timber growers and the U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service district forests and supervisor’s offices, historic riparian stand condition, specifically

canopy cover related to stream shading, was investigated

as well as the role of geomorphic variability in affecting
94

Table 1—Large woody debris piece quantity: number of pieces per 100 m of channel length (Fox 2001)

Region BFW Class Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Western WA 0-6 m >38 26-38 <26

>6-30 m >63 29-63 <29

>30-100 m >208 57-208 <57

Alpine >0-3 m >28 15-28 <15

>3-30 m >56 25-56 <25

>30-50 m >63 22-63 <22

DF/PPa 0-6 m >29 5-29 <5

>6-30 m >35 5-35 <5

aDouglas-Fir/Ponderosa Pine Ecoregion

Table 2—Large woody debris volume: cubic meters per 100 m of channel length (Fox 2001)

Region BFW Class Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Western WA 0-30 m >99 28-99 <28

>30-100 m >317 44-317 <44

Alpine >0-3 m >10 3-10 <3

>3-50 m >30 11-30 <11

DF/PPa 0-30 m >15 2-15 <2

aDouglas-fir/Ponderosa pine ecoregion

Table 3—Key piece quantity: number of pieces per 100 m of channel length (Fox 2001)

Region BFW Class Good Condition Fair Condition Poor Condition

Western WA 0-10 m >11 4-11 <4

>10-100 m >4 1-4 <1

Alpine >0-15 m >4 0.5-4 <0.5

>15-50 m >1 0.5-1 <0.5

DF/PPa 0-30 m >2 0.5-2 <0.5

aDouglas-fir/Ponderosa pine ecoregion
stream temperatures. Wood Compatibility Initiative funded

projects have involved collaboration with scientists at the

Pacific Northwest Research Station, National Marine

Fisheries Service (NMFS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

(USFWS), the city of Seattle, the Weyerhaeuser Company,

the Lummi Nation and others. This paper summarizes the

results from WCI studies initiated over the past four years.

FINDINGS AND MANAGEMENT

IMPLICATIONS

Managers’ and regulators’ research needs are complex

and require a detailed understanding of multi-scalar landscape processes as well as the interactive components of

the stream ecosystem. Therefore, it is not unusual for CSS

projects to address longitudinal, lateral, and vertical connectivity across multiple spatial and temporal scales. In

fact, this approach is required to view the river system

holistically and to understand the implications for management decisions

CONCEPTUAL MODEL

The interactive components of a river system form a

template on which abiotic and biotic processes unfold.

These interactive components exist across spatial and temporal scales and establish a heterogeneous and dynamic

system. To conceptualize linkages between stream components, Ward (1989) recognized four dimensions, a longitudinal, lateral, vertical, and temporal dimension. Wood

Compatibility Initiative funded projects describe these

stream linkages and interactions across spatial and temporal

scales allowing managers to better predict the consequences

of disturbances (natural and human-induced) on aquatic

systems. To the four dimensions we add a fifth, a policyscience-management dimension that assesses and informs

attitudes and actions that affect resource protection and

recovery. 

Longitudinal Dimension (Elements of the Landscape) 

The longitudinal dimension reflects upstream-downstream

linkages affecting stream processes and patterns. Projects

investigating the longitudinal dimension address landscape

variability and the distribution and pattern of resources

along the longitudinal axis of the stream system. 

Large woody debris (LWD) quantity—LWD characteristics in unmanaged basins vary according to climatic,

geomorphological, and hydrological differences (Fox 2001;

Fox 2002; Fox et al. 2002.). Instream wood is recognized

as an important feature linked to channel processes that

benefit salmonids and various LWD targets exist to help

resource managers assess restoration needs. However,

existing wood targets do not adequately account for variations in LWD quantity or volume due to longitudinal differences in geomorphology, ecoregion, or disturbance

regime. Data analysis suggests that current wood targets

are not appropriate for all streams within Washington state.

Data indicate that LWD amounts vary by bankfull width

(BFW) class and region (Tables 1-3). Project findings provide a baseline for managers interested in assessing existing conditions and establishing recovery targets. This

information is useful for modifying existing wood targets

established by Washington state’s Watershed Analysis as

well as other management and recovery programs within

the Pacific Northwest. 

Eastside forests and stream temperatures—Riparian

forests also vary along the longitudinal axis according to

biophysical factors. However, a paucity of information

exists on riparian stands and historical shade levels for

eastern Washington forests. Johnston (2002) used air photos, field investigation and General Land Office Surveys to

characterize historical riparian forest conditions in eastern

Washington taking into account the historical fire regime

and fire suppression. This project also received funding

from a coalition of Upper Columbia River timber growers. 

Historical riparian conditions are compared to current conditions to evaluate the effects of various management activities (e.g., fire suppression, timber harvest). Findings will

allow resource managers and regulators to better understand landscape appropriate strategies for managing eastside riparian forests. Active management within riparian

stands raises complex issues, particularly considering the

potential reduction of shade along temperature sensitive

streams. An understanding of the pre-harvest and pre-fire

suppression riparian condition is important for determining

appropriate levels of shade and other related riparian forest

characteristics. 

Longitudinal changes in landform and physical and 

biological processes also give rise to longitudinal and temporal variation in stream temperature. The natural range of

thermal conditions as well as temperature variability at the

landscape and watershed scales were examined by Scholz

(2001). Findings indicate that temperatures in the Wenatchee

National Forest are influenced at the landscape scale by

several factors including air temperature, drainage area,

elevation, and stream shading. Many of these factors are

correlated and these factors affect acute and chronic conditions to different degrees. The physical factors that determine

stream temperatures at the landscape scale are not necessarily good predictors of smaller scale temperature regimes.

Stream temperatures in several watersheds are perhaps

95
influenced primarily by their high geologic potential for

groundwater upwelling, especially in basins with little

managed area. This study also received funding from the

Wenatchee Supervisor’s Office and the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency. (The hyporheic studies discussed under

the vertical dimension heading are examining the relative

role of groundwater on stream temperature compared to

other characteristics such as shade, buffer width and composition, and elevation in urban, agricultural and forested

landscapes (Reidy4; Monohan5) and complement these

landscape studies on stream temperature and riparian 

conditions.)

Understanding system potential and the mechanisms

that establish thermal pattern will also assist those designing restoration measures. This research supports and complements work undertaken by the U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service. The Center for Streamside

Studies will continue to interact with Pete Bisson on his

temperature work in Eastern Washington. 

Fish habitat—The interactive components of a river

system form a template on which abiotic and biotic

processes unfold. The longitudinal dimension is a patchwork of resource availability including habitat for aquatic

biota. Physical processes affecting bedload scour, such as

flow regime and sediment load as well as behavioral

processes, are examined in the context of bull trout spawning habitat development, disturbance, and selection

(Shellberg6). 

Three primary research questions are addressed. First,

what general factors influence spawning site selection

(substrate, depth, velocity, cover, hyporheic flow) and what

are the patterns of scour and fill in these microhabitats?

Second, how does the reach scale channel morphology

(channel type, sediment transport regime, LWD) affect

scour and spawning habitat availability? Finally, what

influence does watershed hydrology (runoff timing, 

frequency, magnitude and duration) have on bedload

scour and bull trout distribution? Study results will shed

light on the potential influence of physical habitat conditions on bull trout population integrity and distribution

and help resource managers identify restoration strategies

for this threatened species. 

Nutrient dynamics vary longitudinally in river systems

as a function of a number of physical and biological

processes. In cooperation with NMFS and the City of

Seattle, CSS has participated in studies in the Cedar River

to investigate the effects of salmon carcasses on nutrient

dynamics and resident fish populations (Kiffney et al. 2001).

Results from this study will provide information on the rate

at which anadromous salmon naturally colonize newly

available habitat and the means by which they redistribute

themselves into fresh water spawning areas—information

currently not available from any research. Water quality

information is being collected and components of stream

food webs are being sampled for nitrogen and carbon isotopes. Findings will elucidate linkages between anadromous

and resident population dynamics and stream productivity.

The Vertical Dimension (Reach Elements)

The vertical dimension reflects interactions between the

channel and contiguous groundwater. Projects investigating

vertical connectivity address hyporheic flux across variable

landscapes and land uses. Hyporheic zones influence

chemical, hydrological, zoological, and metabolic functions

at various scales and thereby affect channel physiochemical

gradients, nutrient availability, and biotic productivity

(Brunke and Gonser 1997). Previously, CSS researchers

(e.g. Clinton 2001; Coe 2001) investigated hyporheic flux

in large alluvial river systems in forested settings. Collaborative research between CSS and USFS scientists Rick

Edwards and Steve Wondzell and NMFS scientist Peter

Kiffney was initiated to study hyporheic processes in urban

and agricultural streams across variable landscapes. This

research will focus on hyporheic transient storage in urban

and agricultural areas in comparison to forested areas and

potential effects on stream temperature and nutrient cycling

(Reidy; Monohan; Clinton7). These three studies will

investigate how transient storage, nutrient retention and

invertebrate distribution vary within an array of urban,

agricultural, and forested streams. Information derived

from this work is important for understanding potential

changes in stream temperature and productivity under 

differing land-use practices.

Temporal and Lateral Connectivity

In addition to longitudinal and vertical connectivity, the

above projects incorporate aspects of temporal variability

96

4 Reidy, C. [N.d.] Extent of hyporheic zones in Puget Sound Lowland streams. M.S. thesis in preparation. On file with: Center for Water and Watershed

Studies, Box 352100, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2100.

5 Monohan, C. [N.d.] Responses of various riparian buffers to nitrogen loading: nitrogen retention mechanisms, Ph.D. thesis in preparation. On file with:

Center for Water and Watershed Studies, Box 352100, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2100.

6 Shellberg, J. [N.d.] Hydrologic and geomorphic conditions in selected bull trout spawning streams in western Washington. M.S. thesis in preparation. On

file with: Center for Water and Watershed Studies, Box 352100, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2100.

7 Clinton, S. [N.d.]. Isotopic and invertebrate signatures in hyporheic zones in the Puget Sound lowlands. Manuscript in preparation. On file with: Center

for Water Watershed Studies, Box 352100, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2100.
and lateral connectivity. The temporal and spatial patchiness of resources structures biotic communities. Temporal

fluctuation of process dynamics and resource response

variables was investigated in projects addressing LWD

delivery (Fox 2001), riparian characterization (Johnston

2002), and thermal patchiness (Scholz 2001). The lateral

dimension reflects interactions between the channel and the

adjacent riparian/floodplain system. Interactive pathways

along this dimension facilitate the exchange of matter and

energy. Lateral connectivity was investigated in projects

addressing LWD input processes (Fox 2001), groundwater

recharge/discharge (Scholz 2001; Reidy4; Monohan5;

Clinton7), and habitat-forming processes (Shellberg6)

including a literature review of riparian soil studies

(Mikkelsen and Vesho 2000).

Policy-Science-Management Dimension

The policy-science-management dimension reflects attitudes, behaviors, and actions related to riparian and aquatic

protection and recovery. Projects address policy, information transfer, stream restoration and resource management

related topics and are designed to assess attitudes, behaviors,

and activities related to riparian and aquatic protection and

recovery. In 1998, CSS provided organizational help to the

Society for Ecological Restoration Northwest Chapter for

their annual meetings in Tacoma, Washington. The meeting drew over 600 registered attendees and was a great

venue for disseminating information. In addition to the

organizational assistance, CSS hosted and developed a concurrent symposium on riparian ecology and management.

Abstracts of the symposium are out-of-print but the Center

for Water and Watershed Studies will provide copies upon

request. 

Non-point source (NPS) pollution programs—

Successful control of NPS pollution depends in large measure on intervention programs that inform participants and

create public awareness in communities where the programs operate. One component of this project (Ryan et al.

2001) identifies the motivations of rural landowners to participate in conservation-oriented land management programs that assist landowners in adopting land management

practices. Results of the research (Ise 2001) indicate that

(1) self-interest, such as the need for technical assistance

and the threat of future regulations, is the strongest motivation for participation; (2) land use decisions are often based

on factors related to the land’s utility for commodity production or personal aesthetics; and (3) attitudes about

upholding private property rights are frequently stronger

than attitudes about protecting the environment. This

research did not indicate that conservation-oriented programs could instill a conservation ethic or significantly

influence change to individual conservation attitudes and

behaviors. Findings will assist regulators in devising techniques to improve nonpoint source control.

Extent of monitoring—In addition to research related

to behavior and attitudes, monitoring practices of various stream restoration groups and projects was evaluated.

Specifically, the perceived shortcoming in the evaluation of

stream restoration and fisheries enhancement projects in

Washington state was examined (Bash 1999). While project

goals include restoring and improving stream health, it was

not known to what extent projects were monitored or evaluated to determine if goals are being met. 

Findings revealed that monitoring of stream restoration

and fisheries enhancement projects may be occurring at

higher rates than resource managers thought. However, the

level and quality of monitoring activities were highly variable across the sample. Barriers to monitoring included

funding, time, personnel, and lack of cooperation from

property owners. Monitoring related topics for managers to

consider include: appropriateness of objectives and monitoring measures, need for long-term monitoring, development of funding specifically for monitoring, methods for

encouraging or requiring monitoring, and implementation

and quality of project monitoring. Information from this

study may help those managing and funding projects to

better understand the current strengths and limitations of

project evaluation, and allow them to adjust their policies

accordingly. 

Restoration projects—Concern for the health of aquatic

systems in the Pacific Northwest encouraged research on

new methods to enhance freshwater spawning and rearing

habitat and to assess habitat related to salmon productivity.

Lack of LWD in streams has reduced the complexity and

quality of fish habitat. A project designed to compare the

hydraulic and biological performance of native LWD and

an organic, engineered alternative to LWD (ELWdTM 8)

was undertaken (O’Neal 2000; O’Neal et al. 2000a; O’Neal

et al. 2000b; Savery 2000) and received additional support

from the Weyerhaeuser Company.

97

8 The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of

any product or service.
Fish response was not significantly different for the two

types of wood. Values of invertebrate metrics were generally

higher for samples collected from ELWdTM surfaces than

from traditional LWD. Invertebrate samples were also evaluated in terms of the production of available food resources

for salmonids. The results showed greater food availability

from the ELWdTM structures. In all sampling, benthic samples did not show a clear difference between the wood types.

Therefore, innovative sampling methods were created to

assess invertebrate production on LWD. 

Savery (2000) compared the hydraulic effects of native

LWD and an engineered alternative. The physical differences between the native LWD and the ELWdTM had an

effect on the ability of the installed structures to maintain

channel position. Engineered LWD did not maintain original bank position as well as native LWD. Although some 

of the differences between pairs is explained by local

hydraulics and bank position, the low mass of engineered

wood allows the structure to be moved by the stream.

Additionally, engineered roots on the ELWdTM structures

improve their stability, but are not as stable as native LWD

with attached rootwads. The mean scour produced by the

two log types was not statistically significant. However, the

engineered structures created a comparatively large amount

of turbulence on the upstream side of the log. Research

results related to engineered wood performance provide an

evaluation of the effectiveness of an engineered alternative

compared to traditional LWD for stream enhancement projects before engineered structures are widely placed

(O’Neal et al. 2000b).

Management models—Current recovery efforts lack a

clear understanding of the relationship between freshwater

habitat conditions and salmon response. This information is

critical to the successful design of salmon recovery plans.

To evaluate the distribution of expected salmon production

resulting from alternative restoration strategies in Oregon’s

Willamette River Basin, CSS, in cooperation with NMFS,

is developing a model (Brauner9) relating restoration activity to changes in habitat. The resulting model will be linked

to a NMFS model relating habitat characteristics to the survival rates of salmon. This project will develop analytical

tools to assist resource managers designing or evaluating

restoration actions intended to increase salmonid fitness

and ultimately productivity. 

Riparian forest restoration—In January of 1999,

Lummi Natural Resources and the University of Washington

Center for Streamside Studies began to analyze the vegetative and environmental data collected in the three years

since the Riparian Zone Restoration Project's inception and

to evaluate the project's success to data. One of the products of this analysis (Wishnie et al. 1999a; Wishnie et al.

1999b) was the establishment of new data collection protocols, field sheets, and comment and damage codes to

improve the accuracy and utility of data collection. These

materials are an example of an effective approach to data

collection: initial survey protocol, initial data sheet, initial

survey codes, damage codes, annual survey protocol,

annual survey codes, annual data sheet. 

CONCLUSION

WCI funded projects address the following resource

management issues and information needs: (1) increase

understanding of physical and biological processes across

variable landscapes; (2) develop conceptual models allowing inferences within and across regions; (3) explore disturbance processes and implications for management; (4)

design multi-scalar monitoring programs; (5) develop linkages between management actions and site-scale alterations;

and (6) design and calibrate broad scale monitoring metrics. These projects form the basis for a synthetic approach

to understanding and managing complex ecolo-gical systems. A recent WCI grant award to develop a landscape

classification model linking physical and biological

processes across scales and ecosystem components will

allow us to integrate research findings and meet current

resource challenges and data needs. 

To ensure access to CWWS research, efforts are underway to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of our

information transfer activities. Efforts undertaken through

the WCI program are important to resource managers

throughout the Pacific Northwest. We are committed to

ensuring broad dissemination of research results as well as

fostering dialogue to address issues important to resource

managers.

LITERATURE CITED

Bash, J.S. 1999. Survey of stream restoration and fisheries 

enhancement monitoring in Washington state. Seattle,

WA: University of Washington, 130 p. M.S. thesis

98

9 Brauner, J. [N.d.] Decision-making under uncertainty: prioritizing freshwater habitat restoration for salmon recovery. Ph.D. thesis in preparation. On file

with: Center for Water and Watershed Studies, University of Washington, Box 352100, Seattle, WA 98195-2100
Brunke, M.; Gonser, T. 1997. The ecological significance 

of exchange processes between rivers and groundwater.

Freshwater Biology. 37: 1-33.

Clinton, S. 2001. Microbial metabolism, enzyme activity, 

and production in the hyporheic zone of a floodplain

river. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, 86 p.

Ph.D. thesis.

Coe, H. 2001. Distribution patterns of hyporheic fauna in a

floodplain riparian terrace. Seattle, WA: University of

Washington, 75 p. M.S. thesis.

Fox, M.J. 2001. A new look at the quantities and volumes 

of instream wood in forested basins within Washington

State. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, 239 p.

M.S. thesis.

Fox, M.J. 2002. Large woody debris: how much is enough?

http://depts.washington.edu/cssuw/Publications/

FactSheets/lwd.pdf

Fox, M.J.; Bolton, S.; Conquest, L. In press (2002). 

Reference conditions for instream wood in western

Washington. In: Montgomery, D.R.; Bolton, S.; Booth,

D.B.; Wall, L., eds. Restoration of Puget Sound Rivers.

Seattle, Washington, University of Washington Press:

361-393.

Ise, J.L. 2001. Motivations of rural landowners to participate in conservation-oriented land management programs. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, 121 p.

M.S. thesis.

Johnston, J.G. 2002. Comparison of historic and current 

stream shade in eastern Washington. Seattle, WA:

University of Washington, 130 p. M.S. thesis.

Kiffney, P.; Riley, S.; Bilby, B.; Inman, C. 2001. Aquatic 

and terrestrial response to return of anadromous

salmonids above Landsburg Dam diversion, Cedar

River, Washington. National Marine Fisheries Service

working report. 

Mikkelsen, K.; Vesho, I. 2000. Riparian soils: A literature 

review. Center for Streamside Studies Report.

http://depts.washington.edu/cssuw/Publications/ 

soillitreview.html 

O’Neal, J.S. 2000. Biological evaluation of stream 

enhancement: a comparison of large woody debris and

an engineered alternative. Seattle, WA: University of

Washington, 103 p. M.S. thesis.

O’Neal, J.S.; Watts, A.; Bolton, S.; Sibley, T. 2000a. A

comparison of the hydraulic and biological effects of

large woody debris and an engineered alternative. In

CD-ROM Proc. ASCE 1999 Int’l Water Resources

Engineering Conf. Aug 8-11, 1999. Seattle WA.

O’Neal, J.S.; Savery, A.; Sibley, T.; Bolton, S. 2000b. 

Center for Streamside Studies Fact Sheet.

http://depts.washington.edu/cssuw/Publications/FactShe

ets/elwdc.pdf

Ryan, C.M.; Ise, J.; Wolf, K.L. 2001. Nonpoint source pollution programs: Assessing methods and behavioral

effectiveness. Center for Streamside Studies Fact Sheet.

http://depts.washington.edu/cssuw/Publications/FactShe

ets/NPS%20Flyer-Aug.pdf

Savery, A.W. 2000. A comparison of the hydraulic effect of

large woody debris and an engineered alternative.

Seattle, WA: University of Washington, 72 p. M.S. 

thesis.

Scholz, J.G. 2001. The variability in stream temperatures in

the Wenatchee National Forest and their relationship to

physical, geological, and land management factors.

Seattle, WA: University of Washington, 129 p. M.S.

thesis.

Ward, J.V. 1989. The four-dimensional nature of lotic 

ecosystems. Journal of the North American

Benthological Society. 8(1): 2-8.

Wishnie, M., McClintick, A; Hansen, J.; Bob, F. 1999a. 

Riparian conversion monitoring data collection protocols. Center for Streamside Studies fact sheet.

http://depts.washington.edu/cssuw/Publications/FactShe

ets/protocolsc.pdf

Wishnie, M., McClintick, A; Hansen, J.; Bob, F. 1999b. 

Lummi Natural Resources Riparian Zone Restoration

Project (RZRP): Proposed Data Collection Protocols

Field Sheets Damage Codes. Center for Streamside

Studies report. Available at http://depts.washington.edu/

cssuw/Research/Lummi/lummi.html

99

1 Hydrologist and 2 Research Ecologist, USDA, Forest Service, PNW Research Station, 2770 Sherwood Lane, Suite 2a, Juneau, Alaska 99801; e-mail:

ajohnson03@fs.fed.us and rtedwards@fs.fed.us

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 10.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN 

HEADWATER CHANNELS WITH RED ALDER

Adelaide C. Johnson1 and Richard T. Edwards2

INTRODUCTION

Recent studies of red alder (Alnus rubra) were initiated

to determine how young-growth ecosystems function and

to better understand how alder regrowth influences trophic

linkages and processes in managed landscapes of southeast

Alaska (Deal et al. 2002; Wipfli et al. 2002; Deal and

Orlikowska 2002, in this proceedings; Hennon et al.2002,

in this proceedings). Streams in the Pacific Northwest

region generally contain low concentrations of nutrients

that limit plant growth, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus (Gregory et al. 1987). These low nutrient levels, combined with low light levels beneath dense riparian canopies,

limit primary production. Red alder stands have significantly higher soil nitrogen stocks than conifer stands.

Nitrogen accretion begins a few years after alder colonization, increases rapidly in the first two decades, and continues

until the alder dies and is replaced by more shade-tolerant

conifers (Luken and Fonda 1983). Groundwater and

hyporheic flows can move alder-derived nitrogen into adjacent streams, dramatically increasing nutrient stocks and, in

turn, algal standing stocks in streams with sufficient light

levels (Fevold 1998). Alder may also increase the abundance

ABSTRACT

We investigated links between physical disturbance processes, vegetation type (alder or conifer), and stream nitrate concentrations in headwater streams in young-growth stands and old-growth forests within mountainous terrain in southeast

Alaska. Alder coverage in upland headwater zones (areas with slopes > 15°, or 27%) associated with landsliding was more

extensive within young-growth stands than within old-growth forests. The highest nitrate concentrations occurred in streams

within alder dominated young-growth forest. However, some streams with high alder coverage had low nitrate concentrations. These streams were larger and originated within alpine zones on ridge tops, suggesting that landform and source area

may also be important factors regulating nutrient concentrations. An understanding of the relationship among disturbance

patterns, tree species establishment, and nutrient cycling may help managers better predict the effect of harvest practices on

stream productivity.

KEY WORDS: Alder, young-growth forest, headwater channels, landslides, nitrate.

101

of aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial arthropods, providing

more food for fish (Piccolo and Wipfli 2002; Wipfli and

Gregovich 2002), bats, and birds. However, these benefits may be outweighed by decreases in large woody

debris input (Grette 1985; Andrus et al.1988; McDade et al.

1990), and wood residence times (Anderson et al. 1978;

Keim et al. 2000), and increases in sediment loading

(Megahan 1982), resulting in overall loss of fish habitat in

alder-dominated systems (Hicks 1989; Bilby and Ward

1991; Ralph et al. 1994). 

Alder establishment is a response to physical disturbance, both natural and anthropogenic, but conversion to

alder forests may alter the subsequent pattern of disturbance with important impacts on sediment input and retention. Thus, management of alder reaches in headwater fish

habitat may benefit from an increased understanding of the

tradeoffs between positive and negative effects of alder

presence. In this paper, we focus on physical disturbance

processes associated with alder occurrence in old-growth

and young-growth forests and will evaluate trends in nitrate

concentration. Our study areas include headwater channels

within two watersheds, the Maybeso Experimental Forest
and the Karta Wilderness on the eastern coast of Prince of

Wales Island, Alaska. These sites have different land use

histories, are within a single ecoregion, and have similar

geology, topography, landforms, soils, climate, and vegetation (Nowacki et al. 2001). Our specific objectives include:

• Describe the distribution of red alder in forests with 

different land management histories. 

• Describe links between disturbance processes and 

alder establishment.

• Determine the relationship between alder and stream 

nitrate concentrations. 

A detailed outline of methodology, description of study

locations, and technique for determining the proportion of

alder coverage can be found in Wipfli et al. (2002). 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Distribution of Alder in Young-growth and Old-growth

Stands

Aerial photographs dating back to the 1950s and recent

field surveys confirm that before timber harvest, red alder

was most closely associated with physical disturbances that

both created openings in the overstory stand and exposed

mineral soil. Natural disturbances included: snow avalanches, landslides, blowdown, and flooding. Distributions

of these physical disturbances, and hence, the resulting pattern of alder within the landscape, appeared to be closely

associated with landform and climatic regime (precipitation

and wind patterns). Timber harvest affected the frequency

of disturbance. For example, landslides occurred on steep

slopes (> 30°) in conjunction with major rainstorms from

the 1960s through the 1990s, primarily within areas clearcut

in the late 1950s and 1960s (Helmers 1961-1985; Swanston

and Marion 1991; Johnson et al. 2000; Gomi et al. in press).

In this study, “landslides” is used as a descriptive term for

all rapid soil failures, including debris flows. Human-related

disturbances associated with harvest included: broad-scale

removal of trees, cable and tractor logging, and road building. In southeast Alaska, where mineral soil is typically

covered by an organic horizon, human and natural disturbance processes exposed mineral soils either by removing

overlying organic horizons or by burying them under new

inorganic sediment. 

102

Figure 1—Supervised classification of a false-color

infrared image for a portion of the Maybeso watershed. Note: extensive linear patches of alder in the

young-growth forests associated with landslides,

cable logging, tractor logging, and road building. 
The Karta and Maybeso watersheds include forests with

different land uses (wilderness maintenance versus timber

production), but these watersheds have similar landforms,

climatic patterns, and are characteristic of many watersheds

in southeast Alaska. Glaciers left wide, U-shaped valley

walls, steep side slopes, and low-gradient valley floors. We

delineated two slope classes for our analysis: (1) upland

regions with > 15° slopes and (2) lowland regions with < 15°

slopes. This slope threshold separates landslide erosion

areas on uplands from deposition areas on lowlands, general

patterns observed in southeast Alaska (Johnson et al. 2000;

Gomi et al. in press). These slope classes roughly correspond to our field sampling reaches, which were selected

above and below transition areas where the slope changes

in headwater channels. Transition areas define the upper

limit of fish habitat. By combining these slope classes with

a supervised classification of a false-color infrared image

(we selected certain spectrum, or classes, from the image

we knew to be alder from ground observations using

ERDAS3 (1997) to select from an initial unsupervised

classification with 25 classes) and landslide inventories

(Helmers 1961-1985), we quantified alder occurrence and

identified disturbance (Figure 1). This methodology accurately identified patches of alder greater than 20 m in

diameter.

Uplands—Within the Maybeso study area, over 58% 

(75 ha) of the alder component occurs in upland areas.

Approximately 90% of this upland alder (68 ha) is on

areas disturbed by landslides and 10% is found in areas

disturbed only by cable logging and road building. At all

sites with documented landslides, red alder established on

disturbed mineral soil that bordered stream channels.

Conifers, including western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla),

Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), and western redcedar

(Thuja plicata), grow along channels without landslide 

disturbance.

The alder proportion of stand basal area (percent alder)

found along upland riparian corridors in young growth was

found to be closely related to landslide occurrence (Table 1).

We found a significant difference in the mean percent alder

103

3 The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for the reader information and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of

any product or service.

Table 1—Alder cover and nitrate concentration measurements

Percent Micrograms nitrate

alder per liter

Young growth

Lost Bob 0.0 23.1

Good example 1.46 27.9

Cedar 2 3.77 40.4

Good morning 3.90 15.4

Creature 9.94 25.8

Gomi 24.97 35.9

22 mile 29.20 18.6

Gomi Slide* 30.00 110.5

Spruce 31.48 387.8

Next to Guy* 35.00 71.7

Cedar 1 35.56 28.8

W Broken Bridge 38.70 35.3

Guy Cotton 43.15 7.3

E Broken Bridge 47.30 39.2

Mossy 53.28 290.9

Old growth

Karta Creek* 0.0 18.9

Yeti’s View* 40.00 71.1

* In these areas percent alder was estimated, not measured.

Note: sites with over 10% alder (except Cedar 1) have been impacted by landslides.
found in streams impacted with landslides (mean = 38.3, n

= 7) versus those without landslide impacts (mean = 9.1, n

= 6; t-test, p = 0.0016). Streams impacted most frequently

by landslides were found within deeply incised ravines 

(> 15 m) with steep banks. All sites with over 10% alder

(except Cedar 1) had a history of either multiple landslides

or one single landslide that disturbed the majority of the

riparian zone adjacent to the stream. Sites with 0 - 10%

alder (except Cedar 1) were not disturbed by landslides but

were disturbed by cable logging. The Cedar 1 site (36%

alder), located below a waterfall, was cable logged (above)

and has no history of landslide occurrence. Here, deposition of sands and gravels mobilized within the clear cut

zone accumulated at the slope break below a bedrock cliff,

providing fresh substrate where alder established. 

Within the Karta study area, alder encompassed < 5.0

ha or approximately 0.1% of the study area in contrast to 

8% in the Maybeso study area. Within the old-growth

forests of the Karta study area, alder was generally found

in patches at the initiation sites of landslides too small to

be detected on 1:63,360 infrared photographs rather than in

the long, easily detectable, linear patches found in young

growth. Unlike the Maybeso watershed, some areas disturbed by landslides in the Karta wilderness were vegetated

with conifers.

Lowlands—Approximately 42% of the alder (54 ha) in

the Maybeso watershed occurs in lowlands. About 37% (20

ha) of this alder is associated with roads, most of which are

now abandoned. The remaining lowland red alder (34 ha)

grows on landslide deposits, landslide deposits reworked

by floods, areas where logs had been dragged, and areas

disturbed by tractors (with or without log dragging). Red

alder flourished in stream reaches where sediment was

deposited behind logs. 

It is estimated that < 50% of the alder in the Karta

wilderness grew on areas disturbed by a few large landslides. Wood and sediment, associated with landslides,

were deposited near the toe slopes of steeper valley side

slopes and did not reach the main stem floodplain channels

within old growth and young growth. Alder in main stem

channels in the Maybeso and Karta watersheds, below our

tributary channel study areas, was associated with fluvial

processes.

Factors controlling alder growth following landslide 

disturbance

Following landslide occurrence, either conifer or alder

grew back as the dominant species on disturbed sites within clearcuts, young-growth and old-growth forest (Figure

2). Lower alder abundance and greater growth of conifers

104

Figure 2—Pattern of alder establishment following landslide occurrence within old growth, young growth, and clearcuts.
105

Figure 3—Relationships between nitrate concentration and a) percent alder and b) percent alder multiplied by a factor that accounts for the

total length of riparian alder along selected sites.
following landslides in the wilderness area may be attributed to (1) difference in disturbance size and/or shading by

large standing trees, and (2) lack of an alder seed source. 

The size of the area disturbed by landslides was controlled by the landform that the landslide flowed into,

diameter of trees, slope gradient of the stream channel, and

location of the deposition zone. Where landslides flowed

into unconfined stream channels (generally on slopes gradients > 20°) within old-growth and older young-growth

forests, landslide materials knocked over trees, and landslides spread out to widths exceeding 120 m, creating larger disturbed surfaces upon which alder grew. If landslides

flowed into confined channels (ravines incised > 15 m) with

steep banks, disturbance width was kept narrow (< 25 m)

and sites became established with new conifers or remained

vegetated with pre-established (residual stand) conifers, not

alder. Where landslide materials were deposited within

muskegs and clearcuts and an alder seed source was nearby,

alder was established regardless of size of the landslide

because mineral soil was deposited in an area with no

canopy cover and full light. 

Large diameter trees (> 30 cm) within forested stands

blocked downstream movement of landslide materials,

particularly on slope gradients from 9 to 28° (16 to 54%),

limiting the size of the sediment deposition area. Alder

establishment within these smaller, more heavily shaded

deposition zones was limited in comparison to other disturbance locations. At one site within the Karta wilderness, a

single conifer tree (diameter > 0.7 m) located along the

riparian corridor (with a slope gradient > 16°), stopped the

transport of landslide-derived woody debris and split the

water flow into two channels. Although flooding subsequently redistributed some sediment downstream at this

old-growth site, alder was not found on these reworked

deposits. We hypothesize that the existing overstory shaded

the exposed mineral soil and inhibited alder establishment

in reaches where sediment was transported. 

At the location of one very large (> 30 m width, > 600

m length) landslide within the Karta watershed, alder did

not establish even though the disturbance was large enough

to open the canopy, enabling light to reach the mineral surface. Here, we found a dense stand of shore pine (Pinus

contorta) growing on an area with slopes ranging from 5 to

25°. Although conditions should have favored alder establishment, it is assumed that a seed source was not near

enough to support colonization at this site (no alder were

observed in this area). 

Association between alder occurrence and nitrate 

concentrations

We compared the percent alder found along streams

with streamwater nitrate concentrations measured during

one summer to test whether alder might affect the nitrogen

budget of adjacent streams. Nitrate concentrations varied

from 7 to 387 mg N/L with the highest nitrate concentrations in streams with > 20% alder (Table 1). All sites with

less than 5% alder had low nitrate concentrations < 50 mg

N/L. However, some alder-dominated streams also had low

concentrations comparable to streams with little alder.

Including all sites, no significant relationship between percent alder and nitrate concentration (r2 = 0.16, p = 0.111;

Figure 3a) was found using linear regression. Because alder

basal area was not quantified along the entire upstream

length, streams varied in length, and vegetation along the

streams was not uniform throughout, the raw survey data

do not accurately reflect the true alder abundance that might

contribute nitrogen to the stream. To approximate the

actual abundance of alder upstream of the sampling sites

the following equation was derived:

RAA = (ABA)*(OLA/ELC)

where 

RAA is the relative area of alder,

ABA is the measured alder basal area along the study 

reach,

OLA is the entire length of channel where alder was 

observed on false-color remote infrared photographs, and 

ELC is an estimate of the length of the entire channel.

This calculation assumes the basal area of alder measured along the study reach accurately describes the density

along the entire section containing alder. With this correction alder basal area explained 60% of the variation in

nitrate concentration among streams (r2 = 0.60, p = 0.0002;

Figure 3b) suggesting a strong influence by riparian alder. 

A proportion of the unexplained variance in nitrate 

concentration is likely due to differences in discharge and

source area, which varied among streams independently of

the alder coverage. For example, Guy Cotton and East Fork

Broken Bridge were the only streams with sources in

alpine areas whereas all others originated in mid-slope

positions. Thus, we would not expect alder area alone to

explain all of the variation in nitrate concentration. Although

the nitrate data are just a snapshot of conditions during one

summer, the results suggest that the hypothesis that streamside alder increases stream nitrogen flux is worth more

rigorous testing in future studies. Estimating the potential

impact of this phenomenon on stream primary production

106
will require year round sampling to understand the seasonality of alder inputs, and in situ testing to determine the

extent of nitrogen limitation in southeast Alaska streams.

Such studies could also incorporate information about the

location and area of the hydrologic contributing area, landform type, catchment soil chemistry, and knowledge of

groundwater flow pathways to better understand how physical factors, interacting with natural and anthropogenic disturbances, might affect productivity of headwater streams.

SUMMARY

We assessed links among disturbance processes, vegetation type, and nitrate concentrations in the Maybeso and

Karta watersheds in southeast Alaska. This information is

being used in a collaborative interdisciplinary study that

focuses on how young-growth ecosystems function and

how red alder influences trophic linkages and processes in

managed landscapes (Hennon et al. 2002; in this proceedings; Deal and Orlikowska 2002; in this proceedings). 

The majority of alder within steep, U-shaped deglaciated

valleys was associated with landslides, road building, tractor logging, and cable logging. On uplands (areas over 15°),

over 58% of alder in young-growth forest is associated

with landsliding while on lowlands 21% of alder is associated with landslide deposition, cable logging, tractor logging, and road building. Within old-growth, alder was also

associated with landslides (approximately 50% of < 5.0 ha

of alder observed), but did not appear to be as widespread

as in young-growth forest due to the lower frequency of

landslides, frictional and shading effects of standing timber,

or lack of seed source. 

Nitrate concentrations exceeding 300 mg N/L occurred

in small channels originating in mid-slope positions along

the steep valley side slopes dominated by alder. The lowest

nitrate concentrations were found in larger headwater channels draining from alpine areas. Further studies examining

the relationship among disturbance patterns, tree species

establishment, and nutrient cycling may provide managers

with a means to predict the effect of harvest practices on

net primary production. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was made possible through funding by

the USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station, Wood Compatibility Initiative. We would like to

thank all of the other principal investigators in this project

including Robert Deal, Mark Wipfli, Toni De Santo, Paul

Hennon, Mark Schultz, Mason Bryant, Gomi Takashi, Tom

Hanley, and Winston Smith. We also want to thank John

Caouette for his statistical assistance and Everett Hinkley

for his help in conducting supervised classifications and

GIS queries. Invaluable field assistance was provided by

Dale Mc Farlen, Terry Schwarz, Lisa Gelzcis, Michael

Hekkers, and Dave Gregovich. We are grateful for reviews

of this paper by Robert Deal, Paul Hennon, John Hudson,

and Catherine Conner.

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basins. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-141. Portland, OR:

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108
SECTION C

SCALE ISSUES

1 Research Forester and 3, 7 Research Fisheries Biologists, USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331. 2 Professor, 4 Assistant Professor, and 8 Research Assistant, Department of Forest Resources, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR

97331.

5, 6 Research Assistants, Department of Forest Science, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331.

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 11.

AN EVALUATION OF TRADEOFFS BETWEEN WOOD PRODUCTION 

AND ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY IN THE OREGON COAST RANGE

Thomas A. Spies1, K. Norman Johnson2, Gordon Reeves3, Pete Bettinger4,

Michael T. McGrath5, Robert Pabst6, Kelly Burnett7, and Keith Olsen8

INTRODUCTION

Understanding the tradeoffs between timber production

and biodiversity is a complex problem that must be addressed

over multiple spatial and temporal scales. At stand scales,

timber production can have small to large effects on biodiversity and the natural processes that underpin ecosystem

productivity. The potential for mixing different uses of the

forest is much greater over broad areas and long time

frames. In the 2.02 million hectares Oregon Coast Range

Province, for example, a mix of different management

objectives exist, ranging from industrial commodity production to wilderness protection. On federal lands, the

Northwest Forest Plan (FEMAT 1993) has brought sweeping changes to forest management in this province, dramatically shifting the focus of these forests toward protection

of biodiversity through the creation of extensive late-successional and riparian reserves where active management is

only allowed for ecological objectives. This shift resulted in

a 80-90% reduction of timber harvest from federal lands in

the Coast Range compared to the 1980s. In the future, over

75% of the harvest in the Coast Range will come from

forest industry lands which operate under the State of

Oregon Forest Practices Act. 

Current Coast Range policies were put in place ownerby-owner with only a modest attempt to understand their

aggregate effect across owners. These policies were based

on very different approaches to management: intensive

management for commodity production on private lands,

and passive, reserved based approaches for biodiversity

protection on federal lands. The wide range of forest management strategies in the Coast Range makes it well-suited

for a tradeoff analysis. 

Many challenges exist to evaluating ecological and timber

production tradeoffs at broad scales. Two major challenges

are the development of ecological indicators of the status

ABSTRACT

Can alternative policies provide greater overall compatibility among wood production and ecological integrity than 

do current policies? Answering this question requires developing indicators of biodiversity at broad scales and analysis of

tradeoffs between measures of biodiversity and wood production. We are developing a suite of indicators based on habitat

quality and natural disturbance regimes. A small set of existing wildlife habitat and old-growth forest development indicators was used with a landscape simulator to demonstrate how to create a tradeoff analysis. We compared ecological conditions and timber production at 100 years for four policy alternatives for a large landscape in the central Coast Range. The

alternatives differed in ecological condition and timber production, but differences were relatively small. The policy alternative based on retention of large trees in cutting units provided the same ecological conditions as an alternative based on

longer rotations with less impact on timber production. One insight from this initial work is that management changes that

seem drastic at stand or landscape levels may have small or slow effects on ecological conditions at larger spatial scales. 

KEY WORDS: Ecological integrity, timber production, broad scale assessments. 

111
of biodiversity and development of data and tools to evaluate alternative forest management policies. We briefly

address both of these challenges. Our objectives are: (1) to

describe our general approach to developing indicators of

biodiversity at broad scales, (2) to develop a very simple

example of a tradeoff analysis using a subset of our indicators. Our example comes from the Oregon Coast Range

where we are actively working on policy effects analyses

through the Coastal Landscape Analysis and Modeling

Study (CLAMS) (Spies et al. 2002a).

ECOLOGICAL INDICATORS

Forestry and ecology have a long history of using ecological indicators. Some of the first indicators were used

in Finland to indicate forest productivity (Cajander 1926).

More recently in the Montreal Process (1999 revision) a

suite of ecological indictors were developed for a broader

array of characteristics associated with forest sustainability.

The notion of ecological integrity is proposed as a general

indicator of the condition of whole communities, ecosystems and even the entire biosphere (Karr 1991; Westra et

al. 2000). Karr (1981) has promoted ecological integrity

for some time but only recently have efforts been made

to incorporate it into regional planning and assessment

(Quigley et al. 2001). Ecological integrity ratings based

on stand and landscape structure and dynamics, were

developed for dry forest ecosystems of the interior

Columbia River Basin (Quigley et al. 2001). No whole

system measures have been developed in moist coastal

ecosystems, although Carey et al. (1999) has developed

indices for ecological integrity based on forest floor small

mammal communities.

DIMENSIONS OF ECOLOGICAL

INTEGRITY

Ecological communities and ecosystems are multidimensional in their spatial and temporal variation. Defining

ecological integrity, i.e. the state of biological diversity,

with a single variable is not realistic, even if that single

variable is an index of several attributes (De Leo and

Levin 1997). Species and ecosystems exist in too may

forms and vary too much over space and time to be neatly

captured in a single number. Many metrics are possible

and ultimately the selection is as much an art as it is a

science. The number of metrics should be large enough to

capture the essential elements of a system but they must

not be too numerous to be practical and must be relatively

easy to measure. We have attempted to represent the range

of biological diversity through three classes of measures:

species diversity, ecosystem diversity, and ecosystem

dynamics. These classes, which contain several subclasses,

correspond to classes of indicators set forth in the Santiago

Declaration for sustainable management of forests (Table

1). We do not have the space to discuss these in any detail.

Below we briefly describe how we develop a few subclasses of indicators: terrestrial focal species (species

diversity), forest structure (ecosystem diversity), historical

range of variation (ecosystem dynamics), and aquatic

systems (species and ecosystem diversity).

Examples of Selected Ecological Indicators

Terrestrial focal species—We use a focal species approach

characterized by Lambeck (1997); Noss et al. (1997); and

the Committee of Scientists (1999). The key to focal species

112

Table 1—Examples of general classes of ecological indicators used in CLAMS

Major category of metric

Species diversity Ecosystem diversity Ecosystem Dynamics

C&I 3.11 C&I 3.1 (Forest health and vitality) 

C&I 3.2

Species assemblages/habitat Forest structure at patch Historical range of

groups level variation: 

Age class distributions 

Habitat conditions 

Disturbance regimes

Focal species Landscape structure and Ecological processes: 

diversity Landslides and debris flows

Population viability of key 

species

1 Montreal Process Criterion and Indicator number. 
is that the status and time trend of selected species provides insights to the integrity of the larger ecological

system. A focal species approach differs from the more

widely known indicator species concept because it examines

species based on properties that are likely to be overlooked by the coarse filter (e.g., narrow endemism, ecological engineer, large home range, etc.; Lambeck 1997;

Noss et al. 1997), rather than species that might represent

habitat needs of several species (Thomas 1979). For example, in the Pacific Northwest three small mammal species

are used to measure stand biocomplexity (Carey 1995;

Carey and Harrington 2001).

We developed a set of criteria and focal species that

reflect characteristics of ecological integrity as well as

societal concerns (e.g., listed species and game species

[Table 1]). For each focal species, we develop models to

characterize species occurrences and potential quality of

habitat. Because habitat is species-specific, we assumed

that no pre-defined vegetation classes could describe habitat suitability for all species. Thus, we developed a habitat

suitability modeling approach based on the specific habitat

elements as determined from the state of knowledge of the

biology of the species (Table 2). Habitat suitability index

models are a class of wildlife habitat relationship models

specifically developed to facilitate the consideration of

wildlife in multidisciplinary natural resource assessments

(Schamberger and O’Neil 1986). We extend the HSI

approach, developed several decades ago, to a spatially

explicit assessment of habitat quality. The models we

developed are similar to traditional models because they

index habitat quality on a scale from 0 to 1 and they consider life requisites of the organism. They differ from the

original approach because multiple spatial scales are represented and observed empirical relationships are considered in model structure. 

An example of our approach is the habitat index for the

Northern Spotted Owl (McComb et al. 2002). Existing literature and empirical relationships from previous studies

were used to construct a habitat capability index: 

HCI = 3

√NCI

2

f *LCI

Where,

HCI = habitat capability index

f = the focal pixel in GIS grid

NCI = nest stand capability index (based on 

diversity and density of trees in diameter classes (see

Table 1 for list of variables)

LCI = landscape capability index (based on habitat 

quality within different zones (28 ha, 212 ha, and 1,810

ha) surrounding potential nest sites. 

The nest and landscape indices are variously shaped

functions (e.g., linear, asymptotic or bell shaped) that range

113

Table 2—Stand characteristics used to construct habitat indice

Ecological metrics Stand variables Spatial Extent

Northern Spotted Owl Trees 10-25 cm dbh Nesting/roosting: 0.6 ha

Trees 25-50 cm dbh Foraging: 28 ha; 200 

Trees > 75 cm dbh ha; 1,800 ha; 

Diameter diversity index 

Quadratic mean diam stand

Pileated Woodpecker Nesting: Snags 50-75 cm d. Nesting: 0.6 ha

Snags >75 cm d. Foraging: 452 ha

Foraging: Trees >50 cm d.

Vol CWD 

Western Blue Bird Snags > 50 cm d. and 5 m t. Territory: 0.6 ha

Snags 25-50 cm d. & 5 m t. 

Canopy cover (%)

Old Growth Trees > 100 cm d. 0.6 ha

Diameter diversity index

Snags > 50 cm d. & 15 m t. 

Large logs m3/ha 

Age/Time since last 

disturbance
from 0 to 1 as a function of particular stand or landscape

characteristics (Table 1). In the case of the Northern Spotted

Owl, and for several other species, independent data are

available for evaluating the quality of the models or alternative forms of the model. Where independent data do not

exist, the models represent untested working hypothesis

about habitat relationships. 

Forest structure—Structures associated with natural and

old-growth forests are typically eliminated in forests managed for timber production (Spies 1998). These include

large old trees, large standing and dead trees, and heterogeneous stands composed of a diversity of tree sizes.

Using methods similar to the northern spotted owl habitat

index, we developed an index of old-growth forest structure that ranges from 0 to 1. A sample of about 40 existing

natural young, mature, and old-growth stands from the

Oregon Coast Range (Spies and Franklin 1991) was used

as a guide to develop a metric that ranged from 0 to 1 for

five stand variables (Table 2). While age of stand is not a

structural element, it is ecologically important because

some species associated with old forests are present because

they have low mobility and accumulate slowly with time

since last disturbance. These five stand variables were then

averaged to produce a single metric for a stand. 

Historical Range of Variation—Ecosystems are dynamic

in space and time and the notion of the historical range of

variation is an attempt to develop ecological reference

conditions that take this variation into account. The historical range of variation is simply the range of values that

ecosystem or habitat attributes assumed in the past under

natural disturbance regimes, such as fire and wind. We

estimated the historical range of variation in forest age

classes for the Oregon Coast Range over the last several

thousand years (Wimberly et al. 2000). We think that the

amounts of different successional stages varied considerable over time as a result of large fires that periodically

occurred in the area. The variation in amounts of old forest

(>200 years) probably ranged between 25 and 75% of the

area, while open canopy conditions probably ranged

between 10 and 25% of the area. Today the amount of old

forest is estimated at around 5% of the Coast Range.

Simulations indicate that the range of variation increases

with decreasing area. We are still developing the exact

form of this metric which we will probably base on a distribution of structure or age classes that would have been

expected at province scales. 

Aquatic systems—Data limitations and uncertainties are

often greater for aquatic systems than for terrestrial systems when assessing ecological integrity over large areas.

For example, primary spatial data on aquatic systems were

not available for the Coast Range at a resolution fine

enough for meaningful tradeoff analyses. Consequently,

generating underpinning data layers, such as watershed

boundaries and streams, was necessary before we could

develop and apply ecological indicators of aquatic system

integrity. 

Two types of indicators are in the development stage for

aquatic systems: (1) one describing the intrinsic potential

of streams to provide high quality rearing habitat for

salmon and trout (i.e., chinook salmon (Onchorynchus

tshawytscha), coho salmon (O. kisutch), cutthroat trout 

(O. clarki), and steelhead trout (O. mykiss); and (2) one

describing land management influences on watersheds

thought to affect the freshwater habitat for these species.

Scores for both types of indicators range from 0 to 1. A

composite score for each watershed is calculated by

species from intrinsic potential and watershed condition

indicator scores using methods analogous to those previously described for modeling the habitat suitability of

focal species.

Intrinsic potential for each stream reach is a function 

of channel gradient, mean annual discharge, and valley

constraint. These were modeled from 10m Digital Elevation

Models (DEMs) then evaluated with field data. Values of

the components associated with high-quality rearing habitat

for each species are based on available literature. For

example, steelhead and cutthroat trout dominated stream

reaches constrained by adjacent hill slopes (Reeves et al.

1998; Burnett 2001). In contrast, chinook and coho

salmon were found predominately in unconstrained stream

reaches (Reeves et al. 1998; Burnett 2001). The trout also

occurred in unconstrained reaches but usually at lower

abundances than salmon. Thus, we judge the contribution

to intrinsic potential of constrained reaches to be greater

for trout than salmon and of unconstrained reaches to be

greater for salmon than trout. 

The watershed condition indicator is a function of land

management-related metrics that can alter streams, including their wood and sediment dynamics, flow patterns, and

water temperatures. Some metrics are likely to vary among

alternative forest policies (e.g., vegetation age, composition, and structure or road density), but others are not (e.g.,

presence of dams or percent area of urban land cover).

Salmonid habitat quality can change in response to disturbance and succession (Reeves et al. 1995), therefore metric

scores are based on the historical range of variability when

feasible and available literature otherwise. We consider

the watershed condition indices as a working hypotheses

114
115

Figure 1—Pattern of forest use classes in central Coast Range of Oregon. No harvest = congressionally designated wilderness; ecological goals only =

federal late successional reserves; ecological primary, timber secondary = riparian buffers and federal matrix land; timber primary = private industrial

land; timber and other goals = non-industrial private forest land; state matrix = complex weighting of priorities.

Table 3—Characteristics of alternatives used in tradeoff analysis of central Coast Range

Alternative Land ownerships Description

Current policy All Current policies as indicated in federal and 

state forest plans and the Oregon Forest 

Practices Act

Increased retention Private Retain 5 conifers/ha > 60 cm dbh and 7 

conifers/ha > 30 cm dbh 

Increased thinning Federal Thin from below to 18 m2/ha in stands less 

than 40 years of age 

Long rotation Private 80 year rotation 
based on a limited number of fine- scale and coarse-scale

studies in the Coast Range (Reeves et al. 1993; Botkin et

al. 1995; Burnett 2001; Reeves et al. in press).

An Example of Tradeoff Analysis for the 

Central Coast Range

We selected a 537,700 ha area in the central Coast Range

of Oregon (Figure 1) with diverse ownership patterns to

examine tradeoffs between timber production and biodiversity for a set of alternative management scenarios

(Table 3). Boundaries of major watersheds were used to

delineate the study area. The LAMPS model (Bettinger

and Lennette 2002) was used to simulate 100 years of

landscape change under the different alternatives. 

The methods used to simulate landowner behavior follow

those described in Spies et al. 2002b, (in this proceedings)

We utilized timber harvest volume targets from the Northwest Forest Plan for Federal Lands. For state lands, we

found the maximum sustainable level (based on current

timber volume and expected future growth) subject to

achieving goals for representation of different structural

conditions and the size distribution of interior habitat

patches. For private nonindustrial lands, we used the

average harvest level found by Adams et al. (2001) in

their analysis of economic behavior of private forest land

owners in western Oregon. 

For forest industry landowners, we simulated the maximum sustainable level for the management intensities they

provided. Timber production was calculated as the average

board foot volume of timber produced over the 100 year

simulation across all ownerships including volume produced by thinning. Our long-term goal is to utilize the

period-by-period harvest targets and management intensities

from Adam’s et al. (2001) for both private groups. We

found that differences in inventories, yields, and other

assumptions made it difficult to use Adams’ information,

especially for the forest industry, but we continue to work

with Adams to develop compatible yields and assumptions.

A composite biodiversity index was constructed by averaging the mean scores at 100 years into the simulation of

four ecological indices that we have for analysis: (1) oldgrowth habitat, (2) northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis), (3) pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus), and

(4) western blue bird (Sialia mexicana) (Table 2). The first

three indices are related to closed forest conditions, while

the western blue bird is a species representative of open,

early successional forest types. Populations of the bluebird

in western Oregon are listed as “Sensitive” because of population declines that are possibly related to competition for

nest holes from the introduced European starlings (Sturnus

vulgaris) (Csuti et al. 1997). The composite index is

intended only to illustrate a composite ecological index for

this simple example of a tradeoff analysis. As our set of

ecological indicators develops further, we expect to

develop a variety of indices and approaches for applying

them at broad scales. For example, we could develop an

expected landscape-scale distribution of index scores

rather than a single mean score and compare alternatives

in terms of how well they fit that distribution. We compared the results of four simulation scenarios (Table 3). 

In general, the mean index scores of the individual species

differed little among the scenarios (Figure 2). The greatest

difference was for western bluebirds, whose mean index

score was almost ten times higher for the retention scenario

than for any of the other scenarios. This probably resulted

from the increase in area of open conditions with snags,

which would occur if higher densities of trees were left

after clear-cutting on private lands. Some of these trees die

during the 50 year rotation and create snags, which are

important habitat elements for the species. The retention

and long-rotation scenarios resulted in slightly higher mean

scores for all the biodiversity metrics when compared with

the base policy and the enhanced thinning scenario. This

pattern results from increased numbers of large trees and

snags that occur with retention and longer rotations on

private lands. It was somewhat of a surprise that the thinning scenario did not change the biodiversity indices much

over the base scenario. We hypothesized that thinning

would increase the rate of development of large trees and

116

Figure 2—Mean index scores at 100 years for four different ecological

indicators and four different scenarios in the central Coast Range. Index

scores, which originally ranged from 0 to 1, have been multiplied by 100

to eliminate decimals. Ecological indicators: WBB = western bluebird;

OGH = old-growth index; NSO = northern spotted owl; PWP = pileated

woodpecker. Scenarios: BASE = base policy; RET = increased retention

on private lands; THIN = thinning on federal land; LONG = 80 year minimum rotation on private lands.
therefore increase the scores of the ecological indices which

are sensitive to this attribute. What we think occurred,

however, is that the thinning regime we used reduced

amounts of standing dead and down which would reduce

the index scores for these attributes. Another hypothesis is

that the increases in large trees did not occur within the

time frame of the simulation. Finally, perhaps the thinning

effect at a landscape scale was not large enough given the

acres involved. While over 40,500 ha were thinned in this

scenario during the first 40 years on federal lands, this

amount is only 24,300 ha more than the base policy or

only about 5% of the entire central Coast Range area. 

The scenarios differed relatively little among each other

in terms of timber production and the composite index of

biodiversity (Figure 3). The greatest overall change, compared to the base policy scenario, was in the retention and

long rotation scenarios. Of these two, the retention option

resulted in the greatest efficiency because the biodiversity

index increased while timber production declined only

slightly. The thinning option differed little from the base

policy scenario, showing a slight decline in biodiversity

and a slight increase in timber volume. The long-rotation

scenario resulted in the greatest decline in timber volume

since during the first few decades there would be little or

no timber above 80 years cut. For example, during the first

25 years of the simulation, timber volume production per

year from private lands would average 46 million board

feet while during the last 25 years it would average 514

million board feet. 

The ecological indices are limited in at least two ways.

First, they show only trends in habitat quality making it

difficult to say what the magnitude of the change means

to other ecological criteria. For example, we can not say

what the magnitude of the changes means to species viability, a criterion that would require a different type of

analysis. However, the indices are useful to indicate direction of trends. A more sophisticated population viability

analysis requires much more information (not available for

most species) and many more assumptions than the habitat

quality analysis we did here. A second limitation is that a

single measure of ecological integrity may not change if

its components are inversely related to each other. For

example, early successional indices will typically change

in the opposite direction of late successional indices. Consequently several kinds of ecological integrity measures

are needed to provide a more useful characterization of

biological diversity. 

We have sought a better understanding of tradeoffs

between timber production and ecological well being. This

information is useful for finding ways to improve the

compatibility of timber and other uses at broad scales.

Obviously, a key question is how should we measure

“timber production” and “ecological well being.” We think

it is easiest to measure timber production in terms of the

total number of board feet harvested over time or per time

period as we did. It is questionable, though, whether the

landowners, especially the forest industry, are indifferent

to the timing of the harvest or the financial attractiveness

of the forest schedule. Most authors (Davis et al. 2001;

Adams et al. 2001) assume that the forest industry attempts

to maximize their wealth (net present value). Activities that

increase the projected board foot harvest will not always

increase net present value and vice versa. Thus, questions

remain about the appropriate way to measure timber

production in the tradeoff analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

The tradeoffs between ecological integrity and timber

production must be examined at broad spatial scales and

across multiple ownerships. The concept of ecological

integrity has many dimensions and all are important when

evaluating effects of timber production on the state of biological diversity. Quantitative measures of biodiversity

and the notion of ecological integrity can be developed but

they require much effort and a focus on a variety of measures and multiple spatial and temporal scales. They also

must be developed in most cases with little or no empirical

information to support them. Consequently, they serve as

provisional measures that will change as new information

becomes available. We demonstrate the evaluation of tradeoffs using landscape simulation models and indicators of

biological diversity. Our study in the central Coast Range

117

Figure 3—Relationship of timber volume production to the composite

biodiversity index at year 100 for four different scenarios (see Figure 2

and Table 2 for explanations). 
indicates that although differences exist in tradeoffs among

alternative management approaches, the magnitude is

apparently small for this particular set of scenarios. This

analysis suggests that over large areas the impact of relatively

small differences in management approaches applied to portions of ownerships may not result in major changes to our

aggregate measure of ecological integrity within a 100-year

time frame. Changes that may seem drastic at stand or landscape levels may have little impact or occur only slowly at

province and larger scales. The implications of this inertia, or

tendency for broad areas to change slowly, will depend on

policy goals and the expectations of the policy makers and

the public. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We’d like to acknowledge funding support from the Wood

Compatibility Initiative and the Northwest Forest Plan and

contributions of other CLAMS team members to the ideas in

this paper. Claire Montgomery and Andrew Carey provided

helpful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript. 

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Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 12.

FRAMING THE DISCUSSION OF FUTURE FORESTRY

IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST

Fredrick J. Swanson1, John H. Cissel2, Deana D. Pennington3, and Julia A. Jones4

INTRODUCTION

Federal forestry in the Pacific Northwest is at an

impasse. Forest management decisions are now often

framed in the context of, “May I cut this tree at this site

tomorrow, even if there is a chance of killing that bug?”.

Recently in the Pacific Northwest the answer is usually,

“no.” In a fire-prone ecosystem “no” is often a decision

with undesirable outcomes in terms of risk to ecosystems

and human systems. The management dilemma has many

dimensions and at times seems intolerably complex

(Holling 2001).

Land management objectives are the basis for planning

and potential disagreement. We assume that at the scale of

an area such as the Oregon Cascade Range, society seeks a

blending of uses and values of natural resources – water,

wood, aesthetics, recreation, protection and harvest of

selected species. Managing a landscape to provide a widelyaccepted mix of these and other benefits of natural resource

systems is complicated by the diversity of views of the

optimal balance, complexities of ownership patterns and

ABSTRACT

Planning future management of forests and watersheds in the Pacific Northwest can lead to fruitful outcomes when 

the planning effort is placed in broad time and space contexts, considers multiple goods and services from these natural

resource systems, and is based on effective communication with people representing the many relevant interests. A broad

temporal perspective includes reference to historical disturbance regimes from wildfire and other processes. Landscape

management plans examined from diverse viewpoints, such as watershed processes, biological diversity, and commodity

production, provide a useful medium for balancing management objectives and approaches. Work described in this paper

provides examples of some of these approaches for parts of the Oregon Cascade Range. 

KEY WORDS: Forestry, landscape management, silviculture, sustainable management.

121

land capability, and limits of our knowledge and of tradeoff

analysis itself. A role of describing and analyzing alternative management futures is to make the options and uncertainties clearer in order to inform public decisions.

To plan for the future, it is helpful to see the past and

future in relevant contexts. We argue that sound decisions

about the ecological and social dimensions of forest management are most appropriately framed in the context of

extended time scales, over broad spatial scales, and with

consideration of multiple goods and services. The scientific

community has wrestled with these issues in several ways.

Work on the relevance of the historical (natural) range of

variability (Landres et al. 1999 and other papers in that

series) indicates the value of framing management decisions using ecosystem conditions of past centuries for taking a “coarse-filter approach” to management of habitat

and species (Hunter et al. 1988). Development of the fields

of landscape ecology and conservation biology over the

past few decades represents a response to the need to consider broad spatial scales of ecosystem behaviors when

addressing certain management issues. Studies in the context of the Wood Compatibility Initiative indicate the value

of examining tradeoffs among varied good and services of

1 Research Geologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis, OR. fswanson@fs.fed.us; 2 Research Liason U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Willamette National Forest, Eugene, OR. jcissel@fs.fed.us; 

3 Research Assistant Professor, Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM. penningd@LTERnet.edu; 

4 Professor Department of Geosciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. jonesj@geo.orst.edu.
forest ecosystems and watersheds in order to best meet

societal needs. Finally, perceptions of ecosystems and

approaches to managing them for any objectives on the

spectrum from wilderness to intensive plantation forestry

are as much social as technical matters. Therefore, communication and a significant level of shared understanding are

important ingredients in finding a path to sustainable management.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the following

four dimensions of a framework for making forest management decisions in the coming decades. 

1. Placing near-term decisions and policies in a longterm perspective, both past and future.

2. Placing decisions about specific places in a broad

spatial perspective.

3. Considering and integrating multiple ecosystem 

components, goods, and services, which may involve

tough tradeoff decisions.

4. Widely sharing understanding and values.

5. These four elements can be integrated in regional

conservation strategies and landscape management

analyses and plans. 

This paper draws on technical lessons from field and

modeling studies of the development of young, managed

stands; retrospective analysis of forest disturbance history

and landscape dynamics; modeling and analysis of alternative landscape change scenarios; and preliminary analysis

of tradeoffs among different management emphases. We

also draw on lessons from experience of the Willamette

National Forest in development, implementation, and communication of two landscape management plans through 

an adaptive management process, including work in the

Central Cascades Adaptive Management Area (Cissel et al.

1998, 1999).

LONG-TERM PERSPECTIVE

There are arguments for and against using history in

planning for future forest landscape management (Morgan

et al. 1994; Swanson et al. 1994; Landres et al. 1999).

Historic landscape conditions do not give a sharp blueprint

for future management. However, attention to the past

helps managers avoid attempting the impossible, and can

help them meet the direction in regulations for implementing

the National Forest Management Act that calls for Forest

Service lands to sustain native species throughout their

range. The term “native” connotes historical occupancy of

a landscape and adaptation to the environment. Hence, reference to historical conditions is used as part of a coarsefilter approach to habitat management (Hunter et al. 1988)

and as an indicator of sustainable ecosystem management

as defined in the Montreal protocols. Projections of landscape conditions into the future are important in revealing

aggregate, sometimes surprising consequences of particular

management schemes, such as dispersed patch clearcutting

(Franklin and Forman 1987) and the Northwest Forest Plan

(Cissel et al. 1999).

A variety of techniques is employed to reconstruct

major dimensions of the historical dynamics of Pacific

Northwest forests (Garman et al. 1999), including fire

history reconstruction studies based on tree-ring analysis.

Weisberg and Swanson (in press) and Berkley (2000) have

analyzed ten tree-ring, fire history studies in western

Oregon and Washington to help unravel temporal and geographic patterns of fire occurrence over the past 600 years.

Key findings include: fire historically has been an integral

element of the forest landscape of the central Cascade

Range of Oregon, periodically resetting succession in large

and small patches of landscape; suppression of fire over

long periods is itself a form of disturbance to the ecosystem; in parts of the Pacific Northwest low- and moderateseverity fire sustained old-growth attributes and probably

certain fire-dependent species in the landscape; and timing

of widespread fire in parts of the region in the 1500’s and

1800’s appears to have been roughly synchronous, suggesting a climate influence in addition to other factors. The last

point argues against systematic recurrence of fire simply in

response to fuel dynamics on the multi-century scale.

Collectively, these points argue for selective retention

of roles of fire in the ecosystem and in the tool kit of forest

management, regardless of management objectives. Despite

the great longevity of conifers in the Pacific Northwest,

these ecosystems are very dynamic. Effective conservation

and management strategies need to accommodate this

dynamism.

BROAD SPATIAL PERSPECTIVE

The Northwest Forest Plan and other bioregional

assessments are a reaction to inadequacies of our past

scales of planning at the individual project and National

Forest scales. These scales of analysis were inadequate to

reveal some important cumulative management effects,

which resulted in environmental issues that triggered natural

resource management crises (Gunderson et al. 1995;

122
Johnson et al. 1999). The bioregional assessments and

resulting management plans take spatially hierarchical

approaches to management of complex ecosystems. Multiscale landscape analysis has gained prominence over the

past two decades both in planning processes that consider

several alternatives and in academic exercises.

A series of modeling exercises has explored consequences of alternative management and wildfire scenarios

in the Pacific Northwest (e.g., Franklin and Forman 1987;

Spies et al., 2002). With Wood Compatibility Initiative

funding we have undertaken landscape change modeling of

the 17,000-ha Blue River area (Cissel et al. 1999) and a

17000-km2 area covering much of the western Cascade

Range of Oregon (Pennington 2002). Different modeled

drivers and types of landscape change, including historical

wildfire, intensive plantation forestry, the Northwest Forest

Plan, and designated wilderness without fire produce very

different landscape conditions over time. Specific properties

of these differences reveal contrasts in the mixtures of

goods and services produced by each scenario. Because

they differ in age class distributions and arrangements,

landscapes produced by different drivers (“landscape scenarios”) also differ in their mixes of ecological goods and

services. A landscape plan that incorporates some components of the historic disturbance regime produces distributions of forest age classes quite similar to the wildfire

regime and quite different from the other management

scenarios simulated. The other management scenarios

potentially eliminate some forest age classes from the landscape, including early (pre-conifer canopy closure) and

mature (80-200 yr) classes, which may have important ecological consequences. This suggests that balancing the current policy focus on old-growth forests with attention to

other age classes is worthy of consideration. It is also interesting to note the high temporal variability of the historical

wildfire system, which contrasts strongly with the orderly

design of most managed systems. It is important to also

note that management systems, when implemented, are

often less orderly than designed. Major sources of uncertainty include the changing social context of management;

climate change; and the effects of natural disturbance

processes on managed landscapes, regardless of fire suppression and salvage operations.

MULTIPLE GOODS AND SERVICES

Interactions among different components and functions

of ecosystems are the subject matter of ecosystem science.

The parallel notion in social and economic terms is analysis of tradeoffs among goods, services, and economic costs

and benefits in natural resource management. Economists

and others in the social dimension have long thought in

terms of goods and services derived from natural resource

systems. Ecologists have been rather recent arrivals at this

point of view, but have picked up the notion of ecological

services with some enthusiasm (Daily 1997), in part to

promote environmental protection. 

Consideration of the multiple goods and services

derived from ecosystems helps us recognize the diversity

of values we have in forests and watersheds and the competing forces at work among them. Tradeoffs and interactions may be strong or weak, positive or negative; and the

interpretations of tradeoffs depend substantially on the

scale, spatial extent, and especially the components and

functions of the system analyzed. For example, under some

conditions, carbon sequestration in forests is strongly and

negatively linked with human consumption of wood,

because carbon in solid form is directly traded off between

the two components of this goods vs. services pair (i.e.,

wood products vs. carbon sequestration). If wood products

are used in solid form for long periods of time (centuries),

carbon sequestration in non-forest pools may be increased.

More intensive forest management for wood production,

on the other hand, may benefit species favored by young,

conifer habitat, while reducing habitat for species that fare

better in late seral habitat. However, very intensive silviculture may severely limit the duration of this early seral

habitat. A somewhat weaker coupling occurs in tradeoffs

between wood production and water yield, which, as a first

approximation, is sensitive to changes in leaf area. Leaf

area recovers much more rapidly in regenerating stands

than does carbon accumulation in woody biomass, so the

coupling between hydrology and wood removal is weaker

than the carbon sequestration - wood removal link. Thus,

interactions of wood production with other goods and

services from forest systems are complex and multifaceted.

To manage for only one outcome may leave others at substantially less than desirable levels.

Tradeoff and interaction terms are evident in analysis

of effects of thinning on rate of development of old-growth

attributes in plantations previously managed for Douglasfir production as the primary objective. Support from the

Wood Compatibility Initiative helped fund modeling analysis built on the Young Stand Thinning and Diversity

Silviculture Study, involving thinning in 40-year old plantations on the Willamette National Forest. Garman et al. 

(in press) observed that certain thinning practices (heavy

thinnings from below at ages 40, 60, 80 years) could produce live-tree attributes meeting standards for old-growth

stand structure (Spies and Franklin 1991) early in the

second century of stand development. In the absence of

123
management, these stands took nearly an additional century

to reach these conditions. Busing and Garman (2002)

extended this work to consider quality of wood (e.g., extent

of clear-bole wood) produced from these thinning treatments. Generally, their modeling analysis found that thinning from below on longer rotations can promote large live

and dead trees and canopy height diversity of old-growth

forests while yielding high quality (clear bole) wood. This

work indicates that wood production, especially large

diameter, clear wood, can be compatible with achieving

certain ecological objectives, including development of

some old-growth forest attributes. Efforts are now underway

to extend these stand modeling capabilities to the landscape

scale.

INTEGRATION OVER TIME, SPACE, 

AND MULTIPLE GOODS AND SERVICES

Landscape management plans can be a medium for

synthesis, even science synthesis. They embody ideas

derived, in part, from science tested in the course of management application. Management plans are also useful

media for communication with diverse groups about alternative courses of future management. We are developing,

implementing, and monitoring a landscape management

plan through an adaptive management process (Cissel et al.

1999). This process has proven useful as a synthesis of

ideas concerning taking long time, broad space, and multiresource approaches to forest and watershed management.

Modeling alternative scenarios of landscape change has

helped reveal difficulties of using management schemes

that take a narrower scope, such as the species protection

and recovery focus of the Northwest Forest Plan.

THE HUMAN DIMENSION

—COMMUNICATIONS

A continuing, critical step is communication. Over

several decades of work associated with the H.J. Andrews

Experimental Forest, we have learned that continuing dialogue among land managers and scientists with a constant

stream of visitors on field tours has shaped our view of the

potential futures of forestry. Partly in response to these

field discussions we have taken research and land management action to help test and shape that forestry in the real

world. Five essential elements of this continuing discourse

are: treat it as a continuing, open discussion; do it in the

field where difficulties with language and personalities are

less likely to intrude on good communication; present real

examples of science-management connections and of alternative approaches to stand and landscape management; share

and test ideas among local researchers and managers and

visitors to the area; and engage visitors with a broad mixture of political, social, and disciplinary perspectives. We

have no good name for this discourse in the woods. It is

not “technology transfer” because it is not about technology

and it is not about transfer, but rather about sharing ideas

and views on the future of forest and watershed management.

CONCLUSIONS

As with many natural resource issues, the future of

forestry on federal lands will undergo change which is

often difficult (Gunderson et al. 1995; Holling 2001). In a

period of dramatic change, such as the transition of the

Pacific Northwest federal forestry from the 1980s to the

21st century, it is important to capitalize on opportunities

for creativity and adaptation without becoming overwhelmed with the complexity of the situation (Holling

2001). Despite the complexity it may impose, we argue

that consideration of specific, broad time and space scales

and of tradeoffs provides essential context for charting the

future. Repeated discussions in the contexts of the forest

and of real examples of management approaches are an

important venue for deliberating the future of forestry.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Wood Compatibility Initiative (WCI) gave opportunity to add an important dimension to work underway, to

synthesize on-going work on several separate tracks, and to

consider interactions from a tradeoffs perspective. We thank

Keith Reynolds and Tom Spies for helpful comments.

Publications and theses by Busing and Garman (2002);

Berkley (2000); and Pennington (2002) were funded largely

by WCI; and work reported by Weisberg and Swanson (in

press) received significant support from the WCI, as did

some field sampling for the Young Stand Thinning and

Diversity study.

LITERATURE CITED

Berkley, E.L. 2000. Temporal and spatial variability of fire 

occurrence in western Oregon, A.D. 1200 to present.

Eugene, OR: University of Oregon. 110 p. M.S. thesis. 

Busing, R.T.; Garman, S.L. 2002. Promoting old-growth 

characteristics and long-term wood production in

Douglas-fir forests. Forest Ecology and Management.

160(2002): 161-175. 

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Cissel, J.H.; Swanson, F.J.; Grant, G.E. [et al.]. 1998. A

landscape plan based on historical fire regimes for a

managed forest ecosystem: the Augusta Creek study.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-422. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station. 82 p. 

Cissel, J.H.; Swanson, F.J.; Weisberg, P.J. 1999. Landscape

management using historical fire regimes: Blue River,

Oregon. Ecological Applications. 9(4): 1217-1231. 

Daily, G.C. 1997. Nature’s services: societal dependence 

on natural ecosystems. Washington, DC: Island Press.

392 p.

Franklin, J.F.; Forman, R.T.T. 1987. Creating landscape 

patterns by forest cutting: ecological consequences and

principles. Landscape Ecology. 1(1): 5-18. 

Garman, S.L.; Cissel, J.H.; Mayo, J.H. [In press]. 

Accelerating development of late-successional conditions in young managed Douglas-fir stands: a simulation study. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-557. Portland,

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,

Pacific Northwest Research Station. 

Garman, S.L.; Swanson, F.J.; Spies, T.A. 1999. Past, 

present, and future landscape patterns in the Douglas-fir

region of the Pacific Northwest. In: J.A. Rochelle, L.A.

Lehmann, J. Wisniewski (eds.). Forest fragmentation:

wildlife and management implications. Brill. Boston.

61-86.

Gunderson, L.J.; Holling, C.S.; Light, S.S. 1995. Barriers 

and bridges to the renewal of ecosystems and institutions. New York: Columbia University Press. 593 p.

Holling, C.S. 2001. Understanding the complexity of 

economic, ecological, and social systems. Ecosystems.

4: 390-405.

Hunter, M.L., Jr.; Jacobson, G.L., Jr.; Webb, T., III. 1988. 

Paleoecology and the coarse-filter approach to maintaining biological diversity. Conservation Biology. 2:

375-385.

Johnson, K.N.; Swanson, F.; Herring, M.; Greene, S. 1999.

Bioregional assessments: science at the crossroads of

management and policy. Washington, DC: Island Press.

395 p. 

Landres, P.B.; Morgan, P.; Swanson, F.J. 1999. 

Overview of the use of natural variability concepts in

managing ecological systems. Ecological Applications.

9(4): 1179-1188. 

Morgan, P.; Aplet, G.H.; Haufler, J.B. [et al.]. 1994. 

Historical range of variability: a useful tool for evaluating ecosystem change. Journal of Sustainable Forestry

2: 87-111.

Pennington, D.D. 2002. Structural and functional comparison of human-induced and natural forest landscapes in

the western Cascades of Oregon. Oregon State

University. PhD dissertation. 263 p.

Spies, T.A.; Franklin, J.F. 1991. The structure of natural 

young, mature, and old-growth Douglas-fir forests in

Oregon and Washington. In: Ruggiero, L.F.; Aubry,

K.E.; Carey, A.B.; Huff, M.J., tech. eds. Wildlife and

vegetation of unmanaged Douglas-fir forests. Gen.

Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-285. Portland, OR: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station: 91-109.

Spies, T.A.; Johnson, K.N.; Bettinger, P. [et al. 2002]. 

Challenges to integrating wood production, biodiversity,

and other socioeconomic values at broad scales: an

example from Coastal Oregon. In: Johnson, A.C.;

Haynes, R.W.; Monserud, R.A.; eds. Congruent

Management of Multiple Resources: A proceedings

from the Wood Compatibility Workshop; Gen. Tech.

Rep. PNW-GTR-563. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station: 13-25.

Swanson, F.J.; Jones, J.A.; Wallin, D.O.; Cissel, J.H. 1994. 

Natural variability—implications for ecosystem management. In: Jensen, M.E.; Bourgeron, P.S., tech. eds.

Eastside Forest Ecosystem Health Assessment—Volume

II: Ecosystem management: principles and applications.

Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-318. Portland, OR: U.S.

Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest

Research Station: 89-106. 

Weisberg, P.J.; Swanson, F.J. [In press]. Regional synchroneity in fire regimes of western Oregon and

Washington, USA. Forest Ecology and Management.

125
1 Research Forester, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, PO Box 3890, Portland, OR 97208.

2 Forest Ecologist, Michigan State University, Department of Entomology, stationed at Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 2770 Sherwood Lane, Juneau, AK

99801.

Proceedings from the Wood Compatibility Initiative Workshop, number 13.

DEVELOPMENT OF MIXED RED ALDER-CONIFER 

STANDS IN SOUTHEAST ALASKA

Robert L. Deal1 and Ewa H. Orlikowska2

INTRODUCTION

Red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) is a relatively shortlived, shade-intolerant tree with rapid juvenile height

growth. In Alaska, alder usually occurs as a pioneer species

with Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) and

western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) on

exposed mineral soils (Harris and Farr 1974; Ruth and

Harris 1979). Recent logging has increased the amount of

alder in the forests of Southeast Alaska, particularly in

upland areas with heavy soil disturbance. However, little

information is available about the growth and ecological

role of red alder in Southeast Alaska and basic information

on silvics, stand growth and yield, tree species mixtures,

succession, tree mortality and decay, and understory vegetation in alder stands is lacking. This study uses a broadly

integrated approach to examine the role of alder in younggrowth forest ecosystems and the influence that alder has

on different forest resources.

ABSTRACT

Overstory stand structure and growth, and understory plant diversity and abundance were assessed in nine 38- to 42-

year-old mixed red alder-conifer stands on Prince of Wales Island, Alaska. Tree species composition ranged from 100%

conifer to 79% alder as a proportion of stand basal area. Tree height growth patterns for overstory trees were reconstructed

using dominant red alder, Sitka spruce and western hemlock trees at each site. Height growth of alder was initially much

greater than for conifers, but conifers emerged from alder overstory after 20-30 years and are now 4-9 m above the alder

canopy. Understory species richness was greatest in mixed stands containing 18-51% alder and was lower in pure conifer

and predominantly alder stands. Total understory plant cover and herbaceous cover increased with increasing proportions 

of red alder. Understory plant communities appeared to be more diverse and abundant in mixed alder-conifer stands than in

pure conifer stands. Results suggest that mixed red alder-conifer stands may increase understory plant production and availability for deer forage and improve habitat for small mammals.

KEY WORDS: Silviculture, stand development, red alder, understory plants, overstory-understory interactions, southeast

Alaska.

127

In Southeast Alaska, even-age forest management has

been used almost exclusively in the region for wood production, and stands have been regenerated through clearcutting and natural reproduction. However, the dense,

uniform, even-aged conifer stands that quickly develop are

recognized as having broadly negative consequences for

wildlife and fish (Wallmo and Schoen 1980; Schoen et al.

1981,1988; Thedinga et al. 1989; Hanley 1993; Dellasala et

al. 1996). Canopy closure generally occurs 25 to 35 years

after cutting followed by a nearly complete elimination of

understory vegetation for 100 years or longer (Alaback

1982a, 1984; Tappeiner and Alaback 1989). Attempts to

reestablish understory herbs and shrubs through thinning

young-growth conifer stands have led to mostly conifer

regeneration with little new herbaceous colonization (Deal

and Farr 1994). However, recent studies of mixed red

alder-conifer stands have indicated that different successional pathways are possible following clearcutting in

Southeast Alaska. These alder-conifer stands have both

species-rich and highly productive understory vegetation

with biomass similar to that of old-growth stands of the
region (Hanley and Hoel 1996; Deal 1997; Hanley and

Barnard 1998). Habitat quality for some small mammals in

even-aged, alder-conifer stands may be equal to that of oldgrowth forests (Hanley 1996). Although inclusion of alder

will not provide mitigation for all wildlife-habitat problems

(e.g., lack of snow interception for deer winter range), it

may accomplish more than is possible by thinning evenaged conifer stands. 

In this paper, we examine the structure of mixed red

alder-conifer forests and present preliminary information

on stand development of overstory alder and conifer trees.

We also assess understory plant diversity and abundance in

mixed alder-conifer stands and discuss implications of this

research for wildlife. These preliminary results will be used

to further develop investigations on the role of alder in

young-growth forest ecosystems and to assess the potential

tradeoffs and compatibility of different forest resources in

mixed alder-conifer stands. This information may also be

used to help develop regional adaptive management practices.

APPROACH

To assess the role of red alder in young-growth forests

and to evaluate potential tradeoffs in wood production and

biodiversity between alder-dominated and conifer-dominated forests we sampled stands containing a range of alderconifer mixtures. The proportion of alder basal area was

the major criterion for stand selection with increasing alder

composition sampled across a continuum from pure conifer

to predominantly alder. To reduce the variability among

stands we limited our sites to the Maybeso and Harris

watersheds, Prince of Wales Island. These watersheds contain large areas that were logged about 40 years ago and

have stands of relatively similar age with a wide range of

alder/conifer composition. Nine forest stands were intensively sampled during the summer of 2000. 

METHODS

We used a combination of variable-radius and fixedarea plots to sample and describe stand structure and composition. Variable-radius plots were used to assess stand

density, alder frequency, distribution and proportion of

basal area in each stand, and understory vegetation. Larger

fixed-area plots were used to determine stand and tree

growth, tree mortality, and tree height growth patterns. Plot

data were combined by stand. Tree height growth was reconstructed using stem sections from 90 overstory alders and

conifers to determine patterns of stand development.

Understory plant vegetation was sampled in seventy 1-

m2 vegetation quadrats and 2-m radius shrub plots systematically located throughout the stand. Vegetation cover was

measured on quadrats and shrub plots located at both the

overstory variable-radius and fixed-area plots. Vegetation

cover was estimated for all vascular and commonly found

non-vascular plants. Cover data were combined by stand. 

PRELIMINARY RESULTS

Stand History, Composition and Structure

Stand reconstruction showed that all of the sites were

harvested between 1958 and 1962. Sites were selected on

the basis of preliminary estimates of overstory alder and

conifer composition but actual stand compositions were not

determined until after stand data were summarized. Most

of the sites had less alder than the original estimates indicated, and only two sites contained more than 50% alder as

a proportion of stand basal area. The pattern of alder was

usually linear, was found along streams or on logging roads,

and was closely associated with disturbances including

landsliding, log dragging, tractor logging, or road building

(Johnson and Edwards 2002, in this proceedings).

Overall, the proportion of alder varied from 0% in a

pure conifer site to almost 80% alder in another site. Most

sites had approximately 20-50% alder with Sitka spruce

and western hemlock comprising the majority of other

species in the stand. Some sites also had a minor component of western red cedar. Stand density was generally

inversely related to the proportion of alder either as a function of basal area or as a function of tree stocking. The

most open site with the lowest basal area and tree stocking

was the site that had the highest proportion of alder.

Most sites were relatively well stocked with abundant

small-diameter conifer trees and stand basal areas were

only slightly less than comparable even-aged pure conifer

stands in the region. The site with the highest proportion of

alder had considerably fewer trees and lower basal area

than the other sites. The average diameter of alder trees

was much larger than the average diameter of spruce or

hemlock trees. However, the biggest diameter and tallest

trees in almost all sites were conifers. Most mortality

occurred in small-diameter conifers and alders.

Reconstruction of Red Alder and Conifer Height Growth

The height growth of dominant and codominant alders

and conifers were compared at two sites. These sites were

chosen to show two different patterns of height growth in

a mostly alder overstory stand (Alluvial Fan site, Figure

128
129

Figure 1—Tree height growth reconstructions for dominant red alders and conifers (Sitka spruce and western hemlock) at two of our research sites. The Alluvial Fan site (a) is a predominantly alder overstory

stand, and the Lower Example site (b) is a conifer-dominated stand.

1a) and a conifer-dominated stand (Lower Example site,

Figure 1b). These sites illustrate general growth trends for

alder and conifers but also show different potential stand

development patterns. 

At the Alluvial Fan site, alders exhibited rapid early

height growth but then slowed down after 20-30 years

(Figure 1a). Initially, conifers grew slowly but during last

20-30 years they have consistently had greater height growth

than associated alders in the stand. Alders at 10, 20 and 30

years old averaged +4.0, +1.5, and -2.0 m taller than conifers

of the same age. Dominant conifers emerged from the alder

overstory between 20-30 years after cutting (Figure 1a), and

in the current stand (year 2000), conifers average about 4.6

m taller than the overstory alders. Height growth of alders

was very uniform with all of the alders currently about 24

m tall. Conifers are continuing to grow rapidly in height

while the alders have shown a consistent slow down in

height growth.

At the Lower Example site (Figure 1b), this same general height growth pattern for alders was apparent with rapid

early height growth followed by declining growth. The

slow down of height growth in alder at the Lower Example

site was more pronounced than at the Alluvial Fan site.

Alders at 10, 20 and 30 years old averaged +2.1, -0.5, and -

4.6 m taller than conifers of the same age. Dominant conifers

emerged from the alder overstory at about 20 years after cutting (Figure 1b), and in the current stand (year 2000), conifers

are now more than 9 m taller than the overstory alders. At

the Lower Example site, many alders are now being suppressed by the conifer overstory and there is considerable

alder mortality. 

Understory Plant Diversity and Abundance

The species richness of these mixed alder-conifer stands

was fairly high with 112 species of understory plants

including 49 herbs and 15 shrubs (Table 1). The lowest

species richness was in the pure conifer stand and the stand

with the highest proportion of alder. The pure conifer stand

in our study had a total of 43 species including only 12
herbs and 8 shrubs. The stand with the highest proportion

of alder had 49 species including 15 herbs and 10 shrubs.

The greatest species richness occurred at the Alluvial Fan

site (51% alder) with a total of 62 species including 26

herbs. Overall, the most species rich stands were those

stands with more even mixtures of alders and conifers. 

Understory canopy coverage appeared to be closely

related to the amount of alder in the stand and understory

plant cover increased with increasing proportion of alder

basal area. The proportion of alder basal area explained

about 58% of the variability of total plant cover. Analysis

of cover for vascular plants (taller plants with tracheophytes) and non-vascular plants (bryophytes) showed different relationships. The non-vascular plant cover was similar

for all of the sites and varied among sites from about 35-

45%. There was no significant relationship (r2 = 0.157,

p = 0.291) between the cover of non-vascular plants and

the proportion of alder basal area (Figure 2). In contrast,

the vascular plants showed a strong correlation (r2 = 0.701,

p = 0.005) between increasing vascular plant cover and

increasing proportion of alder basal area.

DISCUSSION

These mixed red alder-conifer stands contained variable

stand structures including large overstory conifers, medium

sized red alders and a moderate stocking of understory

conifers. Typical well-stocked hemlock/spruce stands in

Southeast Alaska at similar sites and ages have slightly

higher basal areas (50-80 m2 ha-1) than our sites (37-63 m2

ha-1) and much higher tree stocking than the mixed alderconifer stands we studied. These lighter stocked alderconifer stands had higher understory plant diversity and

much greater abundance of vascular plants compared with

typical, heavily stocked conifer stands of the same age.

Alaback (1982a) reported that understory biomass in hemlock/spruce stands in Southeast Alaska peaked at a stand

age of 15 to 25 years, and rapidly declined once the canopy

closed. After canopy closure, these stands enter an intense

stem-exclusion stage, with the least diverse understories

occurring in stands between 40 and 90 years of age (Alaback

1982b). Young-growth conifer stands of the same age as

our sites (40 years) typically contain dense, uniform overstories of hemlock and spruce that severely suppress

130

Table 1—Species diversity measures for all plant species, non-vascular and vascular plants, herbaceous plants, and

shrubs

Species Diversity Measures 

Data Set Richness Alpha E H’ D’

Full 112 52.6 0.60 2.39 0.82

Non vascular 48 25.2 0.45 1.47 0.62

Vascular 64 27.3 0.68 2.23 0.82

Herb 49 17.8 0.67 1.89 0.79

Shrub 15 9.6 0.61 1.39 0.64

Note: Richness is the total number of plant species in the study; Alpha diversity is the average number of species per site; Evenness (E) = H’ / ln (Richness),

from (Pielou 1975); Diversity (H’) = -∑ (pi * ln(pi) where pi = importance probability in element i, from (Shannon and Weaver 1949); D’ = 1 - ∑ (pi)

from (Shannon and Weaver 1949). The herb data set included herbaceous plants and ferns. The shrub data set included woody shrubs and tree seedlings.

Figure 2—The mean canopy cover of vascular and non-vascular plants as

a function of the proportion of alder basal area for all nine of our research

sites combined.
understory development. In contrast, our 40-year-old mixed

alder-conifer stands currently provide relatively abundant

and diverse understory plant communities. 

It is unclear how long red alder will remain in these

stands. Red alder is replaced in stands by longer lived

conifers that sustain growth rates longer than associated

alders but the time required for alder senescence has not

been well documented (Harrington et al. 1994). In pure

alder stands in the Pacific Northwest, alder mortality

increases rapidly in stands over 90 years old (Worthington

et al. 1962) and little alder remains by the age of 130 years

(Newton and Cole 1994). In the stands we studied, it

appears that alder is being suppressed and may die soon in

some sites, but in other sites, alder is thriving and will persist for much longer. The conifer-dominated site at Lower

Example (Figure 1b) shows that the tallest alder are now 9

m shorter than associated overstory conifer trees. Many

smaller suppressed alder have already died in these stands

and we expect that the alder in this stand may be almost

completely replaced by conifers in 20 years. However, in

the evenly mixed alder-conifer stand at Alluviual Fan

(Figure 1a), the tallest alder are only 4 m shorter than the

overstory conifer trees. Few of the alder appear to be dying

and there are still several hundred overstory alder per hectare

in this stand and fewer overstory conifers. We expect these

alder to survive for several more decades. Information is

lacking on the life span of alder, but based on observation

(Hennon, personal correspondence), alder can live more

than 100 years in Alaska and we expect that some alder in

this stand may survive for another 50 years or more. 

Understory plant species richness was greatest in the

stands with mixtures of alder and conifers. Species richness

for vascular plants was greatest in stands containing 18-51%

of the stand basal area in alder. Vascular plant abundance

also significantly increased with increasing proportion of

alder in the stand. Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) may

have biodiversity value but vascular plants are generally

more important plants for wildlife and fish. Vascular plants

including some important herbs and shrubs provide forage

for Sitka black tailed deer and key habitat for small mammals. These larger shrubs also provide greater biomass for

invertebrates that in turn provide important trophic resources

for songbirds, fish and other insectivores. Based on preliminary results it appears that these mixed alder-conifer stands

will provide improved terrestrial and aquatic food resources

for wildlife and fish.

It is important to remember that the stands we studied

were cut to provide specific wood products for sawmills

and pulpmills in the region. Cutting occurred with no effort

to encourage alder regeneration, in fact, alder has been

considered an undesirable tree species and may have been

removed following normal precommercial thinning practices.

This study provides some preliminary information on the

role of alder in managed young-growth forest ecosystems

and the potential tradeoffs and compatibility of different

forest resources in mixed alder-conifer stands. Inclusion of

alder in a regenerating stand may mitigate some of the effects

of clearcutting in areas where purely even-aged conifer

stands would compromise wildlife and aquatic resources. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was made possible through funding by

the USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

Station, Wood Compatibility Initiative. We would like to

thank all of the other principal investigators in this project

including Mark Wipfli, Toni De Santo, Adelaide Johnson,

Paul Hennon, Mark Schultz, Mason Bryant, Tom Hanley,

Winston Smith, and Rick Edwards. We also want to thank

all the numerous field personnel who have provided invaluable assistance in the project. We are grateful for reviews

of this paper by Tom Hanley, Paul Hennon, Susan Hummel

and Jim Russell.

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