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FEBRUARY 2015

Ecological Management of Key Arthropod 

Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards 

Ag Innovations Series

Peer-reviewed research 

findings and practical 

strategies for advancing 

sustainable agriculture 

systems

TECHNICAL

BULLETIN

CONTENTS

Introduction...................................... 1

Managing the Orchard: 

an Ecosystem Perspective......... 3

Plum Curculio..................................4

Apple Maggot.................................6

Codling Moth..................................8

Oriental Fruit Moth......................11

European Red Mite......................13

Future Directions..........................16

SARE Research Synopsis............17

References.......................................19

Geographic Adaptability: Northeast, mid-Atlantic, and most other eastern fruit growing states, although 

the specifics of pest biology/behavior may differ by state and region.

Introduction

Apples are an important crop in the Northeast, grown for both fresh market and 

processing. In 2012, there were about 89,000 acres of apples in the northeastern 

and mid-Atlantic states with a farm-gate value of $580 million (USDA NASS, 

2012). The list of top apple-producing states nationwide includes two Northeast 

states: New York, ranked second (1,066 growers and 41,000 bearing acres), and Pennsylvania, 

ranked fourth (1,239 growers and 19,000 bearing acres). 

Northeast apple operations are diverse, with orchards ranging from several hundred acres 

to less than an acre. Regardless of the orchard’s size, however, growers have a challenging 

task managing insects, mites and diseases. By some estimates, growers may spend up to 25 

percent of their production costs on pest management (Penn State University, 2012). 
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Pest management challenges are 

compounded by three factors: 

• high cosmetic standards and low tolerance for damage in fruit marketed 

for fresh consumption; 

• regulatory pressures and health concerns regarding organophosphate insecticides; 

• the changing nature of the pest complex due to: 1) adaptations of existing 

pests, and 2) the emergence of new 

pests, resulting from climatic variation and shifts in host preference. 

In response to these challenges, SARE 

funded three projects, one in Massachusetts and two in Pennsylvania, to 

help develop alternative management 

strategies for apple pests in northeastern orchards. This technical bulletin outlines strategies developed from these 

projects, including biologically based 

pest control, orchard architecture and 

development of materials approved for 

organic production.

At the time of funding (2000-2009), 

the key arthropod pests in Northeast 

apple orchards were: European red 

This technical bulletin is based 

on three SARE projects, LNE00-135, 

LNE02-159 and LNE06-248. 

For more information, go to 

www.sare.org/project-reports and 

search by project number.

Authors: David Chaney, Dan Cooley, 

Greg Krawczyk, Tracy Leskey, Arthur 

Tuttle

SARE Funding 

for this Project

mite (Panonychus ulmi), plum curculio 

(Conotrachelus nenuphar), apple maggot (Rhagoletis pomonella) and leafroller 

complex including obliquebanded leafroller (Choristoneura rosaceana) and 

tufted apple bud moth (Platynota idaeusalis). Today, apple maggot, plum curculio 

and European red mite continue to be important problems for northeastern growers while a number of new arthropod 

pests have also emerged, including codling moth (Cydia pomonella) and Oriental 

fruit moth (Grapholita molesta). This bulletin focuses on these five pests.

The brown marmorated stink bug 

(Halyomorpha halys), though currently a 

major pest, is not included in this publication because it is a new pest in the United States. SARE is currently funding work 

on using pheromones, border sprays and 

other Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 

methods to manage the brown marmorated stink bug. Results will be published 

as more research is completed. For more 

information, visit www.fruit.cornell.edu/

berry/pestalerts/bmsbpestalert.html.
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In orchard systems, ecological pest management works by: 

• creating optimal conditions in the orchard for crop growth;

• stressing and confusing pests by creating conditions that limit their growth 

or that interfere with their movement 

or reproduction; 

• enhancing populations of beneficial 

organisms that keep pests in check;

• using IPM practices such as host resistance, cultural control, pest monitoring, field scouting, biological control, 

economic thresholds and as-needed 

applications of pesticides rather than 

preventative sprays. 

For the arthropod pests described in 

this technical bulletin, recommended IPM 

practices range from pest scouting for 

properly timed insecticide sprays to more 

advanced strategies such as monitoring, 

combinations of multiple tactics (e.g., 

mating disruption and biocontrol agents 

and traps), and use of bio-pesticides. 

Whether starting a new orchard or 

adapting an existing orchard, consider implementing the following ecological pest 

management strategies that take advantage of natural ecosystem processes:

• Create a basic orchard architecture 

to allow for more sunlight and air circulation within the canopy. An open 

arrangement captures sunlight, minimizes interior shading and results 

in healthier trees. Tree Training and 

Planting Systems in Vermont Apple 

Orchards (Bradshaw, 2011) provides an 

overview of the main types of systems 

currently being used.

Managing the Orchard: an Ecosystem Perspective

The field of insect management is rapidly evolving from the use of single, silver-bullet tactics to control pests, 

to a multi-pronged approach known as ecological pest management, which mimics and augments the functioning of natural systems in order to suppress pests. The SARE research described in this bulletin, along with 

a plethora of other research efforts around the world, are based on innovative and successful alternative insect 

management strategies that use the principles of ecological pest management in orchard ecosystems.

• Manage the orchard perimeter to confuse and stress pests. For example, use 

baited traps around the perimeter to 

monitor and destroy pests with targeted rather than broadcast pesticide 

applications.

• Manage borders or surrounding farmland using specific crops to attract 

beneficial predators and parasites. 

• Remove alternate hosts from surrounding farmland. For example, codling 

moth females are capable of moving 

up to 100 meters within a single generation. So be sure to remove principal 

host trees of codling moth (e.g., apple, 

pear, hawthorn and quince) within 200 

meters of the orchard perimeter (Prokopy, 2003). 
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Description and Life Cycle

Adult plum curculio are snout beetles, 

about one-quarter of an inch long (Fig. 1). 

They are dark brown, mottled with white 

or gray patches and have four humps on 

their wing covers. The snout is about onethird of its body length. Plum curculio larvae are yellowish or grayish white with a 

brown head and reach about one-quarter 

of an inch in length.

Plum curculio adults overwinter in the 

ground or leaf litter found in woods, 

hedgerows and abandoned fields. Adults 

begin to emerge as temperatures warm 

in the spring (several days of mean temperatures above 60 degrees F or maximum temperatures above 75 degrees F). 

This usually coincides with the blossom 

period of apples. If temperatures drop 

and conditions become unfavorable, the 

adults may return to overwintering sites. 

Although the emergence period for plum 

curculio lasts several weeks, 40-60 percent of the total emergence can occur 

on a single day. As adults emerge in the 

spring, they walk and fly to trees where 

they feed on the buds, flowers and newly 

set fruit. Feeding on early stage fruit results in fruit damage because the adults 

Plum Curculio 

P

lum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) is a weevil native to North 

America, primarily east of the Rocky Mountains. It is a major pest 

of apples, blueberries and stone fruits. In most areas within its 

range, the plum curculio has a single generation, but in the mid-Atlantic and southern United States it may have a partial second generation. 

Most commercial orchards do not have resident populations of the plum 

curculio. Infestations are largely a result of adults moving in from adjoining 

hedgerows and woodlands. FIG 1. Adult plum curculio. Photo courtesy Clemson 

University, Bugwood.org #UGA2912075 

FIG 2. Life cycle diagram of the plum curculio. Artwork by Ariel Hsu 

cut a hole in the skin of the fruit and hollow out a cavity about one-tenth of an 

inch deep. 

Plum curculio eggs are laid singly in 

small cavities just beneath the skin of the 

fruit. Females carve a space just under the 

fruit’s skin. In front of the holes in which 

females lay their eggs, crescent-shaped 

slits are cut that extend beneath the egg 

cavities, so that each egg is left in a tiny 

flap (Fig. 3). This behavior protects the egg 

from being crushed by the rapidly developing fruit. Each female usually lays about 

60-150 eggs. The small, white, oval eggs 

hatch in two to 12 days. The small wounds 

resulting from feeding and egg laying exude sap that dries to a white crust. Upon 

hatching, the young larvae bore into the 

fruit. If the apple stays on the tree, the 

larvae are usually killed by the pressure of 

the growing fruit, but not before damaging the fruit so it becomes unmarketable (Fig. 4). Most larvae continue to develop to the next stage of growth in the 

damaged fruit that has dropped to the 

ground. After two to three weeks in the 

fruit, the full-grown larvae burrow an inch 

or two into the soil where they pupate 

and eventually emerge as adults. The entire process from egg to adult takes from 

six to 10 weeks depending on temperature and weather conditions (Fig. 2).

In summary, plum curculio damage apples in the following ways: surface feeding and wounds from egg laying that scar 

or deform the fruit by harvest; internal 

injury produced by burrowing larvae; 

premature drop of the fruit; and feeding 

punctures made by new adults in the late 

summer and fall.
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Management of 

Plum Curculio

For decades, the standard practice for 

controlling the plum curculio has been to 

treat the entire orchard two to five times 

after bloom with applications of organophosphate insecticides. The first application in the spring is timed to keep populations in check before they start laying 

eggs. Subsequent applications during 

the remainder of the growing season are 

based on monitoring plum curculio levels 

in the orchard. The trap that seems most 

effective is a pyramid shaped trap baited 

with a plum curculio pheromone lure and 

benzaldehyde, placed in a collecting container at the top of the trap (Fig. 5).

 SARE research demonstrates viable 

alternatives to this pesticide-intensive 

strategy. The University of Massachusetts 

project found that a single application 

of insecticide over the whole orchard at 

petal fall can be followed by more targeted treatment of perimeter trees near the 

source of overwintering adults based on 

counts from odor-baited trap trees. New 

recommendations suggest timing perimeter row applications of effective products 

based on a threshold of one freshly injured fruit out of 25 fruit sampled on the 

baited trap tree (Piñero et al., 2011). In this 

study, localizing and monitoring injury to 

fruit in the perimeter row led to a 74 percent reduction in insecticide use. Other 

studies showed similar or higher levels of 

effectiveness using baited trap trees (Leskey et al., 2008; Piñero and Prokopy, 2006; 

Leskey and Wright, 2004; Prokopy, 2002).

The SARE-funded mite management 

project at Penn State University evaluated Kaolin clay as an organically acceptable control option for plum curculio. 

Kaolin (Surround®) is a specialized clay 

mineral used as an insecticide on many 

fruit crops which can reduce the level of 

injury caused by plum curculio. Kaolin clay 

works as a repellant and therefore should 

be applied before plum curculio begins 

laying eggs. Additional applications are 

also needed to maintain the coating as 

the fruit grows, especially after it rains. 

In a comparison of organic transitional 

and conventional blocks, plum curculio 

was monitored using pyramid traps and 

FIG 4. Late-season fruit scarring by plum curculio larvae. Photo by Ric Bessin, 

University of Kentucky Entomology 

FIG 3. Fresh egg-laying wounds by adult plum curculio on a young fruit. Photo by Ric 

Bessin, University of Kentucky Entomology 

FIG 5. The black pyramid trap is used to monitor 

the plum curculio. Photo by Tracy Leskey, 

USDA Agricultural Research Service

SARE-funded research 

from the University of 

Massachusetts and Penn 

State demonstrate viable 

alternatives to a pesticideintensive strategy.

branch traps. Seasonal and harvest fruit 

evaluations were conducted in all monitored orchards. Throughout the period 

of the project, no excessive numbers of 

plum curculio were observed in any of 

the organically treated orchards. 
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Description and Life Cycle

The adult apple maggot fly is similar in 

size to a house fly. Females are black and 

have a pointed abdomen with four white 

cross bands. Males are smaller and have 

three cross bands on a rounded abdomen. The wings are clear, with four black 

bands shaped like the letter “W” (Fig. 6). 

Apple maggot adults begin to emerge 

from the soil in the middle of June, with 

peak emergence from mid- to late July. 

The pattern of emergence varies by geographic location and depends largely on 

the host and environmental factors such 

as temperature, soil type and rainfall. 

Newly emerged flies mature seven to 10 

days after emergence and congregate 

on the fruit, where mating occurs. After 

mating, females puncture the apple skin 

with their ovipositors to lay eggs, which 

are deposited singly, just beneath the skin 

of the apple. Over their 30-day life span, 

females will lay an average of about 300 

eggs. 

Eggs hatch after two to 10 days, depending on the ambient temperature. 

The legless, cream-colored maggots are 

about one-quarter of an inch long at 

maturity and have a blunt posterior that 

tapers down to a rounded point containApple Maggot 

The apple maggot is native to eastern North America. Originally it was 

associated mainly with large-fruited hawthorns, but it later adopted 

apple as another host and has become a major pest in the northeastern United States and Canada. During the early 1980s, apple maggot 

also became established in the West, although it has yet to become a serious pest there. 

FIG 6. Adult apple maggot. Photo courtesy 

New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Cornell University

ing two black mouth hooks. They spend 

from 20 to 30 days feeding within the 

fruit, going through three instars—developmental stages between malts—in the 

process. After reaching their final growth 

stage in the apple fruit, maggots drop to 

the ground, burrow into the soil and go 

through two more molting stages to become a pupa. The brownish-yellow pupae 

are about one-eighth of an inch long and 

overwinter in the soil, usually within two 

inches of the surface (Fig. 7). 

Young larvae feeding within the fruit 

leave brown, winding, threadlike trails. As 

the larvae grow, feeding tunnels become 

more conspicuous as they are prone to 

bacterial decay. Eventually, the apple becomes soft and rotten and drops prematurely from the tree. This internal breakdown proceeds more rapidly and is more 

severe in softer-fleshed, earlier-maturing 

cultivars.

Egg laying by adult females may also 

cause some damage characterized by pitting and dimpling on the apple surface 

(Fig. 8). 

Management of 

Apple Maggot

The standard practice for apple maggot 

management has been broad-spectrum 

insecticides applied at regular intervals FIG 7. Life cycle diagram of the apple maggot. Artwork by Ariel Hsu
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FIG 8. Damage from apple maggot 

oviposition. Photo courtesy New York 

State Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Cornell University

in July and August to prevent adult flies 

from laying eggs. To reduce costs and 

negative environmental impacts, monitor 

adult apple maggot fly populations and 

apply insecticide, only when threshold 

levels have been met. The most effective traps for monitoring apple maggots 

are sticky red spheres baited with apple 

volatile compounds (e.g., Tanglefoot® red 

sphere traps and lures) (Fig. 9). 

To implement an effective apple 

maggot monitoring program:

• Place a single trap in each three-acre 

block, with traps placed one to two 

rows in from the orchard border. 

• Place traps by early to mid-June, 

about head height, and positioned so 

they are surrounded by fruit and foliage, but without the foliage touching 

or obstructing them.

• Inspect and clean traps weekly from initial placement through early September. 

• Apply insecticide when an average of 

five flies per trap are captured. (Due to 

pesticide residues, fly capture for the 

week or two following an insecticide 

application can be discounted.) 

Pesticide use can also be reduced by 

using good orchard sanitation practices: 

• Pick up and destroy apples that have 

dropped to the ground. This will reduce habitat for apple maggot populations for the following year. 

• Remove abandoned apple trees and 

other adjacent apple maggot host 

FIG 9. Apple maggot red sticky sphere trap with bait. Photo by Greg Krawczyk, Pennsylvania State University

plants (e.g., hawthorn) within 100 yards 

of the orchard. 

SARE-funded research at University of 

Massachusetts has also advanced another 

non-pesticide control of apple maggots: 

sticky red spheres. Spheres baited with a 

blend of five components of synthetic 

fruit odor (butyl hexanoate plus hexyl 

butanoate, butyl butanoate, pentyl hexanoate, and propyl hexanoate) turned out 

to be more effective for trapping apple 

maggot flies than spheres baited with a 

single component (butyl hexanoate) for 

all cultivars except Gala, Jonagold and Fuji, 

which were particularly susceptible to 

apple maggots in years one and two of 

the project. 

In these first two years, sphere traps 

were placed 10 meters apart on perimeter-row apple trees and ultimately proved 

to be as effective as grower sprays in 

controlling apple maggot flies. In the third 

and final year of the project, spheres 

were placed five to 15 meters apart on 

perimeter trees depending on tree size, 

extent of pruning, cultivar and nature of 

adjacent habitat. For example, in blocks 

with smaller trees and low to moderate 

maggot pressure, traps placed about 10 

meters apart provided effective control 

when using the recommended apple volatile compound. This new approach led 

to a 100 percent reduction in insecticide 

use for apple maggots and a 37 percent 

reduction in the number of traps needed 

to achieve direct control (Prokopy et al., 

2000; Prokopy et al., 2004). 

The SARE-funded mite management 

project at Penn State University evaluated Kaolin clay as an organically acceptable control option for apple maggots (and 

plum curculio as described above). Kaolin 

clay works as a repellent and therefore 

should be applied before apple maggots 

begin laying eggs. Additional applications 

are needed to maintain the coating as the 

fruit grows, especially after it rains. In the 

comparison of organic transitional and 

conventional blocks, seasonal and harvest fruit evaluations were conducted in 

all monitored orchards to assess the efficacy of the Kaolin spray; apple maggot 

was monitored using yellow sticky traps. 

Throughout the project no excessive numbers of apple maggots were observed in 

any of the organically treated orchards. 

Perfect coverage by Kaolin clay of fruit 

and foliage is crucial for the efficacy of this 

method. Although excessive use of Kaolin 

clay can result in white residue (Kaolin dust) 

on fruit during harvest, it is easily washable 

and poses no health risk. 

To reduce costs and negative 

environmental impacts, 

monitor apple maggot fly 

populations and apply 

insecticide only when threshold levels have been met.
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Description and Life Cycle

Codling moths overwinter as full-grown 

larvae within cocoons under leaf litter, 

loose bark or any other sheltered place 

they may find. As the weather begins to 

warm in the spring, the larvae pupate and 

the first flight of adult moths emerges 

about the time of full bloom in apples. 

Adult moths are an iridescent gray color 

with a chocolate-brown patch, containing copper to gold markings, located at 

the tip of each forewing. The hind wings, 

which are not visible when the moth is at 

rest, are a lighter, copper brown color (Fig. 

10). Adult female moths are approximately 

three-eighths of an inch long, while males 

are slightly smaller and have a grouping of 

hair-like scales near the wing base. 

Codling Moth 

The codling moth occurs throughout North America. Introduced 

from Europe, it attacks a wide range of plants including apples, 

pears, walnuts and other fruits. For many years it was considered to be more of a problem in the western United States than on the 

East Coast, but that situation has changed in the last decade. Increased 

pressure from the codling moth now makes it one of the most important 

apple pests in the Northeast. Codling moths can infest 95 percent of the 

apples in an orchard if left unmanaged. Given the codling moth’s ability 

to adapt to various fruiting periods of the crops it infests, and to develop resistance to insecticides, fruit growers must continually be on guard 

against a resurgence of this pest.

FIG 10. Adult codling moth. Photo by Todd M. Gilligan 

and Marc E. Epstein, Bugwood.org #5482427 

FIG 11. Life cycle diagram of the codling moth. Artwork by Valerie Winemiller. 

During the day, codling moth adults are 

inactive and remain camouflaged on the 

bark of trees. When evening temperatures go above 60 degrees F, the moths 

become active and mate, and the females 

lay their eggs. Females may lay up to 100 

eggs. Eggs are laid mostly on fruit or on 

the leaves near fruit and hatch in six to 20 

days depending on weather and temperature. Codling moth eggs are laid singly and 

at first appear as slightly flat, oval discs. 

They are translucent and tiny. As eggs mature, they become reddish in color and 

finally enter a stage where the dark head 

capsule of the larvae can be seen. After 

hatching, young larvae briefly feed under 

the surface at the side of the fruit before 

boring into the core. They then feed on 

the seeds and surrounding flesh until they 

are fully grown in three to four weeks, at 

which time they exit the fruit and seek 

shelter where they spin a cocoon. At 

maturity, codling moth larvae are about 

one-half to five-eighths of an inch long, 

pinkish white in color, with a brown head 

marked with dark speckles (Fig. 11). 

Codling moths go through one and a 

half to three and a half generations annually, depending on location, weather 

and length of the growing season. Some 

first-generation larvae can pupate and 

emerge as adults in two to three weeks 

and produce a second codling moth generation. The majority of this second generation overwinters as mature larvae. The 

other part of the first-generation larvae 

do not pupate but instead enter a dia-
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pause phase and overwinter as last instar. 

All overwintering larvae contribute to the 

first-generation adults the following year. 

Under an extended growing season (mostly in the mid-Atlantic region), some larvae 

of the second generation may also pupate 

and attempt to produce a third generation. 

This final generation of larvae generally 

does not survive the winter, but is capable 

of producing significant late-season fruit 

injury. Second and third generations may 

overlap, resulting in the presence of adults 

from mid-July through the remainder of 

the growing season (Fig 12). 

Codling moth larvae are direct internal 

fruit feeders. Damage is evident either 

as a feeding tunnel bored into the seed 

chamber of the fruit, or in the presence 

of surface “stings,” small shallow holes the 

size of pin pricks with a little dead tissue 

on the cavity walls (Fig. 13 and 14). Fruit 

with sting-type damage usually remains 

on the tree, while those with deep tunneled entries usually fall during the “June 

drop.” The fruit injuries from subsequent 

generations may or may not cause premature fruit drop, depending on the variety. Stings lower the value of the fruit for 

both fresh market and processing apples. 

Tunneling causes the fruit to be rejected 

completely.

Management of 

Codling Moth

The standard practice for managing codling 

moth has been the use of broad-spectrum 

insecticides such as organophosphates or 

carbamates similar to products used for 

plum curculio or apple maggot. Widespread use of these broad-spectrum materials severely limited the effectiveness of 

any available biological control agents. To 

reduce costs, improve efficacy and reduce 

the environmental impacts of insecticides, 

use pheromone monitoring traps as an indicator to determine if and when sprays 

are necessary (Fig 15). 

To monitor and treat properly:

• Place at least one trap per five acres by 

the pink bud stage. 

FIG 12. Internal injury by codling moth larvae. Photo courtesy USDA Agricultural 

Research Service 

FIG 13. Exit tunnel by codling moth larvae. Photo courtesy New York State 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University

FIG 14. Large plastic delta trap commonly used for 

monitoring all lepidopteran species in an orchard. 

Photo by Greg Krawczyk, Pennsylvania State University

To reduce costs, improve efficacy and reduce the 

environmental impacts of insecticides, use pheromone 

monitoring traps to determine if and when sprays 

are necessary.
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• Set traps on the outside of the tree 

in the upper part of the canopy. The 

higher the trap placement, the better 

codling moths are monitored. 

• Check traps daily until the first adults 

are caught and then weekly thereafter, 

to establish biofix (the beginning of 

sustained flight of moths in the spring). 

If moths are present in the orchard, 

use an egg hatch degree-day model to 

determine the best timing of insecticide 

applications. First capture of adults in a 

pheromone trap is used as a biofix, and 

degree-days (heat unit accumulation) 

are calculated thereafter. Degree-days 

are calculated based on the daily minimum and maximum temperatures, and 

calculated based on the developmental 

threshold for an insect. If you want to 

time sprays based on egg development 

and hatch, time the first insecticide application at 250 degree-days (base 50 degrees 

FIG 15. Isomate twin tube mating disruption dispenser, used for both codling moth and Oriental fruit moth. 

Photo by Greg Krawczyk, Pennsylvania State University

F) after the first capture of males in the sex 

pheromone traps. If needed, make a second application at 550 degree-days (usually 14 to 21 days following the initial application). Additional insecticide treatments 

may also be necessary after the second 

application due to extended codling moth 

flight observed in many orchards.

New-generation materials such as insect growth regulators, viruses and botanicals offer alternatives to broad-spectrum insecticides, although these newer 

treatments can vary in their effectiveness. 

Codling moth granulosis virus (CpGV) is a 

particularly promising control alternative. 

In the SARE-funded organic systems project at Penn State University, codling moth 

granulosis virus in the form of commercial 

products Cyd-X or Carpovirusine CpGV 

provided excellent control of codling 

moth and some suppression of Oriental 

fruit moth. 

 Mating disruption, a method using insect sex pheromones to disrupt the process of finding a mate, offers an effective 

codling moth management alternative to 

insecticide sprays for large fruit blocks, 

or smaller orchards in isolated areas with 

relatively low codling moth populations. 

Pheromone dispensers of various types 

are placed in the upper part of the tree 

canopy and emit sex pheromones that 

confuse male moths and prevent them 

from finding females (Fig. 15). If the Oriental fruit moth is also present in the same 

orchard, then dispensers with the combination of two sex pheromones (for codling moth and Oriental fruit moth) can 

be used for simultaneous management of 

both species (Isomate CM/OFM CTT or 

CheckMate Duel). A combination of mating disruption and codling moth granulosis virus can be particularly useful. 

In the SARE Penn State University organic systems project, mating disruption 

used in combination with the granulosis 

virus was very effective at controlling 

both the Oriental fruit moth and codling moth. Mating disruption was used 

throughout the season, but when codling moth adults were observed in pheromone traps during the late part of the 

season, additional applications of CpGV 

were needed to keep the population in 

check. Ultimately, the combination of 

CpGV and mating disruption kept codling 

moth and Oriental fruit moth damage at 

a very low level during the entire project. 

Mating disruption offers an effective management 

alternative to insecticides for large fruit blocks or 

smaller orchards in isolated areas with relatively low 

codling moth populations.

FIG 16. Entomologists assess codling moth damage on 

Red Delicious apples. Photo by Scott Bauer, USDA 

Agricultural Research Service, Bugwood.org #1323009
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Description and Life Cycle

Oriental fruit moth larvae overwinter in 

cocoons on the trunk or in leaf litter beneath the tree. As with codling moths, 

Oriental fruit moths overwinter as last 

instar larvae and pupate in the spring. As 

the weather begins to warm in the spring, 

the larvae complete their development 

and emerge as adult moths at the time 

apple orchards are in bloom. Male and 

female moths are similar in appearance—

grayish, with a wing spread of one-quarter to one-half of an inch. After mating, 

females lay eggs singly on the upper or 

Oriental Fruit Moth 

The Oriental fruit moth was introduced to the United States from 

Japan in the early 1900s, probably on infested nursery stock. Now 

found in all regions of North America, it is a pest of most stone and 

pome fruits. In apples and pears, its appearance and damage are similar to 

that of the codling moth. In northern-tier states, the Oriental fruit moth 

has three to four generations per year. In areas with a longer growing season, it may have up to five generations per year. FIG 17. Adult Oriental fruit moth. Photo courtesy New 

York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell 

University

FIG 18. Life cycle diagram of the Oriental fruit moth. Artwork by Ariel Hsu

lower leaf surface, often on the terminal 

leaf of a young shoot. Each female moth 

can lay up to 200 eggs over a seven- to 

10-day period. The eggs appear initially 

as flat, whitish ovals, changing to an amber color as they mature. Eggs may take 

up to 14 days to hatch early in the season, and as little as five days during the 

warm summer months. Just before the 

larva hatches, the dark head capsule can 

be seen through the egg. After hatching, young larvae enter young terminal 

shoots or fruit and begin to feed. They 

pass through four to five instars, reaching 

about one-half of an inch when mature. 

FIG 19. Oriental fruit moth shoot strike on apple tree. 

Photo by Jim Walgenbach, North Carolina State 

University

Mature larvae are pink in color, with a reddish brown head capsule.

In the Northeast, the Oriental fruit 

moth completes three to four generations over the growing season. Mature 

larvae leave their feeding sites to spin 

cocoons in which they pupate, later to 

emerge as adult moths. Cocoons are 

constructed of silk and are covered with 

particles of the surface on which they are 

spun. The pupal stage lasts 12 to 15 days 

in the summer, somewhat longer in the 

spring when temperatures are cooler. 

Early in the season, nearly all of the larvae 

pupate soon after spinning a cocoon; later in the season, as day length decreases, 

an increasing proportion of larvae enter 

diapause to overwinter. Diapausing larvae 

pupate and emerge the following spring 

(Fig. 18).
12 Ecological Management of Key Arthropod Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards www.SARE.org

SARE TECHNICAL BULLETIN

Oriental fruit moths feed on both 

shoots and fruit. The first generation, 

which is feeding when terminals are succulent and tender, develops almost exclusively in the vegetative growth, so 

the earliest indication of injury is a dying 

back of the new growth of twigs in spring 

(Fig. 19). Later generation larvae also feed 

on fruit, entering near the stem end and 

burrowing in toward the core (Fig 20). Infested apples have a collection of frass at 

the exit hole of the insect’s feeding tunnel, or at the calyx end (Fig. 21). It is difficult to distinguish between Oriental fruit 

moth damage and codling moth damage. 

Oriental fruit moth larvae tend to feed 

mostly around the calyx and stem ends 

of the apple fruit and usually do not feed 

on the seeds, while codling moth larvae 

usually tunnel directly to the core of the 

apple and feed on the seeds. 

Management of 

Oriental Fruit Moth

Similar to the codling moth, growers have 

relied on broad spectrum insecticides to 

control the Oriental fruit moth. To lower 

costs and reduce adverse impacts, use 

trapping and degree-day models to determine if and when management activities are necessary. Place pheromone traps 

in the orchard in early April and check 

daily until a biofix is established. From 

that point on, calculate and record degree 

days to determine spray timing or other 

control tactics. The differences in larval 

development due to feeding on various 

food sources (e.g., shoots versus fruit) and 

possible adult movement between adjacent orchards contribute to significant 

overlap between generations late in the 

season. Use pheromone traps to monitor the Oriental fruit moth population in 

each block to assess the potential problems caused by this pest.

The use of Oriental fruit moth mating 

disruption has proved to be a very effective alternative to broad spectrum insecticides (Fig. 22). Mating disruption products can either be distributed throughout 

the orchard as a direct spray material (e.g., 

Checkmate OFM-F) or by the use of handapplied dispensers such as Isomate M-100, 

Isomate Rosso, Cidetrak OFM or Disrupt 

OFM. If codling moths are also a problem 

in the same block, then Isomate CM/OFM 

TT or Checkmate CM-OFM Duel should 

be used for the control of both species. 

At the pink bud stage, hand-applied dispensers should be placed in the upper 

level of the tree canopy at the label rate. 

The effective pheromone release time 

for most products available is 90 to 150 

days. Ideally, for mating disruption to be 

effective orchards should be at least five 

to 10 acres in size. Moreover, pheromone 

trap monitoring should proceed as usual 

FIG 20. Internal injury by an Oriental fruit moth larva. Photo courtesy New York State 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University

FIG 21. Exit hole by Oriental fruit moth larvae. Photo courtesy New York 

State Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University

to check the effectiveness of the disruption program. As indicated above for the 

codling moth, the SARE organic systems 

project at Penn State University showed 

that mating disruption used in combination with the granulosis virus was very 

effective at controlling both the Oriental 

fruit moth and codling moth. 

FIG 22. CheckMate mating disruption dispenser, 

used for both codling moth and Oriental fruit moth. 

Photo by Greg Krawczyk, Pennsylvania State University
www.SARE.org Ecological Management of Key Arthropod Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards 13

SARE TECHNICAL BULLETIN

Description and Life Cycle

European red mite females are one-sixtyfourth of an inch long, bright red and 

have four rows of white hairs on their 

backs (Fig. 23). Males are smaller, lighter 

in color and have pointed abdomens (Fig. 

24). Late in the season, females lay overwintering eggs in groups on roughened 

bark, in crevices and cracks, and around 

bud scales on twigs and branches (Fig. 25). 

Overwintering eggs are round, bright red 

and have a small stalk, approximately the 

length of the diameter of the egg, arising 

from the top. Eggs begin to hatch at prepink bud stages and continue throughout bloom. Young mites move to newly 

opened leaves where they feed, mature 

and reproduce. Eggs laid during the growing season are pale and translucent (Fig. 

26). Mite development and the number 

of generations that occur during a season 

depend on weather conditions and temperature; hot, dry weather favors develEuropean Red Mite 

The European red mite was introduced into North America from Europe in the early 1900s. It is now established in most fruit growing areas across the country and is considered to be an important pest in apple, 

pear and stone fruit orchards. European red mite is a secondary pest, which means it does not cause direct 

injury to fruit and it is usually held in check by natural enemies. Only when those natural enemy populations are 

disrupted, for example through the use of particular pesticides, are outbreaks of the European red mite likely to 

occur and cause premature defoliation of affected trees. Predators of the European red mite include several species of phytoseiid mites, stigmaeid mites and Stethorus beetles. Phytoseiid mites are the most effective of these 

predators in the Northeast and occur naturally in commercial orchards. Although the European red mite is not 

currently a major pest of apples in the Northeast, it is important to revisit what practices have contributed to its 

control, particularly for new growers who may not be as familiar with its biology and history.

FIG 23. European red mite adult female. 

Photo courtesy New York State 

Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Cornell University

FIG 24. European red mite adult male. 

Photo courtesy New York State 

Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Cornell University

FIG 25. Overwintered European red mite 

eggs on bark. Photo courtesy New York 

State Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Cornell University

FIG 26. Summer European red mite 

eggs. Photo courtesy New York State 

Agricultural Experiment Station, 

Cornell University

FIG 27. Life cycle diagram of the European red mite. Artwork by Ariel Hsu
14 Ecological Management of Key Arthropod Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards www.SARE.org

SARE TECHNICAL BULLETIN

opment, while cool, wet weather delays 

development. In the Northeast, depending on environmental conditions, eight to 

10 generations of European red mites may 

occur during the season (Fig. 27). 

European red mites feed on the leaves 

of apple trees, hindering photosynthesis 

and causing injury to the tree (Fig. 28). 

This is particularly problematic in early 

summer when trees are producing fruit 

buds for the following season: Moderate to heavily infested trees produce 

fewer and less vigorous fruit buds. Since 

feeding by mites reduces carbohydrate 

production by the plant, an outbreak 

can also result in smaller fruit size. Other symptoms include a characteristic 

brown/bronze foliage, poor fruit color 

and premature fruit drop. According to 

Cornell University guidelines, keeping 

European red mite numbers below 2.5 

per leaf before July, below five per leaf 

in July and below 7.5 per leaf in August 

should prevent economic losses from 

this pest (Breth et al., 1998). 

Management of 

European Red Mite

The use of miticides to control the European red mite should be considered the 

last resort as they may suppress populations of beneficial natural enemies, 

contribute to problems with pesticide 

FIG 28. Comparison of healthy foliage to foliage damaged by the European red mite. Photo courtesy New York 

State Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University

resistance and are expensive. Instead, 

encourage populations of natural enemies in the orchard and use less toxic 

options such as summer horticultural 

oil sprays if European red mite numbers 

begin to increase beyond established 

thresholds. These ecologically based 

strategies have been shown to be effective, either singly or in combination, in 

commercial orchards. 

Biological Control / 

Natural Enemies 

European red mites usually do not become problematic in areas where beneficial mites and mite predators are present. In the Northeast, the most effective 

predators against European red mites are 

the phytoseiid mites, including Amblyseius fallacis, A. cucumeris, Typhlodromus pyri, T. occidentalis, and T. vulgaris.

These mites cannot be distinguished in 

the field and can only be identified by 

microscopic examination of the arrangement of the setae (hairs) on their bodies.

T. pyri and A. fallacis are the two most 

common predator mites in Northeast orchards and of the two, T. pyri seems more 

effective at controlling European red mite 

populations. For the mid-Atlantic region, 

the Stethorus beetle (Stethorus punctum) is also a very effective mite predator, able to provide excellent mite control 

in apple orchards.

SARE-funded research shows that 

predatory mites can be introduced and 

established in commercial orchards, and 

provide excellent suppression of pest 

mites. In the SARE University of Massachusetts study, beneficial mites were established in all study locations during the 

first two years of the study. (T. pyri were 

introduced in burlap bands that were 

placed at the base of trees.) Populations 

of both predator mites (T. pyri and A. fallacis) and pest mites (European red mite) 

were counted in all blocks. The predator 

mite T. pyri, released in 2000, continued 

to provide excellent suppression of pest 

mites in most orchards in 2003, regardless of tree cultivar and nature of border 

habitat. 

The use of miticides to control the European red mite 

should be considered the last resort as they may continue 

to suppress populations of beneficial natural enemies, 

contribute to problems with pesticide resistance and 

are expensive. 
www.SARE.org Ecological Management of Key Arthropod Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards 15

SARE TECHNICAL BULLETIN

How to Introduce Beneficial 

Mites into an Orchard

When collecting and releasing beneficial 

mites, first have an expert identify and 

confirm the presence of T. pyri and/or A. 

fallacis in the orchard. Once their presence has been established, there are three 

possible methods to introduce beneficial 

mites into another orchard (Breth et al., 

1998):

1. Transfer flower clusters from a source 

orchard to a recipient site during the 

bloom period. At least 20 flower clusters should be placed in each tree, 

attached with paper clips, staples or 

twist ties.

2. During the summer growing season, 

collect leaves where T. pyri are abundant and place them in trees of the target orchard. Stapling leaves to the tree 

works well. The number of leaves to 

use depends on the density of T. pyri 

in the source orchard. As a guide, at 

least 50 predators should be released 

in each target tree.

3. Create artificial overwintering sites for 

T. pyri using burlap and tree wrap. In 

early December, collect these bundles and place them in cold storage. 

The following spring, place the burlap around recipient trees at approximately the half-inch green bud growth 

stage. As many as 400 predator mites 

can be transferred in each band with 

this method. 

After beneficial mites have been introduced into an orchard, an environment 

must be created that allows the population to survive and flourish. First and foremost, this means that no pesticides toxic 

to the beneficial mites should be applied 

to the orchard. And even with the right 

environmental conditions, it may take 

several seasons for the predator population to become abundant enough to 

regulate European red mites. During this 

period additional control measures may 

be needed to keep European red mites 

(and/or other pests) below damaging levels. An early-season oil spray can be used 

to reduce European red mite populations 

in the spring without damaging the beneficial mite population (see the following 

section). As a last resort, if European red 

mite densities continue to rise and exceed threshold levels, a miticide that is 

not toxic to beneficial mites can be applied. Having some European red mites in 

the orchard after introducing the beneficial mites is useful, as the pest mites provide a food source for the predators, thus 

increasing the population of beneficial 

mites. 

Horticultural Oil for 

Control of Mites 

In situations where the European red 

mite’s natural enemies have been reduced, researchers have found horticultural oil sprays provide some effective 

control of phytophagous mites. In the 

SARE mite management project at Penn 

State University, JMS Stylet oil (JMS Flower Farms, Inc.), Mite E-oil (Helena Chemical Company and BioCover LS (UAP Platte 

Chemical Company) were evaluated for 

their effectiveness in controlling European red mites in three commercial orchards 

with high European red mite populations. 

While one of the growers had used summer oils for mite control in the past, other growers never had. During a two-year 

period, researchers evaluated oils using 

two different methods of application—

complete coverage versus alternate row 

applications, where only every other row 

of trees was treated with the product. In 

some orchards multiple applications of 

horticultural oils were compared with the 

grower’s standard miticide program while 

at other sites the horticultural oils were 

evaluated side-by-side to compare their 

efficacy for mite control. Both pest and 

predator mites were counted over the 

entire growing season and trees were visually evaluated and rated during harvest 

for phytotoxicity symptoms on fruit and 

foliage. 

At all test sites, the pre-bloom oil application kept European red mite populations in check through mid-summer. Beyond that point in both years, pest mite 

populations increased enough that emergency summer oil or acaricide applications were added to the program. 

Evaluated in side-by-side comparisons, 

all three summer oils provided effective 

control of mites with the JMS Stylet oil 

treatment, providing the best seasonal 

mite control when applied as complete 

sprays with full volume of water (100-150 

gallons per acre). As expected, an increase 

in predatory mites (A. fallacis and Zetzelia 

mali) during later parts of the season was 

observed in all treated blocks. However, 

applications of horticultural oils using 

the alternate row method with reduced 

water volume did not provide adequate 

mite control. After significant mite build–

up, despite alternate row middle applications during the early part of the season, 

even an increase in water volume and oil 

concentration did not reduce the mite 

population to below damaging levels. The 

increase in the number of European red 

mites later in the season resulted in visible 

bronzing of leaves, and acaricide applications were necessary to avert crop loss. 

No negative effects (phytotoxicity) on 

fruit finish were observed with any of the 

oil sprays. Oils should not be used in conjunction with, or within 30 days of, a sulfur application (or captan in conventional 

orchards), since a combination of the two 

can cause phytotoxicity, in this case leaf 

“burning.” 

In organically managed apple orchards, 

during each year of the project, no special treatment was necessary to manage 

European red mite and aphid populations 

except for the application of oil during 

tree dormancy (Organic JMS Stylet Oil). 

Regular in-season mite and mite predator observations consistently revealed 

a steady although low presence of phytophagous mites such as A. fallacis, T. pyri

and Z. mali.

Evaluated in side-by-side 

comparisons, all three 

summer oils provided 

effective control of mites 

with the JMS Stylet oil 

treatment, providing the 

best seasonal mite control 

when applied as complete 

sprays with full volume of 

water (100-150 gallons 

per acre). 
16 Ecological Management of Key Arthropod Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards www.SARE.org

SARE TECHNICAL BULLETIN

Much progress has been made in developing integrated strategies to control 

the pests addressed in this technical bulletin. Tactics such as mating disruption 

for the management of direct fruit pests, 

combined with the widespread use of 

selective, less disruptive pesticides such 

as codling moth granulosis virus or Kaolin 

clay, greatly enhance the effectiveness of 

beneficial organisms. The development 

of safer, more selective products should 

similarly enhance the importance of beneficial insects for pest control.

 Despite the advances in IPM during 

the past two decades, when looking at 

data for the industry as a whole, the number of pesticide applications on apples in 

the region has not decreased significantly 

in recent years, and in fact it may be increasing. This trend is possibly the result of 

several factors, including removal of older 

Future Directions

Biological control of the European red mite is a success story in the Northeast. With greater awareness of its 

status as a secondary pest, and implementation of the management strategies described in this technical 

bulletin, apple growers have generally been able to avoid damaging levels of the mite in orchards. Maintaining 

this situation will require continued vigilance on the part of the grower community and educating the next generation about ecologically based approaches to managing the pest.

pesticides, their replacement with more 

specific and less broad spectrum products, 

resistance to pesticides, increased global 

competition and increased labor costs associated with some IPM tactics (Cooley, 

2008). Recently, the introduction of an invasive pest, the brown marmorated stink 

bug, poses an additional challenge to established IPM practices in the mid-Atlantic 

and northeastern apple growing regions. 

The necessity for broad-spectrum insecticides to control this new pest, combined 

with almost ineffective (or non-existent) 

biological control, shifts the whole system toward increased use of pesticides. 

Although intensive research is underway 

to develop more sustainable methods to 

manage this invasive stink bug, at the moment only broad spectrum insecticides are 

effective, which are not compatible with 

the ecological strategies addressed here.

As apple growers progress towards 

their goal of economically and ecologically sustainable production, they need 

new information and continuing support 

to help them implement and adapt ecologically based pest management practices in their orchards. As demonstrated by 

this research, many effective options are 

available. By taking advantage of them, 

growers will be in a position to sell to markets that demand and pay a premium for 

fruit grown in a more ecologically friendly 

manner (e.g., local markets, organic certification, eco-marketing certification programs and other integrated fruit production standards). In turn, this will enhance 

the economic viability of northeastern 

apple growers while decreasing the environmental impacts of their production 

practices.
SARE TECHNICAL BULLETIN

www.SARE.org Ecological Management of Key Arthropod Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards 17

SARE Research Synopsis 

This technical bulletin is based on the following three SARE-funded projects.

[Identified in the text as the SARE University of Massachusetts 

project.] This three-year project looked at the effect of perimeter-row apple tree cultivars and the composition of the border 

area habitat on management of several apple pests: flyspeck 

(Schizothyrium pomi), European red mite (Panonychus ulmi), 

plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) and apple maggot 

(Rhagoletis pomonella). The main objectives were to: 1) reduce 

reliance on pesticides in the region, and 2) enhance sustainability of northeastern apple production through evaluation of new 

cultivars. University of Massachusetts researchers worked with 

growers to set up the study in 12 commercial orchards. At each 

orchard site, four plots were identified, each measuring 30-45 

meters in perimeter-row length and seven rows wide. In six of 

the 12 orchards, perimeter rows were comprised of the cultivars 

Gala, Jonagold or Fuji. Perimeter-row trees in the other six orchards were comprised of McIntosh or Empire cultivars. Habitat 

adjacent to perimeter rows consisted of woods, hedgerows or 

open field. The research methodology for each of the pests 

addressed in this technical bulletin was:

Plum curculio. In year one, three types of traps were tested: 

wire-mesh circle traps wrapped around trunks of perimeterrow trees, trunk-mimicking pyramid traps, and branch-mimicking cylinder traps. Three types of odor bait were tested in each 

type of trap: benzaldehyde+grandosoic acid (GA), limonene+GA 

or ethyl isovalerate+GA. In year two, similarly baited, sticky 

clear-plexiglass panel traps were tested against black pyramid 

traps and wire mesh circle traps. In addition, a new “trap tree” 

approach, was introduced, which involved baiting branches of 

one perimeter-row tree per plot with benzaldehyde+GA. The 

significant aggregation (15-fold) of fresh ovipositional plum curculio injury on trap trees was designed to facilitate monitoring 

of the seasonal course of plum curculio injury to apples and to 

provide a new approach for determining need and timing of 

insecticide applications against the pest. In year three, a trap 

tree baited with benzaldehyde+GA was established as the central tree of the perimeter row of each of three perimeter plots 

in the orchard. Each plot was randomly assigned a threshold 

of either 1, 2 or 4 percent freshly injured fruit on the trap tree. 

Trap trees were sampled for freshly injured fruit three times per 

week beginning seven days after a petal-fall spray of insecticide 

to the entire plot. Thereafter, insecticide against plum curculio 

was applied only to perimeter and second rows and only when 

the proportion of trap-tree sampled fruit showing fresh injury 

had reached the pre-established threshold of 1, 2 or 4 percent 

for that plot.

Apple maggot. In years one and two, sticky red sphere traps 

were baited with a five-component blend of attractive synthetic fruit odor and placed 10 meters apart on perimeter-row 

apple trees. They were compared with similar traps baited with 

a single component of synthetic fruit odor (butyl hexanoate) 

placed in similar positions. Trap captures and damage were related to border structure and composition, and apple cultivar 

composition in the blocks. In year three, distances between 

spheres (range five to 15 meters) on perimeter trees were based 

on a newly developed formula that incorporated tree size, extent of pruning, tree cultivar and nature of adjacent habitat as 

distance-determining factors. Performance was assessed on the 

basis of captures of apple maggot fly on unbaited monitoring 

spheres at interiors of plots and on the percent of fruit injured 

by apple maggot flies.

European red mite. Populations of both predator mites (Typhlodromus pyri and Amblyseius fallacis) and pest mites (European red mite) were counted in all blocks and related to border 

structure and apple cultivars.

Use of Horticultural Oil for Mite Management in 

Fruit Orchards 

[Identified in the text as the SARE mite management project.] 

The main objective of this project was to provide information 

and recommendations to Pennsylvania fruit growers that was 

both practical and feasible. 

Project Number: LNE00-135

Project Year: 2000-2004

SARE Region: Northeast

Grant Type: Research and 

Education

Project Coordinators:

Daniel Cooley

University of Massachusetts

dcooley@umass.edu 

Tracy Leskey

USDA-ARS

Tracy.Leskey@ars.usda.gov 

Starker Wright

USDA-ARS

Starker.Wright@ars.usda.gov

Arthur Tuttle

University of Massachusetts 

tuttle@psis.umass.edu

For more information, go to 

www.sare.org/project-reports

and search by project number.

Toward Sustainability in Northeastern Apple 

Production: Orchard Ecosystem Architecture, 

Key Pests, and Cultivar Selection

Project Number: LNE02-159

Project Year: 2002-2004

SARE Region: Northeast

Grant Type: Research and 

Education

Project Coordinators: 

Greg Krawczyk 

Penn State University

gxk13@psu.edu

For more information, go to 

www.sare.org/project-reports

and search by project number.
18 Ecological Management of Key Arthropod Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards www.SARE.org

SARE TECHNICAL BULLETIN

Seasonal and harvest fruit evaluations were conducted in all 

monitored orchards to assess the efficacy of employed practices. Three highly refined horticultural summer oils [JMS Stylet 

oil (JMS Flower Farms, Inc.), Mite E-oil (Helena Chemical Company) and BioCover LS (UAP Platte Chemical Company)] and two 

methods of application (complete sprays versus alternate row 

middle applications) were evaluated for European red mite control in Pennsylvania commercial apple orchards during a twoyear period. In some orchards multiple applications of Stylet oil 

were compared with the grower’s standard mite management 

program while in other orchards the horticultural oils were evaluated side-by-side to compare their efficacy for mite control. 

The experimental blocks were located in three commercial 

apple orchards in Franklin and Adams counties. Only orchards 

with a historically high, established European red mite population were designated for use in the study. The one Franklin 

County orchard had been using summer oils for mite control 

for a few years prior to the project, while the two Adams 

County sites had not used summer oils for mite control before. Blocks on grower A’s farm consisted of one apple cultivar, 

Red delicious (more than 15 years old). On grower B’s farm, a 

10-acre orchard with Yorking and Golden delicious was divided 

into two similar blocks and the oil program was applied in one 

block. The experiment at grower C’s site involved four separate 

apple bocks, with three of the blocks treated with different 

horticultural oils and the fourth block used as a control. Each 

block had two apple varieties, Yorking and Golden delicious.

All three growers used JMS Stylet oil. While the dormant oil 

application was applied in each orchard as a standard, the later 

in-season applications varied among orchards:

Grower A: JMS Stylet oil was applied on May 11 and 29, June 10 

and 20, and July 10. The standard block received an application of 

clofentezine on May 11 and an application of pyridaben on June 20. 

Grower B: In the standard block no conventional acaricides 

were applied the entire season, while the JMS Stylet oil block 

had applications of the oil on May 30, and June 13 and 27.

Grower C: Clofentezine was applied on May 6, and then the 

oil-program blocks received various treatments on June 3, 13 

and 18. No conventional acaricides were needed in the standard 

block during the season. 

All oil applications by growers A and B were done as complete 

sprays using 100 gallon of water per acre, except for grower A’s 

July 10 application, when 200 gallons of water per acre was used. 

Grower C applied tested oils as alternate row applications using 

50 gallons of water per acre. At each farm, blocks used for oil 

efficacy evaluations were treated with the same insecticide and 

fungicide programs as the standard blocks.

Mite and mite predator densities were evaluated on a weekly 

basis and compared to mite populations in blocks where the 

standard program was used. During each observation, leaves 

were collected from eight trees scattered throughout each 

block for counts. At least 25 leaves per tree (200 leaves per 

block) were evaluated using a leaf brush machine for the presence of phytophagous mites, predatory mites (Amblyseius fallacis and Zetzellia mali) and mite eggs. Each variety was also 

visually evaluated and rated during the harvest for phytotoxicity of oils on fruit and foliage.

Pennsylvania Regional Organic Fruit Industry 

Transition 

[Identified in the text as the SARE organic systems project.] This 

two-year project was carried out in three transitional organic 

orchards located on commercial farms in Pennsylvania and an 

organically certified block located at the Penn State University 

Fruit Research and Extension Center in Biglerville. Two main entomological aspects of organic apple production were evaluated in comparison to a conventionally managed orchard in this 

project: 1) efficacy of an organic arthropod pest management 

program, and 2) the influence of OMRI-approved pesticides of 

all types (including fruit thinners) on beneficial arthropods. The 

organically approved products evaluated in this study were: 

spinosad, for control of leafrollers and leafminers; azadirachtin, 

for control or suppression of apple aphids, spotted tentiform 

leafminers, codling moths and Oriental fruit moths; horticultural oils for control of mites and aphids; Kaolin clay for control 

of plum curculio and apple maggot flies; and various mating disruption techniques. These tactics were integrated into specific 

pest management programs designed to be most appropriate 

for the observed insect pest complex. The range of potential 

tactics applied during each season was selected based on sitespecific sampling observations.

All transitional organic and conventional blocks were extensively monitored to determine the need and timing for control 

tactics against insect and mite pests throughout the season. 

Pheromone traps for monitoring various lepidopteran species 

were deployed at each site before the beginning of flight activity for each species and monitored on a weekly basis during the 

entire season. Plum curculio was monitored using pyramid traps 

and branch traps. Seasonal and harvest fruit evaluations were 

conducted in all monitored orchards to assess the efficacy of 

employed practices. Overall, results from this project showed 

that high-quality organic apples can be grown in the eastern 

United States with existing and alternative management tools 

currently available for organic fruit production.

Project Number: LNE06-248

Project Year: 2006-2009

SARE Region: Northeast

Grant Type: Research and 

Education

Project Coordinators: 

Greg Krawczyk 

Penn State University

gxk13@psu.edu

For more information, go to 

www.sare.org/project-reports

and search by project number.
SARE TECHNICAL BULLETIN

www.SARE.org Ecological Management of Key Arthropod Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards 19

General 

Bradshaw, T. 2011. Tree Training and Planting Systems in Vermont Apple Orchards. University of Vermont. http://orchard.

uvm.edu/uvmapple/hort/AppleHortBasics/plantingsystems.

htm

Cooley, D. 2008. Biointensive Apple IPM in New England. Presentation at SARE’s New American Farm Conference. www.sare.

org/Learning-Center/Conference-Materials/The-New-American-Farm-Conference/Breakout-Sessions/Apples-and-Winegrapes-Integrated-Farming-Practices

Cooley, D. and W. Autio. 2011. Summer pruning of apple: Impacts on disease management. Advances in Horticulture Science 25: 19-24.

National Agricultural Statistics Service. 2012. USDA NASS Quick 

Stats. http://quickstats.nass.usda.gov

Kogan, M. and R. Hilton. 2009. Conceptual framework for Integrated Pest Management (IPM) of tree-fruit pests. In Biorational 

Tree-Fruit Pest Management, eds Aluja, M., T. Leskey, and C. 

Vincent. CAB International: Cambridge, MA.

Penn State University. 2012. Pennsylvania 2012-2013 Tree Fruit 

Production Guide. The Penn State University. http://agsci.psu.

edu/tfpg

Peck, G. and I. Merwin. 2009. A Grower’s Guide to Organic 

Apples. Cornell University, Department of Horticulture. www.

nysipm.cornell.edu/organic_guide/apples.pdf

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References
20 Ecological Management of Key Arthropod Pests in Northeast Apple Orchards www.SARE.org

SARE TECHNICAL BULLETIN

This publication was developed by the Sustainable Agriculture Research and 

Education (SARE) program with funding from National Institute of Food and 

Agriculture, USDA. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations 

expressed here do not necessarily reflect the view of the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture.

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Seaman, A. and H. Riedl. 1988. Oriental Fruit Moth IPM Fact 

Sheet. New York State Integrated Pest Management Program. 

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asp

European Red Mite

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Management Online. Washington State University, Tree Fruit 

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Breth, D., J. Nyrop and J. Kovach. 1998. Biological Control of 

European Red Mite in Northeast Apples: An Implementation 

Guide for Growers. Achieving IPM Pub. #215. New York State 

Integrated Pest Management Program. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. http://nysipm.cornell.edu/factsheets/treefruit/pests/

erm/erm.asp

European Red Mite. Tree Fruit Insect and Mite Pest Fact Sheets. 

Penn State college of Agricultural Sciences. http://extension.

psu.edu/plants/tree-fruit/insects-mites/factsheets/europeanred-mite 

Lienk, S. 1980. European Red Mite IPM Fact Sheet. New York 

State Integrated Pest Management Program. www.nysipm.cornell.edu/factsheets/treefruit/pests/erm80/erm80.asp

Photo/Art Credits

Codling moth lifecycle diagram by Valerie Winemiller, reproduced from Pest Notes: Codling Moth University of California 

Agricultural and Natural Resources Publication 7412, with permission of the UC Statewide IPM Program.