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##  Mexican Americans and Other Latinos in Postsecondary Education:                 Institutional Influences. ERIC Digest.                                       

The increasing Latino population in the United States, and in                   particular the western states, calls for a response from                        postsecondary institutions to increase participation and graduation             outcomes of Mexican American and other Latino students. The Latino              population has grown dramatically in recent years, now comprising               12.5 percent of the total U.S. population, with Mexican Americans               making up 58 percent of all Latinos (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001).                 Unfortunately, this increase is not evident in the proportional                 representation of Mexican Americans and other Latinos in                        postsecondary education. 
In 1998, while the White, non-Latino                 college participation rate was 67.3 percent, the calculated rate for            Latinos was 47.5 percent, the lowest rate since 1990 (Postsecondary             Education Opportunity, 1999). More than half of Latino                          undergraduates attend two-year institutions, compared to only one               third of White students (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Research has                shown that students who attend two-year colleges are less likely to             attain a baccalaureate degree (Bernstein & Eaton, 1994). In 1998                Latinos represented 9.6 percent of undergraduate students and 5.4               percent of graduate students (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). 
Current              and past education policy approaches to increasing postsecondary                access, while able to increase enrollments incrementally, have been             largely ineffective in addressing issues of persistence and degree              attainment. According to Ruppert (1997), "Under such policies,                  postsecondary enrollments have increased overall; yet the rate of               progress for certain groups has been uneven and the 'gap' between               rates of enrollment and rates of completion remains stubbornly                  wide" (p. 8). In 1998 the percentages of all degrees conferred by               colleges and universities that were received by Latino students were            as follows: associate degree--7.7 percent; bachelor's--5.5 percent;             master's--4.1 percent; doctorate--3.2 percent; and                              first-professional--4.6 percent (National Center for Education                  Statistics [NCES], 2001a). In all, only about 7 percent of Mexican              Americans (11 percent of Latinos) over the age of 25 hold college or            graduate degrees, compared to 25 percent of the total                           population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). 
Clearly, Mexican Americans             and other Latinos in postsecondary education have not been keeping              pace proportionate with their growth in numbers among the general               population. The research literature provides clues about                        institutional and other factors that may facilitate or hamper the               academic success of Latinos. This Digest focuses on factors that                could be addressed by secondary and postsecondary institutions: (a)             secondary school preparation, (b) postsecondary institutional                   climate, (c) financial aid and tuition, and (d) access to                       information. SECONDARY SCHOOL PREPARATIONBefore Mexican                   Americans and other Latinos reach the milestone of high school                  graduation, many leave school. Between 1980 and 1999, the percentage            of Blacks age 25 and over with a high school diploma increased by               25.8 percent (to 77 percent); the increase for Whites was 15.5                  percent (to 84.3 percent); but for Latinos, with so much ground to              make up, less progress was made: only an increase of 12.1                       percent (to 56.1 percent) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). 
"Minority               students do not have the opportunity to learn" in many school                   districts, explains Adam (1999, p. 23). Documented statistics give              credibility to those words: The competency levels in high school for            all subjects are lower for Latinos than for Whites. Based on                    National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) scores in 1999,              Latino 17-year-olds scored lower than their White counterparts in               reading, science, and mathematics (NCES, 2001b). However, compared              with 1996 scores, Latino students made gains in all three of these              areas, while Blacks experienced slight decreases in all three areas             and Whites had slight decreases in science and reading. 
Studies               have shown that the school "success" of Latinos has been influenced             by the following factors across all educational levels: the                     institutional commitment (of teachers, administrators, staff, and               parents) to help Latino students succeed academically (Lucas,                   Henze, & Donato, 1990; Richardson &de los Santos, 1989); and the                presence of faculty role models, mentors, and peer support                      groups (Abi-nader, 1990; Achor & Morales, 1990; Gandara, 1994;                  Halcon, 1989). According to one study, K-12 programs that boost                 college attendance among underrepresented youth employ at least one             of six components: counseling, academic enrichment, parental                    involvement, personal enrichment and social integration, mentoring,             and scholarships (NCES, 2001c). POSTSECONDARY INSTITUTIONAL                   CLIMATEThe academic and social climate in higher education                  institutions can support or hinder positive academic outcomes for               Mexican American and other Latino students. Because of its influence            on learning, persistence, and completion, it is necessary to know               the character of an institution's climate, and how Latino students              experience it (Tinto, 1997). Underrepresented groups on campuses                often experience segregation, discrimination, and cultural                      incongruence in predominantly White colleges (Fiske, 1988; Gloria &             Robinson-Kurpius, 1996). During the past decade, college campuses               have struggled with "hate incidents." Between the fall of 1986 and              the winter of 1990, the National Institute Against Prejudice and                Violence reported that about 20 percent of minority students                    experienced some form of bias attack during an academic year (Sidel,            1994). In 1999, more than 2,000 "hate crimes," defined as "an                   offense against persons or property motivated by hate or bias                   against a victim based on race, ethnicity, national origin,                     religion, sex, disability, or sexual orientation," were reported on             campuses across the United States (Office of Postsecondary                      Education, 2001, p. 10). As a result of noninclusive academic                   climates, Mexican American and other Latino students are often                  perplexed by the feeling they must choose between their cultural                community and the campus community (Gloria & Pope-Davis, 1997). This            incongruence brings about stress that too often results in students             doing poorly in their academic work or, even worse, dropping                    out. 
Institutions concerned with improving the social climate and             making it more congruent with the lives of Latino students have                 provided special programs, services, and dedicated physical                     facilities (e.g., multicultural centers, and tutoring and mentoring             centers) to help students retain their sense of cultural identity               and move past discomforting experiences of isolation, segregation,              and alienation. Once students find a reasonable sense                           of "belonging," their chances of persisting through college improve.            How can institutions better facilitate this sense of belonging? One             key way is for institutions to reach proportional racial/ethnic                 representation (Richardson & de los Santos, 1989). FINANCIAL AID              AND TUITIONThere is ample evidence that student financial aid               programs positively influence college participation and completion              rates. For example, Manski and Wise (1983) calculated that "college             enrollment was 20 percent higher in 1979 with the Pell Grant program            than it would have been without it" (p. 24). They also found that               the "increased rate was primarily because of the enrollment of                  low-income underrepresented students" (p. 24). The type of financial            aid available to students is crucial to retention and completion for            underrepresented students. According to Pappas (1992) the chances of            finishing school decrease if a student relies on loans, savings, or             personal assets to finance their education. 
Another related                   problem is tuition increases, which hinder access for Mexican                   American and other Latino students especially because the Latino                population has a lower median per capita income ($19,833) than                  either Whites ($29,606) or Blacks ($21,662) (U.S. Census Bureau,                2001). Kane (1995) conducted an empirical study and found that                  a $1,000 increase intuition at public community colleges caused a 6             percent drop in undergraduate enrollment. ACCESS TO                           INFORMATIONThe fundamental mission of the university is to                  conduct research and transmit information to its students and                   citizens. That this transmission of information happens for Mexican             Americans and other Latinos is questionable. Latino students often              lack substantial information to even consider participating in                  postsecondary institutions, even when they have the credentials to              be considered. Access to and information about admissions, financial            aid, preparation for entrance exams, employment opportunities,                  services, and available resources can increase participation and                graduation outcomes for Latinos. 
As a group, college-qualified                Latino students are significantly less likely than other                        college-qualified students to have the information necessary to                 participate in postsecondary institutions (Carnevale, 1999). One                study found that Latino students who did take a college entrance                exam and applied to a four-year school had participation levels                 equal to those of college-qualified non-Latino Whites (NCES, 1997).             According to Carnevale (1999), high school graduates whose parents              have low levels of income and education--as is the case for many                Latino families--could attend four-year colleges at the same rates              as students from middle-income families if they took three basic                steps: (1) got at least a minimal academic preparation, (2) took an             entrance exam, and (3) submitted an application for                             admission. RECOMMENDATIONSWhat is needed to overcome                      inadequate Mexican American/Latino participation and graduation in              postsecondary institutions is not mysterious. Successfully                      increasing academic outcomes for these students will require                    postsecondary institutions to dedicate themselves to the following              targeted strategies: 
* initiating partnerships with secondary                 schools to determine areas of needed improvement and implement                  changes in public education offered to Latino students. 
*                     studying the academic and social climates and conditions of                     secondary and postsecondary institutions. 
* reporting their study             findings to governing bodies of institutions; city, state, and                  federal government officials; community leaders; the community at               large; and Latino parents. 
*  creating and supporting financial               aid packages that promote academic success among Latino                         students. 
*  working with secondary schools to provide critical               information to Latino families and students related to admissions,              financial aid, preparation for entrance exams, services, and                    employment opportunities. 
Although postsecondary institutions have            not previously succeeded in improving equity outcomes for Mexican               American and other Latino students (at least, not in proportion to              their growing presence in our society), they have the potential to              do so. REFERENCESAbi-Nader, J. (1990). A house for my mother:             Motivating Hispanic high school students. Anthropology and                      Educational Quarterly 21(3), 41-58. 
Achor, S., & Morales,                     A. (1990). Chicanas holding doctoral degrees: Social reproduction               and cultural ecological approaches. Anthropology and Education                  Quarterly, 21(5), 269-87. 
Adam, M. (1999). Latinos in education:              Where do we go from here? The Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education,             9(16), 21. 
Bernstein, A. R., & Eaton, J. S. (1994). The transfer              function: Building curricular roadways across and among higher                  education institutions. In M. J. Justiz, R. Wilson, & L. G.                     Bjork (Eds.), Minorities in higher education (pp. 215-60). Phoenix,             AZ: ACE/Oryx. 
Carnevale, A. P. (1999). Education=success:                     Empowering Hispanic youth and adults. Washington, DC: Educational               Testing Service and the Hispanic Association of Colleges and                    Universities. 
Fiske, E. B. (1988). The undergraduate Hispanic                 experience: A case of juggling two cultures. Change, 20(3),                     29-33. 
Gandara, P. (1994). Choosing higher education:                         Educationally ambitious Chicanos and the path to social mobility.               Education Policy Analysis Archives, 2(1), 1-43. 
Gloria, A. M., &              Pope-Davis, D. (1997). Cultural ambience: The importance of a                   culturally aware learning environment in the training and education             of counselors. In D. Pope-Davis & H. Coleman (Eds.), Multicultural              counseling competencies: Assessment, education and training, and                supervision (pp. 242-57). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 
Gloria, A.                 M., & Robinson-Kurpius, S. E. (1996). The validation of the cultural            congruity scale and the university environment scale with Chicano/a             students. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 18(4),                       533-54. 
Halcon, J. (1989). Exemplary programs for college-bound               minority students. In M. Odell & J. Mock (Eds.), A crucial agenda:              Making colleges and universities work better for minority                       students (pp. 79-117). Boulder, CO: Western Interstate Commission               for Higher Education. 
Kane, T.J. (1995). Rising public college                tuition and college entry: How well do public subsidies promote                 access to college? (NBER working paper 5164). Cambridge, MA:                    National Bureau of Economic Research. 
Lucas, T., Henze, R., &                 Donato, R. (1990). Promoting the success of Latino language minority            students: An exploratory study of six high schools. Harvard                     Educational Review, 60(3), 315-46. 
Manski, C. F., & Wise, D.                  A. (1983). College choice in America. Boston: Harvard University                Press. 
National Center for Education Statistics. (1997). Digest of            education statistics, 1997 (NCES 98-015). Washington, DC: U.S.                  Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and                     Improvement. Retrieved October 23, 2001, from                                   http://nces.ed.gov/pubs/digest97/index.html 
National Center for               Education Statistics. (2001a). The condition of education 2001 (NCES            2001-072). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of              Educational Research and Improvement. Retrieved October 23, 2001,               from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/ 
National Center for                     Education Statistics. (2001b). Digest of education statistics,                  2000 (NCES 2001-34). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,              Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Retrieved October               23, 2001, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/digest/ 
National Center            for Education Statistics. (2001c). Paving the way to postsecondary              education: K-12 intervention programs for underrepresented                      youth (NCES 2001-205). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,            Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Retrieved November              12, 2001, from http://ed.gov/pubs/edpubs.html 
Office of                       Postsecondary Education. (2001). The incidence of crime on the                  campuses of U.S. postsecondary education institutions: A report to              Congress. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. (ERIC                   Document Reproduction Service No. ED 488 663) 
Pappas, G. (1992).              The Hispanic higher education experience. Denver, CO: Latin American            Research and Service Agency. 
Postsecondary Education                          Opportunity. (1999, June). College continuation rates for 1998 high             school graduates (no. 84). Oskaloosa, IA: The Mortenson Research                Seminar on Public Policy Analysis of Opportunity for Postsecondary              Education. 
Richardson, R. C., Jr., & de los Santos, A. (1989). Ten            principles for good institutional practice in removing                          race/ethnicity as a factor in college completion. In M. Odell & J.              Mock (Eds.), A crucial agenda: Making colleges and universities work            better for minority students (pp. 71-77). Boulder, CO: Western                  Interstate Commission for Higher Education. 
Ruppert, S. S. (1997).            Reconceptualizing access: A review of the findings from the NPEC/ACE            policy panel on access and its data systems ramifications. Paper                co-sponsored by the National Postsecondary Education Cooperative and            the American Council on Education, Washington, DC. 
Sidel,                     R. (1994). Battling bias. New York: Viking Press. 
Tinto, V. (1997,            September). From access to participation. Paper prepared for                    presentation at the National Postsecondary Education Cooperative                Meeting, Washington, DC. 
U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). Statistical              abstract of the United States: 2000 (population section).                       Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and                      Statistics Administration. Retrieved October 23, 2001, from                     http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/statab/sec01.pdf 
U.S. Census              Bureau. (2001). Profiles of general demographic characteristics:                2000 Census of population and housing, United States. Washington,               DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics                       Administration. Retrieved October 23, 2001, from                                http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/dp1/2khus.pdf 
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Carlos               Nevarez, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of                  Educational Administration & Policy Studies at California State                 University, Sacramento. 
This publication was prepared with funding            from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S.                   Department of Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0027. The                  opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the positions              or policies of OERI, the Department, or AEL.                                 **Title:** Mexican Americans and Other Latinos in Postsecondary Education:                 Institutional Influences. ERIC Digest.                                       **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC/CRESS, P.O. Box 1348, Charleston, WV 25325-1348; Tel:                      800-624-9120 (Toll Free). For full text:                                        http://www.ael.org/eric/digests/edorc01-1.htm.                               **Descriptors:** Access to Information,  College Attendance,  College Environment,                College Preparation, College Students, Educational Attainment, High            Schools, Higher Education,  Hispanic American Students,  Mexican                American Education, Secondary Education,  Student College                       Relationship, Student Financial Aid                                          **Identifiers:** ERIC Digests,  Latinos                                                       
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