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##  Historical Context: The Relationship of Computer Technologies and               Counseling. ERIC/CASS Digest.                                                

Computers have been around since the Electronic Numerical Integrator            and Computer, or ENIAC, was invented in 1946.  The relationship                 between computers and counseling, and in wider sense psychotherapy,             also has existed for decades. The impact of computer technologies on            counseling has changed over time.  The purpose of this digest is to             summarize and review the historical events of the                               counseling-computer relationship.  This will help provide a context             for counselors in which to reflect on their use of computer                     technologies in the future.  Counselors may have to play a unique               role in that they are not simply consumers of computer technology               but also social advocates for its humane application. 
THE 1950S               AND 1960S: THE MAINFRAME, MINI, AND PC AS THERAPIST 
Initially,                large mainframe computers were expensive and difficult to maintain.             They were primarily only owned by large corporations, universities,             and government agencies. Computational time was an expensive                    resource and mainframes did not utilize programming languages that              were user friendly.  The result of these factors was a very limited             impact of computers on the counseling profession.  However, it was              in the 1950's that theorists like B. F. Skinner and Norman Crowder              developed ideas about programmed instruction that are the historical            antecedents for modern computer aided instruction and we-based                  distance education that are currently in vogue (Niemiec & Walberg,              1989). 
In the early 1960's minicomputers came to replace                      mainframes. In 1962 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) produced the            first minicomputer.  These machines used integrated circuits and                were much smaller and more affordable than mainframes. As a result,             computational time became a more plentiful resource, and when                   coupled with the development of more user friendly programming                  languages (BASIC, PASCAL, PLATO, ILLIAC) a wider audience began to              take an interest in the application of computers to counseling.                 Computer aided instruction was first explored in 1959 when IBM                  assisted in the development of the first program to teach                       mathematics.  In 1963, in cooperation with Stanford University, IBM             released COURSEWRITER, the first programming language specifically              designed for computer-aided instruction (CAI).  Another leader in               the development of CAI was the Computer Education Research                      Laboratory (CERL), which worked closely with Control Data                       Corporation to develop PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic                    Teaching Operations).  PLATO became the most widely used                        instructional program in the United States and it was primarily                 directed at college level instruction.  Thus it is really in the                1960's that the computer-counseling relationship begins in                      earnest. 
In the late 1960s the idea of computer-as-therapist was              explored. One example of such a program, ELIZA, was developed in                1966. The programmers sought to emulate the reflective comments of a            person-centered therapist.  A version of the program is still                   available to look at today on the World Wide                                    Web (www-ai.ijs.si/eliza-cgi-bin/eliza_script). It soon became                  apparent that ELIZA and other programs like it had serious                      limitations in terms of interpreting natural language, so the idea              of the computer replacing therapists did not have technological                 viability at that time. 
THE 1970S AND 1980S: MICROCOMPUTERS FOR               EVERYONE 
The advent of the microcomputer made computing time a                much cheaper resource. Microcomputers also were increasing in                   computational power exponentially.  Counselors began to interface               with computers much more, and in the 1980s several began to research            their applications to therapy, counselor training, and the ethical              ramifications of the technology on the profession.  Two interesting             examples of programs developed in the 1980's include the                        PlatoDCS (Dilemma Counseling System) and MORTON. PlatoDCS was a                 computer program designed to help clients who felt "stuck" with                 making a decision between two adverse consequences. This program                presented the user with a structured model for solving                          dilemmas (Wagman & Keber, 1984).  The second example, MORTON (Selmi,            Klien, Griest, Johnson, & Harris, 1982), was designed to assist                 clients with mild to moderate depression. The program used a psycho             educational approach focused on cognitive therapy principles of                 identifying cognitions that may lead to depression. 
Interest                  seemed to peak in the counselor-computer relationship in 1984 when              the journal, Counselor Education and Supervision ran a special issue            on the topic.  In 1988 Lambert wrote an article that illustrated                many of the difficulties that the counseling profession had in                  adopting the widespread use of computers for therapeutic and                    training purposes.  These included a lack of trained faculty and the            expense of producing educational software. 
One area of counseling             that was profoundly affected by the advent of microcomputers in the             1980's has been vocational guidance.  Today virtually all major                 assessment instruments for vocational guidance and personality                  testing are available in computer administered or scored                        formats. 
THE 1990S AND BEYOND 
Interest seemed to wane in the                early 1990s as evidenced by a drop in scholarly articles about                  computers in counseling journals. However, technological changes                were about to occur again with the advent of the Internet and World             Wide Web.  The Internet and easier programming methods for its use              have revitalized the computer counseling relationship. For the first            time in the computer counseling relationship, the number of                     counselors, trainees, and faculty using technology grew from a                  small, elite group to a sizeable cohort. Suddenly professional                  counseling organizations had web pages, counselor education programs            had courses on-line, and listservs were being employed for                      professional communication (ICN, COUNSGRADS).  In spite of these                advances, many limitations still exist for the counseling computer              relationship. These include the professions ability to work with                difficult questions about delivering therapy over the internet and              training students via distance education. 
The potential for the               use of computer by the counseling profession seems only limited by              individual creativity. The possibility of using artificial                      intelligence programs to provide case simulations, or virtual                   reality technologies to treat mental and emotional disorders may                seem like it is science fiction, but if history informs us we know              that the counseling and computer relationship will continue to                  evolve and grow. CONCLUSIONThe computer counseling                        relationship has evolved over time. Counselors have not avoided                 engagement with computer technologies but have become more involved             with them as they have become a more plentiful resource and more                user friendly.  Counselors have used computers for therapeutic and              educational purposes.  In addition to learning to use the                       technology, counseling as a profession must cope with the many                  ethical questions that arise from implementing computer mediated                training and therapy.  Perhaps the greatest challenge to our                    profession in the future is not only to exploit the benefits of the             computer-counseling relationship but also to advocate for the use of            computer technology by the society as a whole in ways that                      protect-rather than diminish-human freedom and                                  dignity. REFERENCESCairo, P. C., & Kanner, M. S. (1984).                  Investigating the effects of computerized approaches to counselor               training. Counselor Education and Supervision, 24,                              212-221. 
Engels, D. W., Caulum, D., Sampson D. E. (1984).                     Computers in counselor education: An ethical perspective. Counselor             Education and Supervision, 24, 193-202. 
Halpain, D. R., Dixon, D.             N., & Glover, J. A. (1987). The great therapist program:                        Computerized learning of counseling theories. Counselor Education               and Supervision, 27, 255-260. 
Lambert, M. (1988).  Computers in               counselor education: Four years after a special issue. Counselor                Education and Supervision, 28, 100-109. 
Niemiec, R. P., & Walberg,            H. J. (1989). From teaching machines to microcomputers: Some                    milestones in the history of computer-based instruction.  Journal of            Research on Computing in Education, 21, 263-276. 
Selmi, P. M.,                Klein, M. H., Greist, J. H., & Harris, W. G. (1982). An                         investigation of ccomputerassisted cognitive-behavior therapy in the            treatment of depression.  Behavior Research Methods and                         Instrumentation, 14, 181-185. 
Wagman, M., & Kerber, K. W. (1984).             Computer-assisted counseling: Problems and prospects. Counselor                 Education and Supervision, 24, 142-167. 
ERIC Digests are in the               public domain and may be freely reproduced and disseminated.  This              publication was funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office              of Educational Research and Improvement, Contract No. ED-99-CO-0014.            Opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the                positions of the U.S. Department of Education, OERI, or ERIC/CASS.           **Title:** Historical Context: The Relationship of Computer Technologies and               Counseling. ERIC/CASS Digest.                                                **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC Counseling and Student Services Clearinghouse, University of               North Carolina at Greensboro, 201 Ferguson Building, P.O. Box 26171,            Greensboro, NC 27402-6171. Tel: 336-334-4114; Tel:                              800-414-9769 (Toll Free); Fax: 336-334-4116; E-mail:                            [email protected]; Web site: http://ericcass.uncg.edu.                       **Descriptors:**  Computers, Counseling,  Counselor Role,  Ethics, Psychotherapy,                 Social History,  Technology                                                 **Identifiers:**
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