October 28, 2015

Disclaimer: This paper is the product of professional research performed by staff of the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review 

Commission, and was prepared at the request of the Commission to support its deliberations. Posting of the report to the Commission’s 

website is intended to promote greater public understanding of the issues addressed by the Commission in its ongoing assessment of U.S.-

China economic relations and their implications for U.S. security, as mandated by Public Law 106-398 and Public Law 108-7. However, the 

public release of this document does not necessarily imply an endorsement by the Commission, any individual Commissioner, or the 

Commission’s other professional staff, of the views or conclusions expressed in this staff research report.

How China’s Censorship and Influence 

Affect Films Worldwide

Sean O’Connor, Research Fellow, Economics and Trade

and

Nicholas Armstrong, Esq., Research Fellow

Directed by Hollywood, Edited by China: 
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 

Table of Contents

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................................3

Background ................................................................................................................................................................4

China’s Growing Film Market ...................................................................................................................................5

China’s Film Industry Development ......................................................................................................................6

Gaining Market Access ..............................................................................................................................................8

Coproduction..........................................................................................................................................................8

The State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television ........................................................9

Circumventing Market Barriers................................................................................................................................10

Appealing to Chinese Audiences..........................................................................................................................10

Appeasing Regulators...........................................................................................................................................11

China’s Chilling Influence .......................................................................................................................................11

Implications for the United States............................................................................................................................13
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 3 

Abstract

China’s strict regulation of entertainment imports, including foreign films, violates the country’s World Trade 

Organization (WTO) commitments, as determined in a 2007 WTO decision calling for China to open its film market 

to foreign films. After years of noncompliance and inaction, China partially opened its film market in 2012 

following a deal with the United States. The deal allowed for the import of 34 films each year—up from the previous 

limit of 20 films—in exchange for a temporary suspension of further U.S. WTO actions against China’s film 

importation policies. During Chinese President Xi Jinping’s September 2015 visit to the United States, the Motion 

Picture Association of America and China Film Group reached two new film agreements, which could increase 

market access for foreign films in China. Based on recent history, however, promises that China will further open 

its film market should be viewed skeptically. 

Chinese box office sales have increased alongside China’s standard of living, resulting in China surpassing Japan 

as the world’s second largest film market (behind the United States) in 2012. If global film market growth rates 

remain consistent over the next few years, many experts expect China to surpass the United States as the largest 

film market in the world as early as 2018. Hollywood relies on China’s film market for revenue, but the process to 

get films into China is arduous due to strict and opaque regulation of film imports. China’s regulations and processes 

for approving foreign films reflect the Chinese Communist Party’s position that art, including film, is a method of 

social control. As a result of these regulations, Hollywood filmmakers are required to cut out any scenes, dialogue, 

and themes that may be perceived as a slight to the Chinese government. With an eye toward distribution in China, 

American filmmakers increasingly edit films in anticipation of Chinese censors’ many potential sensitivities.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 4 

Background

In April 2007, the United States brought a World Trade Organization (WTO) case against China for its restrictions 

on imports of films and other audiovisual and entertainment products.1 Two years later, a WTO panel found China’s 

constraints on film imports were in violation of its trading rights obligations.2 At the time, the Chinese government 

imported only 20 revenue-sharing foreign films into its theaters each year and enforced restrictions on sales of 

DVDs and other cultural products. Though China appealed the decision, the WTO Appellate Body rejected China’s 

claims and upheld the panel’s findings. The ruling called for China to provide equal rights for all individuals and 

enterprises, both foreign and domestic, importing entertainment products into China on an unlimited basis.

3

China was required to come into compliance with the WTO panel’s decision by March 2011. The Chinese 

government, however, failed to modify its practices to meet WTO standards by the deadline, instead maintaining

limited foreign access to its film market.4It was not until February 2012 that China and the United States agreed to 

a deal in the form of a Memorandum of Understanding to significantly increase market access for foreign films and 

provide a greater share of revenue for American film companies. 5 While the deal did not bring China into 

compliance with the WTO ruling, it did provide a temporary settlement to the dispute:*in exchange for some 

Chinese concessions, the United States agreed to forbear taking further action in the WTO.6 The deal dictates that 

China allow 34 revenue-sharing foreign film imports each year, with foreign studios receiving 25 percent of box 

office receipts, up from 13 percent before the agreement.7In accordance with the deal, a minimum of 14 of the 34 

films must be released in IMAX or 3D formats, a distinction that maintains China’s 20-film limit on standard 

formats while increasing the number of total film imports allowed each year. 8 The deal mandates further 

consultation in 2017 to provide for additional compensation and importation of foreign films in China. If the 

consultations fail to produce an agreement by January 1, 2018, the United States would pursue procedural action 

against China in the WTO.9

Although China remains largely closed to foreign films, the 2012 deal was hailed by both the Obama Administration 

and Hollywood executives as a breakthrough for expanding American film access to China’s burgeoning art and 

entertainment markets.

10 Speaking in front of a group of network executives, studio heads, and technology lobbyists, 

Vice President Joe Biden stated that, as a result of the deal, the U.S. “share of box office revenues doubled.”11 Still, 

the 2012 deal was merely an incremental step for tapping into the Chinese market and increasing film revenues.12

Piracy issues continue to inhibit sales of U.S. films in China and limit other sources of income derived from films,

†

and China’s government continues to maintain significant trade barriers for its film market. According to a 2014 

report on China’s WTO compliance from the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, two years after the deal was 

finalized “concrete steps [had] not yet been taken” to further open the Chinese film market.13

Hollywood primarily gains access to the Chinese film market through revenue-sharing films, flat-fee films, and 

working with Chinese companies to “coproduce” films.14 Revenue-sharing films, of which there are 34 annually in 

accordance with the 2012 deal, permit foreign studios to take in 25 percent of total box office receipts. In addition, 

studios can allow their movies to be purchased by China at a flat rate, though most filmmakers elect not to pursue 

this option. Flat-fee films have a separate quota from revenue-sharing films, but are less valuable to American 

studios than revenue-sharing films because they are sold for a fraction of their worth and studios do not receive 

additional revenue from the film’s gross in China.15 Coproductions between Chinese and American companies, 

meanwhile, do not count as foreign films since they are produced, at least in part, in China, allowing the foreign 

studio to receive a fixed 50 percent share of the total box office receipts. All films submitted to China for approval, 

including coproductions, are subject to rigorous regulations by the State Administration of Press, Publication, 

Radio, Film and Television (SAPPRFT), a Chinese government agency responsible for film censorship. Films not 

given express approval by SAPPRFT cannot be distributed in China.

 

* Under WTO rules, a Memorandum of Understanding or other agreements can be taken up during WTO disputes as a means of settling

“out of court.” World Trade Organization, Understanding the WTO, 2015, 59.

https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/understanding_e.pdf.

† For more on intellectual property protection in China, see U.S. Trade Representative, 2014 Special 301 Report, April 30, 2014, 30–37. 

https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/USTR%202014%20Special%20301%20Report%20to%20Congress%20FINAL.pdf.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 5 

Two recent film agreements, finalized in secret during Chinese President Xi Jinping’s visit to the United States, 

could signify improved market access for foreign films in China.16 The first agreement, if implemented, would 

permit international firms to audit Chinese ticket sales, an effort to address allegations of box office fraud to promote 

domestic films. The second agreement would expand the number of American films bought at a flat fee. While the 

quota for flat-fee film purchases in China is vague, the September 2015 agreement pledges to increase flat-fee 

imports from existing levels, which have hovered at 40 films annually since 2012.17 Based on recent history, 

however, promises that China will further open its film market should be viewed skeptically.

China’s Growing Film Market

The Chinese film market has expanded rapidly and is now the second largest in the world behind the United States. 

From 1979 to the early 1990s, movies released in China were almost exclusively propaganda films sanctioned by

the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). As a result, enthusiasm for film dwindled: from 1982 to 1991, annual theater 

attendance declined 79 percent.

18 In 1994, hoping to revitalize its dying film market and attract higher theater 

attendance, China imported its first foreign film, Warner Bros. Studio’s blockbuster The Fugitive. The movie

grossed nearly $3 million in China, and was regarded in both the U.S. and Chinese press as an “event of historic 

significance.”19 After the successful release of The Fugitive, Chinese theaters began importing more American 

films, with between six and ten being shown in Chinese theaters every year between 1995 and 2000.

20

Today, Chinese ticket sales continue to increase at a breakneck pace, growing from $3.6 billion in 2013—a surge 

of 27 percent from $2.8 billion in 2012—and climbing another 36 percent in 2014 to $4.8 billion.21 China’s film 

market shows no signs of slowing down: in the first eight months of 2015, Chinese ticket sales surpassed the total 

from 2014 and could reach as much as $6.5 billion by year’s end.22 Though the U.S. film industry earned $10.5 

billion from foreign and American markets in 2014, far outpacing the rest of the world in box office totals, a 

saturated U.S. domestic market has resulted in stagnant growth over the last decade.23 Meanwhile, China’s box 

office is quickly closing the gap (see Figure 1). If China can sustain such rapid box office growth, it will supplant 

the United States as the world’s largest film market by 2018.24

Figure 1: Box Office Receipts in China and the United States, 2007–2015

Note: The data for 2015 are through September.

Source: Box Office Mojo, “China Yearly Box Office.” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/china/yearly/.

The main driver of China’s film market growth is increased demand from the country’s expanding middle class. 

China’s per capita gross domestic product (GDP) grew from less than $1,000 in 2000 to over $7,500 in 2014, a 

nearly eight-fold increase in just 15 years.25 Growing incomes have led to a surge in consumption, with families 

spending more on luxury goods, including trips to the movie theater, than ever before.26 In 2007, retail sales of 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

(YTD)

US$ billions

China U.S.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 6 

domestic goods and services, a proxy figure for overall consumption, was at $1.4 trillion (RMB 8.9 trillion). By 

2014, that figure had more than doubled to $3.5 trillion (RMB 22 trillion).27

In response to growing consumer demand, China has embarked on a movie theater construction spree. China 

currently builds an average of 15 new movie screens each day in both new and existing cinemas, increasing access 

for the country’s 1.3 billion citizens.28 China built over 5,000 movie screens nationwide in 2013 alone, continuing 

a rapid rate of construction that has been ongoing for the last decade.29 In 2012, China operated just 1,300 movie 

screens; by July 2015, it boasted approximately 28,000 screens in 5,600 cinemas nationwide.30 Chinese companies 

are also building new facilities to encourage movie producers to open offices in China. The Chinese company Dalian 

Wanda Group Corp., owned by one of China’s richest individuals, Wang Jianlin—which bought the U.S. theater 

chain AMC Entertainment Group for $2.6 billion in 2012—pledged billions of dollars to build a new movie studio, 

the largest in China, in the city of Qingdao by 2017.31

China’s Film Industry Development

As China attempts to modernize its domestic film industry in the wake of the decades-long period of propaganda 

films, it is increasingly willing to cooperate with Hollywood. This cooperation is intended, in part, to bring new 

cinematic skills into the country. Speaking about Southpaw, a recent film coproduced with Dalian Wanda Group 

Corp., the Weinstein Company’s former Chief Operating Officer David Glasser stated that the Chinese “were on 

the set and involved in production, postproduction, marketing, everything” because “they wanted to learn how we 

do what we do.”32 To better study American cinematography, Chinese production companies sign coproduction 

agreements with U.S. producers and even hire ex-Hollywood executives. Rob Cain, an expert in film production 

and finance who worked in Hollywood for more than 25 years, and Janet Yang, a producer of the film The Joy Luck 

Club, were recently named senior producers of China’s Hanhai Studio, a joint venture between numerous Chinese 

organizations—including Hanhai Zhiye Investment Management Group and Xinhua Mobile TV—dedicated to 

supporting coproduction projects between Hollywood and China.33 As Yu Dong, an executive at Bona Film Group, 

China’s largest independent studio, noted: “Everything we learned, we learned from Hollywood.”34 To support 

China’s burgeoning film industry, the influx of filmmaking know-how is just as important as the box office revenue 

from imported Hollywood films.

China’s box office success also relies on revenue from foreign films, in particular film imports from the United 

States. In 2014, 32 of China’s 34 revenue-sharing film imports were from the United States, while the other two 

films were imported from Korea and Europe.35 In every year since 2008, Hollywood movies have accounted for

more than one-quarter of China’s annual box office despite numerous import controls put in place by the Chinese 

government (see Figure 2).
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 7 

Figure 2: Revenue of U.S. and Chinese Films in China, 2008–2015

Note: The data for 2015 are through September.

Source: Box Office Mojo, “China Yearly Box Office.” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/china/yearly/.

Although films made in the United States make up a large portion of China’s box office revenue, Chinese films are 

becoming nearly as profitable as their Western counterparts in the Chinese market. Increasing Chinese film revenues 

can mainly be attributed to market forces: according to College of Staten Island Professor Ying Zhu, who studies 

media culture, “the recent success of domestic films in China speaks volumes not necessarily about the quality of 

the films, but about China’s expanding movie theaters and movie attendance in general.”36 In February 2015, box 

office sales in China ($650 million) surpassed the box office sales in the United States ($640 million) for the first 

time.37 China, which imposes a two-week ban on foreign films during the Lunar New Year celebration (which 

usually falls in February), relied on the success of Chinese films like The Man From Macau II ($104 million) and 

the Jackie Chan film Dragon Blade ($95 million) to propel its box office to first place.38 This summer also saw 

historic sales for three domestic movies, with Monster Hunt, Pancake Man, and Monkey King: Hero Is Back taking 

in $382 million, $186 million, and $153 million, respectively.39 Over its impressive box office run, Monster Hunt

unseated Furious 7*as the highest-grossing film of all time in China.40

For American filmmakers, the desire to increase film exports to China is based primarily on financial considerations. 

While U.S. box office receipts have remained stagnant, the budget for American films has grown substantially: the 

average production costs of a Hollywood blockbuster in 2013 were around $200 million, with an additional $50 

million to $100 million used for marketing.41 This is a significant increase from 1996, when the average cost of 

making and marketing a Hollywood blockbuster was less than $60 million.42 To offset ballooning production costs, 

American films are turning to international markets. According to the most recent figures, the six major Hollywood 

studios comprising the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)†earned over 70 percent of their 2014 box 

office revenue outside the United States and Canada.

43 The revenue from Hollywood movies in China has steadily 

grown over the past decade, with American movies grossing nearly $2 billion in China in 2014, up 54 percent from 

2013.44 In the first ten months of 2015, U.S. films had already grossed over $2 billion in China, a new annual 

record.45 In the first half of 2015, the four highest-grossing American films that opened in China relied heavily on 

the Chinese market for profits. For three of the four films, Cinderella, Jurassic World, and Avengers: Age of Ultron, 

Chinese box office sales made up nearly a quarter of their total international gross.46 The fourth film, Furious 7, 

 

* Furious 7 grossed $380 million in China. Adam Jourdan, “‘Monster Hunt’ Passes ‘Furious 7’ to Take China Box Office Crown: Xinhua,” 

Reuters, September 12, 2015. http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/09/12/us-china-film-idUSKCN0RC07L20150912.

† The six members of the MPAA are Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, Paramount Pictures Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment 

Inc., Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation, Universal City Studios LLC, and Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc. Motion Picture 

Association of America, “Meet the MPAA.” http://www.mpaa.org/our-story/.

0%

15%

30%

45%

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 (YTD)

US$ billions

Revenue from U.S. Movies in China (left axis) Total Chinese Box Office Revenue (left axis)

Percent of Revenue from U.S. Films (right axis)
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 8 

topped the list of American films enjoying success in the Chinese market, receiving 34 percent of its total 

international gross from China (see Figure 3).47

Figure 3: International Box Office of Top Grossing American Films, 2015

Source: Box Office Mojo, “2015 Domestic Grosses.” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/yearly/chart/?yr=2015&p=.htm.

Gaining Market Access

Market access barriers continue to plague the U.S. film industry in China. Due to China’s protectionist policies, 

American films must submit themselves for import review under the 34-film agreement. Additionally, American 

films can be banned from Chinese theaters for failing to adhere to the country’s stringent censorship requirements. 

A foreign film has two possible routes to gain access to China’s film market: The first is to find a Chinese company 

to coproduce the film, enabling U.S. filmmakers to work jointly with Chinese companies to navigate the regulatory

process. The second route is to subject the film to—and comply with the demands of—the rigorous tests of the State 

Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television (SAPPRFT), the Chinese agency responsible for 

controlling foreign film imports. 

Coproduction

Movies coproduced in China do not count as foreign films, allowing American filmmakers to bypass the 34-film 

limit and bring in 43 percent of ticket sales, rather than the 25 percent given to foreign films that are not 

coproduced.

48 Coproductions are arranged and cleared through the China Film Co-Production Corporation, a stateowned enterprise supervised by SAPPRFT.

49 Coproduction arrangements between Hollywood studios and Chinese 

companies have become increasingly common. Between 2002 and 2012, a total of 37 films were coproduced 

between the United States and China, while five coproduced films made it to screening in 2013.50 These jointly 

produced films tend to do better at the box office than non-Chinese produced films as a byproduct of creative 

decisions made to secure the coproduction agreement. 51 Creative commitments necessary for obtaining 

coproduction approval can include having at least one scene shot in China, casting at least one Chinese actor, 

receiving a minimum one-third of the movie’s total investment from Chinese companies, and, in general, illustrating 

“positive Chinese elements.”52

Hollywood studios are also opening offices in China to encourage coproduction arrangements and increase their 

access to China’s market. The upcoming Kung Fu Panda 3, for instance, is a coproduction between DreamWorks 

Animation, China Film Corporation, and the Shanghai-based Oriental DreamWorks. While the front-end creative 

work is originating in the United States, the Shanghai office is overseeing the film’s production and animation.53 In 

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Cinderella

Jurassic World

Avengers: Age of Ultron

Furious 7

US$ millions

China Gross Other International Gross (Excludes U.S. Domestic Gross)
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 9 

other cases, filmmakers are working with China in anticipation of future films. Director James Cameron, whose 

upcoming Avatar sequels will look to follow up on the original’s success in China,

*

announced a joint venture 

between his firm, Cameron Pace Group, and China’s Tianjin North Film Group and Tianjin Hi-Tech Holding Group

to provide 3D filming technology to China. Although the venture—which allows Chinese filmmakers access to 

high-quality 3D cameras—does not permit any collaboration on film production, it could grant Cameron’s 

upcoming films greater access to China. 54,†

The proliferation of American production units in China not only integrates U.S. films into China’s market, but also 

facilitates the exchange of filmmaking technology and skills. For Kung Fu Panda 3, for instance, Chinese producers 

at Oriental DreamWorks received new animation technologies and studied painting, sculpting, and acting with their 

American counterparts.55 Cameron’s venture in China, meanwhile, provided the Chinese with sophisticated 3D 

technology and instructions for shooting cost-effective 3D sequences.56 These technology transfers are a valuable 

benefit of joint productions for Chinese filmmakers.

Even under coproduction agreements, however, American films are held to difficult regulatory standards. Speaking 

at the 2013 U.S.-China Film Summit, China Film Co-Production Company President Zhang Xun stated: “We have 

a huge market and we want to share it with you [but] we want films that are heavily invested in Chinese culture, 

not one or two shots....We want to see positive Chinese images.”57 The vagueness of Chinese requirements is often 

troubling for American filmmakers; with no clear vision of what a coproduction is or should be, U.S. and Chinese 

firms face difficulty aligning expectations.58 SAPPRFT remains involved during the conception, shooting, and 

distribution of all coproduced films, and can refuse to distribute a film even if it is coproduced by a Chinese 

company.59

The State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television

SAPPRFT is tasked with approving all films shown in China. As an executive branch within China’s State Council, 

SAPPRFT has 37 members, including government representatives, filmmakers, and academics. The agency’s 

director, Cai Fuchao is—like all SAPPRFT officials—a CCP member with a long career as a propagandist, serving 

as the deputy director of Beijing’s propaganda department from 1998 to 2008.

60 While SAPPRFT’s authority is

intentionally broad, its mandate specifically includes provisions protecting the interests of the CCP.61

According to SAPPRFT regulations, all films exported to China must adhere to the principles of the Chinese 

Constitution and maintain social morality. Therefore, any films depicting demons or supernaturalism, crime or any 

other illicit or illegal actions within China’s borders, disparagement of the People’s Liberation Army and police, 

and anything that could be perceived as anti-China—including merely damaging Chinese sites or monuments—are 

prohibited.62 How and when SAPPRFT chooses to enforce its authority remains opaque. SAPPRFT is notorious for 

providing vague feedback, with foreign filmmakers navigating a largely informal process to gain import approval. 

In addition, because China does not have a rating system for its movies, all films must be appropriate for audiences 

of all ages, though in practice this standard is not uniformly applied. In general, nudity, violence, and inappropriate 

language are prohibited.63 Under these provisions, a number of foreign films have been banned, including The 

Departed64 and Brokeback Mountain.

65 Disturbing sequences have appeared in films distributed in China, however. 

The Flowers of War, a Chinese film starring Christian Bale, graphically portrayed the Nanking massacre with scenes 

depicting overt violent and sexual content. But because the film stoked anti-Japanese sentiment and was regarded 

as China’s top contender for an Oscar, it passed Chinese censors easily.66

While censorship of films with excessive violence and nudity is not unique to China, SAPPRFT’s control over 

foreign films is unique in that it also serves to shelter the fledgling domestic film industry. SAPPRFT adopts policies 

to protect Chinese films, including film import bans during the Lunar New Year celebration and the summer months, 

 

* Avatar grossed over $204 million in China. Box Office Mojo, “Avatar Foreign Total.” 

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=intl&id=avatar.htm.

†

In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Cameron indicated interest in expanding his influence within the Chinese market, saying, 

“China could easily be as big a gross-revenue market for film as North America, and there are very specific economic incentives for 

having both Chinese content and Chinese co-production.” Carolyn Giardina, “James Cameron May Add Chinese Na’vi to ‘Avatar’

Sequels,” Hollywood Reporter, September 19, 2012. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/james-cameron-may-add-chinese371470.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 10 

when Chinese families frequent cinemas. This summer, the release of a number of American films approved for 

release in China—including Pixels, Inside Out, and Minions—was held off, helping the box office gross of Chinese 

films like Monster Hunt, which reportedly saw higher sales because of the lack of American competition.67

Manipulating the timing of a foreign film’s release is common practice for SAPPRFT: after the conclusion of the 

2015 summer ban on foreign films, China released Terminator: Genisys and Mission: Impossible – Rogue Nation

just two weeks apart, while Minions and Pixels were released two days apart in an attempt to put them in direct 

competition with each other, thus limiting the films’ box office grosses.

68

In addition to overseeing the import of all foreign films, SAPPRFT regulates and approves the distribution of 

entertainment products from all domestic state-owned enterprises in television and film. SAPPRFT also incentivizes 

films in support of government-sanctioned ideals. The production company for a Chinese film titled Full Circle

received a bonus of approximately $500,000 from the government because the film promoted filial piety, considered 

by SAPPRFT a key virtue in Chinese society.69

Box office sales are also manipulated to benefit state-produced films. * The Hundred Regiments Offensive, a 

nationalistic film distributed by the state-run China Film Group, has been the subject of controversy since its August 

2015 release. Numerous Chinese moviegoers have complained that they paid to see a different film, including 

Paramount Pictures’ Terminator: Genisys, but were given tickets to see Regiments instead,†suggesting Chinese 

theaters have been falsely inputting ticket sales to favor domestic films at the request of the Chinese government.70

Circumventing Market Barriers

In seeking SAPPRFT’s approval, some U.S. films make alterations to scripts, scenes, and casting with China in 

mind. In some instances, particularly in cases of U.S.-China coproductions, changes are made to access Chinese 

audiences and compete in the Chinese market. Other alterations, however, are made out of necessity, with 

SAPPRFT refusing to approve a movie for import unless violations of China’s film standards are addressed.

Appealing to Chinese Audiences

American filmmakers attempt to entice Chinese moviegoers by including popular Chinese locations, actors, and 

products in their movies. In some cases, filmmakers make these creative decisions on their own accord, seeking 

higher profits for their film’s release in China. Despite being produced entirely by U.S. companies, the final cut of 

X-Men: Days of Future Past released worldwide included lengthy scenes in Hong Kong, as well as a cameo by a 

Chinese boy band. The film went on to gross $116 million in China.71 The film Gravity appealed to Chinese 

audiences by portraying China’s space program in a positive light: a stranded astronaut saves herself by utilizing a 

fictional state-of-the-art Chinese space station and lands on Earth in a Chinese space capsule.72 The film went on to 

gross $71 million in China, 10 percent of its worldwide total gross and 16 percent of its total foreign gross.73 Other 

films include more subtle appeals to Chinese audiences: Skyfall, which was also not coproduced, was shot partially 

in China and included some scenes in Shanghai in the version of the film released worldwide.74 References to 

Chinese landmarks and celebrities are intended to appeal to Chinese audiences and increase revenue in China.

Although movies coproduced with Chinese companies make many similar changes out of necessity, the purpose 

remains the same: drawing a larger audience. The movie Looper, for instance, was offered a coproduction agreement 

with China’s DMG Entertainment on the condition that a scene originally scripted to take place in Paris be switched 

to Shanghai.75 The film, which also added Chinese actress Xu Qing to appeal to Chinese regulators, finished its box 

office run with a gross of over $20 million in China, nearly 20 percent of the film’s total earnings abroad. 76

 

* President Xi’s September 2015 visit to the United States yielded an agreement that will permit international auditors to oversee China’s 

ticket sales, which may help address these concerns. Patrick Brzeski, “Accused of Hiding Money, China Agrees to New Rules in Secret 

Hollywood Summit,” Hollywood Reporter, October 7, 2015. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/accused-hiding-money-chinaagrees-830118.

† The Hundred Regiments Offensive grossed over $60 million in China in just two weeks. Lilian Lin and Laurie Burkitt, “China’s Movie 

Executives Cry Foul over Propaganda Film’s Box-Office Success,” Wall Street Journal, September 9, 2015. 

http://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-movie-executives-cry-foul-over-propaganda-films-box-office-success-1441798022?tesla=y.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 11 

Similarly, Iron Man 3, which was also coproduced by DMG, cast Chinese actors Fan Bingbing and Wang Xueqi 

featured in an additional scene, and included product placement for Chinese goods like a popular brand of Chinese 

milk, all exclusively for Chinese viewings.

77 Iron Man 3 debuted to a record-breaking $2 million midnight premier 

in China.78 Meanwhile, Transformers 4, coproduced by China’s Jiaflix Enterprises, included quick shots of a debit 

card from the Chinese Construction Bank, a reference easily noticed by Chinese audiences but largely unnoticed by

other audiences. The film also included a main character drinking a Chinese brand of milk.79 These changes help to 

court Chinese audiences while not distorting the narrative of the film.

Appeasing Regulators

China views film as a component of social control: in a 2014 speech, President Xi reaffirmed Mao Zedong’s dictate 

that “[Chinese] art serve politics.” 80 Through strict regulations governing film content, the CCP’s concerns are 

positioned above all other interests.81 These concerns are vaguely defined by the Chinese government, however, 

making gaining approval to screen U.S. movies in China a difficult and unpredictable process. Ultimately, due to 

the limit on foreign films and the size of the market, U.S. filmmakers have significant motivation to work with 

Chinese regulators, even if they have to remove important scenes or themes from their movies to do so. For example, 

Chinese screenings of Mission: Impossible 3 omitted a scene showing clothes drying on a clothesline in Shanghai

because it was not a positive portrayal of Shanghai, despite the fact that the film was partially shot in Shanghai, 

where many people do not own dryers.82 Skyfall had to remove a scene in which James Bond kills a Chinese security 

guard because Chinese regulators were unwilling to tolerate a Chinese citizen being killed by a foreigner.83

Even coproductions are not exempt from SAPPRFT’s oversight, forcing Hollywood to alter scenes that were 

preapproved by Chinese regulators. As a coproduction with China’s largest state-run film enterprise, the China Film 

Group, the 2010 film The Karate Kid was shot with a Chinese-sanctioned script. SAPPRFT, however, still rejected 

the film’s initial request for distribution in China after production was complete because the villain was Chinese. 

The Karate Kid’s release in China was delayed and 12 minutes were removed from the film before it opened in 

China.84

In some cases, SAPPRFT’s regulations are so arbitrary they can be easily overlooked. A release of a 3D version of 

Top Gun, a film showing U.S. fighters in combat with MiG aircraft, was rejected because it portrayed U.S. military 

dominance.85 Men in Black 3 was forced to cut a scene in which civilians’ memories are erased, a scene that a 

Chinese newspaper wrote may have been perceived as a commentary on China’s Internet censorship policies.86

Perhaps the most illustrative example, however, is the recent remake of RoboCop, which encountered difficulty 

with China’s censors over a scene where the cyborg protagonist’s robotic suit is opened up to “expose what is left 

of him as a person,” which Chinese regulators indicated was too disturbing for distribution.87 In one exchange about 

the RoboCop scene, revealed in the hacked Sony e-mails,

*

a Sony executive called it “the best and most vital scene,” 

and hoped producers could “get through it with only shortening up the scene a bit.”88 Despite the importance of the 

scene to the film, the executive wrote, “Don’t think we can make a stand on it either way, too much money on the 

line, cross fingers we don’t have to cut the scene out.”89

China’s Chilling Influence

Working with Chinese censorship laws presents challenges for filmmakers seeking to access the Chinese box office. 

Beyond the censorship of content for its own citizens, China’s broad prohibitions impact content presented 

worldwide. Peter Shiao, chief executive officer of an independent Hollywood-Chinese coproduction studio, 

emphasized this impact, saying, “For a type of movie, particularly the global blockbusters, they are not going to go 

and make something that the Chinese would reject for social or political reasons. That is already a truism.”90 The 

ambiguity of China’s censorship guidelines, and the Chinese government’s sensitivity to international affairs and 

 

*

In November 2014, a hacker group called Guardians of the Peace infiltrated the internal systems at Sony Pictures Entertainment, a U.S.-

based entertainment corporation, and began releasing stolen movies and private e-mails, among other materials. The Federal Bureau of 

Investigation in December accused North Korea of being responsible for the attack. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Update on Sony 

Investigation, December 19, 2014. https://www.fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/update-on-sony-investigation.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 12 

political concerns, result in studios anticipating objections and making changes without direct pressure from

SAPPRFT.

Altering a film or script can require simple and relatively small changes, like removing mention of China as the 

origin of a zombie virus in World War Z.

91 In contrast, the film Red Dawn underwent expensive digital alterations. 

Red Dawn, a remake of a 1980s action movie about a Soviet invasion of the United States, was originally shot 

featuring China as the antagonist invading the United States. According to Mr. Shiao, however, the Chinese are 

“not interested in their country being perceived as a violent military threat to the lives of average Americans.”*

After filming concluded, and without discussions between the studio and Chinese officials, substantial digital 

alterations were made to change the invaders from Chinese to North Korean.92 While both World War Z and Red 

Dawn had wide international releases, neither was released in China. Similarly, the Sony production Captain 

Phillips was denied distribution rights in China on political grounds. The changes required to get Captain Phillips

past censors would have been impossible considering the objections of China’s censors to central elements of the 

film. A Captain Phillips executive identified the tone of the film as a source of discomfort for censors, particularly 

“the big Military machine of the U.S. saving one U.S. citizen. China would never do the same and in no way would 

want to promote this idea.”93

The internal debates within film studios over how and when to alter a movie or script extend beyond the direct 

dictates of Chinese censors, however. U.S. filmmakers self-censor scenes, dialogue, images, and themes they fear 

will jeopardize their film’s chance of receiving Chinese approval for import. During the production of the movie 

Pixels, content was eliminated prior to viewings by Chinese censors to forestall any objections, including a scene

where the Great Wall is destroyed, references to an e-mail hack attributed to a “Communist” source, and a 

connection between the movie’s antagonists and the Chinese government. That this content was edited out of both 

the film’s international and U.S. releases, partially as a result of concern over media backlash if two versions of the 

film—one for China and another for the rest of the world—were released, highlights China’s encroaching influence 

in Hollywood.94

In some cases, American filmmakers elect not to make changes despite reservations that their film will be banned 

in China. During the production of RoboCop, e-mails between the film’s executives proposed changing a weapons 

conglomerate from being located in China to another Asian country. 95 While the change was not made, the 

discussion, revealed after the Sony hack, further illustrates the disquieting level of influence wielded by Chinese

censors. Different responses to Chinese censorship reflect the challenging decision Hollywood faces in China: 

ignore Chinese sensitivities and potentially lose billions of dollars in revenue, or tailor content for China at the 

expense of the free expression of a filmmaker’s vision. According to Professor Ying Zhu, “Chinese censors can act 

as world film police on how China can be depicted, how China’s government can be depicted ... in Hollywood 

films.” Therefore, she fears it is possible “films critical of the Chinese government will be absolutely taboo.”96

Professor Zhu’s fears are not unfounded. Because major Hollywood studios are divisions within global 

conglomerates, film studios do not operate in isolation.97 With complex and sprawling worldwide business ties, 

including business in China, a decision to defy censors could have greater implications than just the loss of the

Chinese box office. In particular, companies whose business dealings extend beyond entertainment fear retaliation 

against their other products. In 1997, the release of Kundun†resulted in Walt Disney Studios, along with Kundun

director Martin Scorsese, being banned from doing business in China. In the same year, Sony Pictures Entertainment

was banned from China for its film Seven Years in Tibet,

‡

as was its lead actor, Brad Pitt.98 While the bans on the 

companies were short lived, they demonstrate the difficult decisions large conglomerates face when operating in 

China.

 

* Mr. Shiao was reportedly asked by Chinese diplomats to arrange a meeting with the makers of Red Dawn to discuss the diplomats’ 

displeasure over the film’s decision to use China as the antagonist. Unbeknownst to China, Red Dawn’s producers were already 

removing references to China in post-production. Frank Langfitt, “How China’s Censors Influence Hollywood,” National Public Radio, 

May 18, 2015. http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/05/18/407619652/how-chinas-censors-influence-hollywood.

† Kundun tells the story of the 14th Dalai Lama during the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1937.

‡ Seven Years in Tibet is a film about an Austrian, played by Brad Pitt, who journeys to Lhasa during the Chinese invasion of Tibet and 

becomes a close confidant of the Dalai Lama.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 13 

The pressure on these studios and their parent companies takes on an added dimension when fears over access to 

China’s box office market begin to limit the speech of actors. While promoting Maleficent, lead actress Angelina 

Jolie made a comment that implied Taiwan’s independence from China, a politically sensitive issue for the Chinese 

government. Disney, which produced the picture, was concerned over the comment’s potential impact on the film’s 

China release. In an effort to correct this public relations misstep, the actress and her family shared a birthday cake 

with a crowd in Shanghai and took lessons in making dim sum. Maleficent went on to make $22 million during its 

time in Chinese theatres.99

Implications for the United States

Given that China will soon become the world’s largest film market, and as Hollywood becomes more dependent on 

revenue from the Chinese box office, Hollywood will naturally tailor its product to target Chinese audiences. 

Steeply rising film budgets, the saturated U.S. film market, and the opportunities of the Chinese box office leave 

blockbuster films with only one immediate option: entry into the Chinese market. Since China screened its first 

American film in 1994, Hollywood has increasingly chosen to appease Chinese censors when faced with the 

difficult choice between tailoring its content for China or losing billions of dollars in revenues. Hollywood’s efforts 

to comply with the demands of Chinese officials afford China disproportionate leverage over the production of 

American film. Incrementally expanding China’s film market quota addresses Hollywood’s near-term financial 

concerns, as evidenced by the recent agreement expanding China’s quota for flat-fee buyouts of independent films. 

The influence of China’s censorship, however, will not abate without fundamental reform granting equal access for 

the domestic distribution of foreign films and China’s full compliance with its WTO obligations.

Chinese censorship affects not only Chinese audiences, but also audiences in the United States and around the 

world. Hollywood confronts broad consequences when it does not appease Chinese regulators: Captain Phillips

found itself $9 million short of its anticipated revenue after finding itself unable to distribute in China because of 

the film’s positive portrayal of the United States and U.S. military.

100 Meanwhile, films that work with SAPPRFT 

limit their creative freedom and sanitize their portrayals to suit the interests of the CCP. The consideration of China’s 

political sensitivities by those producing and controlling American films poses troubling questions about the reach 

of China’s censors and the future of their influence.

The breadth of China’s censorship efforts, its political and international sensitivities, and the caprice of its regulatory 

system together impose a powerful chilling effect on movie studios. Rather than awaiting SAPPRFT’s reaction after 

submitting a film for import approval, Hollywood has begun to censor itself, anticipating what Chinese regulators 

will object to and making alterations before production is completed. Reducing the reliance of studios on a small 

number of films in China will mitigate pressure on American films to accommodate the demands of Chinese 

censors. Bringing China into full compliance with the 2007 WTO ruling will hinder Chinese censors’ ability to 

apply China’s standards to American cinema and manipulate the way American movies are written, shot, and 

marketed. Granting equal market access to foreign films in China would relieve pressure on Hollywood, thawing 

the chill imposed by China’s censorship.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 14 

Endnotes

1 World Trade Organization, China – Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and 

Audiovisual Entertainment Products, Dispute DS363.

2 World Trade Organization, China – Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and 

Audiovisual Entertainment Products, Dispute DS363.

3 World Trade Organization, China – Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and 

Audiovisual Entertainment Products, Dispute DS363.

4 World Trade Organization, China – Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and 

Audiovisual Entertainment Products, Dispute DS363.

5 U.S. State Department, Memorandum of Understanding between the People's Republic of China and the United States of America 

Regarding Films for Theatrical Release, February 2012, 2. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/202987.pdf.

6 World Trade Organization, China – Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and 

Audiovisual Entertainment Products, Dispute DS363.

7 Michael Cieply, “In China Movie Pact, More 3-D, Less Reality,” New York Times, February 19, 2012. 

http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/20/business/media/more-3-d-less-reality-in-us-china-movie-pact.html.

8 Elizabeth Yuan, “More Hollywood Films Set for China,” CNN, February 21, 2012. http://www.cnn.com/2012/02/21/showbiz/china-usfilm/.

9 U.S. State Department, Memorandum of Understanding between the People's Republic of China and the United States of America 

Regarding Films for Theatrical Release, February 2012, 2. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/202987.pdf.

10 Ethan Smith and Bob Davis, “China Agrees to Increase Access for U.S. Films,” Wall Street Journal, February 18, 2012. 

http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204880404577230172401449982.

11 Cecilia Kang, “How Biden Helped Hollywood Unlock China,” Washington Post, May 2, 2014. 

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2014/05/02/how-biden-helped-hollywood-unlock-china/.

12 Reuters, “How Hollywood and Joe Biden Got China to Drop a 20-Year Movie Quota,” February 19, 2012. 

http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/20/idUS22096264620120220.

13 Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, 2014 Report to Congress on China’s WTO Compliance, December 2014, 15. 

https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/2014-Report-to-Congress-Final.pdf.

14 Patrick Frater, “China’s Overdue Payments to Hollywood Could Happen This Week,” Variety, August 13, 2013. 

http://variety.com/2013/film/asia/hollywood-studios-expect-to-be-paid-every-penny-in-china-tax-dispute-1200577325/.

15 Corrina Shuang Liu, “‘Buyouts’ Offer Indies Unique Path to Chinese Market,” Hollywood Reporter, March 5, 2013. 

http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/china-market-buyouts-offer-indie-426030.

16 Patrick Brzeski, “Accused of Hiding Money, China Agrees to New Rules in Secret Hollywood Summit,” Hollywood Reporter, October 

7, 2015. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/accused-hiding-money-china-agrees-830118.

17 Patrick Brzeski, “Accused of Hiding Money, China Agrees to New Rules in Secret Hollywood Summit,” Hollywood Reporter, October 

7, 2015. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/accused-hiding-money-china-agrees-830118; Patrick Frater, “China's Quota Change 

Heralds Reform, Competition,” Film Business Asia, February 23, 2012. http://www.filmbiz.asia/news/chinas-quota-change-heraldsreform-competition.

18 Stanley Rosen, “China Goes Hollywood,” Foreign Policy, November 4, 2009. http://foreignpolicy.com/2009/11/04/china-goeshollywood/.

19 Stanley Rosen, “The Wolf at the Door: Hollywood and the Film Market in China,” in Eric J. Heikkila and Rafael Pizarro, eds., Southern 

California and the World, Greenwood Publishing, 2002, 52.

20 Stanley Rosen, “The Wolf at the Door: Hollywood and the Film Market in China,” in Eric J. Heikkila and Rafael Pizarro, eds., Southern 

California and the World, Greenwood Publishing, 2002, 55.

21 Clifford Coonan, “China 2013 Box Office Surges 27 Percent to $3.6 Billion,” Hollywood Reporter, January 2, 2014. 

http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/china-2013-box-office-surges-668181; Patrick Frater, “China Surges 36% in Total Box Office 

Revenue,” Variety, January 4, 2015. http://variety.com/2015/film/asia/china-confirmed-as-global-number-two-after-36-box-office-surgein-2014-1201392453/.

22 Patrick Frater, “China’s Box Office Boom Continues despite Economic Woes,” Variety, September 16, 2015. 

http://variety.com/2015/film/news/china-box-office-boom-continues-1201594372/.

23 Max Willens, “Box Office Ticket Sales 2014: Revenues Plunge to Lowest in Three Years,” International Business Times, January 5, 

2015. http://www.ibtimes.com/box-office-ticket-sales-2014-revenues-plunge-lowest-three-years-1773368.

24 Michael Plowright, “Furious Competition in China’s Fast-Growing Film Industry,” Financial Times, June 1, 2015. 

http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/3/7fe36d9c-07e5-11e5-9579-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3idVwoWjs.

25 World Bank, GDP per Capita (Current US$), 2015. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD.

26 Patrick Frater, “China Rising: How Four Giants Are Revolutionizing the Film Industry,” Variety, February 3, 2015. 

http://variety.com/2015/film/news/china-rising-quartet-of-middle-kingdom-conglomerates-revolutionizing-chinese-film-industry1201421685/.

27 China’s National Bureau of Statistics, via CEIC data.

28 David Barboza, “China Escalates Hollywood Partnerships, Aiming to Compete One Day,” New York Times, April 5, 2015. 

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/06/business/media/china-escalates-hollywood-partnerships-aiming-to-compete-one-day.html.

 
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 15 

 

29 Patrick Frater, “China Adds 5,000 Cinema Screens in 2013,” Variety, January 17, 2014. http://variety.com/2014/biz/asia/china-adds5000-cinema-screens-in-2013-1201062132/.

30 Bilge Ebiri, “China’s Film Industry Is Gaining on Hollywood,” Bloomberg, July 30, 2015. 

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-30/china-s-homegrown-film-industry-gains-on-hollywood.

31 Laurie Burkitt, “Dalian Wanda Plans Fund to Lure Movie Business to China,” Wall Street Journal, October 7, 2014. 

http://www.wsj.com/articles/dalian-wanda-plans-fund-to-lure-movie-business-to-china-1412740295.

32 Ben Fritz, “Hollywood’s New Backer: China,” Wall Street Journal, July 25, 2015. http://www.wsj.com/articles/hollywoods-new-backerchina-1437832801.

33 Andy Feng, “Robert Cain and Janet Yang Became the Senior Advisors of Hanhai Studio,” Hanhai Studio, July 15, 2015. 

http://www.hanhaistudio.com/more-news/2015/7/15/robert-cain-and-janet-yang-became-the-senior.

34 Economist, “The Red Carpet,” December 21, 2013. http://www.economist.com/news/christmas-specials/21591741-red-carpet.

35 Clifford Coonan, “‘Interstellar,’ ‘Penguins of Madagascar’ among Final Six Foreign Films Approved by China for 2014,” Hollywood 

Reporter, October 22, 2014. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/interstellar-penguins-madagascar-make-final-742840.

36 Ying Zhu (Professor, College of Staten Island), interview with Commission staff, October 15, 2015.

37 Sophia Yan, “China Tops U.S. at the Box Office for First Time,” CNN, March 3, 2015. http://money.cnn.com/2015/03/02/media/chinaus-movies-box-office/.

38 Sophia Yan, “China Tops U.S. at the Box Office for First Time,” CNN, March 3, 2015. http://money.cnn.com/2015/03/02/media/chinaus-movies-box-office/.

39 Box Office Mojo, “China Yearly Box Office.” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/china/yearly/.

40 Adam Jourdan, “‘Monster Hunt’ Passes ‘Furious 7’ to Take China Box Office Crown: Xinhua,” Reuters, September 12, 2015. 

http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/09/12/us-china-film-idUSKCN0RC07L20150912.

41 Economist, “Split Screens,” February 23, 2013. http://www.economist.com/news/business/21572218-tale-two-tinseltowns-split-screens.

42 Bernard Weinraub, “Average Hollywood Film Now Costs $60 Million,” New York Times, March 5, 1997. 

http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/05/movies/average-hollywood-film-now-costs-60-million.html.

43 Motion Picture Association of America, Theatrical Market Statistics, 2014, 4. http://www.mpaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/MPAATheatrical-Market-Statistics-2014.pdf.

44 Box Office Mojo, “China Yearly Box Office.” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/china/yearly/.

45 Box Office Mojo, “China Yearly Box Office.” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/china/yearly/.

46 Box Office Mojo, “China Yearly Box Office.” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/china/yearly/.

47 Box Office Mojo, “China Yearly Box Office.” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/intl/china/yearly/.

48 Want China Times (Taiwan), “China's Film Board Pledges Stricter Monitoring of Co-Productions,” August 30, 2012. 

http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20120830000028&cid=1202.

49 China Film Co-Production Corporation, “Guidelines for Chinese-Foreign Film Co-Production and Assisted Co-Production.” 

http://www.cfcc-film.com.cn/introeg/busine.html.

50 China Film Co-Production Corporation, “China-International Film Co-Production Handbook,” November 2014, 27–29.

51 Neda Ulaby, “Hollywood’s New Strategy: Supporting Chinese-Made Blockbusters,” National Public Radio, November 25, 2013. 

http://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2013/11/25/245214545/hollywoods-new-strategy-supporting-chinese-made-blockbusters.

52 Li Hui, “China and Hollywood Shake up the Box Office,” Cheung Kong Graduate School of Business, June 19, 2015. 

http://knowledge.ckgsb.edu.cn/2015/06/19/movie-industry/china-and-hollywood-shake-up-the-box-office/.

53 Patrick Frater, “Oriental DreamWorks Rewrites its China Production Strategy,” Variety, September 6, 2013. 

http://variety.com/2013/film/asia/oriental-dreamworks-rewrites-its-china-production-strategy-1200601504/.

54 Michael Martina, “James Cameron Takes 3-D Film Venture to China,” Reuters, August 8, 2012. 

http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/08/entertainment-us-china-jamescameron-3-d-idUSBRE8770AD20120808.

55 Julie Makinen and Richard Verrier, “DreamWorks Animation, Chinese Partners Bet Big on ‘Kung Fu Panda 3,’” Los Angeles Times, 

June 9, 2015. http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-et-ct-china-dreamworks-20150609-story.html.

56 Michael Martina, “James Cameron Takes 3-D Film Venture to China,” Reuters, August 8, 2012. 

http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/08/entertainment-us-china-jamescameron-3-d-idUSBRE8770AD20120808.

57 Andrew Pulver, “China Demands ‘Positive Images’ in Return for Access to Markets,” Guardian, November 6, 2013. 

http://www.theguardian.com/film/2013/nov/06/china-hollywood-positive-images-movies.

58 Dorothy Pomerantz, “Why Americans Should Care That the Chinese Box Office Will Hit Almost $5 Billion This Year,” Forbes, 

November 3, 2014. http://www.forbes.com/sites/dorothypomerantz/2014/11/03/why-americans-should-care-that-the-chinese-box-officewill-hit-almost-5-billion-this-year/.

59 Loujing Pan, “Hollywood and the Chinese Market,” AsiaEye (Project 2049 Institute blog), June 17, 2015. 

http://blog.project2049.net/2015/06/hollywood-and-chinese-market.html.

60 Raymond Li, “Top China Censor Cai Fuchao ‘Faces Many Challenges,’” South China Morning Post, March 22, 2013. 

http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1196667/top-china-censor-cai-fuchao-faces-many-challenges.

61 Michael Cieply and Brooks Barnes, “To Get Movies into China, Hollywood Gives Censors a Preview,” New York Times, January 14, 

2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/15/business/media/in-hollywood-movies-for-china-bureaucrats-want-a-say.html.

62 Nury Vittachi, “China’s Crime-Free Crime Films,” New York Times, January 3, 2015. 

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/04/opinion/sunday/chinas-crime-free-crime-films.html.

63 Frank Langfitt, “How China’s Censors Influence Hollywood,” National Public Radio, May 18, 2015. 

http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/05/18/407619652/how-chinas-censors-influence-hollywood.

64 Shu-Ching Jean Chen, “Scorsese’s China Problem,” Forbes, January 23, 2007. http://www.forbes.com/2007/01/23/scorsese-chinamovies-face-lead-cx_jc_0123autofacescan02.html.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 16 

 

65 David Barboza, “The Oscar for Best Banned Picture,” New York Times, March 12, 2006. 

http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/12/weekinreview/12barboza.html?pagewanted=all.

66 Lawrence Pollard, “The Story Behind Chinese War Epic ‘The Flowers of War,’” January 24, 2012. http://www.bbc.com/news/worldasia-china-16638897.

67 Rob Cain, “China's Movie Industry Is Growing Faster than Any Other Country's Anywhere, Any Time, Ever,” Forbes, June 26, 2015. 

http://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2015/06/26/chinas-movie-industry-is-growing-faster-than-any-other-countrys-anywhere-any-timeever/.

68 Rob Cain, “Which 15 Movies Will Get China’s Remaining 2015 Import Slots?” Forbes, July 25, 2015. 

http://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2015/07/25/which-15-movies-will-get-chinas-remaining-2015-import-slots/.

69 Economist, “The Red Carpet,” December 21, 2013. http://www.economist.com/news/christmas-specials/21591741-red-carpet.

70 Lilian Lin and Laurie Burkitt, “China’s Movie Executives Cry Foul over Propaganda Film’s Box-Office Success,” Wall Street Journal, 

September 9, 2015. http://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-movie-executives-cry-foul-over-propaganda-films-box-office-success1441798022?tesla=y.

71 Edward Helmore, “Hollywood Tears through China's Cinemas, Stirring Censorship Fears,” Guardian, June 28, 2014. 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/28/hollywood-china-box-office-godzilla.

72 Michelle FlorCruz, “‘Gravity Hopes to Pull Chinese Audiences with Pro-China Plot Line,” International Business Times, October 7, 

2013. http://www.ibtimes.com/gravity-hopes-pull-chinese-audience-pro-china-plot-line-1415870.

73 Box Office Mojo, “Gravity Foreign Total Gross.” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=intl&id=gravity.htm.

74 Edward Helmore, “Hollywood Tears through China's Cinemas, Stirring Censorship Fears,” Guardian, June 28, 2014. 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/28/hollywood-china-box-office-godzilla.

75 Frank Langfitt, “How China’s Censors Influence Hollywood,” National Public Radio, May 18, 2015. 

http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/05/18/407619652/how-chinas-censors-influence-hollywood.

76 Reuters, “Exclusive: Chinese Media Conglomerate DMG Shopping $300M Film Fund,” August 11, 2011. 

http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/11/idUS352854198120110811; Box Office Mojo, “Looper.” 

http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=intl&id=loopers.htm.

77 William Wan, “‘Iron Man 3’ is Latest Hollywood Movie to Court Chinese Censors,” Washington Post, May 6, 2013. 

https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/iron-man-takes-heroic-efforts-to-satisfy-chinas-statecensors/2013/05/06/62d11e08-b62e-11e2-92f3-f291801936b8_story.html.

78 Kirsten Acuna, “The Biggest Differences in China’s Version of ‘Iron Man 3,’”Business Insider, May 2, 2013. 

http://www.businessinsider.com/chinas-version-of-iron-man-3-2013-5. 

79 Stanley Rosen, “Hollywood in China: Selling out or Cashing In?” Diplomat (Tokyo), May 26, 2015. 

http://thediplomat.com/2015/05/hollywood-in-china-selling-out-or-cashing-in/.

80 Josh Chin, “A Year after Xi’s Landmark Speech on the Arts, Some Things Get Left Out,” Wall Street Journal, October 15, 2015. 

http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2015/10/15/a-year-after-xis-landmark-speech-on-the-arts-some-things-get-left-out/.

81 Josh Chin, “A Year after Xi’s Landmark Speech on the Arts, Some Things Get Left Out,” Wall Street Journal, October 15, 2015. 

http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2015/10/15/a-year-after-xis-landmark-speech-on-the-arts-some-things-get-left-out/.

82 Frank Langfitt, “How China’s Censors Influence Hollywood,” National Public Radio, May 18, 2015. 

http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/05/18/407619652/how-chinas-censors-influence-hollywood.

83 Evan Osnos, “Hollywood and China; Revenue and Responsibility,” New Yorker, February 20, 2013. 

http://www.newyorker.com/news/evan-osnos/hollywood-and-china-revenue-and-responsibility.

84 Michael Cieply and Brooks Barnes, “To Get Movies into China, Hollywood Gives Censors a Preview,” New York Times, January 14, 

2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/15/business/media/in-hollywood-movies-for-china-bureaucrats-want-a-say.html.

85 Michael Cieply and Brooks Barnes, “To Get Movies into China, Hollywood Gives Censors a Preview,” New York Times, January 14, 

2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/15/business/media/in-hollywood-movies-for-china-bureaucrats-want-a-say.html.

86 Malcom Moore, “Chinese Villains Censored from Men in Black 3,” Telegraph, May 30, 2012. 

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9300092/Chinese-villains-censored-from-Men-in-Black-3.html.

87 Clare Baldwin and Kristina Cooke, “How Sony Sanitized the New Adam Sandler Movie to Please Chinese Censors,” Reuters, July 24, 

2015. http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/china-film/.

88 Clare Baldwin and Kristina Cooke, “How Sony Sanitized the New Adam Sandler Movie to Please Chinese Censors,” Reuters, July 24, 

2015. http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/china-film/.

89 Clare Baldwin and Kristina Cooke, “How Sony Sanitized the New Adam Sandler Movie to Please Chinese Censors,” Reuters, July 24, 

2015. http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/china-film/.

90 Clare Baldwin and Kristina Cooke, “How Sony Sanitized the New Adam Sandler Movie to Please Chinese Censors,” Reuters, July 24, 

2015. http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/china-film/.

91 Brad Slager, “Why Hollywood Censors Your Summer Blockbusters,” Federalist, June 16, 2015. 

http://thefederalist.com/2015/06/16/why-hollywood-censors-your-summer-blockbusters/.

92 Michelle Salzman Boston, “Hollywood Sets out to Claim a Film Foothold in China,” University of Southern California News, February 

5, 2015. https://news.usc.edu/74790/hollywood-sets-out-to-claim-a-film-foothold-in-china/.

93 Clare Baldwin and Kristina Cooke, “How Sony Sanitized the New Adam Sandler Movie to Please Chinese Censors,” Reuters, July 24, 

2015. http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/china-film/.

94 Clare Baldwin and Kristina Cooke, “How Sony Sanitized the New Adam Sandler Movie to Please Chinese Censors,” Reuters, July 24, 

2015. http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/china-film/.

95 Clare Baldwin and Kristina Cooke, “How Sony Sanitized the New Adam Sandler Movie to Please Chinese Censors,” Reuters, July 24, 

2015. http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/china-film/.
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission 17 

 

96 Frank Langfitt, “How China’s Censors Influence Hollywood,” National Public Radio, May 18, 2015. 

http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/05/18/407619652/how-chinas-censors-influence-hollywood.

97 Stanley Rosen, “Hollywood, Globalization and Film Markets in Asia: Lessons for China?” Harvard University, January 28, 2003. 

http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic152447.files/rosen_Hollywood.pdf.

98 Stanley Rosen, “Hollywood and the Great Wall,” Los Angeles Times, June 18, 2006. http://articles.latimes.com/2006/jun/18/opinion/oprosen18; Jonathan DeHart, “Brad Pitt Thaws China Ties,” Diplomat (Tokyo), February 7, 2013. http://thediplomat.com/2013/02/bradpitt-thaws-china-ties/.

99 Edward Helmore, “Hollywood Tears through China’s Cinemas, Stirring Censorship Fears,” Guardian, June 28, 2014. 

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/28/hollywood-china-box-office-godzilla.

100 Clare Baldwin and Kristina Cooke, “How Sony Sanitized the New Adam Sandler Movie to Please Chinese Censors,” Reuters, July 24, 

2015. http://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/china-film/.