GAO

United States General Accounting Office

Report to the Ranking Minority Member, 

Subcommittee on Readiness and 

Management Support, Committee on 

Armed Services, U.S. Senate

September 1999 GENDER ISSUES

Trends in the 

Occupational 

Distribution of 

Military Women

GAO/NSIAD-99-212

Page 1 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

United States General Accounting Office

Washington, D.C. 20548

National Security and

International Affairs Division

B-283056 Letter

September 14, 1999

The Honorable Charles S. Robb

Ranking Minority Member

Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support

Committee on Armed Services

United States Senate

Dear Senator Robb:

In 1993 and 1994, significant changes in legislation and policy allowed 

women to fly combat aircraft, serve on combat ships, and serve in more 

combat-related occupations.1

 As of September 1998, 90 percent of the 

services’ career fields were open to women, and 80 percent of the services’ 

1,425,000 positions were open to women. The major areas closed to 

women include infantry, armor, special forces/SEAL, and submarine 

warfare. All are associated with ground combat, except submarine 

warfare, which remains closed due to the cost of changing habitability 

conditions. As you requested, we determined (1) all occupations women 

were in during fiscal years 1990 and 1998, particularly those with the 

highest percentage of women and (2) systemic barriers, if any, that limit 

women entering certain occupations.

Results in Brief As was the case in the early 1990s, a large percentage of military women 

continue to work in the areas of health care, administration, personnel, and 

supply occupations. For example, in fiscal year 1998, 44 percent of female 

officers were in health care professions. However, data suggest that 

military women, both enlisted and officers, are beginning to enter more 

nontraditional fields such as aviation, surface warfare, air traffic control, 

and field artillery. For example, the number of female Marine Corps 

officers that were pilots or naval flight officers increased from zero in fiscal 

year 1993 (the year these occupations opened to women) to 62 in fiscal 

year 1998. The 62 pilots or naval flight officers constitute over 7 percent of 

all female Marine Corps officers. The number of enlisted Army women that 

1

The fiscal year 1992-93 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 102-190, Dec. 5, 1991) lifted the ban on 

the assignment of women to combat aircraft. The fiscal year 1994 National Defense Authorization Act 

(P.L. 103-160, Nov. 30, 1993) lifted the ban on the assignment of women to combat ships.

Letr
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were in field artillery increased from 32 to 122 in fiscal years 1992 and 1998, 

respectively. This increase is dramatic considering that the number of men 

in this occupation decreased by 26.5 percent during this time frame.

While most military occupations and career fields are open to women,2

 we 

identified two institutional barriers that limit the number of women going 

into these occupations. First, because of Department of Defense (DOD) 

and service policies, some units are closed to women even though the units 

may include occupations that are open to women. As a result, the number 

of women that can enter some career fields is limited. For example, the 

Navy limits the number of enlisted women in its nuclear training program 

because women cannot serve on submarines. The Navy also limits the 

number of women in medical corpsmen training because the Navy provides 

corpsmen to Marine Corps units that are closed to women. The Marine 

Corps limits the number of enlisted women that can serve as helicopter 

crew chiefs because helicopters are often assigned to ships and not all 

Navy ships can accommodate enlisted women at this time. In the Army, 

some occupations may be open to women, but the number of enlisted 

women or officers in those occupations is limited because many of the job 

slots are in male-only units. For example, a woman may be qualified as an 

administrative specialist but is not allowed to fill that position if the job is 

in a unit, such as infantry, that is closed to women. Only a handful of Air 

Force occupations are closed or restricted to women due to DOD’s 

assignment policies. 

Another barrier is the test used to match enlisted personnel to 

occupations—the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) 

test—which contains sections that are based on exposure to a subject 

instead of aptitude. For example, one section tests knowledge of 

automotive components, systems, tools, and repairs. A person who has 

had little or no exposure to the workings of automobiles would not likely 

do well on this section of the test. Studies have found that women 

generally do not score well on this section of the test as well as those 

sections that test mechanical comprehension or electronic information 

because many women have had little or no exposure to these subjects. 

Attitudes are mixed on the impact of this type of test. Some officials 

believe that if people have not had exposure to certain subject matter, they 

are most likely not interested in that field even if they have an aptitude for 

2

Gender Issues Information on DOD’s Assignment Policy and Direct Ground Combat Definition 

(GAO/NSIAD-99-7, Oct.19, 1998).

Letr
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the subject matter. Others believe that people should be given a chance if 

they have an aptitude for the subject matter. DOD test designers are 

currently working on a new section of the ASVAB, assembling objects, 

which might mitigate the technical test’s effects on women’s scores.

Background The Persian Gulf War saw the largest deployment of women in U.S. military 

history. Approximately 41,000 women were deployed, or 7 percent of the 

total deployed force. Partly because of women’s performance in the war, 

legislative restrictions on women’s occupations were lifted. In 1991, 

Congress repealed the restriction on women flying in combat roles, and 

DOD implemented this change in 1993. In November 1993, Congress lifted 

the ban on the assignment of women to combat ships. In January 1994, the 

Secretary of Defense announced a new assignment policy for women. This 

policy states that “servicemembers are eligible to be assigned to all 

positions for which they are qualified, except that women shall be excluded 

from assignment to units below the brigade level whose primary mission is 

to engage in direct combat on the ground.” In addition to this direct ground 

combat exclusion, the Secretary also permitted the services to close 

positions to women if (1) the units and positions were required to 

physically collocate and remain with direct ground combat units, (2) the 

service secretary attests that the cost of providing appropriate living space 

for women is prohibitive, (3) the units are engaged in special operations 

missions, or (4) job-related physical requirements would exclude the vast 

majority of women. No jobs are closed to women because of job-related 

physical requirements. 

As a result of these policy changes, many of the occupations previously 

closed to women are now open to them. These changes have meant that in 

the Air Force, women can fly bombers and fighters or serve as navigators 

on these aircraft. In the Navy, women can fly combat aircraft and serve on 

most combat ships, except submarines. In the Marine Corps and the Army, 

women are now allowed in occupations such as explosive ordnance 

disposal technician and field artillery surveyor that had been closed for 

years. Appendix I provides a list of occupations opened to women since 

the early 1990s. Although these occupations were opened to women, 

servicemembers cannot laterally transfer into occupations without 

undergoing retraining. Generally, women could enter these newly opened 

occupations only when they first entered into the military. 

Job assignments for enlisted members of the armed forces are generally 

made at the Military Entrance Processing Stations (MEPS). MEPS officials 
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administer the ASVAB test to determine whether a recruit is qualified for 

enlistment and the military job occupations for which the recruit is 

qualified. The ASVAB test contains 10 sections: general science, arithmetic 

reasoning, word knowledge, paragraph comprehension, numerical 

operations, coding speed, auto and shop information, mathematics 

knowledge, mechanical comprehension, and electronics information. 

Using the recruit’s ASVAB scores, along with other factors such as strength, 

physical health, and moral character, the services’ job counselors 

determine what entry-level occupations the recruit is eligible for based on 

the apparent strengths of the individual and the services’ needs at that time. 

The recruit decides what occupation appeals to him or her from those that 

are available.

Job assignments for officers vary by service. In general, however, all the 

services match the officers’ preferences with the open occupations. The 

Air Force classifies officers based on their preferences and the needs of the 

Air Force. Factors considered are college major and other academic 

endeavors, for example, a concentration in languages or math. All the 

services, except for the Marine Corps, give top-ranking graduates of the 

service academies priority in selecting occupations. 

Occupations of Women 

in the Military 

As was the case in the early 1990s, a significant number of officers and 

enlisted women continue to be concentrated in the health care, 

administration, personnel, and supply occupations. However, the number 

of women going into more technical or combat-related fields is increasing. 

While this is true for all of the services, the Marine Corps officers had the 

most dramatic growth of women in technical fields.

The following sections contain figures that show the percentage of all 

women, DOD-wide and by service, that were assigned in occupations in 

fiscal year 1990 (fiscal year 1992 for the Army) and fiscal year 1998. The 

occupations shown for the services are those occupations that had the 

most women in them in either fiscal year 1990 (fiscal year 1992 for the 

Army) or 1998. Oftentimes, these occupations were the same for both 

fiscal years, with one or two unique occupations for each year. These 

figures show that the percentage of women in most of the career fields we 

analyzed remained fairly stable between fiscal years 1990 (fiscal year 1992 

for the Army) and 1998 for DOD-wide and for the four services. These 

figures do not necessarily highlight those occupations with fewer positions, 

but a high number of women when compared to men. In contrast, 

appendix II details, by service, the occupations with the greatest 
B-283056

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percentage of women when compared to men. Appendix II also shows the 

information for those occupations that had the highest proportion of 

women when compared to men for one or both fiscal years. 

DOD-Wide According to data from the Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC), 

which collects occupational data from all four services and converts the 

data into a standardized, DOD-wide occupational classification, in fiscal 

years 1990 and 1998, enlisted women served predominantly in the 

functional support and administration occupational area (see fig. 1). This 

area includes such occupational areas as personnel, recruiting and 

counseling, law, supply administration, auditing and accounting, and 

general administration. Another occupational area that had a high 

concentration of enlisted women in both fiscal years was the medical and 

dental specialist area. 
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Figure 1: Occupational Distribution of Enlisted Women, DOD-Wide, During Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

As shown in figure 2, over 40 percent of female officers were in health care 

occupations during fiscal years 1990 and 1998. The next highest 

concentration of female officers was in administration, which includes 

occupations in general administration, manpower and personnel, 

comptrollers, data processing, information, police, and morale and welfare. 

By fiscal year 1998, 2 percent of women were general/flag officers or 

executives compared to 0 percent in fiscal year 1990. In addition to general 

Functional 

support and 

administration

Medical and

dental 

specialists

Service and

supply handlers

Communications

and intelligence

specialists

Electrical/

mechanical

equipment 

repairers

Electronic 

equipment 

repairers

Infantry, gun crews,

and seamanship

specialists

Other allied

specialists

Craftsmen

Other

1990

1998

Percent

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

40

35
B-283056

Page 7 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

and flag officers, this category includes senior officers, such as colonels, 

that have command duties. Examples of positions are operating forces 

command commander, judge advocate colonel, and operations 

commander. In addition, the number of women increased in the tactical 

operations area, which includes occupations such as pilots, aircraft crews, 

ground and naval arms officers, and missiles and weapons officers.

Figure 2: Occupational Distribution of Female Officers, DOD-Wide, During Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

Health care

Administration

Engineering

and maintenance

Supply, 

procurement, and 

allied operations

Tactical operations

Intelligence

Scientists and

professionals

General/flag

officers and 

executives

Other

1990

1998

0

10

20

30

40

50 Percent
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Page 8 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Navy In both fiscal years 1990 and 1998, the “general detail” occupation had more 

enlisted women than any other occupation in the Navy (see fig. 3). The 

“general detail” occupation encompasses the apprenticeship level for 

seaman, airman, and fireman. Typically, only junior enlisted sailors are in 

this occupation. Enlisted sailors are assigned to this occupation if they are 

unsure about what occupation they want to pursue in the Navy, if their test 

scores do not qualify them for a particular occupation, or if the occupations 

they want have no openings when they enlist. Sailors are assigned to an 

occupation from the general detail occupation when one becomes available 

that fits their abilities, interests, and needs of the Navy.

The health care occupation continues to have a high concentration of 

enlisted women. In fiscal year 1990, 13 percent of the Navy’s enlisted 

women were in health care; in fiscal year 1998, about 16 percent of the 

enlisted women were in these occupations. These occupations include 

hospital corpsmen, dental technicians, and laboratory technicians. 
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Page 9 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure 3: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Navy Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

In fiscal year 1998, the Navy nurse corps had more women than any other 

community (see fig. 4). Twenty-eight percent of female officers in the Navy 

were in the nurse corps compared to about 29 percent in fiscal year 1990. 

However, the nurse corps did not have the highest concentration of women 

in fiscal year 1990—special duty fleet support did.3

 Women in this 

0

5

10

15

20

25

General 

detail

Health care

Logistics

Administration

Aviation 

maintenance/

weapons

Communications

Cryptology

Marine 

engineering

Weapons control

Ship 

maintenance

Data systems

Remaining 

occupations

Percent

1990

1998

3

In fiscal year 1990, special duty fleet support was called unrestricted line officers (URL). 
B-283056

Page 10 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

community serve in billets such as information systems management, 

communications, personnel administration, and recruiting. In 1990, 

31 percent of female officers were in special duty fleet support. This 

percentage decreased to 15.4 percent in fiscal year 1998.

Figure 4 also shows that a growing percentage of women are going into the 

surface warfare occupation. Officers in this occupation serve on 

destroyers, aircraft carriers, and other surface ships in a variety of 

positions. In fiscal year 1990, nearly 3 percent of female officers served in 

the surface warfare occupation. By fiscal year 1998, this percentage had 

increased to 8 percent due in part to the 1994 repeal of the law prohibiting 

women from serving on combat ships. 
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Page 11 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure 4: Distribution of Female Officers in Navy Career Fields in Fiscal Year 1990 and Fiscal Year 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

As figure 5 shows, the Navy’s enlisted women have made gains in specific 

jobs that were previously closed to them. The number of women in the fire 

controlman job increased from zero in fiscal year 1993 to 266 in fiscal year 

1998. The number of women in the sonar technician, surface job also 

increased from zero in fiscal year 1993 to 345 in fiscal year 1998.

Civil engineering 

corps

Special duty

intelligence

Fighter/bomber

pilot

Judge advocate

general

Dental corps

Medical corps

Supply corps

Medical service

corps

Special duty

Nurses corps–

fleet support

general

1990

1998

Percent

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Remaining 

occupations

Surface 

warfare
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Page 12 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure 5: Increase in the Number of Navy Women in Occupations Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

Marine Corps As figure 6 shows, the percentage of enlisted women in most of the Marine 

Corps career fields we analyzed remained fairly stable between fiscal year 

1990 and 1998. However, two career fields–personnel and administration 

and supply administration and operations—experienced a sizeable 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

A viation boatsw ain mate--launching and recovery, equipment

A viation anti-sub w arfare operator

Electronics w arfare technician

Fire controlman

Gas turbine system tech, electrical

Gas turbine system tech, mechanical

Sonar technician, surface

Gunner's mate
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Page 13 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

decrease in the percentage of enlisted women, and the career field of 

general service marine showed a marked increase. This career field 

includes a wide range of occupations such as general service marine, basic 

marine with enlistment guarantee, sergeants major and first sergeants, and 

marine air ground task force planners. Most of the enlisted women were in 

the basic marine with enlistment guarantee category, with general service 

marine being the next highest category. These marines’ military 

qualifications and experience are not yet developed to be sufficient or 

adequate for qualification in other occupations. The Marine Corps assigns 

the general service marine occupation to those recruits undergoing training 

who did not enlist under a special enlistment program. The basic marine 

with enlistment guarantee category is assigned to personnel that join under 

an enlistment option program or an enlistment incentive program. 
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Page 14 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure 6: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Marine Corps Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

Patterns for female officers in the Marine Corps are similar to those for 

enlisted women. As figure 7 shows, the greatest concentration of women 

continues to be in the personnel and administration occupation. However, 

there were an increased number of women serving as pilots and naval flight 

officers and general service marines and in air control/air support/antiair 

warfare occupations. In addition, the number of women officers decreased 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Personnel 

and

administration

Supply 

administration

and operations

General 

service marine

Operational 

communications

Motor transport

Aircraft 

maintenance

Food service

Logistics

Avionics

Auditing, finance, 

and accounting

Military police

Remaining 

occupations

1990

1998

Percent
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Page 15 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

in the personnel and administration; supply administration and operations; 

auditing, finance, and accounting; and data systems occupations.

Figure 7: Distribution of Female Officers in Marine Corps Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

As figures 8 (ground occupations), 9, and 10 (aviation related occupation) 

show, Marine Corps women have been making gains in specific jobs that 

were previously closed to them, especially in the combat engineer and pilot 

0

5

10

15

20

25

Personnel and

administration

General 

service marine

Supply administration

and operations

Auditing, finance, 

and accounting

Computer/

communications

Logistics

Pilots/naval 

flight officers

Air control/

air support/

antiair warfare

Data systems

Motor transport

Legal services

Intelligence

Remaining 

occupations

1990

1998

Percent
B-283056

Page 16 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

and naval flight officer jobs. The combat engineer job did not open to 

women until 1994; however, by 1998, 36 women had this job. Even more 

dramatic was the number of women that became pilots and naval flight 

officers. By 1998, 62 women were pilots or flight officers. This number 

constitutes over 7 percent of the Marine Corps female officers. No women 

have yet been assigned to 11 recently opened jobs. These include 

• explosive ordnance disposal officer; 

• ground nuclear weapons assembly technician;

• ground nuclear weapons assembly officer;

• ground launched missile system maintenance officer;

• aviation fire control repairer;

• aviation fire control technician;

• aircraft flight engineer, KC-130;

• helicopter maintenance chief;

• aircraft power plants test cell operator, rotary wing;

• presidential support specialist; and

• aerial navigation officer.
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Page 17 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure 8: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in Ground Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal 

Years 1993 Through 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

E m bark ation offi cer A ir delivery s pec ialis t

Landing support specialist E ngineer offic er

Com bat engineer E x plos ive ordnanc e di sposal technician

Cryptologic linguist (M iddle E ast)
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Page 18 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure 9: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, 

Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Airborne radio operator/loadmaster Aircraft mechanic, AV-8

helicopter mechanic Helicopter airframe mechanic

Helicopter crew chief Aircraft communication

Aircraft electronic system tech, AV-8
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Page 19 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure 10: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, 

Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998

Source: DMDC data.

Air Force The proportion of enlisted women serving in various Air Force occupations 

was generally similar in fiscal years 1998 and 1990. Furthermore, women 

were not highly concentrated in any one specific occupation. About 

10 percent of enlisted women in the Air Force were in the information 

management occupation, and another 10 percent were in the supply 

occupation (see fig. 11). Detailed Air Force data also show that the number 

of women in technical or combat-related occupations has increased. For 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Antiair warfare officer Air s upport control officer

H AWK m is s ile s ys tem operator Air s upport operations officer

Aerial navigator trainee Firs t navigator

Pilot/naval flight officer
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Page 20 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

example, the number of enlisted women in airborne warning 

communications and control systems occupations increased from 41 in 

fiscal year 1990 to 108 in fiscal year 1998. Similarly, in space system 

operations, the number of enlisted women increased from 26 in fiscal 

year 1990 to 136 in fiscal year 1998. The biggest increase was in air traffic 

control, where the number of women more than tripled since fiscal 

year 1990 to 727 in fiscal year 1998.
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Figure 11: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Air Force Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998

Comparable data for female Air Force officers are shown in figure 12. The 

greatest concentration of female Air Force officers is in the nurse corps. 

As figure 12 shows, about 29 percent of the women were in the nurses’ 

corps in fiscal year 1998, compared to almost 32 percent in fiscal year 1990. 

One occupation where the number increased significantly was in the space, 

astronaut, and missile occupation, which increased from 226 female 

0

10

20

30

40

50

Information 

management

Supply

Personnel

systems

Medical 

service

Security 

police

Communications

Systems manager/

aerospace

Financial

Health services 

management 

support

Services

Dental

Remaining 

occupations

1990

1998

Percent

a

This category did not exist in fiscal year 1998.

a
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Page 22 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

officers in fiscal year 1990 to 384 female officers in fiscal year 1998. While 

the proportion of female pilots decreased slightly between fiscal years 1990 

and 1998, the figure remained about 3 percent. 

Figure 12: Distribution of Female Officers in Air Force Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998.

Source: DMDC data. 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Nurse

Personnel/

management

Communications/

computers/

visualization

Intelligence

Air battle 

management

Medicine

Biomedical 

specialist

Biomedical clinic

Space/missile/

astronaut

Pilot

Development

engineer

Acquisition

Manager/Contracts

Judge advocate

general

Aircraft 

maintenance

Remaining 

occupations

1990

1998

Percent
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As figure 13 shows, Air Force women have been entering specific jobs that 

were previously closed to them. For example, the number of women that 

are bomber and fighter pilots has increased as have the number of women 

that have served as combat navigators. One job that women have not 

entered is the sensor operator job, which opened to women in 1993. This 

job requires a lateral transfer at the E-5 or E-6 level.

Figure 13: Increase in the Number of Women in Air Force Jobs Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

0

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

2 5

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

B om b er p ilo ts F ig h te r p ilo ts

S u rve illa n c e re c o n p ilo ts B o m b e r n a vig a to rs

F ig h te r n a vig a to rs S u rve illa n c e re c o n n a vig a to rs

S ens or operator
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Army Army enlisted women were generally in the same occupations in fiscal 

year 1998 that they were in fiscal year 1992 (see fig. 14).4

 The three main 

occupations were administration, medicine, and supply and service. 

However, the number of enlisted women has been steadily increasing in 

many technical and combat-related occupations. For many of these 

occupations, the numbers of women entering these occupations were too 

small to affect the percentage of women in the occupations and were 

included in the “remaining occupations” category in figure 13. For 

example, the number of women in the field artillery occupation increased 

from 32 in fiscal year 1992 to 122 in fiscal year 1998. This increase is even 

more dramatic considering that the number of men decreased by 

26.5 percent in this occupation during this time frame. In addition, the 

number of enlisted women in air defense increased from 350 in fiscal year 

1992 to 546 in fiscal year 1998. The increase of enlisted women in 

electronic maintenance is especially dramatic, from 45 in fiscal year 1992 to 

719 in fiscal year 1998. Other occupations that show increases were the 

chemical and petroleum occupations. The number of women in the 

chemical occupation increased from 596 in fiscal year 1992 to 1,058 in fiscal 

year 1998, while the number of women in the petroleum occupation rose 

from 1,429 in fiscal year 1992 to 2,537 in fiscal year 1998. 

4

Because we could not reconcile the Army’s data with DMDC ‘s database, we chose to use the Army’s 

data. However, Army officials were only able to provide data beginning with fiscal year 1992.
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Figure 14: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Army Occupations in Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998

Source: Army data. 

In the Army, female officers were generally in the same occupations in 

fiscal year 1998 that they were in fiscal year 1992 (see fig. 15). As with the 

Navy and the Air Force, the highest concentration of women was in the 

Army Nurse Corps (ANC). About 30 percent of female officers were in 

ANC during fiscal year 1992, compared to 23 percent in fiscal year 1998. 

Although the percentage of women in the engineering and aviation 

occupations remains small, detailed Army data show that the number of 

women entering these occupations increased. Specifically, the number of 

0

5

10

15

20

25

Administration

Medical

Supply and 

service

Signal

Transportation

Mechanical 

maintenance

Military police

Signal 

intelligence

Petroleum

Remaining 

occupations

1992

1998

Percent
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Page 26 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

women officers increased from 210 in fiscal year 1992 to 329 in fiscal 

year 1998 in the engineering branch and from 234 in fiscal year 1992 to 

293 in fiscal year 1998 in the aviation occupation. 

Figure 15: Distribution of Female Officers in Army Occupations in Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998

Source: Army data. 

In 1994, the Army opened new jobs to enlisted women and female warrant 

officers. As figure 16 shows, Army women have entered some of these 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Army 

Nurse Corps

Medical service

Medical corps

Intelligence

Signal

Adjutant

general

Ordnance

Quartermaster

Transportation

Military police

Judge advocate

general

Medical specialist

Engineer

Remaining 

occupations

1992

1998

Percent
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Page 27 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

specific jobs in dramatic fashion. For example, the job of field artillery 

surveyor had 68 women in fiscal year 1998 and the number of female 

engineer bridge crewmembers reached 50 in fiscal year 1998. One job, 

combat engineer senior sergeant, has had no women in it since it was 

opened to women in fiscal year 1994. According to Army officials, this job 

has not been open long enough for women to advance to the rank of senior 

sergeant. 

Figure 16: Increase in the Number of Women in Army Jobs Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998

Source: DMDC data. 

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

E n g in e er b rid g e c rew m e m b e r C o m ba t en g in e er s en ior s erg e an t

F ie ld a rtille ry s u rve y o r O H -58 A /C s c o ut p ilo t

O H -58 D p ilo t A H -64 attac k pilot

A H -attac k pilot
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Page 28 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Civilian Women Make 

Similar Occupational 

Choices

To provide some perspective, we looked at the occupational distribution of 

civilian women. The occupational patterns of military women are similar 

to those of civilian women. Proportionally, civilian women do not work in 

the skilled trades, technical occupations, or protective service occupations 

in the civilian sector to the extent that men do. Women represent 

46 percent of the workforce but only about 10 percent of all workers in the 

skilled trade, technical, and protective service occupations. For example, 

about 2 percent of the construction workforce, 1 percent of automobile 

mechanics, 2 percent of firefighters, 2 percent of electricians, and 5 percent 

of truck drivers are women.5

 On average, these nontraditional jobs pay 

20 to 30 percent more than jobs women have traditionally held. An official 

with the Department of Labor Women’s Bureau stated that societal factors 

tend to discourage women from entering these occupations. According to 

the Department of Labor, women generally have less math and science 

education. In addition, peer pressure from friends and parents discourage 

women from entering the skilled trades, technical occupations, and 

protective services. Finally, some researchers believe that women are 

reluctant to enter nontraditional occupations because women believe they 

are unwelcome in these types of occupations. 

Institutional Barriers Most occupations are open to women in the military. However, even if an 

occupation is open to women, there are two institutional barriers that keep 

more women from going into these occupations. The first barrier is that 

about 115,000 positions within military units may not be filled by women, 

even though an occupation is technically open to women. For example, in 

the Army some occupations are open to women, but the number of women 

in those occupations is limited because many of the job slots are in 

male-only units. The second institutional barrier is that the ASVAB, the test 

the military uses to match women to occupations contains sections that are 

based on exposure to certain subject matter instead of aptitude. 

Positions Closed to Women The services vary on why positions are closed to women. In general, the 

Navy limits positions to women because some ships, such as submarines, 

are closed to women. The Marine Corps generally limits positions for 

women for this reason, but also limits positions to women because they 

cannot engage in direct ground combat. The Army also limits positions for 

5

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment & Earnings, January 1999.
B-283056

Page 29 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

women because of this direct ground combat assignment policy. The Air 

Force has the most gender-neutral policy in assigning women to open 

occupations and does not have the constraints that the other services have.

Navy The assignment of women to occupations in the Navy is complicated by the 

limited number of sea positions available to women–generally only 10 to

20 percent of ship positions are available for women–and the fact that some 

ships, such as submarines, are closed to women. These factors have led 

the Navy to limit the number of women who can enter some occupations. 

For example, the Navy limits the number of enlisted women that enter its 

nuclear power program because a number of these positions are on 

submarines. The Navy also limits the number of women in some of its 

medical fields because of the requirements to provide medical personnel to 

ships that are not open to women and to Marine Corps units not open to 

women.

According to Navy officials, the Navy has encouraged women to go into 

nontraditional occupations because it is easier to assign women to ships 

when they have a more diverse range of skills. When assigning women to a 

ship, personnel detailers must consider whether the ship needs a person 

with a particular skill and whether appropriate berthing is available. If a 

woman’s berth is available and a woman with the required skill is available, 

then the assignment is easily made. However, if a woman’s berth is 

available but no woman with the required skill is available, the positions 

may go unfilled. Additionally, if women continue to concentrate in 

traditionally female occupations, some women may not have the 

opportunity to undertake career enhancing sea assignments because ships 

have a limited need for their skills. This is not a problem for female officers 

because the Navy does not usually have to make major modifications to its 

ships to accommodate female officers. 

Marine Corps Because the Marine Corps often deploys on Navy ships, it limits the 

number of women in some occupations because the Navy has not 

completed integrating all of its ships. For example, the Marine Corps limits 

the number of enlisted women that can serve as helicopter crew chiefs 

because helicopters are often assigned to ships and not all Navy ships can 

accommodate enlisted women at this time. In addition, a significant 

percentage of its units remain closed to women, and women cannot fill 

slots in open occupations in those units. Enlisted women below the rank of 

staff sergeant are barred from approximately 25 percent of the Marine 

Corps’ administrative positions because these positions are in combat 

units.
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Page 30 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Army Army women can serve in 97 percent of officer career fields and 83 percent 

of enlisted occupations but can serve in less than 70 percent of the job slots 

because the remaining slots are in combat units or in units that collocate 

with combat units. On the basis of DOD and Army policy, women cannot 

serve in ground combat units or units collocated with such units, even 

though they may be qualified to fill particular occupations in those units. 

For example, a woman may be qualified as an administrative specialist but 

is not be allowed to fill an available position because the job is in a combat 

unit.

During a visit to a MEPS, a job counselor provided us with lists of 

occupations that were closed to men and women. Some occupations may 

be closed to both men and women because the Army already has a 

sufficient number of soldiers with those particular skills. However, 

14 occupations were closed to women but remained open to men. By 

necessity, the Army must limit the number of women it trains in some 

occupations because a number of units that require those occupations are 

closed to women.

Air Force Among the services, the Air Force has the most gender-neutral policy in 

assigning women to open occupations. The Air Force is different from the 

Marine Corps and the Army because 99 percent of its positions are not 

associated with the direct ground combat rule and are therefore open to 

women. The Air Force is also different from the Navy in that the Air Force 

needed to consider only minor changes to its equipment to accommodate 

women.

Barriers Due to ASVAB The ASVAB test screens out some recruits from technical occupations 

because it measures experience rather than aptitude on technical subjects. 

DMDC has conducted a series of studies of the ASVAB. One study 

determined that the test was a valid indicator. Recruits who score high in 

certain sections of the test do well in the corresponding occupations.6

 

However, the study also showed that there were significant differences in 

how men and women scored on the technical components of the test. 

DMDC conducted another study to determine why these differences

6

Sensitivity and Fairness of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) Technical 

Composites, DMDC, December 1992.
B-283056

Page 31 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

existed.7 This study analyzed about 21,500 high school transcripts from 

1990 high school graduates. DMDC found that roughly half the males took 

one or two technical education classes, whereas only 20 percent of the 

females took that many courses. About 40 percent of the males and 

80 percent of the females took no technical education courses at all. Less 

than 2 percent of the women took automobile/machine shop compared to 

almost 19 percent of the men. In addition, less than 1 percent of the women 

took electricity/electronics courses compared to almost 10 percent of the 

men.

DMDC concluded that the difference in the exposure to the subject matter 

affected the scores on the technical sections of the ASVAB, not the aptitude 

of the test taker. For example, one section tests knowledge on automobile 

mechanics. A person who has not been exposed to the principles of 

automobile mechanics would most likely not do well on the test. The study 

concluded that women have generally not excelled on the technical 

sections since many have not taken classes such as automobile mechanics 

in high school. Officials from the services we spoke with had varying 

opinions on this issue. Some officials thought it was acceptable that the 

ASVAB technical sections focused on exposure rather than aptitude. They 

stated that because people were not interested enough in the subject to 

study it in school, they would not be interested in pursuing a job in that 

field. Others thought that people should be given the chance if they have 

an aptitude in that subject matter.

Marine Corps officials stated that they encouraged women to go into more 

nontraditional occupations a few years ago and that they are now analyzing 

the attrition rates of women in these occupations. Preliminary results 

indicate that the attrition rates are much higher for women than men in 

these nontraditional occupations. If the final results show that women in 

more nontraditional occupations are leaving the Marine Corps at higher 

rates than others, the Marine Corps may abandon its attempt to encourage 

women to enter these occupations and instead assign women to 

occupations of their choice as long as they are qualified. In addition, the 

Congressional Research Service reported that DOD studies have shown 

that enlisted women have much higher rates of retention when they are 

assigned jobs in the administrative, clerical, medical, and dental 

7

Item Evaluation for the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) Science and Technical 

Test Specifications: Conduct Exposure to Content Analysis, DMDC, December 1997.
B-283056

Page 32 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

occupations and lower retention rates in mechanical and electrical 

equipment occupations.8

Recognizing the shortcomings of the ASVAB, DMDC officials stated that 

they were working on a new section of the ASVAB that focuses more on 

aptitude and less on exposure to subject matter. This section--assembling 

objects--has been found to narrow the difference in scores between the 

genders. The section needs to be validated, however, before it will be used 

to assign recruits to occupations. This validation will determine whether 

people that score high on this new section would do well in the 

corresponding occupations. If this happens, the new section will replace 

the mechanical comprehension section. This validation will take at least a 

year or two to conduct. To do this validation, the services are 

administering this section of the test but not using it in assignment 

selections. People who score high on the mechanical comprehension and 

assembling objects sections should do well in the corresponding 

occupation, assuming the assembling objects section is valid. However, 

because assignment decisions are not being made using the new section, it 

will not be known how well recruits would do if they scored high on 

assembling objects, but low on mechanical comprehension because they 

would not be placed in mechanical occupations. 

Agency Comments We provided a draft of this report to the Office of the Secretary of Defense, 

the Army, the Air Force, the Marine Corps, and the Navy. The Office of the 

Secretary of Defense and the military services orally concurred with 

information presented in the report. Additionally, the military services 

provided technical comments, which we incorporated as appropriate.

Scope and 

Methodology

To determine what occupations women are working in, we obtained 

occupational data from DMDC for fiscal years 1990 through 1998 for all 

four services. We compared these data to similar data provided by the 

services to determine if the DMDC data were correct. The Army data 

provided by DMDC could not be reconciled with Army-provided data 

because DMDC did not appear to be using the Army occupational 

classification system. Consequently, we used Army-provided data instead 

of DMDC data for the Army only. However, the Army could only provide 

8

Women in Armed Forces, Burrelli, David F., Congressional Research Service, updated February 2, 1998
B-283056

Page 33 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

data since fiscal year 1992. We judged this to be sufficient since it predated 

the legislative and policy changes of fiscal years 1993 and 1994. We also 

obtained data for men from the same sources for the same periods of time. 

We analyzed these data in two ways. First, we compared the occupations 

women occupied in fiscal year 1990 (1992 for the Army) to those in fiscal 

year 1998. We compared percentages rather than absolute numbers to 

reduce the effects of downsizing on our analysis. Next, we analyzed which 

occupations had a high percentage of women. This could differ greatly 

from the first analysis because an occupation may not have many slots to 

affect the overall numbers, but a large percentage of women may be in that 

occupation. For example, 14 percent of all Air Force enlisted personnel in 

fiscal year 1990 were women, however, over half of Air Force enlisted 

paralegals were women during this same year. But, less than 1 percent of 

all women were in the paralegal occupation because of the small number of 

slots in that occupation. For both of these analyses, we identified the top 

10 or so occupations women were in for fiscal years 1990, 1998, or both for 

each service. Oftentimes, the occupations were the same for both fiscal 

years. We selected these occupations to compare for fiscal years 1990 and 

1998. To determine what occupations women fill in the civilian sector, we 

analyzed Bureau of Labor statistics data and discussed these issues with 

officials from the Department of Labor Women’s Bureau and with a 

sociologist who had studied women’s issues in the military and civilian 

sectors.

To ascertain whether any systemic barriers inhibit women from entering 

occupations, we interviewed officials dealing with women’s affairs from 

the four services and officials responsible for determining the occupational 

needs of the four services. To determine how the services assign women to 

occupations, we interviewed job counselors from the services at the MEPS 

in Los Angeles, California. We also met with officials from DMDC’s 

Personnel Testing Division and an Office of the Secretary of Defense 

consultant who developed the ASVAB test to discuss possible barriers 

caused by that test. 

We performed our review between July 1998 and July 1999 in accordance 

with generally accepted government auditing standards.

We are sending copies of this report to Senator Wayne Allard, Chairman, 

and Senator Max Cleland, Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on 

Military Personnel, Senate Committee on Armed Services, as well as 
B-283056

Page 34 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Representative Steve Buyer, Chairman, and Representative Neil 

Abercrombie, Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on Military 

Personnel, House Committee on Armed Services. We are also sending 

copies to the Honorable William S. Cohen, Secretary of Defense; the 

Honorable Lewis Caldera, Secretary of the Army; the Honorable John H. 

Dalton, Secretary of the Navy; the Honorable F. Whitten Peters, Secretary 

of the Air Force; and General James L. Jones, Commandant of the Marine 

Corps. We will also make copies available to other interested parties.

If you or your staff have any questions concerning this report, please 

contact me on (202) 512-5140. Major contributors to this report were Carol 

R. Schuster, William E. Beusse, Cheryl L. Gordon, and Carole F. Coffey.

Sincerely yours,

Norman J. Rabkin

Director, National Security

 Preparedness Issues
Page 35 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues
Page 36 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Contents

Letter 1

Appendix I

Military Occupations 

Opened to Women in 

the Early 1990s, by 

Service

40

Appendix II

Occupations With the 

Greatest Percentages 

of Women When 

Compared to Men

43

Figures Figure 1: Occupational Distribution of Enlisted Women, DOD-Wide, 

During Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 6

Figure 2: Occupational Distribution of Female Officers, DOD-Wide, 

During Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 7

Figure 3: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Navy Occupations in Fiscal 

Years 1990 and 1998 9

Figure 4: Distribution of Female Officers in Navy Career Fields in Fiscal 

Year 1990 and Fiscal Year 1998 11

Figure 5: Increase in the Number of Navy Women in Occupations 

Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 12

Figure 6: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Marine Corps 

Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 14

Figure 7: Distribution of Female Officers in Marine Corps 

Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 15

Figure 8: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and 

Officers in Ground Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993 

Through 1998 17

Figure 9: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and 

Officers in Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 

1993 Through 1998 18
Contents

Page 37 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure 10: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted 

and Officers in Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 

1993 Through 1998 19

Figure 11: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Air Force Occupations in 

Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 21

Figure 12: Distribution of Female Officers in Air Force Occupations in 

Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998. 22

Figure 13: Increase in the Number of Women in Air Force Jobs 

Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 23

Figure 14: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Army Occupations in 

Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998 25

Figure 15: Distribution of Female Officers in Army Occupations in

Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998 26

Figure 16: Increase in the Number of Women in Army Jobs Previously 

Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 27

Figure II.1: Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted 

Women 43

Figure II.2: Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of Female 

Officers 45

Figure II.3: Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of 

Enlisted Women 46

Figure II.4: Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of 

Female Officers 47

Figure II.5: Air Force Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted 

Women 48

Figure II.6: Air Force Occupations With High Concentrations of Female 

Officers 49

Figure II.7: Army Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted 

Women 50

Figure II.8: Army Occupations With High Concentrations of Female 

Officers 51
Contents

Page 38 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Abbreviations

ANC Army Nurse Corps

ASVAB Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery

DMDC Defense Manpower Data Center

DOD Department of Defense

JAG Judge Advocate General

MEPS Military Entrance Processing Stations

URL Unrestricted Line Officers
Page 39 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues
Page 40 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Appendix I

Military Occupations Opened to Women in the 

Early 1990s, by Service ApenxIdi

Navy Aviation boatswain mate—launching and recovery equipment

Aviation antisubmarine warfare officer

Electronics warfare technician

Fire controlman

Gunner’s mate, guns

Gunner’s mate, missiles

Gas turbine systems technician, electrical

Gas turbine systems technician, mechanical

Sonar technician, surface

Marine Corps

Opened Prior to January 

1994

Ground nuclear weapons assembly technician

Cryptologic linguist (Middle East)

Ground nuclear weapons assembly officer

Ground launched missile system maintenance officer

HAWK missile systems technician

Aviation fire control repairer

Aviation fire control technician

Aircraft flight engineer, KC-130

Antiair warfare officer

HAWK missile system operator

Aerial navigator trainee

First navigator

Aerial navigation officer

Airborne radio operator/loadmaster

Pilot/naval flight officer

Opened After October 1994 

Based on New Assignment 

Policy

Embarkation officer

Landing support specialist

Air delivery specialist

Engineer officer

Combat engineer

Explosive ordnance disposal officer

Explosive ordnance disposal tech

Aircraft mechanic, AV-8

Aircraft hydraulic pneumatic mechanic, AV-8
Appendix I

Military Occupations Opened to Women in 

the Early 1990s, by Service

Page 41 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Helicopter mechanic trainee

Helicopter mechanic, CH-46

Helicopter mechanic, CH-53

Helicopter mechanic, U/AH-1

Helicopter mechanic, MV-22

Helicopter maintenance chief

Helicopter power plants mechanic, MV-22

Aircraft power plants test cell operator, rotary wing

Helicopter airframe mechanic trainee

Helicopter airframe mechanic, U/AH-1

Helicopter airframe mechanic, MV-22

Presidential support specialist

Helicopter crew chief, CH-46

Helicopter crew chief, CH-53

Helicopter crew chief, UH-1N

Helicopter crew chief, MV-22

Aircraft communication, Navy system technician, AV-8

Aircraft communication, Navy electronic system technician, CH-46

Aircraft communication, Navy electronic system technician, CH-53

Aircraft communication, Navy electronic, weapons system technician, 

U/AH-1

Aircraft electronic system technician, AV-8

Air support control officer

Air support operations operator

Marine Corps security force cadre trainer

Air Force Fighter pilot

Fighter navigator

Bomber pilot

Bomber navigator

Surveillance reconnaissance pilot

Surveillance reconnaissance navigator

Sensor operator

Army Engineer bridge crewmember

Combat engineer senior sergeant

Field artillery surveyor

OH-58A/C scout pilot

OH-58D pilot
Appendix I

Military Occupations Opened to Women in 

the Early 1990s, by Service

Page 42 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

AH-64 attack pilot

AH-1 attack pilot
Page 43 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Appendix II

Occupations With the Greatest Percentages of 

Women When Compared to Men ApenxIdi

Navy The occupations in the Navy with the greatest percentage of enlisted 

women when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in 

figure II.1. Although women represented 9.8 percent of the Navy’s enlisted 

force in 1990 and 12.8 percent in fiscal year 1998, women represented a 

significant percent of the personnel in occupations such as cryptology, air 

traffic control, and communications. 

Figure II.1: Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women

Source: Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC) data. 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Cryptology

Health care

Administration

Communications

Media

Air traffic control

General detail

Meteorology/

oceanography

Master at arms

Intelligence

Data systems

Percentage

1990

1998
Appendix II

Occupations With the Greatest Percentages 

of Women When Compared to Men

Page 44 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

The occupations that had high concentrations of women officers when 

compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II.2. In 

fiscal year 1990, women constituted 10.8 percent of all officers; in fiscal 

year 1998 they constituted 14.1 percent. During these 2 years, women 

officers constituted a vast majority of the nurse corps and special duty fleet 

support. Other occupations with high concentrations of women included 

special duty public affairs, the judge advocate general corps (JAG), the 

medical corps, and medical services corps.
Appendix II

Occupations With the Greatest Percentages 

of Women When Compared to Men

Page 45 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure II.2: Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of Female Officers

Source: DMDC data.

Marine Corps The occupations that had high percentages of women enlisted in the 

Marine Corps when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are 

shown in figure II.3. In fiscal year 1990, 4.9 percent of the Marine Corps 

enlisted force were women. In fiscal year 1998, 5.7 percent of the force 

were women. During both years, women were in a significant portion of 

some occupations, including public affairs and legal services.

Nurses 

corps general

Special duty

fleet support

Data

processing

Prospective

JAG corps officer

Special duty

public affairs

Medical services

corps

Judge advocate

general

Health scholar 

program (Med)

Medical corps

Special duty

oceanography

Special duty

cryptology

Communications,

surface

Special duty

intelligence

Percentage

1990

1998

0

20

40

60

80

100
Appendix II

Occupations With the Greatest Percentages 

of Women When Compared to Men

Page 46 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure II.3: Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women 

Source: DMDC data.

The Marine Corps occupations that had high percentages of female officers 

when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in 

figure II.4. In fiscal year 1990, 3.4 percent of the officers were women; in 

fiscal year 1998, 4.8 percent of the Marine Corps officers were women. In 

both years, personnel and administration; auditing, finance, and 

accounting; and public affairs had a large percentage of women. 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30 Percentage

Public affairs

Legal services

Miscellaneous

Music

Personnel and

administration

Audit, finance,

and accounting

Aviations supply

Training/visual

information 

support

Traffic 

management

Supply

administration

and operations

Printing and

reproduction

Data systems

1990

1998

a a

a

Job classification did not exist during this fiscal year.
Appendix II

Occupations With the Greatest Percentages 

of Women When Compared to Men

Page 47 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Figure II.4: Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of Female Officers

Source: DMDC data.

Air Force The Air Force occupations with high concentrations of enlisted women in 

fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II.5. In fiscal years 1990 and 

1998, 14 percent and 18.4 percent of the enlisted personnel, respectively 

were women. In both years, more than half of the personnel in the 

a 0

5

10

15

20

25

30 Percentage

Public 

affairs

Personnel and

administration

Audit, finance,

and accounting

Motor 

transport

Supply administration

and operations

General 

service marine

Air control/

air support/

antiair warfare

Legal 

services

Logistics

Computer/

communications

Data 

systems

Signals intelligence/

ground electronic 

warfare

Air traffic control/

enlisted flight crew

Aircraft 

maintenance

1990

1998

a

Job classification did not exist during this fiscal year.
Appendix II

Occupations With the Greatest Percentages 

of Women When Compared to Men

Page 48 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

paralegal occupation were women and more than one-third of the 

personnel in several health occupations as well as personnel systems and 

chaplain service support were women. 

Figure II.5: Air Force Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women 

Source: DMDC data.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70 Percentage

a

1990

1998

a

Job classification did not exist during this fiscal year.

Paralegal

Health services

management support

Personnel systems

Mental health

services

Surgical

services

Dental

Medical

services

Aeromedical

Information

management

Air operations

Biomedical 

therapy

Chaplain service

support

Diet therapy

Financial
Appendix II

Occupations With the Greatest Percentages 

of Women When Compared to Men

Page 49 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

The Air Force occupations with high concentrations of female officers for 

fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II.6. In fiscal year 1990 

13.3 percent of all officers in fiscal year were women. In fiscal year 1998 

16.7 percent of officers were women.

Figure II.6: Air Force Occupations With High Concentrations of Female Officers

Source: DMDC data.

1990

1998

a

Job classification did not exist during this fiscal year.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Nurse

Band/PA

Personnel

Morale, welfare,

recreation

Biomed 

specialist

Biomed 

clinic

Judge advocate

general

Health

services

Manpower

Medicine

Supply

Services operations 

officer

Intelligence

Transportation

Percentage

a a
Appendix II

Occupations With the Greatest Percentages 

of Women When Compared to Men

Page 50 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

Army In fiscal year 1992, women were 12 percent of the Army’s enlisted force. 

This percentage increased to 15.2 percent in fiscal year 1998. During both 

of these years, more than one-third of the personnel in administration were 

women and women were also highly concentrated in many other 

occupations, as shown in figure II.7 

Figure II.7: Army Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women

Source: Army data. 

0

10

20

30

40

50 Percentage

Administration

Public affairs

Supply and

service

Record 

information

Medical

Topographical

engineer

Petroleum

Aviation

Transportation

Signal

intelligence

Visual

information

1992

1998
Appendix II

Occupations With the Greatest Percentages 

of Women When Compared to Men

Page 51 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues

The Army occupations with high concentrations of female officers for 

fiscal years 1992 and 1998 are shown in figure II.8. In fiscal year 1992 

13.9 percent of officers were women and in fiscal year 1998, 14.4 percent 

were women. However, during both of these fiscal years, the vast majority 

of the Army Nurse Corps were women. In addition, high percentages of 

women officers were in adjutant general, medical specialist, and veterinary 

branches.

Figure II.8: Army Occupations With High Concentrations of Female Officers

Source: Army data.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

ANC

Adjutant

general

Medical

specialist

Veterinary

Judge advocate

general

Finance

Medical

service

Military

police

Chemical

Transportation

Ordnance

Signal

1992

1998

Percent

(703275) Lert
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