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##  Leadership Development in Career and Technical Education. ERIC                  Digest No. 225.                                                              

Leadership development is an important and long-standing concern in             many fields; career and technical education (CTE) is no exception.              Concerns about leadership development in CTE today arise from two               factors: not only are large numbers of experienced leaders retiring             but also the demands placed on CTE leaders are different from those             of the past. This Digest reviews the literature on leadership                   development in CTE and in other areas to describe how leadership                development in CTE is evolving to prepare leaders for the                       future. TRADITIONAL CTE LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENTCTE's focus on              leadership development has traditionally started in secondary                   programs, where leadership skills are advocated as one part of total            student development (Cahill and Brady 1999). Vocational students                organizations (VSOs) are a familiar means of providing leadership               experiences to students, both inside and beyond the classroom; the              10 VSOs recognized by the U.S. Department of Education served more              than 1.5 million students in 1999 and help draw many students to CTE            programs (ibid.). Similarly, postsecondary CTE programs continue a              focus on developing students' potential, often through postsecondary            components of VSOs, as leaders in their chosen career                           areas (Fitzhugh-Pemberton 1996; Litowitz 1995). Postsecondary CTE               leadership development has also provided formal credit courses or               noncredit activities for preservice or inservice CTE teachers or                administrators, either on leadership development per se or as part              of administrator preparation (Bensen and Paige 1996; Fritz and Brown            1998; Viegas et al. 1998), reflecting the prevailing opinion that               leadership, although a complex construct of characteristics and                 behaviors, can be observed, learned, and taught. LEADERSHIP                   DEVELOPMENT FOR THE FUTUREFor more than a decade, calls have                been issued for the transformation of CTE in light of changes in the            nature of work, the ethnic/cultural composition of the student body,            and public demands on education. As a result, a new model of                    transformational leadership is advocated to point CTE in new                    directions and influence others to believe and follow, adjusting to             change and shaping the debate in education. The different demands               placed on transformational leaders are reflected in CTE leadership              development programs and in recommendations for their improvement.              In addition, the different nature of transformational leadership has            led to a reexamination of leadership and gender in                              CTE. 
Transformational Leadership. 
In recent years, leadership               development in general and in CTE specifically has evolved away from            a model of categorized task-oriented and human relations behaviors              toward a model of transformational leadership (Moss and Liang                   1990)--"the process of perceiving when change is needed and                     influencing the group by such non-coercive means as persuasion and              example in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement" (p.            5). In Bass's original transformational leadership theory (Kuchinke             1999), four factors motivate employees to perform beyond                        expectations by leaders who develop, intellectually stimulate, and              inspire them to work toward a collective purpose, mission, or                   vision. Charisma earns leaders respect, trust, and confidence and               transmits a strong sense of mission and vision. Through intellectual            stimulation, leaders actively encourage employees to question the               status quo and to examine critically their own assumptions and                  beliefs and those of leaders and others. Leaders show individual                consideration in personalized attention to every employee's needs,              so that each feels valued; leaders treat employees differently but              equitably based on their needs. Finally, leaders' inspirational                 motivation communicates a vision and the confident, optimistic,                 enthusiastic belief that the vision is attainable. 
Newer                      definitions of leadership for CTE reflect such a transformational               model. The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, for            example, conceptualized leadership development as "improving those              attributes--characteristics, knowledge, skills, and values--that                predispose individuals to perceive opportunities to behave as                   leaders, to grasp those opportunities, and to succeed in influencing            group behaviors in a wide variety of situations. Success as a leader            in vocational education is conceived primarily as facilitating the              group process and empowering group members" (Moss et al. 1994, p.               26). 
Leadership Development Programs. 
A review of 17  leadership            development programs for vocational educators (Moss et al. 1994)                found high levels of participant satisfaction and positive changes              in two key leadership attributes: "adaptable, open to change"                   and "visionary." Leadership attributes were more likely to improve              when programs were more structured and participant involvement was              more active. Improving leadership attributes depended on                        participants' readiness for change, which could be improved by                  providing experiences for team building and for reflective,                     goal-setting self-assessment. In programs for graduate                          students (compared to those for inservice personnel), the number of             leadership attributes significantly increased was in direct                     proportion to the number of hours of directly supervised                        instruction. There was no significant relationship between cost per             student and the number of leadership attributes that significantly              increased. 
Five types of on-the-job experiences for developing                leadership capabilities were identified by successful CTE                       administrators as helpful to their development as leaders (Lambrecht            et al. 1997): new positions with new/increased responsibilities;                special start-up work assignments; handling personnel                           problems (e.g., conflicts, firings); being mentored, counseled, and             supported; and working with a supervisor. Participants reported that            those experiences helped develop communication, team-building,                  interpersonal, and administrative/management skills and helped                  increase their sensitivity, respect for others, self-confidence and             self-acceptance, and broader perspective about the organization. The            most effective on-the-job experiences included (1) a variety of                 challenging situations, providing both the motivation and                       opportunity to learn and apply new skills and knowledge, and (2) a              supportive environment with supervisors as positive role models and             mentors as counselors. 
Recommendations for improving leadership               development efforts include (Bensen and Paige 1996; Fritz and Brown             1998; Lambrecht et al. 1998; Moss et al. 1994) careful course                   structure and direction by instructors and participant input into               planning the specifics of instruction( e.g., coverage of individual             leadership attributes). Participants should construct a cognitive               leadership model as a basis for activities; reflection and                      goal-setting should follow self-assessment using a variety of                   instruments. Programs should provide team-building and on-the job               experiences and time for guided practice in applying attributes to              be changed and reflection on the experience. Leadership development             efforts should involve other academic areas (e.g., business                     management, psychology, sociology, and educational leadership) in a             multidisciplinary approach, and university faculty should have                  academic grounding in scholarship and research in the behavioral                foundations of leadership. 
Leadership and Gender. 
The                       relationship between leadership and gender in CTE has received                  renewed attention in the evolution toward transformational                      leadership, which values  stereotypically female traits like                    communication, inclusion, and nurturing (Thorp et al. 1998). In one             study, Moss and Jensrud (1995) found that a sample of female                    vocational administrators, department heads, and vocational teacher             leaders was rated slightly more effective as leaders than males by              subordinates and peers. There were no apparent gender biases in the             ratings; male and female instructors had the same concept of                    leadership. On the other hand, Daughtry and Finch (1997) found no               correlation between gender of local vocational administrators and               teachers' ratings of their effectiveness. However, females rated                themselves as more effective than males, and females were rated                 higher (both by themselves and by teachers) than males on four of               five factors constituting transformational leadership. Two                      interesting findings: female family and consumer sciences                       undergraduates who used an experimental transformational leadership             curriculum were more likely to change career plans and seriously                consider leadership positions than female students using a                      traditional curriculum (Viegas et al. 1998); female students                    enrolled in an all-female section of an agricultural education                  leadership development course rated their own abilities to lead,                work with groups, make decisions, communicate, and understand                   themselves higher than did women in a coeducational section (Thorp              et al. 1998). LESSONS FROM OTHER AREASAlthough CTE is in line             with other fields in its evolution toward transformational                      leadership, there are some approaches to leadership development in              other fields that could be productive in CTE as well. One emphasis              in leadership development for business has an intuitive appeal: the             first step in developing leaders is to define clearly and                       specifically the business result to be achieved--e.g., produce                  measurable productivity gains among certain workers or solve a given            management problem (Zenger et al. 2000). 
In other examples,                   community leadership programs are advocated not only to develop                 leadership for the sake of the community but also to bring positive             and permanent change in leadership behavior in the                              workplace (Galloway 1997). An interdisciplinary, team-based approach            to leadership development is seen as invaluable in the promotion of             common principles and core values among actors from different fields            who must cooperate and collaborate for a common good (Flexer et al.             1997). 
Some programs turn to the past for generalize lessons in               leadership--to fiction and nonfiction classics of Western literature            to enhance practicality with vision (Brunner 1999) or to the                    Christian Bible for values immutable across time and cultures that              can contribute to attainment of business excellence (Dahlgaard et               al. 1998). Reverse appraisal, in which employees rate their                     manager's effectiveness, was found highly useful by a major                     petrochemical company in developing managers' leadership                        skills (Taylor and Morgan 1995). The centerpiece of a cooperative               extension leadership development program was a video-driven,                    competency-based, computer-stored simulation to assess participants'            proficiency in competencies, leadership styles, and                             values/drives (Ladewig and Rohs 1999). 
Changes in the environment             in which CTE operates have led to a new model of transformational               leaders, empowering and engaging others as active participants in               the process of change; a transformational leader is the facilitator,            rather than the director, of change. CTE leadership development                 programs and practices have mirrored the change to transformational             leadership and have reemphasized the potential of women as CTE                  leaders. REFERENCESBensen, T. M., and Paige, W. D. "Leadership            Attributes Addressed in Industrial Technology/Technology Education              Doctoral Programs." JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY STUDIES 22, no.                       1 (Winter-Spring 1996): 15-27. 
Brunner, R. S. "When Realtors Read             Plato." ASSOCIATION MANAGEMENT 51, no. 2 (February 1999):                       28-35. 
Cahill, J., and Brady K. "Sweetening the Deal." TECHNIQUES             74, no. 3 (March 1999): 26-28. 
Dahlgaard, S. M. P.; Dahlgaard, J.             J.; and Edgeman, R. L. "Core Values: The Precondition for Business              Excellence." TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT 9, nos. 4-5 (July 1998):                  S51-S55. 
Daughtry. L. H., and Finch, C. R. "Effective Leadership              of Vocational Administrators as a Function of Gender and Leadership             Style." JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION RESEARCH 22, no. 3 (1997):              173-186. 
Fitzhugh-Pemberton, G. "Why FBLA-PBL? The Importance of              Student Organizations." BUSINESS EDUCATION FORUM 51, no. 2 (December            1996): 19-21. 
Flexer, R. W.; Baer, R. M.; Simmons, T. J.; and                 Shell, D. "Translating Research, Innovation, and Policy into                    Practice: Interdisciplinary Transition Leadership Training." CAREER             DEVELOPMENT FOR EXCEPTIONAL INDIVIDUALS 20, no. 1 (Spring 1997):                55-68. 
Fritz, S. M., and Brown F. W. "Leadership Education Courses            and Programs in Departments of Agricultural Education." JOURNAL OF              AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 39, no. 3 (1998): 57-62. 
Galloway, R.                  F. "Community Leadership Programs: New Implications for Local                   Leadership Enhancement, Economic Development, and Benefits for                  Regional Industries." ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 15, no. 2 (Summer             1997): 6-9. 
Kuchinke, K. P. "Workforce Education Faculty as                   Leaders: Do Graduate-Level University Instructors Exhibit                       Transformational Leadership Behaviors?" JOURNAL OF VOCATIONAL                   EDUCATION RESEARCH 24, no. 4 (1999): 209-225. 
Ladewig, H., and                Rohs, F. R. "Southern Extension Leadership Development: Leadership              Development through a Virtual Organization." Paper presented at the             Annual Meeting of the Association of Leadership Educators, San                  Diego, CA, July 10, 1999. (ED 440 462) 
Lambrecht, J. J.; Hopkins,             C. R.; Moss, Jerome, J., Jr.: and Finch, C. R. IMPORTANCE OF                    ON-THE-JOB EXPERIENCES IN DEVELOPING LEADERSHIP CAPABILITIES.                   Berkeley: National Center for Research in Vocational Education,                 University of California, 1997. (ED 413 462) 
Litowitz, L.                     S. "Technology Student Organizations: The Benefits." TECHNOLOGY                 TEACHER 55, no. 1 (September 1995): 24-27. 
Moss, J., Jr., and                 Jensrud, Q. "Gender, Leadership, and Vocational Education." JOURNAL             OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHER EDUCATION 33, no. 1 (Fall 1995): 6-23. 
Moss,            J., Jr., and Liang, T. LEADERSHIP, LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT, AND THE              NATIONAL CENTER FOR RESEARCH IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. Berkeley:                 National Center for Research in Vocational Education, University of             California, 1990. (ED 325 645) 
Moss, J., Jr.; Leske, G. W.;                   Jensrud, Q.; and Berkas, T. H. "An Evaluation of Seventeen                      Leadership Development Programs for Vocational Educators." JOURNAL              OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHER EDUCATION 32, no. 1 (Fall 1994):                          26-48. 
Taylor, G. L., and Morgan, M. N. "The Reverse Appraisal: A             Tool for Leadership Development." QUALITY PROGRESS 28, no.                      12 (December 1995): 81-87. 
Thorp, L.; Cummins, R.; and Townsend,              C. "Women's Self-Perceived Leadership Skills in a Collegiate                    Agricultural Education Course." JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION               39, no. 1 (1998): 55-62. 
Viegas, S.; Brun, J. K.; and Hausafus, C.            O. "Leadership Development in Family and Consumer Sciences College              Graduates." JOURNAL OF FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES 90, no. 3 (Fall             1998): 47-52. 
Williamson, R. D., and Hudson, M B. "Democracy Is               Hard Work: The Struggle to Define One Leadership Preparation                    Program." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American                 Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA, April 24-28,                 2000. (ED 443 327) 
Zenger, J.; Ulrich, D.; and Smallwood, N. "The             New Leadership Development." TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT 54, no.                   3 (March 2000): 22-27. 
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This project has been funded at                least in part with Federal funds from the U.S. Department of                    Education under Contract No. ED-99-CO-0013. The content of this                 publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of               the U.S. Department of Education nor does mention of trade names,               commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S.             Government. Digests may be freely reproduced and are available at               ericacve.org/fulltext.asp.                                                   **Title:** Leadership Development in Career and Technical Education. ERIC                  Digest No. 225.                                                              **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** For full text: http://www.ericacve.org/fulltext.asp.                         **Descriptors:** Administrator Education, Administrator Effectiveness, Adult                     Learning, Conventional Instruction, Educational Needs,  Educational             Trends, Futures (of Society), Guidelines, Leadership Qualities,                  Leadership Training, Literature Reviews, Models, Needs Assessment,             Postsecondary Education,  Professional Development, Program                     Improvement, Secondary Education, Sex Differences, Teacher                      Education, Trend Analysis,  Vocational Directors, Vocational                    Education,  Vocational Education Teachers, Womens Education                  **Identifiers:** ERIC Digests,  Transformational Leadership                                   
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