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##  Therapeutic Uses of Outdoor Education. ERIC Digest.                          

Recent research has documented the positive effects on emotional                well-being of many outdoor education programs. This Digest                      highlights emotional well-being that is intentionally or                        incidentally achieved in several program types: adventure therapy,              personal growth, college adventure, recreation, and                             camping. 
Outdoor education and experiential learning                          defined. 
Following the philosophy of Dewey (1938), outdoor                    education involves cooperative, democratic learning environments                that stress an interactive process among students and teachers and              experiential learning. Experiential learning is most simply defined             as learning by doing (Boss, 1999). Chickering (1976, p. 63)                     explained that experiential learning "occurs when changes in                    judgments, feelings, knowledge or skills result for a particular                person from living through an event or events." The Association for             Experiential Education (1994, p. 1) defines experiential education              as "a process through which a learner constructs knowledge, skill               and value from direct experience." 
While we most often think about            outdoor education as a way to develop leadership abilities,                     environmental knowledge, and other useful knowledge and skills, it              can also be used to develop emotional strength and well-being as                evidenced in studies described below. 
Intentional versus                      incidental growth. 
Although many outdoor education and                        experiential learning programs enhance emotional growth, they might             not do so as their primary intent. Programs that are intended first             and foremost as therapy enhance emotional growth in a purposeful,               planned manner (Davis-Berman & Berman, 1994). Other programs, like              those found in recreation or in college orientation programs, do not            have emotional growth as the primary goal, but such growth may be a             regularly occurring consequence of participation. In this case,                 growth may be considered incidental to the program goals. 
Another             way of making this distinction is to differentiate between the                  terms "therapeutic" and "therapy." The first term, an adjective,                indicates factors that may be conducive to emotional well-being and             may apply to a variety of activities and programs. The latter term,             a noun, involves a process of assessment, treatment planning, the               strategic use of counseling techniques (including group dynamics,               which are often a component of outdoor education programs), and the             documentation of change. TYPES OF PROGRAMSMany programs could             be examined related to a discussion of emotional growth, including              more than 2,000 camps that are members of the American Camping                  Association, and more than 700 wilderness experience programs                   identified by Friese, Hendee, and Kinziger (1998). Wilderness                   experience programs include programs designed for therapy,                      rehabilitation, education, leadership, growth, or organizational                development. Interested readers are referred to a compilation of 187            research study abstracts on impact of a variety of wilderness                   programs (Friese, Pittman, & Hendee, 1995). In this Digest, we will             highlight therapeutic aspects of outdoor education found in                     adventure therapy, personal growth programs, college orientation,               recreation, and camping programs. 
Adventure therapy                           programs. 
Programs that use the outdoors as a part of therapy                 often take place in wilderness settings and involve adventure. Most             of these programs are geared toward troubled youth (Berman &                    Davis-Berman, 1995), who often have been diagnosed with mental                  health problems. Adventure therapy programs take many forms and may             take place in a variety of settings. Program variations include                 games and initiatives, ropes courses, family therapy programs,                  adjunctive therapy, and wilderness therapy (Davis-Berman & Berman,              2000). Sometimes the adventure therapy program is the sole treatment            modality, while other times it is used as an adjunct to more                    traditional therapy approaches (Davis-Berman & Berman,                          1994). 
Russell and Hendee (1999) describe two basic types of                  wilderness therapy programs: 
1.  Contained programs last up to                three weeks and operate as expeditions, with clients and staff                  remaining together for the duration of the program. 
2.  Continuous            flow programs last up to eight weeks, with clients and staff cycling            in and out of the program. 
Cason & Gillis (1994) conducted a                  meta-analysis of 43 programs that provided evidence of adventure                therapy effectiveness. They concluded that participants became more             internal in their locus of control, received better grades, and had             more positive self-concepts after completion of adventure therapy               programs. 
Personal growth programs. 
While these programs are not            designed as therapy, they are intended to have a positive impact on             general psychological well-being. Participants are less likely to               have been diagnosed with a mental health problem or to be receiving             treatment than participants in therapy programs. An example of a                personal growth program is Outward Bound. Perusal of the Outward                Bound Web site reveals the emphasis on personal development as one              of their core values: 
...to perform tasks that are beyond                     perceived physical, mental and emotional limits enhances students'              beliefs in their own capabilities. ...developing capacities of mind,            body and spirit to better understand one's responsibilities to self,            others and community. Key areas of development are: 
                          Self-knowledge 
  Tenacity 
     Teamwork 
     The ability to go            beyond self-imposed limitations 
     Acceptance of                            responsibility 
 Self-reliance 
     Craftsmanship 
     Physical            fitness 
 Leadership (Outward Bound(R)USA, n.d.) 
Hattie, Marsh,              Neill, & Richards (1997) conducted a meta-analysis of adventure                 programs, an undertaking they found to be complex and multifaceted.             They found that, in general, adventure programs positively impacted             self-esteem, leadership, academics, personality, and interpersonal              relations, with self-esteem change being most significant. These                changes were shown to be more stable over time than the changes                 generated in more traditional educational programs. 
College                   adventure programs. 
The use of adventure to orient new students,              introduced at Dartmouth in 1935, continues today in colleges and                universities across the country. Orientation and other college                  adventure programs facilitate the emotional and social development              of students, who are experiencing a challenging and stressful period            in life. While these programs do not fall into the category of                  therapy, they do seem to be therapeutic for the young adults                    enrolled. 
Davis-Berman and Berman (1996) studied 50 wilderness                orientation programs describing their purposes, structures, goals,              and other aspects of the programs. More recently, Gass (1999)                   reviewed adventure orientation and other wilderness programs to                 facilitate ongoing adjustment to college, training for resident                 assistants, and pre-college programs. These researchers found that,             of the college offerings, orientation programs have received the                most attention. Although the programs vary greatly in design and                type, they do tend to focus on peer relationships, socialization,               emotional adjustment to college, and college                                    retention (Davis-Berman & Berman, 1996; Gass, 1999). Orientation                programs have been shown to increase retention, and to positively               impact interpersonal skills and relationships (Gass, 1987). However,            it is not clear if the retention differences remain over time (Gass,            1990). 
Recreation programs. 
These programs do not attempt to                facilitate emotional growth. Instead, they gear up, activate,                   energize, and excite participants (Priest, 1999). Webb's (1999)                 review of recreation programs suggests that their roots tend to be              in college-based programs. Some of these programs are connected to              degree programs but most are extracurricular. 
In general, the                 goals of recreation programs are fun, enjoyment, and recreation.                However, program organizers identify skill development and moral                growth as secondary goals. Through the vehicle of recreation,                   different types of skill development can occur. For example,                    participants can learn to become more socially comfortable. They may            also learn to be less inhibited and become more open to trying new              things and taking some risks. In recreation programs, participants              may also be exposed to different types of people, different ways of             responding, and alternative ways of thinking. Sometimes through                 these experiences, moral and character development can also                     occur (Webb, 1999). 
Due to the nature of the goals of recreation              programs, outcome studies are generally not done. Descriptions of               recreation programs throughout North America can be found in a                  recent publication compiled from a survey of college- and                       university-based programs (Webb, 1996). 
Camping programs. 
The               organization of camps for the expressed purpose of facilitating the             emotional well-being of campers dates back to the early 1900s with              Camp Ahmek in Algonquin Park, Ontario (Dimock & Hendry, 1939).                  Improving social behavior was a stated goal of this early camp, and             extensive records of participant progress were kept in an attempt to            document personal growth. Camps continue to be a popular outdoor                experience, especially for youth. As with the recreation programs,              even camps that are not therapeutic in their intent often work to               facilitate personal growth in the participants. 
Marsh (1999)                  conducted a meta-analysis on the influence of camp experiences on               self-concept in youth. He found a positive influence on self-esteem             in those programs that had a focus on self-enhancement. This                    increase in self-esteem was most pronounced for pre-teens, but was              positive across all ages. CONCLUSIONSDespite the wide variety             of outdoor education programs, a unifying thread seems to be the                facilitation of emotional growth and well-being. Certain program                types, like therapy programs, intentionally build emotional growth              into their program structure. For others, like recreation programs,             this growth is incidental to the original program                               goals. REFERENCESAssociation for Experiential                             Education (AEE). (1994). AEE definition of experiential education.              Boulder, CO: Association for Experiential Education. 
Berman, D.               S., & Davis-Berman, J. L. (1995). Outdoor education and troubled                youth. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and                Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 385                   425) 
Boss, J. A. (1999). Outdoor education and the development of             civic responsibility. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural               Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.            ED 425 051) 
Cason, D., & Gillis, H. (1994). A meta-analysis of                outdoor adventure programming with adolescents. Journal of                      Experiential Education, 17(1), 40-47. 
Chickering, A. (1976).                  Developmental change as a major outcome. In M. Keeton (Ed.),                    Experiential learning (pp. 62-107). San Francisco, CA: Jossey                   Bass. 
Davis-Berman, J. L., & Berman, D. (1994). Wilderness                    therapy: Foundations, theory and research. Dubuque, IA:                         Kendall/Hunt. 
Davis-Berman, J. L., & Berman, D. (1996). Using the             wilderness to facilitate adjustment to college: An updated                      description of wilderness orientation programs. Journal of                      Experiential Education, 19(1), 22-28. 
Davis-Berman, J. L., &                  Berman, D. (2000). Adventure therapy with adolescents. In L.                    VanderCreek (Ed.), Innovations in clinical practice: A sourcebook,              Vol. 18. Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Press. 
Dewey,                    J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan. 
Dimock,             H., & Hendry, C. (1939). Camping and character: A camp experiment in            character education. New York: Association Press. 
Friese G.,                  Hendee, J. C., & Kinziger, M. (1998). The wilderness experience                 industry in the United States: Characteristics and dynamics. Journal            of Experiential Education, 21(1), 40-45. 
Friese, G., Pittman,                 J., & Hendee, J. (1995). Studies of the use of wilderness for                   personal growth, therapy, education, and leadership development: An             annotation and evaluation. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho                      Wilderness Research Center. 
Gass, M. (1987). The effects of a                 wilderness orientation program on college students. Journal of                  Experiential Education, 10(2), 30-33. 
Gass, M. (1990). The                    longitudinal effects of an adventure orientation program on the                 retention of students. Journal of College Student Development,                  31(1), 33-38. 
Gass, M. (1999). Adventure programs in higher                   education. In J. Miles & S. Priest (Eds.), Adventure                            programming (pp. 373-83). State College, PA: Venture                            Publishing. 
Hattie, J., Marsh, H., Neill, J., & Richards,                     G. (1997). Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class                  experiences that make a lasting difference. Review of Educational               Research, 67(1), 43-87. 
Marsh, P. E. (1999). What does camp do for            kids?: A meta-analysis of the influence of the organized camping                experience on the self constructs of youth. Unpublished master's                thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN. 
Outward                          Bound(R)USA. (n.d.). About Outward Bound: Core values. Denver, CO:              Author. Available at http://www.outwardbound.com. 
Priest,                     S. (1999). Introduction. In J. Miles & S. Priest (Eds.), Adventure              programming (pp. xiii-xiv). State College, PA: Venture                          Publishing. 
Russell, K. C., & Hendee, J. C. (1999). Wilderness                therapy as an intervention and treatment for adolescents with                   behavioral problems. In A. E. Watson, G. Aplet, and J. C.                       Hendee (Eds.), World Congress proceedings on research management and            allocation (vol. II). Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain            Research Station, RMRS-P-000. Webb, D. (1996). Outdoor recreation               program directory & date/resource guide (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO:                 Outdoor Network. 
Webb, D. (1999). Recreational outdoor adventure              programs. In J. Miles & S. Priest (Eds.), Adventure programming (pp.            3-8). State College, PA: Venture Publishing. 
WEB SITES OF                     INTEREST 
Outward Bound: http://www.outwardbound.com 
American                Camping Association: http://www.acacamps.org/ 
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Dene S.                 Berman ([email protected]) is a psychologist with Lifespan                 Counseling Associates, Dayton, Ohio; and clinical professor of                  professional psychology and associate clinical professor of                     medicine, Wright State University. 
Jennifer                                   Davis-Berman ([email protected]) is associate professor in the                 Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Social Work at the                    University of Dayton; and associate clinical professor of medicine,             Wright State University. 
This publication was prepared with                   funding from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement,                U.S. Department of Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0027. The             opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the positions              or policies of OERI, the Department, or AEL.                                 **Title:** Therapeutic Uses of Outdoor Education. ERIC Digest.                          **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC/CRESS, P.O. Box 1348, Charleston, WV 25325-1348; Tel:                      800-624-9120 (Toll Free). Full text at Web site:                                http://www.ael.org/eric/digests/edorc005.htm.                                **Descriptors:** Adventure Education,  Camping, College Programs,  Emotional                     Development, Experiential Learning, Higher Education,  Individual               Development,  Outdoor Education,  Therapeutic Recreation,  Therapy,             Youth Programs                                                               **Identifiers:**  Adventure Therapy, ERIC Digests                                             
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