HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

AUTHORS

Nancy M. Diaz was an ecologist with the Pacific Northwest Research Station, when this work was done. She is now a branch

chief with the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, P.O. Box 2965, Portland, OR 97208-2965. Richard

W. Haynes is a research forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry

Sciences Laboratory, P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR 97208-3890.
HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

Highlights of Science Contributions

to Implementing the

Northwest Forest Plan 

1994-1998

Nancy M. Diaz and Richard W. Haynes
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Document continues on next page.
HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

ABSTRACT

Diaz, Nancy M.; Haynes, Richard W. 2002. Highlights of science contributions to implementing the

Northwest Forest Plan—1994 to 1998. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-540. Portland, OR: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p.

During 5 years of research (1994-98) in support of the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP), Pacific Northwest

Research Station scientists and their collaborators have made significant progress in both validating some

of the NWFP’s major assumptions and providing research that sets the stage for further evolution of the

plan. Studies have provided new information in the areas of wildlife conservation and population viability,

aquatic conservation measures, adaptive management, the socioeconomic dimension, ecological processes

and functions, landscape-scale issues, and stand-development strategies. A key theme in the findings is

the need for NWFP implementation and research efforts to increasingly address the significant ecological

variation throughout the region, the dynamic nature of our forest ecosystems, the need to integrate information across science disciplines, and the benefits of managing adaptively. 

Keywords: Northwest Forest Plan, ecosystem management, conservation, land management, alternative

silviculture, landscape ecology, adaptive management.
HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

C ONTENTS

1 Introduction

2 Research Findings

2 Wildlife Conservation and Population Viability

4 Aquatic Conservation Strategy

6 Adaptive Management Concepts and Decision Support

9 Socioeconomic Research

11 Ecological Processes and Functions

13 Landscape-Scale Issues

15 New Stand Development Strategies for the Douglas-Fir Region

16 Emerging Questions

17 Integrating Themes in Northwest Forest Plan Research

18 The Evolving Science-Management Partnership

19 Conclusion

22 Acknowledgments
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

I NTRODUCTION

I

n 1993, President Clinton directed the U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service and U.S. Department of

the Interior, Bureau of Land Management to develop a

balanced and comprehensive long-term policy for managing

24 million acres of federal lands (about 20.4 million acres of

which are forested) in the range of the northern spotted owl.

A team of scientists, the Forest Ecosystem Management

Assessment Team (FEMAT), was convened to develop

options, and they prepared a report that became the basis for

the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP), approved in February

1994. The NWFP established measures to protect late-successional and old-growth forests, including a land allocation

framework consisting of late-successional forest and riparian

reserves, matrix lands managed for multiple uses, and adaptive

management areas (AMAs); standards and guidelines; and an

aquatic conservation strategy. It created the Northwest

Economic Adjustment Initiative designed to help communities adjust to economic and social changes that would result

from lower timber harvest levels. It also called for a paradigmatic change in the level of collaboration among the federal

management, regulatory, and research agencies that oversee

public lands in the Pacific Northwest. The research agendas

for a generation of scientists connected to federal natural

resource agencies were significantly altered by participating in

FEMAT, meeting information needs for carrying out the

NWFP, and assisting in plan implementation.

This publication highlights the contributions to the NWFP

effort of scientists and professionals affiliated with the USDA

Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station between

1994 and 1998.1 These scientists assumed diverse roles as the

NWFP was implemented. For example, they worked with the

AMAs to develop scientifically designed management experiments that tested predictions and assumptions in management plans. They participated in developing protocols for

effectiveness monitoring and “survey and manage” guidelines

for species of concern, and coordinated research with other

agencies. They conducted (and continue to conduct) research

to fill gaps in knowledge on existing and emerging questions

that span the range of disciplines in the social, physical, and

biological sciences. They also provided technical assistance to

managers, facilitating the transfer of new knowledge to onthe-ground application. 

Much of the science reported in this publication is built on

a foundation of ecosystem management-related research, from

the Pacific Northwest and other areas, that has been accumulating for decades. We have not attempted to summarize all of

The Record of Decision is the legal document that

implements the Northwest Forest Plan.

1 This booklet reports on science specifically conducted by PNW Research Station scientists

and their collaborators. We wish to acknowledge that many researchers from other agencies

and universities have also made significant contributions to the science underpinnings and

implementation of the NWFP. 

Land allocations within the Northwest Forest Plan area.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

this research. Rather, our focus is on specific work that

attempted to test certain NWFP assumptions, fill critical

knowledge gaps identified by the NWFP, “localize” generalized findings to particular environments, or develop implementation tools. This booklet also highlights some of the

remaining challenges to the agencies charged with implementing the NWFP, and points out opportunities for scientists to engage in its further evolution.

RESEARCH FINDINGS2

The research findings from 5 years of NWFP research

are categorized into seven thematic areas: wildlife

conservation and population viability; aquatic conservation strategy; adaptive management concepts and decision

support; socioeconomic research; ecological processes and

function; landscape-scale issues; and new stand-development

strategies for the Douglas-fir region.

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

AND POPULATION VIABILITY

Research affirmed some of the basic FEMAT assumptions

about ecosystems. Studies provided more evidence that certain plants, vertebrates, invertebrates, and fungi play key ecological roles that can influence the diversity, productivity, and

sustainability of ecosystems. In particular, information on the

importance of the small, often obscure members of the ecological community has grown rapidly. For example, studies

underscored the role of mycorrhizal fungi in the regulation of

plant community development and ecosystem composition

and structure, and also the importance of insects and pathogenic organisms in the formation of gaps and early-seral communities in forests. 

Such functional roles across taxonomic classes of organisms cannot be understood or fully addressed by focusing only

on rare or threatened terrestrial vertebrates of viability concern. The single-species approach to biodiversity conservation was found to be fraught with problems, including difficulties in identifying little-known organisms, taxonomic

uncertainties, lack of standardized sampling techniques, and

perhaps most importantly, lack of information on the role of

species of concern as functional members of an ecological

community. 

Research provided insights into facets of a successful conservation strategy. The FEMAT effort assumed that large

reserves alone could not ensure viability for many species, and

that connected habitat through the intervening matrix is also

essential to provide for dispersal; research has added support for

this assumption. Other research showed that although reconstruction of near-term presettlement landscape patterns may

reflect conditions under which species have recently persisted,

Various agencies are clients of Northwest Forest Plan research.

Scientists and managers have a closer working relationship under the

Northwest Forest Plan. 2 A more complete synthesis is found in Haynes and Perez (2001), Northwest Forest Plan

Research Synthesis, USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, GTR-498. For additional

information and citations of individual studies discussed in this booklet, please see the corresponding sections in GTR-498.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

they may not necessarily depict conditions under which

species have evolved over long periods. This suggests that

more work is needed to determine how management strategies can provide for both evolutionary capacity as well as persistence of existing communities of organisms. Studies of disturbance processes reveal that species native to PNW forest

ecosystems are adapted to a characteristic set of disturbance

regimes that have shaped the ecosystem over time, suggesting that conservation efforts could be built around a more

dynamic model of forest conditions. 

The variation in results from different parts of the

region suggests that a one-size-fits-all conservation strategy

is not likely to succeed. For example, one study found

canopy density to be correlated with breeding bird diversity and abundance, but the responses varied among sites

with different climatic regimes, and also by species.

Another study found that differences in the geomorphology of coastlines between Washington and Oregon seem to

influence the ways in which marbled murrelets interact

with late-seral stands near the coast.

New findings for particular species of concern suggest

that FEMAT assumptions about the importance of the

Some of the NWFP assumptions about wildlife 

conservation and population viability:

• The size and distribution of reserves and connectivity corridors provided by riparian zone protection would provide

sufficient transport and dispersal habitat for spotted owls and other old-growth dependent species.

• The principal conservation benefits for old-growth protection, endangered species, and noncommodity values

derive from the reserve system.

• There will be the social, technical, and scientific capacity to use disturbance regimes in the management of the

reserves; management of disturbance regimes is essential to the viability of both old growth and endangered

species.

• The land allocations in the NWFP and their intended management, along with mitigation measures like Survey

and Manage, will contribute to the sustainability of all rare, old-growth dependent species.

• A buffer is the appropriate action whenever a Survey and Manage organism is found.

• The Survey and Manage guidelines reduce the risk of extirpation of listed species.

• Population viability for Survey and Manage species must be assessed at multiple scales.

• Implementation of the Survey and Manage system would not have a significant effect on the projected Probable

Sale Quantity of the NWFP.

Highway corridors act as a

barrier to migration of some

species and pose visual 

management challenges.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

amount and pattern of late-seral forest habitat were correct.

For example, lynx and grizzly bears in northern Washington

were found to be detrimentally affected by the I-90 highway

corridor and associated forest fragmentation. Marbled murrelets were shown to be more abundant where there was

late-seral or mature forest (nesting habitat) near the coast,

but preferred it in combination with forest edge habitat,

especially that provided by irregularly shaped forest openings. In southwest Oregon, northern spotted owls were

found to be strongly influenced by both landscape pattern

and prey base, and clearcuts acted as barriers to the dispersal of young owls. Finally, truffles, an important food

source for small mammals, which are prey for owls and other

predators, were found to be strongly associated with patches

of late-seral forest.

AQUATIC CONSERVATION

STRATEGY 

Many of the assumptions in the NWFP regarding the protection of aquatic and riparian resources have been affirmed

by research. Studies have highlighted the variation in stream

systems across the landscape and the need to tailor conservation strategies to the function and potential of particular sites.

The view of streams and riparian areas as highly dynamic over

both space and time has been underscored, suggesting that

the framework for management could focus on maximizing

the beneficial effects of natural changes, rather than attempting to buffer streams from the effects of change. 

Studies of streamside areas generally supported the NWFP

assumption about the ecological distinctiveness of riparian

areas. They also validated projections of microclimate effects

within one tree height of the channel but found varying

effects with increasing distance from the stream. Valley

profile was shown to influence the area within which

microclimate is affected by streams, indicating that

effects occur within a narrower area (20 m or less from

the channel) in sideslope-constrained reaches than in

unconstrained flood plains. Research confirmed many of

the assumptions about the importance of large wood for

Research includes studies of species, biotic communities, 

and their functional roles.

Some of the NWFP assumptions about

aquatic conservation strategies:

• In riparian reserves, potential site tree height was

initially used to define buffers, but onsite analysis

will be undertaken to customize boundaries and

management strategies to accommodate local conditions and needs.

• Riparian reserves are not strict nature preserves, but

will accommodate various other uses and values,

e.g., use of fire and timber harvesting for restoring

late-successional forest conditions, and public uses

such as recreation.

• Riparian reserves act as transportation and dispersal

corridors for various old-growth dependent terrestrial species.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

both habitat and riffle-step pool formation in

streams, and further revealed that landslide-prone tributaries (many of

which are intermittent streams) are

more important as source areas

for wood, boulders, and substrate materials (relative to

forests adjacent to main channels) than originally thought.

The importance of intermittent streams was further

underscored by studies that showed they often

tend to be “hot spots” for biological diversity and critical source areas for organisms and organic matter to restore

downstream areas affected by

floods. Taken together, these

findings suggest further testing

be undertaken of strategies that

allow adjusting buffer widths

or management standards for

streams with different profiles

Stream ecosystems are naturally dynamic, and their organisms are adapted to change.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

or functional relations with the main channel. One

study that modeled such an approach within the context

of landscape patterns created through natural disturbances showed that the basic intent of the NWFP could

be met, even though the approach departs significantly

from the standard FEMAT “Option 9” scenario.

ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

CONCEPTS AND 

DECISION SUPPORT

Adaptive management was a crucial underlying element of the NWFP. Research has both underscored the

importance of rapid, systematic learning to sustainable

land management (because there is no existing, well-established template) and highlighted areas for improving its

success. 

Studies of various efforts to manage adaptively showed

that collaboration among the primary players (land managers, regulators, researchers, and citizens) is essential, and

that no one group can, without the cooperation of the others, achieve success in adaptive management. Overcoming

biases about the roles of the various players (for example,

that learning is the domain of researchers, or that nonexperts do not have anything useful to offer in technical discussions) may be essential to establishing such cooperation. Furthermore, both research and practical experience

underscored the benefits of continuing the partnership

between researchers and land managers in carrying out

projects that allow the scientifically rigorous testing of

multiple management pathways. Such partnerships are

probably the only practical and economical way that largescale management regimes can be scientifically evaluated.

In such a partnership, an important negotiating point is

Understanding the natural variation in microhabitats is crucial to the protection of riparian organisms.

The adaptive management "loop" requires institutionalization 

of the steps of planning, acting, monitoring, and evaluating, and of 

the connections between them.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

the additional cost of measurements and other features

associated with research, making it essential that low-cost

experimental designs be developed. A primary benefit of

the science-management partnership in adaptive management is a better understanding of (and thus support for)

the rigorous application of scientific principles that lead to

more credible management practices and more wellgrounded decisions. In addition, scientists become better

able to articulate management-relevant questions and to

develop options and strategies. The development of decision-support systems, where scientists and managers

together build connections between decisions and the

underlying evidence, was demonstrated to be an effective

forum for achieving these objectives. 

A “sticking point” for the testing of multiple pathways,

and for adaptive management in general, has been the perceived need to adhere strictly to standards and guidelines,

which often prevents true experimentation from occurring. This was found to be particularly true of landscapescale experiments; it seems to be easier to implement

research studies at the stand scale, both because the effects

occur across a smaller area, and because managers have

more experience with stand-scale research. Failure to solve

this problem could seriously jeopardize one of the key

tenets of the NWFP: that adaptive management would be

the primary means for evolution and improvement of the

NWFP over time.

Additional keys to success of adaptive management

include recognizing the necessity of specifically articulating learning as a goal for management projects (not as an

end in itself, but as a means of informing subsequent

actions) and creating the organizational structures and

processes (for example, purpose-and-need statements in

environmental documents) to ensure results are analyzed

and communicated. Projects with a learning orientation

are often less likely to be challenged by members of the

public than other projects. 

Adaptive management areas—Adaptive management areas

(fig. 1) were established to give land managers and scientists

latitude in undertaking studies designed to fill gaps in knowledge and to test NWFP assumptions and standards and

guidelines; they also were intended to provide a forum for

heightened collaboration (“collaborative learning”) among

scientists, citizens, and land managers. The explicit inclusion

of the public in AMA planning and implementation was an

objective of most AMAs. Local land managers and their science partners were given great latitude in determining how

individual AMAs would be studied and managed, resulting

in significant differences in the kinds of research and collaborative efforts that have been undertaken.

The many and diverse studies conducted in AMAs are

oriented toward:

• Improving understanding of, and processes for, developing

late-successional forest conditions.

• Developing innovative approaches to validation 

monitoring at the operational scale.

• Developing alternative strategies and approaches for 

managing riparian buffers.

• Improving understanding of natural disturbance regimes 

as the basis for landscape planning.

• Studying social acceptability of various forest 

management conditions and prescriptions.

Figure 1—Adaptive management areas within the 

Northwest Forest Plan area.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

Although a significant number of studies (many of which

were established before the NWFP) have been conducted in

AMAs over the past 5 years, limited progress can be cited in

the objective of validating the FEMAT assumptions with consequent changes in policy or management practices. This can

be attributed to several factors: the short tenure of the studies, failure of the participating agencies to provide adequate

funding or leadership to complete some projects, inability to

engage all the participants equally, and the constraining

effects of certain legislation (e.g., the Endangered Species

and Federal Advisory Committee Acts). An ongoing barrier

has been the risk-averse environment (both inside and outside agencies) of today’s public land management arena,

making it difficult to obtain agreement among all interested

parties on activities that may be innovative or experimental. 

Possibly the most significant lessons gained in the process

of implementing the vision for AMAs have been in the

arena of collaboration among partners with different missions and cultures. Although lessons have been learned

about how to work together across agencies, ownerships, and

multiple values, expectations of how much progress can be

made, and how quickly, toward the vision of collaborative

learning have had to be significantly scaled back. Flexibility,

much local discretion, and the ability to quickly adapt to

Adaptive management involves collaboration among land managers, 

scientists, and the public.

Some of the NWFP assumptions about

adaptive management:

• There is adequate understanding among managers,

citizens, and other stakeholders of the philosophy,

goals, and actions needed to achieve the objectives

of the NWFP, including commitment to the conception of the NWFP as a phased and adaptive

approach.

• Managers will use flexibility after implementing initial allocations and standards and guides.

• Results of experiments conducted in the AMAs will

drive changes in allocation boundaries and standards

and guides in the reserves and matrix.

• The AMAs will allow experimentation with

approaches that combine scientific, economic, and

social objectives.

• The geographic distribution of AMAs provides adequate biophysical, social, and economic representation across the region.

• Managers, citizens, and regulatory agencies will

understand and support the role of the AMAs and

engage actively in their implementation.

• Regulatory agencies will work with managers and

researchers to determine criteria to use in judging

when departures from initial allocations and

standards and guides are warranted.

• Research is necessary but not sufficient for achieving adaptive management.

• Current organizational structures are adequate for

implementing adaptive management, including

operating under conditions of risk and uncertainty,

integrating different forms of knowledge, and facilitating learning behaviors.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

new information were found to be essential to achieving the

goals of the AMA network. In the Applegate AMA, the

social coherence that has developed around the AMA projects has improved the ability of land managers to collaboratively craft management strategies that will be accepted. The

AMA experiment has the potential to have major payoffs

over time; premature closure, driven by pressures for immediate results, may result in lost opportunities in the long run.

Monitoring–Monitoring is central to adaptive management

because it provides necessary information on the outcomes

of management practices. In the NWFP area, monitoring

occurs at the regional, provincial, watershed, and project

scales, with little effort currently given to integrating information among scales. Research has focused on formulating

regional-scale monitoring protocols for those items mandated

in the NWFP. The methods for monitoring plan implementation, northern spotted owl and marbled murrelet populations,

aquatic and riparian resources, and late-successional/oldgrowth forests have been completed. Protocols for assessing

social and economic effects, tribal relations, and biological

diversity are still underway. The NWFP agencies continue

to struggle with connecting the information gained through

monitoring to decision- and policy-making processes, with

the technological challenges of building data layers across

ownerships, and with integrating and balancing resources

among the various scales of monitoring. 

SOCIOECONOMIC RESEARCH

The interaction among declines in timber harvest that

have occurred under the NWFP (fig. 2), demographic shifts in

public values and uses, the general economy, and private sector timber supplies, has produced a complicated set of social

and economic effects in which it is difficult to both discern

direct causes and to evaluate the performance of the NWFP

and its various policies (e.g., the NW Economic Adjustment

Initiative). Research showed that

socioeconomic effects resulting from

changes in land management have

primarily affected communities that

rely directly on forest resources

(both commodity and noncommodity) for their well-being. Even within

a small timber-dependent county,

however, socioeconomic conditions

under the NWFP differed greatly

among communities. The economic well-being of these communities

does not depend exclusively on the

amount of timber harvest. For

example, one study found that how

forest work is contracted can be

more important in determining

effects in local communities than

how much timber is harvested;

larger service contracts and more

complicated bidding procedures

may inadvertently exclude smaller

local firms. Harvest of large logs was not uncommon in the 1940s but rarely occurs today. 

(photo from Roseburg, Oregon)

Figure 2—Harvest levels for the Pacific Northwest region as a whole

(total), and for national forests within the region (NF).
HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

Although the economy of the region as a whole has outperformed that of the Nation during the tenure of the

NWFP, there are various effects at the county and community levels. Even taking into account the loss of a large number

of jobs in the timber products industry, the overall socioeconomic effects of the NWFP have been significantly less than

expected. This led researchers to question the use of jobs as

a proxy for economic well-being, and to ask further questions

about what factors helped to economically buffer timberdependent communities. This work is still underway, but

early results suggest that many workers strongly identified (in

terms of family history, occupational identity, and place

attachment) with their local communities, and were able to

adapt by being willing to work for lower wages, and change

their traditional practices to more “light touch” methods.

These findings are in accord with other research that has

shown that timber-dependent communities often develop

the ability to cope with the “boom and bust” nature of an

extractive industry through various strategies. A concern

remains that there may be a point at which this coping ability is overwhelmed by change resulting from the NWFP

along with other social and economic factors.

The growing importance of nontimber forest products and

an increase in watershed restoration work was (perhaps optimistically) envisioned to provide relief for some displaced

workers, but it is too early to evaluate the results.

Researchers have made a significant contribution in these

Timber-dependent communities differed in their response to 

changing economics brought about by the Northwest Forest Plan 

and other factors.

Some of the NWFP assumptions about social and 

economic factors:

• To effectively address the major biophysical, economic, and social questions in the region, an integrated strategy involving public and private parties

will be necessary.

• Existing institutional capacity in the region is adequate to deal with the complex, cross-boundary,

long-term, and multivalue issues driving the NWFP.

• The public will understand and support both the

intent of the plan as well as its implementation.

• The phase 1 allocation, and the management of the

reserves, matrix, and AMAs, would lead to a

Probable Sale Quantity of 1.2 billion board feet

(since revised to 0.81 billion board feet).

• The loss of timber from federal lands will not be

completely offset by an increase in production from

private lands, which is expected to rise somewhat in

the first decade, and then decline. Declines from all

sources will be greatest in Oregon.

• There will be near-term growth in the harvest of

nontimber forest products, such as mushrooms,

boughs, and ferns.

• The effects of the NWFP on communities, especially

with regard to jobs, will be concentrated in rural,

timber-dependent areas. The capacity of communities to respond depends on their access to transportation, markets, and raw materials, and the

extent of their economic diversification. The effects

on communities are likely to be more negative in

Washington and California than in Oregon.

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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

areas, for example by providing basic taxonomic work, survey

methods, and sustainable harvest guidelines for forest fungi,

and developing methods for watershed restoration and testing

their efficacy.

ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES

AND FUNCTIONS

Much of the ecological research under the NWFP has

focused on the functional roles of key ecosystem features.

Studies have affirmed many of the NWFP assumptions

about the functional significance of large trees, coarse

wood in streams and terrestrial sites, and mycorrhizal

fungi as essential components of old forests. There is still

significant work needed on potential “keystone” elements;

that is, those items or processes, which, if lost, cause

major disruption of the function of the system. 

Research has established that native forests within

the NWFP area have developed under varying disturbance regimes–landslides, floods, and fires. Species and

communities are thus adapted to dynamic landscape

conditions. One study found that a characterization of

the nature (frequency, intensity, type, spatial distribution, and results) of disturbances provided a useful

template for designing landscape-scale resource development strategies that conserve aquatic, riparian, and

late-successional forest values. 

Besides showing that PNW forests are more dynamic

than previously thought, research demonstrated that there

is considerable climate- and physiography-driven variation

within the NWFP area with regard to how disturbances operate on the landscape. One set of studies helped to quantify

how fire regimes range from low-intensity, relatively frequent events in the southern and eastern (drier) part of

the NWFP area, to infrequent, stand-replacing events in

the northern, wetter forests. This helps explain differences

in old-growth structure and composition across the range

of NWFP area environments, and suggests that prescriptions for managing forests to foster old-growth conditions

(such as in late-successional reserves) could be tailored to

harmonize with local disturbance regimes. Another study

found that plant associations (potential natural plant communities that reflect effective environment) were good

predictors of fire, insect, and disease disturbances, and that

the intensity and frequency of changes increased east of

the Cascade crest. Other studies have helped clarify what

the target conditions might look like across this broad

range of environments. 

A significant implication of the research on disturbances

in NWFP area forests is that while management within a

framework of natural variation should be possible, the full

range of conditions (for example, species) cannot exist on

all sites at all times; in other words, any one component

will likely wax and wane at a site through time. This has

important consequences for management of reserve areas

within a dynamic landscape, and argues for a systematic

assessment of the temporal development and spatial array

of the full range of habitat conditions.

Several studies have addressed questions about management techniques to foster or accelerate late-successional/old-growth forest composition and structure.

Research suggested that current old growth developed at

much lower densities than today’s young stands, and that

in many cases, unthinned plantations are unlikely to

develop old-growth structure. Variable-density thinning

combined with legacy (large live trees, snags, and logs)

management tailored to the potential of particular sites

seems to be an effective means of fostering old-growth

structure and ensuring habitat for the various organisms

associated with old forests. Studies also underscored the

importance of a nearby seed source of shade-tolerant species

(e.g., western hemlock) for the initiation of a secondary

canopy layer. The NWFP assumptions about the value of

leaving large green trees in plantations received support

from research showing that such legacies, along with large

logs, allow younger stands to have many of the same functions as late-successional forests with regard to certain

lichens, birds, canopy insects, and mycorrhizal fungi.

King bolete, an edible mushroom.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

Pacific Northwest forests have developed under various disturbance regimes.

Some of the NWFP assumptions about 

ecological processes and function:

• The allocation of land within the region across reserves,

matrix, and AMAs, and the associated management

actions within each allocation, will be sufficient to

ensure legal compliance, species viability, economic stability, and protection of old-growth forests.

• The reserve system will be the principal provider of conservation benefits for old-growth protection, endangered

species, and noncommodity values.

• Standards and guides are adequately defined to accommodate variation in ecosystems across the NWFP area.

• Effects of global climate change are assumed to be 

constant.

• Late-successional and riparian reserves are not to be

strict nature preserves but will accommodate various

other uses and values; e.g., use of fire and timber harvesting for restoring late-successional forest conditions and

public uses such as recreation.

• Late-successional reserves will, over time and with active

management, produce structural characteristics that

function like existing old-growth stands.

• There will be the social, technical, and scientific capacity

to use disturbance regimes in the management of the

reserves; management of disturbance regimes is essential to

the viability of both old growth and endangered species.

• Green tree retention in the matrix will provide connectivity among reserves, and adequate refugia in the managed portion of the landscape.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

Other research focused on hydrologic processes. Early

findings from research that studied road networks as

water- and sediment-routing systems provided land managers with information useful for redesigning roads to

reduce the amplification of the effects of intense storms

and floods. 

LANDSCAPE-SCALE ISSUES 

Although land management agencies have been planning

the development of public lands at larger scales for decades,

the NWFP has initiated significantly greater focus on ecologically defined landscape units (watersheds, provinces, and

regions) by both managers and researchers. The technical and

logistical difficulties associated with conducting research at

large scales caused the science underpinnings for landscapescale management to lag until the last two decades or so, and

the NWFP was strongly influenced by this new knowledge.

Under the NWFP, landscape-scale research questions have

focused on the variability of patterns and processes, the integration of ecological and socioeconomic forces, and methods

for the acquisition, analysis, and display of larger scale information. (Because much of landscape-scale research is crossdisciplinary in nature, or has multiple objectives, some of the

findings discussed in this section are repeated elsewhere in

this document.) 

Evidence of the ecological significance of both the abundance and spatial distribution of old forests continues to

build. The FEMAT assumptions that remaining old growth is

well below the natural range, and that federal lands have

most of the existing old growth and habitat for northern

Hydrologic processes shape Pacific Northwest landscapes.

Past management practices had a significant effect on the 

distribution and amount of old growth.

Some of the NWFP assumptions 

about landscape issues:

• Watersheds are an appropriate and useful unit 

of scale for analysis of spotted owls, old growth,

and fish.

• Exclusion of private, state, and tribal lands from the

FEMAT assessment and proposed solutions does not

constrain the NWFP’s effective implementation.

• The reserve system will be the principal provider

of conservation benefits for old-growth protection,

endangered species, and noncommodity values.

• The size and distribution of reserves and connectivity corridors provided by riparian zone protection

would provide sufficient transport and dispersal

habitat for spotted owls and other old-growth

dependent species.

• There will be the social, technical, and scientific

capacity to use disturbance regimes in the management of the reserves; management of disturbance

regimes is essential to the viability of both old

growth and endangered species.

• Green tree retention in the matrix will provide

connectivity among reserves and adequate refugia

in the managed portion of the landscape.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

spotted owl are well-documented. Research has further substantiated the importance of late-successional forest patches

in the landscape for certain organisms (lichens, fungi that

provide a food source for small mammals, canopy insects, and

some birds). Other studies found that for certain birds, the

amount of late-successional habitat may be more critical than

the spatial pattern (i.e., fragmented vs. unfragmented). 

Research on ecological variation across the NWFP area

found significant differences across the region, with corresponding dissimilarities in disturbance processes. In the

Snoqualmie Pass AMA, these differences were shown to be

correlated with plant associations. Such correlations highlight the value of the plant association model as a regional

ecological stratification tool. Other studies further documented the nature of the low-severity, high-frequency natural fire

regimes in the eastern and southern portions of the NWFP

area. Sorting out the variation in regime attributes (frequency, intensity, and effects) in these areas is providing managers

with important background information for the prescription

of management activities to maintain and restore late-successional forest characteristics at various scales. Research on

the effects of landscape patterns on species of concern also

tended to validate the NWFP assumptions about the importance of old-growth habitat. For example, in northern

Washington, grizzly bears and lynx were found to be negatively affected by the I-90 highway corridor and surrounding

forest fragmentation, and in southwest Oregon, clearcuts

were found to be significant barriers to the dispersal of young

spotted owls. Marbled murrelets increased in number where

late-successional nesting habitat occurred in proximity to

the coastline and where there was edge (mature forest/opening) habitat nearby.

Other research focused on providing conceptual frameworks, methods, and tools for ecosystem-based, landscape-scale

planning. The findings of some studies suggest a key challenge

to ecosystem management will be the identification of “keystone” features of landscapes (e.g., riparian corridors, prey populations, disturbance processes such as fire, or accumulations of

coarse wood) that have a disproportionate influence on other

landscape attributes, and development of management strategies that sustain them. Another study found that the concept

of “range of historical (or natural) variation” is most meaningful at the province scale; at smaller scales the range in conditions is too large (e.g., the percentage of old growth in a small

watershed over time may vary from almost 0 to 100, depending

on the fire regime), and at larger scales significant ecological

differences may get averaged out. 

The most prominent large-scale research project in the

western portion of NWFP area is the coastal landscape assessment and modeling study (CLAMS). This project has produced many tools, including:

• Remote sensing and modeling methods for developing 

forest structure maps at landscape and regional scales.

• Effectiveness monitoring protocols for late-successional

forests.

• The ecosystem management decision-support system 

for testing options. 

• Methods to predict land use change at the province scale. 

• An ecological succession simulator. 

The modeling effort, designed to test the effects of alternative forest management policies across ownerships within

the coast province, struggled with the integration of the

social, economic, and ecological components. Researchers

found it was relatively easy to model the individual components, but it was hard to link them, partly because the

Land ownership patterns within the CLAMS study area are complex.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

components often are operating at different scales. Also, they

found it difficult to quantify the social and economic values of

the ecological components, such as biological diversity. One

significant finding of the modeling effort is the existing and

projected variation in landscape patterns produced by different landowners. Fragmentation of old-growth habitat tends to

be less on federal than on private lands, and the disparity will

likely widen under current land use policies, thereby resulting

in highly contrasting landscapes. The resulting spatial array of

forest habitats of different ages could have significant effects

on the distribution of organisms that prefer either early- or

late-successional conditions, with potential concentrations of

the former on lower elevation private lands, and the latter in

publicly owned mountainous areas. This analysis also showed

an increasing “polarization” of forest age classes on public

lands into very young and very old, with little mid-seral component to provide for old growth in the future.

NEW STAND DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIES FOR THE 

DOUGLAS-FIR REGION

New approaches to silviculture are a hallmark of the

NWFP, and research continues to add to the array of options.

For example, studies revealed more flexibility in Douglas-fir

growth patterns than previously thought. In particular, models based on new growth and yield information showed a

higher level of timber volume could be produced under longer

rotations than previously believed, especially if multiple thinnings take place. Longer rotations have significant ecological

and social benefits, as well as lower costs. Furthermore,

Douglas-fir appears to be more capable of maintaining growth

rates in low light than previously believed, which makes

alternatives to clearcutting much more acceptable where

volume production is a goal. Other studies documented the

value of various silvicultural techniques (such as variabledensity thinning) in

achieving goals related

to old-forest structure,

wildlife habitat, and

visual quality. Ongoing

studies are providing

information on growth

and regeneration under

leave-tree canopies and

on managing older

stands for old-growth

characteristics.

Small logs used for fence posts and rails.

Silvicultural research is 

focusing on techniques for

fostering old-growth structure

at multiple scales.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

EMERGING QUESTIONS

There are significant research areas identified in the

FEMAT report and the NWFP that have not been fully

explored. These include taxonomy, population dynamics,

and habitat needs of little-known species (including soil

organisms); risk-assessment techniques; integration of

social, economic, and ecological disciplines; use of management experiments in AMAs; synthesis of management

inferences from broad-scale experimental studies; effectiveness of fire as an ecosystem restoration tool; effectiveness of riparian buffers; effectiveness of snag and downwood guidelines; and the effectiveness (in terms of costs

and benefits) of different approaches for restoring biotic

communities and ecosystem processes. These and other

researchable topics will continue to provide opportunities

for scientists to contribute to strengthening the science

underpinnings of NWFP implementation.

Some of the NWFP assumptions about

stand-level management:

• Late-successional and riparian reserves are not to be

strict nature preserves, but will accommodate various other uses and values, e.g., use of fire and timber

harvesting for restoring late-successional forest conditions, and public uses such as recreation.

• Late-successional reserves will, over time and with

active management (e.g., thinning, restoration,

management of disturbance regimes), produce structural characteristics that function like existing oldgrowth stands.

• Green tree retention in the matrix will provide connectivity among reserves, and adequate refugia in

the managed portion of the landscape.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

I NTEGRATING T HEMES

I N NORTHWEST

F OREST P LAN

RESEARCH

The management and planning questions emerging

from implementation of the NWFP are creating a

greater need for science that weaves together the ecological, social, and economic dimensions of land management

policy and practices. This change is leading to discussions

within the science community about scale, multiple land

ownerships, and how to achieve integration among science

disciplines. It has challenged researchers to examine how our

organizational structures and processes either facilitate or

constrain cross-disciplinary work. Processes (with regard to

both scientific methods and working relations) for integration have been slow to develop. Early steps have included

the development of conceptual models of system components that show how parts interrelate, and the expansion of

empirical and analytical efforts that explore multifunctional relations.

The CLAMS project has incorporated cross-disciplinary

science on several fronts, with an increasing emphasis as the

study has progressed on the connections among the individual disciplinary components. This work has greatly improved

understanding of ecological process and links at various scales

and has revealed the complexities and difficulties of dealing

with linked conceptual models, prototypes, the logistical

need to simplify subsystem processes, and scarcity of largescale indicators, in order to discern tradeoffs between social

and biophysical elements. The CLAMS scientists have set

the stage for further exploration of what cross-disciplinary

science can provide.

One of the areas of greatest need for integrated research is

that of biodiversity conservation. Research that integrates the

science on species, habitats, multiscale ecological function,

The link between social values and land use is an important facet of understanding ecosystems at broad scales.
■18

HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

and human values to produce strategies for conserving biological diversity that are achievable within the current cultural, legal, and policy context would be extremely valuable.

Concerns about individual species protected by the

Endangered Species Act are what catalyzed the NWFP and

initially drove NWFP scientific research. More recently, however, it has become apparent that the full complement (numbering in the hundreds) of species cannot be realistically protected by planning for one species at a time, and the research

emphasis has shifted to alternate approaches. Although

research continues for species of concern like spotted owls,

marbled murrelets, amphibians and reptiles, fungi,

arthropods, plants, and vertebrate carnivores, their protection within the context of overall biological diversity is gaining interest. Research has already offered several “nuggets”

that provide a starting point for biodiversity conservation. For

example, we know that many “hidden,” seemingly unimportant species and elements have key ecological roles (e.g,

mycorrhizal fungi and aquatic arthropods); that systems are

adapted to change, and therefore fixed, static reserves probably will not provide the complete answer for the long term;

that species cannot be fully understood apart from their context as part of a total biological community; that “unique”

habitats (wetlands, rock outcroppings, etc.) have importance

disproportionate to their area; that providing for dispersal

capability is key. In addition, there are significant gaps in our

knowledge of the social context for biodiversity conservation

and of how to gain public acceptance for conservation

approaches. These disparate ideas constitute “nuclei” around

which new science can help build conservation strategies that

resonate with public values; this is a key challenge for the

adaptation of the NWFP. 

T H E E VO LV I N G

S CIENCE -

M ANAGEMENT

PARTNERSHIP

F

rom the perspective of land managers, the NWFP considerably increased the amount of contact with the

research community and probably created expectations

for more extensive and rapid transfer of new knowledge. At

the same time, the sheer volume of new science information,

some of which may appear conflicting, or may change as our

understanding evolves, has the potential to occasionally

Biodiversity research studies not only 

the habitats and population dynamics 

of individual species but also their roles in

the overall biological community.
■19

HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

overwhelm and confuse the recipients. In spite of the difficulties, application of new information is occurring widely on

the ground in several arenas, including disturbance and fire

ecology, alternative silviculture techniques, large woody

debris management, and adaptive management processes. On

the other hand, there are areas where research was identified

as lacking or not available in usable forms (see “Emerging

Questions” section above).

Building close relations between managers and scientists is

a particularly effective tool for transferring new information

to the ground. Joint participation in project design, including

problem framing, is critical to later acceptance of and interest

in science findings. Once solid relationships and networks

are in place, the value of publications and other materials in

transferring knowledge will be improved. 

Some institutional restructuring of research has been

spurred by the effect of the NWFP because of the nature of

information needed to support land management. For example, greater attention is being paid to the speedy delivery of

management- and policy-relevant science products, and managers and scientists are interacting collaboratively much more

than before. Restructuring also is being spurred by the desire

to practice adaptive management, although progress in this

area has been affected by low funding levels and legal and policy constraints. Part of the legacy of the NWFP is a strong

need for collaborative learning––a multiway learning process

in which scientists work with managers and stakeholders to

both share and gain information about natural processes and

local values and use, and to jointly frame solutions to public

land use problems.

The different cultures and training of the research and

management branches present serious challenges. The long

timeframes required by some types of research often do not

mesh with policy- and decision-making needs. The different

ways in which information is validated in the two cultures

and the expanded use of scientists as purveyors of “expert

opinions” have created tension. The greater demand for scientists to consult with field managers on project design and

implementation has created time and workload demands that

conflict with accomplishing fundamental research. For each

group, scientists and managers, to understand each other and

work as partners, greater commitment to a joint agenda will

have to be made.

C ONCLUSION

The research conducted in support of the NWFP affirmed

many of the assumptions of the FEMAT group, especially

with regard to the function of late-successional forests and

riparian/aquatic systems. In addition, research provided new

information to confirm what most land managers already

knew––that there is significant ecological variation throughout the region––and has begun to develop new foundations

for meeting NWFP goals within the environmental opportunities and constraints of particular areas. Research on both

disturbance regimes and stand-level silvicultural practices can

now be synthesized by local resource specialists and officials

to determine the range of potential conditions and set of practices that will meet the objectives on their sites. Doing this

synthesis in partnership with scientists, especially within the

framework of testing multiple management pathways, would

have significant benefits to both researchers and managers,

and could help achieve the vision of adaptive management.

It has long been apparent that PNW forests are dynamic,

but research has only recently begun to sort out the nature of

and spatial variation in the kinds of changes that naturally

take place. The need to craft a framework (e.g., range of

historical or natural conditions) that can support and

inform planning for changing forest conditions is becoming

more and more compelling. Such a shift in thinking about

ecosystems will significantly challenge both the policy and

regulatory arenas, and sound science underpinnings will be

essential.

The NWFP research identified some significant overarching problems that need attention before key questions can be

answered. Among the most prominent of these is the problem

of scale. In both the socioeconomic and ecological disciplines,

not being able to either aggregate or disaggregate information

between scales has presented serious difficulties to researchers

and land managers. At some point, a systematic assessment of

Scientists and managers each bring their own type of expertise to 

natural resources research.
■20

HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

The protection of aquatic and riparian resources is a major focus of the Northwest Forest Plan.
■21

HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

what questions can be answered at which scales, and how to

forge links between them, would be profitable. Without such

an assessment, researchers run the risk of creating a disconnect between the questions being asked and the answers

being given.

Most would agree that the vision of adaptive management has been unevenly achieved, at best. Some elements

of success seem to be within the grasp of the agencies:

making “learning” a specific goal, adopting an inclusive

stance with regard to participation by citizens, providing

adequate funding to carry projects to completion, making

sure all partners are fully committed, and crafting institutional structures and processes to communicate and benefit from lessons learned. There are also barriers that might

not be possible to surmount: the overwhelming weight of

bureaucratic process, the rigidity of regulatory systems,

conflicting public values that cannot be reconciled, and a

litigious environment that discourages risk taking and

experimentation. There is a general sense, however, that it

is profitable to learn from experience and to explore new

avenues for improvement. Although it is too early to predict the outcome, recent efforts to reenergize adaptive

management as a concept should encourage those who are

willing to invest resources in making it successful. It is

worth noting that research found “willingness to change”

was a major determinant of success in implementing adaptive management.

Overall, the NWFP research program has produced

significant findings in many areas. The NWFP research

has involved scientists in the policy process, leading to

more policy-relevant research and increased awareness

of the need for integration. It also has allowed both scientists and managers to play a leadership role in developing conceptual frameworks to guide future research. A

new level of partnership and interagency coordination

has been generated in the research, regulatory, and management agency communities. Scientists have been challenged to maintain high standards of objectivity while

functioning in closer proximity to decisionmaking and

policy-formulation processes. How the nature of these

relationships evolves given the ever-changing priorities

of the various agencies will determine how well the

research side meets its goal of focused delivery of policyrelevant science, and how well the land management

side meets its goal of science-based decisions for the use

of public forest lands.

Emerging research will be shaped by the need to adapt land management to the values of rapidly expanding urban populations.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Much of the material in this booklet is paraphrased from

Haynes and Perez (2001), “Northwest Forest Plan

Research Synthesis,” USDA Forest Service, PNW

Research Station, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-498.

We acknowledge the contributions of the following authors:

Wildlife Conservation and Population Viability

–Bruce Marcot

Aquatic Conservation Strategy

–David Hohler, James Sedell, and Deanna Olson

Adaptive Management and Decision Support

–Bernard T. Bormann, Martha H. Brookes, Keith 

Reynolds, George H. Stankey, and Roger N. Clark

Socioeconomic Research

–Cecelia Danks and Richard W. Haynes

Ecological Processes and Functions

–Frederick J. Swanson and Randy Molina

Landscape-Scale Issues

–Thomas Spies and Frederick J. Swanson

New Stand Development Strategies for the Douglas-Fir Region

–Dean S. DeBell, Bradley St. Clair, and Robert O. Curtis

Kate Snow, Laura Bergstrom, and Garland Mason also contributed ideas used in the development of this document.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENCE CONTRIBUTIONS

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Pacific Northwest Research Station

Web site http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw

Telephone (503) 808-2592

Publication requests (503) 808-2138

FAX (503) 808-2130

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Department of Agriculture

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Pacific Northwest Research Station

General Technical Report

PNW-GTR-540

July 2002