----

##  School Practices for Equitable Discipline of African American                   Students. ERIC Digest Number 166.                                            

Providing African Americans, males especially, with an effective                public school education has proven to be a nearly intractable                   problem. Frequently attending underresourced, overcrowded schools,              they are apt to feel alienated from, rather than engaged in, the                education process. Some do indeed express their discontent through              antisocial behavior (Hrabowski, Maton, & Greif, 1998). Still,                   African American students believe they are triply                               disadvantaged: "Unjustly accused, unfairly silenced, and                        unnecessarily punished" (Sheets & Gay, 1996, p. 89). They are, in               fact, far more likely than whites to be suspended (Gordon, Della                Piana, & Keleher, 2000). 
Schools are now realizing that the                   consequences of discipline disparities based on race can prevent the            educational success of an entire category of young people. Thus,                many employ a range of strategies to ensure the equitable treatment             of African American students specifically, and the fairness and                 educative value of their discipline procedures in general. This                 digest presents a brief review of the practices whose success has               been demonstrated. 
THE ROLE OF CROSS-CULTURAL COMPETENCE IN THE               STUDENT-SCHOOL RELATIONSHIP

The Perception of Difference
U.S.               society has long been characterized by ignorance about African                  American social styles, denigration of African American traditions,             and persistent negative and fear-inducing media images of African               Americans. Thus, as products of this society, educators may project             negative attitudes about African American students and avoid, rather            than mentor, them. Teachers may try to control black males more                 tightly than whites, believing that they are not sufficiently                   disciplined at home (McCadden, 1998). School practices may fail to              account for the knowledge, cognitive abilities, culture, and values             of African American students. The reasons for the differential                  treatment of students of color and white students are many and                  complex, but the result is often the same: African American students            may feel encouraged to act out. Moreover, the bad conduct of a white            male student is likely to be excused as a one-time slip while an                African American youth who similarly misbehaves is labeled a                    perpetual troublemaker and severely punished, thought by the school             that he has nothing to lose by being so classified (Fremon &                    Hamilton, 1997). 
Sadly, many African American youth, males in                 particular, believe that should they manage to excel in school,                 despite the obstacles, racism will limit their ability to reap the              advantages available to white achievers. So, the students, males in             particular, often manage their anxiety by being resistant to                    cultural norms or even dropping out, thereby confirming for schools             the legitimacy of their low expectations for the students (Mahiri,              1998). 
The Development of Cross-Cultural Competence 
Schools can             transform their programs and culture to create a hospitable                     environment for African Americans by communicating the expectation              that all students can succeed; providing them with the opportunity              to do so; fostering their development of social skills and                      self-control strategies; setting criterion-based achievement                    objectives; and evaluating students for their strengths, not their              weaknesses. They can also try to increase the number of African                 Americans on their teaching staffs, and train existing staff,                   regardless of race, to master cross-cultural communication skills               and teaching strategies and change entrenched ways of dealing with              students of color (Brookover, Erickson, & McEvoy, 1996; Dandy, 1990;            Ferguson, 2000; Sheets & Gay, 1996). BEHAVIOR                                 MANAGEMENTObviously, school disruptions cannot be tolerated. But            racial and cultural differences in the definition of good behavior,             along with miscommunications, frequently lead to the inequitable                punishment of students of color by school personnel who do not                  respect their style of classroom participation. Further, arbitrary              and excessive consequences for minor offenses can develop in all                students a sense of powerlessness, dependence on authority, and                 anger that leads to further misbehavior (Gathercoal,                            1998). 
Schools are beginning to use a number of strategies to                 prevent many discipline problems and to deal with those that arise              while still respecting students' rights and individual differences.             In fact, some districts and schools have successfully adopted one of            the several research-based comprehensive programs for maintaining a             safe and effective school. They include the Gottfredsons' Program               Development Evaluation, the Canters' Assertive Discipline classroom             management program, Glasser's Reality Therapy program for                       teachers (all reviewed in Gottfredson, 1990), and Gathercoal's                  Judicious Discipline (Gathercoal, 1998). The practices described                below incorporate principles of these programs and additional                   strategies shown to be successful. 
Good Conduct Policies 
Schools            need a written and widely circulated code of conduct that all                   students, staff, and parents understand. A classroom code                       established by teachers is also useful. Rules should be culturally              sensitive and developmentally appropriate; they should promote                  student safety, allow adults to model responsibility and respect,               reflect democratic principles, and provide for positive                         reinforcement of good behavior as well as suitable and                          neutrally-applied sanctions for misbehavior. The message should be              clear that students are responsible for their actions (Beyer, 1998;             Brookover, Erickson, & McEvoy, 1996). 
Contextualization of                    Misbehavior 
Before disciplining students, educators should elicit             and consider the reasons for their perceived misbehavior,                       particularly as they relate to racial differences between teachers              and students. Doing so demonstrates a teacher's respect for student             concerns. It can even uncover information about a problem that the              school might help solve, such as the need for educational supports;             assistance in securing food and shelter; relief from victimization              through bullying; and counseling for trauma, depression, and family             difficulties (Gathercoal, 1998). 
For example, in class, many                  African American students speak out loudly and interrupt as a way of            showing their interest, or even argue as they press their point;                their intention is to participate, not misbehave, although some                 teachers may consider them disrespectful. Students may engage in                certain challenging behaviors common to the African American male               adolescent community, not because they want to disrupt the classroom            but because they want to demonstrate their rebellion against what               they consider a teacher's "power tripping"; lessons they consider               irrelevant, racist, or too simplistic; their perception that                    teachers believe them incapable of achievement; or their inability              to keep up with white classmates because of learning or                         developmental differences (Dandy, 1990; Sheets & Gay,                           1996). 
Discipline 
The goals of discipline, once the need for it             is determined, should be to help students accept personal                       responsibility for their actions, understand why a behavior change              is necessary, and commit themselves to change. The discipline                   measure should model good behavior, not retribution and humiliation,            and students should have some control over its nature. Students can             help determine discipline policies in general, but specific                     punishments should be customized (Gathercoal, 1998; Gottfredson,                1990). 
Punishment for misbehavior should fit both the infraction              and the student's self-esteem, academic, and personal development               needs. It should involve restitution and an apology. For example, a             graffiti-writing student should be helped to understand why he                  should clean the dirty wall, and be able to do so when it would not             interfere with a school activity nor be seen by other students;                 should a custodian clean the wall before the student can, the                   student should offer thanks. A student who is disrespectful to a                teacher should be helped to understand why an apology is necessary              and devise a personal way of expressing regret. A student who fails             to do a homework assignment should be given an opportunity to                   explain why and develop a plan with his teacher for doing the work              as soon as possible. 
A great many, but not all, incidents of                  misbehavior can be dealt with by such student-centered strategies.              Rules of conduct should be specific about incidents whose                       seriousness requires immediate action. An immediate step, designed              to maintain classroom order, might be for the teacher to summon an              on-site crisis team carefully trained to handle the misbehaving                 student, probably by removing him for a private discussion (Nimmo,              1998). An option for students who cannot be helped to assimilate                into a regular school is an alternative school with both good                   academic and counseling programs (Gottfredson, 1990). 
Parent                  Involvement Strategies 
Schools need to keep parents apprised of               their children's behavior, both good and bad, so they can work                  together when improvement is needed. The staff can provide African              American parents with ideas for promoting their children's                      development through: (1) encouraging their children's learning and              self respect; (2) setting behavior limits and disciplining                      appropriately; (3) establishing high expectations; (4) maintaining              strong communication lines; (5) promoting positive identification as            a male or female and as an African American; (6) teaching them to               resist violence and other urban temptations; and (7) taking                     advantage of community resources (Hrabowski et al.,                             1998). REFERENCESBeyer, L.E. (1998). "Uncontrolled students               eventually become unmanageable": The politics of classroom                      discipline. In R.E. Butchart & B. McEwan (Eds.), Classroom                      discipline in American schools: Problems and possibilities for                  democratic education (pp. 51-84). Albany: State University of New               York Press. (ED 423 584) 
Brookover, W.B., Erickson, F.J., &                   McEvoy, A.W. (1996). Creating effective schools: An in-service                  program for enhancing school learning climate and achievement.                  Holmes Beach, FL: Learning Publications. 
Dandy, E.B. (1990,                   March). Sensitizing teachers to cultural differences: An                        African-American perspective. Paper presented at the National                   Dropout Prevention Conference, Nashville. (ED 323 479) 
Ferguson,              A.A. (2000). Bad boys: Public schools in the making of black                    masculinity. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. (ED 443               902) 
Fremon, C., & Hamilton, S.R. (1997, April). Are schools                  failing black boys? Parenting, p. 116-32. (EJ 541 637) 
Gathercoal.            F. (1998). Judicious discipline. In R.E. Butchart & B.                          McEwan (Eds.), Classroom discipline in American schools: Problems               and possibilities for democratic education (pp. 197-216). Albany:               State University of New York Press. (ED 423 584) 
Gottfredson,                 D.C. (1990). Developing effective organizations to reduce school                disorder. In O.C. Moles (Ed.), Student discipline strategies:                   Research and practice (pp. 47-62). Albany: State University of New              York Press. 
Gordon, R., Della Piana, L., & Keleher, T. (2000,                 March). Facing the consequences: An examination of racial                       discrimination in U.S. public schools. Oakland: Applied Research                Center. 
Hrabowski, F.A., III, Maton, K.I., & Greif, G.L.(1998).               Beating the odds: Raising academically successful African American              males. New York: Oxford University Press. (ED 422 432) 
McCadden,              B.M. (1998). Why is Michael always getting timed out? Race, class               and disciplining other people's children. In R.E. Butchart & B.                 McEwan (Eds.), Classroom discipline in American schools: Problems               and possibilities for democratic education (pp. 109-134). Albany:               State University of New York Press. (ED 423 584) 
Mahiri,                      J. (1998). Shooting for excellence: African American and youth                  culture in new century schools. New York: National Council of                   Teachers of English and Teachers College Press. (ED 423                         542) 
Nimmo, V.L. (1998). But will it work? The practice of                    judicious discipline in Southern Minnesota schools. In R.E.                     Butchart & B. McEwan (Eds.), Classroom discipline in American                   schools: Problems and possibilities for democratic education (pp.               217-36). Albany: State University of New York Press. (ED 423                    584) 
Sheets, R. H., & Gay, G. (1996, May). Student perceptions of             disciplinary conflict in ethnically diverse classrooms. NASSP                   Bulletin, 80(580), 84-94. (EJ 524 399) 
----- 
This Digest was                developed by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, with funding            from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, U.S.                   Department of Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0035. The                  opinions in this digest do not necessarily reflect the position or              policies of OERI or the Department of Education.                             **Title:** School Practices for Equitable Discipline of African American                   Students. ERIC Digest Number 166.                                            **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, Institute for Urban and                  Minority Education, Box 40, Teacher's College, Columbia University,             New York, NY 10027. Tel: 800-601-4868 (Toll Free); Web site:                    http://eric-web.tc.columbia.edu.                                             **Descriptors:**  Black Students,  Cultural Differences,  Discipline, Educational                Environment, Elementary Secondary Education, Parent Participation,              Racial Bias, Student Behavior, Teacher Student Relationship                  **Identifiers:**  African Americans, ERIC Digests                                             
###
[Return to ERIC Digest Search Page]