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|NCEH Fact 
            Sheets | NCEH 
            Brochures                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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|**Chapter 8 Electrical Aspects of a 
            Housing Inspection**I. DefinitionsII.  Flow of Electric 
            CurrentIII. Electric Service 
            EntranceIV.  
            GroundingV.  Two- or Three-Wire 
            Electric ServicesVI.  Residential Wiring 
            AdequacyVII.  Wire Size and 
            TypesVIII.  Electric Service 
            PanelIX.  Overcurrent 
            DevicesX.  Electric 
            CircuitsXI.  Common Electrical 
            ViolationsXII.  Steps Involved in 
            Actual InspectionXIII.  Wattage 
            Consumption of Electrical AppliancesXIV.  Motor 
            CurrentsThere are two basic codes 
            concerned with residential wiring that are of importance to the 
            housing inspector. The first is the local electrical code. The 
            purpose of this code is to safeguard persons and buildings and their 
            contents from hazards arising from the use of electricity for light, 
            heat, and power. The electrical code contains basic minimum 
            provisions considered necessary for safety. Compliance with this 
            code and proper maintenance will result in an installation 
            essentially free from hazard but not necessarily efficient, 
            convenient, or adequate for good service or future expansion.
            The majority of 
            local electrical codes are modeled after the National Electrical 
            Code, published by the National Fire Prevention Association. Further 
            reference to the Code in the remainder of this chapter will indicate 
            the National Electrical Code, 1975 Edition. (1)Just because an 
            electrical installation was safe and adequate under the provisions 
            of the electrical code at the time of installation does not indicate 
            that the system is safe and adequate for use today. Hazards often 
            occur because of overloading of wiring systems by methods or usage 
            not in conformity with the code. This occurs because initial wiring 
            did not provide for increases in the use of electricity. For this 
            reason it is recommended that the initial installation be adequate 
            and that reasonable provisions for system changes be made as may be 
            required for future increase in the use of electricity.The other code that 
            contains electrical provisions is the local housing code. It 
            establishes minimum standards for artificial and natural lighting 
            and ventilation, specifies the minimum number of electric outlets 
            and lighting fixtures per room, and prohibits temporary wiring 
            except under certain circumstances. In addition, the housing code 
            usually requires that all components of the electrical system be 
            installed and maintained in a safe condition so as to prevent fire 
            or electric shock.This chapter 
            contains electrical terms and major features of a residential wiring 
            system that should be familiar to the housing inspector. It also 
            contains a review of the steps involved in the electrical 
            inspection, as well as commonly found conditions.I.  
            DefinitionsA  Electricity 
            - is energy that can be used to run household appliances; it can 
            produce light and heat, shocks and numerous other effects.B  Current - 
            the flow of electricity through a circuit.1  
              Alternating current is an electrical current that reverses its 
              direction of flow at regular intervals: For example, it would 
              alternate 60 times every second in a 60-cycle system. This type of 
              power is commonly found in homes.
              2  Direct 
              current is an electric current flowing in one direction. This type 
              of current is not commonly found in today's 
              homes.****C Ampere - the unit 
            used in measuring intensity of flow of electricity. Symbol for it is 
            "I."
            D  Volt - the 
            unit for measuring electrical pressure or force, which is known as 
            electromotive force. Symbol for it is "E."E  Watt - is 
            the unit of electric power. Volts X Amperes = Watts.F  Circuit - 
            the flow of electricity through two or more wires from the supply 
            source to one or more outlets and back to the source.G  Circuit 
            Breaker - a safety device used to break the flow of electricity by 
            opening the circuit automatically in the event of overloading or 
            used to open or close it manually.H  Short 
            Circuit-is a break in the flow of electricity through a circuit due 
            to the load caused by improper connection between hot and neutral 
            wires (have the electrical inspector check for its location).I  Conductor - 
            any substance capable of conveying an electric current. In the home, 
            copper wire is usually used.1  Bare 
              conductor is one with no insulation or covering.
              2  Covered 
              conductor is one covered with one Or more layers of 
              insulation.****J  Fuse - a safety 
            device that cuts off the flow of electricity when the current 
            flowing through the fuse exceeds its rated capacity.
            K  Ground - to 
            connect with the earth-as to ground an electric wire directly to the 
            earth or indirectly through a water pipe or some other conductor. 
            Usually a green-colored wire is used for grounding the whole 
            electrical system to the earth. A white wire is then usually used to 
            ground individual electrical components of the whole system.L  Conductor 
            Gauge - a numerical system used to label electric conductor sizes, 
            given in American Wire Gauge (AWG). The larger the AWG number the 
            smaller the wire size.M  Hot Wires - 
            those that carry the electric current or Power to the load; they are 
            usually black or red.N  Service - 
            the conductor and equipment for delivering energy from the 
            electricity supply system to the wiring system of the 
            premises.O  Service 
            Drop - the overhead service connectors from the last pole or other 
            aerial support to and including the splices, if any, connecting to 
            the service entrance conductors at the building or other 
            structure.P  Insulator - 
            a material that will not permit the passage of electricity.Q  Neutral 
            Wire - the third wire in a three-wire distribution circuit; it is 
            usually white or light gray and is connected to the ground.R  Service 
            Panel - main panel or cabinet through which electricity is brought 
            to building and distributed. It contains the main disconnect switch 
            and fuses or circuit breakers.S  Voltage 
            Drop - a voltage loss when wires carry current. The longer the cord 
            the greater the voltage drop.II.  Flow 
            of Electric CurrentElectricity is 
            usually generated by a generator that converts mechanical energy 
            into electrical energy. The electricity is then run through a 
            transformer where voltage is increased to several hundred thousand 
            volts and in some instances to a million or more volts. This high 
            voltage is necessary in order to increase the efficiency of power 
            transmission over long distances.This 
            high-transmission voltage is then stepped down (reduced) to normal 
            115/230-volt household current by a transformer located near the 
            point of use (residence). The electricity is then transmitted to the 
            house by a series of wires called a "service drop." In areas where 
            the electric wiring is underground, the wires leading to the 
            building are buried in the ground.In order for 
            electric current to flow, it must travel from a higher to a lower 
            potential voltage. In an electrical system the hot wires (black or 
            red) are at a higher potential than the neutral or ground wire 
            (white or green). Therefore, current will flow between the hot wires 
            and the neutral or ground wires.The voltage is a 
            measure of the force at which electricity is delivered. It is 
            similar to pressure in a water supply system.Current is measured 
            in amperes and is the quantity of flow of electricity. It is similar 
            to measuring water in gallons per second.A watt is equal to 
            volts times amperes. It is a measure of how much power is flowing. 
            Electricity is sold in quantities of watt-hours.The earth, by 
            virtue of moisture contained within the soil, serves as a very 
            effective conductor. Therefore, in power transmission, instead of 
            having both the hot and neutral wires carried by the transmission 
            poles, one lead of the generator is connected to the ground, which 
            serves as a conductor (see Figure 8-1). Only hot wires are carried 
            by the transmission towers. At the house, or point where the 
            electricity is to be used, the circuit is completed by another 
            connection to ground.The electric power 
            utility provides a ground somewhere in its local distribution 
            system; therefore, there is a ground wire in addition to the hot 
            wires within the service drop. In Figure 8-1 this ground can be seen 
            at the power pole that contains the stepdown transformer.In addition to the 
            ground connection provided by the electric utility, every building 
            is required to have an independent ground, called a "system 
            ground."The system ground 
            provides for limiting the voltage upon the circuit, which might 
            otherwise occur through exposure to lighting, or for limiting the 
            maximum potential to ground due to normal voltage. Therefore, the 
            system ground's main purpose is to protect the electric system 
            itself and offer limited protection to the user.Figure 8-1. Electrical Power 
            FlowThe system ground 
            serves the same purpose as the power company's ground, however, 
            being closer to the building it has a lower resistance.The "equipment 
            ground," which we will discuss later in this chapter, protects man 
            from potential harm during the use of certain electrical 
            equipment.The system ground 
            should be a continuous wire of low resistance and of sufficient size 
            to conduct current safely from lightning and overloads.III.  
            Electric Service EntranceA Service 
            DropThe "Entrance Head" 
            (see Figure 8-2) should be attached to the building at least 10 feet 
            above ground, to prevent accidental contact by people. The conductor 
            should clear all roofs by at least 8 feet and residential driveways 
            by 12 feet. For public streets, alleys, roads, and driveways on 
            other than residential property the clearance must be 18 
feet.The wires or 
            conductor should be of sufficient size to carry the load and not 
            smaller than No. 8 copper or equivalent.Figure 8-2. Entrance 
            HeadFor connecting wire 
            from the entrance head to the service drop wires, the National 
            Electrical Code requires that the service entrance conductors be 
            installed either (I) below the level of the service head, or (2) 
            below the termination of the service entrance cable sheath. Drip 
            loops must be formed on individual conductors. This will prevent 
            water from entering the electric service system.The wires that form 
            "entrance cable" should extend 36 inches from the entrance head, to 
            provide a sufficient length to connect service drop wires to the 
            building with insulators (see Figure 8-2).The entrance cable 
            may be a special type of armored outdoor type of wire or it may be 
            enclosed in a conduit. The electric power meter may be located 
            either within or outside the building. In either instance, the meter 
            must be located before the main power disconnect.Figure 8-3 shows an 
            armored cable service entrance. The armored cable is anchored to the 
            building with metal straps spaced every 4 feet. The cable is run 
            down the wall and through a hole drilled through the building. The 
            cable is then connected to the service panel, which should be 
            located within 1 foot of where the cable enters the building.The ground wire 
            need not be insulated. This ground wire may be either solid or 
            stranded copper, or a material with an equivalent resistance.Figure 8-3. Service 
            Entrance, Armored CableFigure 8-4 shows 
            the use of thin-wall conduit in a service entrance.Figure 8-4. Service 
            Entrance, Conduit TypeB Underground 
            ServiceWhen wires are run 
            underground they must be protected from moisture and physical 
            damage. The opening in the building foundation where the underground 
            service enters the building must be moisture proof. Local codes 
            should be referred to, concerning allowable materials for this type 
            of service entrance.C Electric 
            MeterThe electric meter 
            may be located inside or outside the building, as shown in Figure 
            8-3 or 8-4. The meter itself is weatherproof and is plugged into a 
            weatherproof socket (see Figure 8-5). The electric power company 
            furnishes the meter, the socket may or may not be furnished by the 
            power company.Figure 8-5. Electric 
            MeterIV. 
            GroundingThe system ground 
            consists of grounding the neutral incoming wire as well as the 
            neutral wire of the branch circuits. The equipment ground consists 
            of grounding the metal parts of the service entrance, such as the 
            service switch, as well as the service entrance conduit, armor, or 
            cable.The usual ground 
            connection is to a water pipe of the city water system. The 
            connection should be made to the street side of the cold water meter 
            as shown in Figure 8-6.Figure 8-6.View of a Typical 
            Service EntranceIf the water meter 
            is located near the street curb, then the ground connection should 
            be made to the cold water pipe as close as possible to where it 
            enters the building.It is not unusual 
            for a water meter to be removed from a building for service. If the 
            ground connection is made at a point in the water piping system on 
            the building side of the water meter, the ground circuit will be 
            broken upon removal of the meter. This broken ground circuit 
            represents a shock hazard if both sides of the water meter 
            connections should be touched simultaneously.In some instances 
            the connections between the water meter to pipes are electrically 
            very poor. In this case, if the ground connection is made on the 
            building side of the water meter, there may not be an effective 
            ground.In order to prevent 
            the two aforementioned situations the code requires that an 
            effective bonding shall be provided around any equipment that is 
            likely to be disconnected for repairs or replacement. This is 
            illustrated in Figure 8-7. The same jumper arrangement would be 
            required for a water meter that is installed near the curb. In many 
            installations the water meter mounting bracket is designed to serve 
            as an electric jumper.Figure 8-7. Water Meter 
            JumperOften an amateur 
            mechanic, in the process of doing a household repair, will 
            disconnect the house ground. Therefore, the housing inspector should 
            always check the house ground to see if it is properly 
            connected.Figure 8-8 shows a 
            typical grounding scheme at the service box of a residence. In this 
            figure, only the grounded neutral wires are shown. The neutral strap 
            is an uninsulated metal strip that is riveted directly to the 
            service box. The ground wires from the service entrance, branch 
            circuits, and house ground are joined by this strip.Figure 8-8. Typical 
            Grounding Scheme at EntranceWhen a city water 
            supply is not available for grounding, a substitute must be made. 
            The most common ground is a pipe or rod that is driven into the 
            ground a distance of at least 8 feet. If the pipe is made of steel 
            or iron, it must be 3% inch in diameter and galvanized. A copper 
            ground pipe of 34 inch diameter is sufficient.The code requires 
            that a ground rod be entirely independent of and kept at least 6 
            feet from any other ground of the type used for radio, telephone, or 
            lightning rods.V.  Two- or 
            Three-Wire Electric ServicesOne of the wires in 
            every installation is grounded. This neutral wire is always white. 
            The hot wires are usually black or red or some other color. but 
            never white.The potential 
            difference or voltage between the hot wires and the ground or 
            neutral of a normal residential electrical system is 115 volts. 
            Thus, where we have a two-wire installation (one hot and one 
            neutral) only 11 5-volt Power is available (see Figure 8-9). When 
            three wires are installed (two hot and one neutral) either 115- or 
            230-volt power is available. In a three-wire system the voltage 
            between the neutral and either of the hot wires is 115; between the 
            two hot wires it is 230 volts.Figure 8-9. Ground 
            ConnectionThe major advantage 
            of a three-wire system is that it permits the operation of heavy 
            electrical equipment such as laundry dryers, cooking ranges, and air 
            conditioners, the majority of which require 230-volt circuits. In 
            addition, the three-wire system is split at the service panel into 
            two 115-volt systems to supply power for small appliances and 
            electric lights. The result is a doubling of the number of circuits, 
            and possibly a corresponding increase in the number of branch 
            circuits, with a reduction of the probability of fire caused by 
            overloading electrical circuits.VI.  
            Residential Wiring AdequacyThe use of 
            electricity in the home has risen sharply since the 1930's. Many 
            home owners have failed to repair or improve their wiring to keep it 
            safe and up to date. The National Electrical Code recommends that 
            individual residences be provided with a minimum of 100-ampere 
            three-wire service. This type service is sufficient in a one-family 
            house or dwelling unit to provide safe and adequate electric supply 
            for the lighting, refrigerator, iron, and an 8,000-watt cooking 
            range, plus other appliances requiring a total of up to 10,000 watts 
            altogether.Some homes have a 
            60-ampere, three-wire service. It is recommended that these homes be 
            rewired for at least the minimum of 100 amperes recommended in the 
            National Code since they are safely capable of supplying current 
            only for lighting and portable appliances such as a cooking range 
            and regular dryer (4,500 watts), or an electric hot-water heater 
            (2,500 watts) and cannot handle additional major appliances.Other homes today 
            have only a 30-ampere, 115-volt, two-wire service. This system can 
            safely handle only a limited amount of lighting, a few minor 
            appliances, and no major appliances. Therefore, this size service is 
            substandard in terms of modern household needs for electricity. 
            Furthermore, it constitutes a fire hazard and a threat to the safety 
            of the home and the occupants.VII.  Wire 
            Size and TypesA Wire SizeElectric power 
            flows over wire. It flows with relative ease (little resistance) in 
            some materials such as copper and with a substantial amount of 
            resistance in iron. If iron wire were used it would have to be 10 
            times as large as copper wire.Copper wire sizes 
            are indicated by a number. No. 14 is most commonly used in 
            residential branch circuits. No. 14 is the smallest permitted by the 
            Code for use in a branch circuit with a 15-ampere capacity. No. 16, 
            18, and 20 are progressively smaller than No. 14 and are usually 
            used for extension wires. As the number of the wire becomes smaller 
            the size and current capacity of the wire increases. No. 1 is the 
            heaviest wire usually used in ordinary household wiring.Wire of correct 
            size must be used for two reasons: current capacity and voltage 
            drop.When current 
              flows through a wire it creates heat. The greater the amount of 
              flow, the greater the amount of heat generated. (Doubling the 
              amperes without changing the wire size increases the amount of 
              heat by four times.) The heat is electric energy that has been 
              converted into heat energy by the resistance of the wire; the heat 
              created by the coils in a toaster is an example. This heat 
              developed in an electrical conductor is wasted, and thus the 
              electric energy used to generate it is wasted. If the amount of 
              heat generated by the flow of current through the wire becomes 
              excessive, a fire may result. Therefore, the code sets the maximum 
              permissible current that may flow through a certain type and size 
              wire.
              The following are 
              examples of current capacities for copper wire of various 
              sizes:****Size 
            wire(AWG)    #14 #12 #10 #8 Max. 
            capacity, 15 20 30 40 amperes
            In addition to 
              heat generation there will be a reduction in voltage as a result 
              of attempting to force more current through a wire than it is 
              capable of carrying. Certain appliances, such as induction-type 
              electric motors, may be damaged if operated at too low a 
              voltage.****B Wire Types 
            Wire markings - 
              All wires must be marked to indicate the maximum working voltage, 
              the proper type letter or letters for the type wire specified in 
              the code, the manufacturer's name or trademark. and the AWG size 
              or circular-mil area.Insulations 
              used-There are a variety of wire types which can be used for a 
              wide range of temperature and moisture conditions. The 1975 
              National Electrical Code should be consulted to determine the 
              proper wire for specific conditions.C Types of 
            Cable
            Nonmetallic 
              Sheathed Cable - This type of cable consists of wires wrapped in a 
              paper layer, followed by another spiral layer of paper, and 
              enclosed in a fabric braid, which is treated with 
              moisture-resistant and fire-resistant compounds. Figure 8-10 shows 
              this type of cable, which often is marketed under the "Romex" 
              name. This type of cable can be used only indoors and in 
              permanently dry locations.Armored Cable - 
              This type of cable is commonly known by the BX or Flexsteel trade 
              names. Wires are wrapped in a tough paper and covered with a 
              strong spiral flexible steel armor. This type of cable is shown in 
              Figure 8-11 and may be used only in permanently dry indoor 
              locations. Armored cable must be supported by a strap or staple 
              every 6 feet and within 24 inches of every switch or junction box, 
              except for concealed runs in old work where it is impossible to 
              mount straps.Other Cable 
              -Cables are also available with other outer coatings of metals 
              such as copper, bronze, and aluminum for use in a variety of 
              conditions.****D Flexible Cords
            Flexible cords are 
            used to connect lamps, appliances, and other devices to outlets. 
            Each wire consists of many strands of fine wire for flexibility. 
            Extension cords in AWG sizes 16 to 18 are usually fine for lamps and 
            smaller appliances, if the cord is not too long. A commonly accepted 
            standard limits their length to 8 feet of unspliced cord. This keeps 
            the cords short enough to prevent the excessive voltage drops, 
            minimizes the possibility of fire caused by overheating of the wire 
            due to overload, and also minimizes the danger of someone's tripping 
            over them.E Open 
WiringOpen wiring is a 
            wiring method using knobs, nonmetallic tubes, cleats, and flexible 
            tubing for the protection and support of insulated conductors in or 
            on buildings and not concealed by the structure. The term "open 
            wiring" does not mean exposed, bare wiring. In dry locations when 
            not exposed to severe physical damage, conductors may be separately 
            encased in flexible tubing. Tubing should be in continuous lengths 
            not exceeding 15 feet and secured to the surface by straps not more 
            than 4? feet apart. They should be separated from other conductors 
            by at least 2? inches and should have a permanently maintained 
            airspace between them and any and all pipes they cross.Figure 8-10. Nonmetallic 
            Sheath CableFigure 8-11. Armored 
            CableF Concealed Knob 
            and Tube WiringConcealed knob and 
            tube wiring is a wiring method using knobs, tubes, and flexible 
            nonmetallic tubing for the protection and support of insulated wires 
            concealed in hollow spaces of walls and ceilings of buildings. This 
            wiring method is similar to open wiring, and like open wiring, is 
            usually found only in older buildings.VIII. Electric 
            Service PanelService 
            SwitchThis is a main 
            switch that will disconnect the entire electrical system at one 
            time. The main fuses or circuit breakers are usually located within 
            the "Service Switch" box. The branch circuit fuse or circuit breaker 
            may also be located within this box.According to the 
            code, the switch must be "externally operable." This condition is 
            fulfilled if the switch can be operated without the operator's being 
            exposed to electrically active parts. Older switches use external 
            handles as shown in Figure 8-12.Figure 8-12. Two Wire Single 
            Phase Grounded Service Panel (Fuse Type)Most of today's 
            service switches do not have hinged switch blades. Instead, the main 
            fuse is mounted on a small insulated block that can be pulled out of 
            the switch. When this block is removed, the circuit is broken just 
            as if the blades had been operated with a handle.The neutral 
            terminal or wire of a grounded circuit must never be interrupted by 
            a fuse or circuit breaker. In some installations the service switch 
            is a "solid neutral" switch. This means that the neutral wire in the 
            switch is not broken by the switch or a fuse.When circuit 
            breakers instead of fuses are used in homes, the use of main circuit 
            breakers may or may not be required. If it takes not more than six 
            movements of the hand to open all the branch circuit breakers, no 
            main breaker or switch or fuse will be required ahead of the 
            branch-circuit breakers. Thus, a house with seven or more branch 
            circuits requires a separate disconnect means or a main circuit 
            breaker ahead of the branch circuit breakers (see Figure 
            8-13).Figure 8-13. Three Wire 
            Grounded Single Phase Circuit Breaker Service PanelIX. Overcurrent 
            DevicesThe amperage 
            (current flow) in any wire is limited to the maximum permitted by 
            using an overcurrent device of a specific size as specified by the 
            code. Two types of overcurrent devices are in common use: circuit 
            breakers and fuses; both are rated in amperes. The overcurrent 
            device must be rated at equal or lower capacity than the wire of the 
            circuit it Protects.A Circuit Breakers 
            (Fuseless) Service PanelsA circuit breaker 
            (see Figure 8-14) looks something like an ordinary electric light 
            switch. There is a handle that may be used to turn power on or off. 
            Inside is a simple mechanism that, in case of a circuit overload, 
            trips the switch and breaks the circuit. The circuit breaker may be 
            reset by simply flipping the switch. A circuit breaker is capable of 
            taking harmless short-period overloads (such as the heavy initial 
            current required in the starting of a shut off valve washing machine 
            or air conditioner) without tripping but protects against prolonged 
            overloads. After the cause of trouble has been located and 
            corrected, the power is easily restored by flipping the circuit 
            breaker switch (circuit breakers are modem substitutes for fuses). 
            Fuseless service panels are usually broken up into the following 
            circuits.Figure 8-14. Circuit 
            Breaker1 A 100-ampere or 
            larger main circuit breaker that shuts off all power.2 A 40-ampere 
            circuit for an appliance such as an electric cooking range.3 A 30-ampere 
            circuit for clothes dryer, hot water heater, or central air 
            conditioning.4 A 20-ampere 
            circuit for kitchen, small appliances, and power tools.5 A 15-ampere 
            circuit for general purpose lighting, TV, and vacuum cleaner.6 Space for 
            circuits to be added if needed for future IICP.B Fused Ampere 
            Service Panel or Fuse Box
            Fuse-type panel 
            boxes are generally found in older homes. They are equally as safe 
            and adequate as a circuit breaker of equivalent capacity, provided 
            fuses of the proper size are used.A fuse (see Figure 
            8-15), like a circuit breaker, is designed to protect a circuit 
            against the dangers of overloading and short circuits and does this 
            in two manners:a  When a 
              fuse is blown by a short circuit the metal strip is instantly 
              heated to an extremely high temperature, and this heat causes it 
              to vaporize. A fuse blown by a short circuit may be easily 
              recognized because the window of the fuse usually becomes 
              discolored.
              b  In a fuse 
              blown by overload the metal strip is melted at its weakest point, 
              and this breaks the flow of current to the load. In this case the 
              window of the fuse remains clear; therefore, a blown fuse caused 
              by an overload may also be easily recognized.Sometimes, although 
            a fuse has not been blown, the bottom of the fuse may be severely 
            discolored and pitted. This indicates a loose connection due to the 
            fuse's not being screwed in properly.Generally, all 
            fused panel boxes are wired similarly for two- and three-wire 
            systems. In a two-wirecircuit panel box the black or red hot wire is 
            connected to a terminal of the main disconnect, and the white or 
            light gray neutral wire is connected to the neutral strip, which is 
            then grounded to the pipe on the street side of the water 
            meter.In a three-wire 
            system the black and red hot wires are connected to separate 
            terminals of the main disconnect, and the neutral wire is grounded 
            the same as for a two-wire system (see Figure 8-12). Below each fuse 
            is a terminal to which a black or red wire is connected. The white 
            or light gray neutral wires are then connected to the neutral strip. 
            Each fuse indicates a separate circuit.Non-tamperable 
              Fuses - All ordinary plug fuses, shown in Figure 8-15, have the 
              same diameter and physical appearance regardless of their current 
              capacity. Thus, if a circuit designed for a 15-ampere fuse is 
              overloaded so that the 15-ampere fuse blows out, nothing will 
              prevent a person from replacing the 15-ampere fuse with a 20- or 
              30-ampere fuse, which may not blow out. If a circuit wired with 
              No. 14 wire (current capacity 15 amperes) is fused with a 20- or 
              30-ampere fuse and an overload develops, more current than the No. 
              14 wire is safely capable of carrying could pass through the 
              circuit. The result would be a heating of the wire and a potential 
              fire.
              Type S fuses, 
              shown in Figure 8-15, have different lengths and diameter threads 
              for each different amperage capacity. An adapter is first inserted 
              into the ordinary fuse holder, which adapts the fuse holder for 
              only one capacity fuse. Once the adapter is inserted, it cannot be 
              removed.Cartridge 
              Fuses
              Figure 8-15 shows 
              two different types of cartridge fuses. A cartridge fuse protects 
              an electric circuit in the same manner as an ordinary plug fuse 
              already described protects it. Cartridge fuses are often used as 
              main fuses.****Figure 8-15. Types of 
            FusesX.  
            Electric CircuitsAn electric circuit in good 
            repair carries electricity through two or three wires from the 
            source of supply to an outlet and hack to the source.
            A  Branch 
            CircuitA branch circuit is 
            an electric circuit that supplies electric current to a limited 
            number of electric outlets and fixtures. A residence generally has 
            many branch circuits. Each is protected against short circuits and 
            overloads by a 15- or 20 ampere fuse or circuit breaker.The number of 
            outlets per branch circuit varies from building to building. The 
            code requires enough light circuits so that 3 watts of power will be 
            available for each square foot of floor area in a house. A circuit 
            wired with No. 14 wire and protected by a 15-ampere overcurrent 
            protection device provides 15 X 115 or 1,725 watts; each circuit is 
            obviously enough for 1,725/3 or 575 square feet.Note that 575 is a 
            minimum figure; if future use is considered, 500 or even 400 square 
            feet per branch circuit should be usedB Special Appliance 
            CircuitsThe branch circuit 
            will provide electric power for lighting, radio, television, and 
            small portable appliances. However, the larger electric appliances 
            usually found in the kitchen consume more power and must have their 
            own special circuit.Section 220-3b of 
            the code requires two special circuits to serve only appliance 
            outlets in kitchen, laundry, pantry, family-room, dining room, and 
            breakfast room. Both circuits must be extended to the kitchen; the 
            other rooms may be served by either one or both of these circuits. 
            No lighting outlets may be connected to these circuits, and they 
            must be wired with No. 12 wire and protected by a 20-ampere 
            overcurrent device. Each circuit will have a capacity of 20 X 115 or 
            2,300 watts, which is not too much when one considers that toasters 
            often require over 1,600 watts.C  Individual 
            Appliance CircuitsIt is customary to 
            provide a circuit for each of the following appliances:
            RangeWater 
              heaterAutomatic 
              laundryClothes 
              dryerGarbage 
              disposerDishwasherFurnaceWater 
              pump****Note that these circuits may 
            be either 115 volts or 230 volts, depending on the particular 
            appliance or motor installed.
            D  Outlet 
            Switch and Junction Boxes The code requires that every switch, 
            outlet, and joint in wire or cable be housed in a box. Every fixture 
            must be mounted on a box. Most boxes are made of metal with a 
            galvanized finish. Figure 8-16 shows a typical outlet box.When a cable of any 
            style is used for wiring, the code requires that it be securely 
            anchored with a connector to each box it enters.Figure 8-16. Outlet 
            BoxE  Grounding 
            OutletsAn electrical 
            appliance may appear to be in good repair, and yet it might be a 
            danger to the user. Consider a portable electric drill. It consists 
            of an electric motor inside a metal casing. When the switch is 
            depressed, the current flows to the motor, and the drill rotates. As 
            a result of wear, however, the insulation on the wire inside the 
            drill may deteriorate and allow the hot side of the power cord to 
            come in contact with the metal casing. This will not affect the 
            operation of the drill.A person fully 
            clothed using the drill in the living room, which has a dry floor, 
            will not receive a shock, even though he is in contact with the 
            electrified drill case. His body is not grounded, because of the dry 
            floor. If, however, the operator should be standing on a wet 
            basement floor, his body might be grounded, and when he touches the 
            electrified drill case, current will pass through his body.In order to protect 
            man, the drill case is usually connected to the system ground by 
            means of a wire called an "appliance ground." In this instance, as 
            the drill is plugged in, current will flow between the shorted hot 
            wire and the drill case and cause the overcurrent device to break 
            the circuit. Thus the appliance ground has protected man.The appliance 
            ground is the third wire found on many appliances.The appliance 
            ground on the appliance will be of no use unless the outlet into 
            which the appliance is plugged is grounded. The outlet is grounded 
            by being in physical contact with a ground outlet box. The outlet 
            box is grounded by having a third ground wire, or a grounded 
            conduit, as part of the circuit wiring.All new buildings 
            are required to have grounded outlets (as shown in Figure 8-17). The 
            outlet may be tested by using a circuit tester. The circuit tester 
            should light when both of its leads are plugged into the two 
            elongated parallel openings of the outlet. In addition, the tester 
            should light when one lead is plugged into the round third opening 
            and the other is plugged into the hot side of the outlet.If the conventional 
            two-opening outlet is used, it still may be grounded. In this 
            instance the screw that holds the outlet cover plate is the 
            third-wire ground. The tester should light when one lead is in 
            contact with a clean paint-free metal outlet cover plate screw and 
            the hot side of the outlet. If the tester fails to light then the 
            outlet is not grounded. If the outlet is not grounded then the 
            tester will not function.If a two-opening 
            outlet is grounded, it may be adapted for use by a three-wire 
            appliance by using an adapter. The loose-wire portion of the adapter 
            should be secured behind the metal screw of the outlet plate 
            cover.Many appliances 
            such as electric shavers and some new hand tools are double 
            insulated and are safe without having a third ground wire.Figure 8-17. Grounded Type 
            Receptacle**XI.  Common 
            Electrical Violations**A  The most 
            apparent requirements that a housing inspector must check are the 
            existence of the power supply; the types, locations, and conditions 
            of the wiring in use; and the existence of the number of wall 
            outlets or ceiling fixtures required by his local code and their 
            condition. In making his investigations, these considerations will 
            serve as useful guides:Power 
              Supply - Where is it located, is it grounded properly, and is 
              it at least of minimum capacity required to supply current safely 
              for lighting and the major and minor appliances in the 
              dwelling?Panel Box 
              Covers or Doors - These should be accessible only from the 
              front and should be sealed in such a way that they can be operated 
              safely without the danger of contact with live or exposed parts of 
              the wiring system.Switch, 
              Outlets, and Junction Boxes-These also must be covered to 
              protect against danger of electric shock.Frayed or 
              Bare Wires- These are usually the result of long use and a 
              drying out and cracking of the insulation, which leave the wires 
              exposed, or else a result of constant friction and rough handling 
              of the wire, which cause it to fray or become bare. Wiring in this 
              condition constitutes a safety hazard, and correction of such 
              defects should be ordered immediately.Electric 
              Cords Under Rugs or Other Floor Coverings - Putting electric 
              cords in locations such as these is prohibited because of the 
              potential fire hazard caused by continuing contact over a period 
              of time between these heat-bearing cords and the flammable floor 
              coverings. Direct the occupant to shift the cords to a safe 
              location, explain why, and make sure it is done before you 
              leave.Bathroom 
              Lighting- It should include at least one permanently 
              installed ceiling or wall light fixture with a wall switch and 
              plate so located and maintained that there is no danger of short 
              circuiting from use of other bathroom facilities or splashing of 
              water. Fixture or cover plates should be insulated or 
              grounded.Lighting of 
              Public Hallways, Stairways, Landings, and Foyers - A common 
              standard here is sufficient lighting to provide illumination of 10 
              foot-candles on every part of these areas at all times. Sufficient 
              lighting means that a person can clearly see his feet on all parts 
              of the stairways and halls. Every public hall and stairway in a 
              structure containing less than three dwelling units may be 
              supplied with conveniently located light switches controlling an 
              adequate lighting system that may be turned on when needed. 
              instead of full-time lighting.Habitable 
              Room Lighting- The standard here may be two floor convenience 
              outlets - although floor outlets are dangerous unless protected by 
              proper dust and water covers-or one convenience outlet and one 
              wall or ceiling electric light fixture. This number constitutes an 
              absolute and often inadequate minimum given the contemporary 
              widespread use of electricity in the home. The minimum should be 
              that number required to provide adequate lighting and power to 
              accommodate lighting and appliances normally used in each 
              room.Octopus 
              Outlets or Wiring - This term is applied to outlets into which 
              plugs have been inserted and are being used to permit more than 
              two lights or portable appliances, such as a TV, lamp, or radio, 
              to be connected to the electrical system. The condition occurs 
              where the number of outlets is insufficient to accommodate the 
              normal use of the room. This practice overloads the circuit and is 
              a potential source of fire, which may be caused by overloading the 
              circuit.Outlet 
              Covers- Every outlet and receptacle must be covered by a 
              protective plate to prevent contact of its wiring or terminals 
              with the body, combustible object or splashing 
            water.**The 
            following items are conditions that cause needless dangers and must 
            also be corrected:**
            **Excessive 
            or faulty fusing**-The wire's capacity must not be exceeded 
            by the fuse or circuit breaker capacity or be left unprotected by 
            faulty fusing or circuit breakers. Fuses and circuit breakers are 
            safety devices designed to "blow" as a means of protection against 
            over loadings of the electrical system or one or more of its 
            circuits. Pennies under fuses are put there to bypass the fuse. 
            These are illegal and must be removed. Overfusing is done for the 
            same reason. The latter can be prevented by the installation of 
            modern fusestats, which prevent use of any fuse of a higher amperage 
            than can be handled by the circuit it serves.**Cords run 
            through walls or doorways and hanging cords or wires-**This 
            is a makeshift-type installation and most often is installed by an 
            unqualified handyman or do-it-yourself occupant. The inspector 
            should check with his local electrical section to determine the 
            policy regarding this type of insulation and govern his action in 
            accordance with the electrical section's policies.**Temporary 
            wiring** - This type of installation should not be allowed, 
            with the exception of extension cords that go directly from portable 
            lights and electric fixtures to convenience outlets.**Excessively 
            long extension cords** - This requirement does not apply to 
            specially designed extension cords for operating portable tools and 
            trouble lights. Cities operating under modern code standards limit 
            the length of loose cords or extension lines to a maximum of 8 feet. 
            This is necessary because those that are too long will overheat if 
            overloaded or if a short circuit develops and thus create a fire 
            hazard. Even shorter lengths are feasible in housing with new or 
            updated wring systems that include one convenience outlet every 12 
            feet around the perimeter of the room.**Dead or 
            dummy outlet**s - These are sometimes installed to deceive 
            the inspection agency. This is why all outlets must be tested or the 
            occupants questioned to see if these are alive and functioning 
            properly. A dead outlet cannot be counted to determine compliance 
            with the code.**XII. Steps Involved in Actual 
            Inspection**
            A Testing 
              ToolsThe basic tools 
            required by an inspector of housing for making an electrical 
            inspection are a fuse and circuit tester and a 
flashlight.
            B Danger of 
              TechniquesThe first thing is 
            to remember you are in a strange house and the layout is unfamiliar 
            to you. The second thing to remember is that you are dealing with 
            electricity-take no chances. Go to the water meter and check the 
            ground. It should connect to the water line on the street side of 
            the water meter or else be equipped with a jumper wire. Do not touch 
            any box or wire until you are sure of the ground. Go to the main 
            fuse box and check all fuses in all boxes. Note the condition of the 
            wiring and of the box itself and check whether it is overfused or 
            not. Examine all wiring in the cellar. Make sure you are standing in 
            a dry spot before touching any electrical device. Do not disassemble 
            the fuse box or other devices. Decisions must be made on what you 
            see. If in doubt, consult your supervisor.
            Make note whether 
            any fuse boxes or junction boxes are uncovered. Examine all wiring 
            for frayed or bare spots, improper splicing, or rotted, worn, or 
            inadequate insulation.Avoid all careless touching.**When in doubt - DON'T!**If you see bare wire, 
            have the owner call an electrician. Look for wires or cords in 
            use in the cellar. Many work benches are lighted by an old lamp that 
            was once in the parlor and now has a spliced or badly frayed cord or 
            both. Be certain all switch boxes and outlets are in a tight, sound 
            condition.Make sure that the 
            emergency switch for the oil burner is at the top of the cellar 
            stairs, not on top of the unit.If you find an 
            electric clothes washer-clothes dryer combination in a dwelling, it 
            should have a 240-volt circuit 30-ampere service connected to a 
            separate fuse or circuit breaker. Washer-dryer combinations and 
            other portable appliances in the entire house should be served by 
            sufficiently heavy service. If either of these special lines is not 
            available under the above-stated conditions, consult your 
            supervisor.An electric range 
            needs a 50-ampere circuit, 240 volts. A dishwasher needs a 
            20-ampere, 120-volt circuit. A separate three wire circuit must be 
            installed for an electric water heater. Continue your inspection 
            this way through the house. In the bathroom look for the usual 
            items, but also check for dangerous items such as radios or plug in 
            portable electric heaters. Have them removed immediately. Such items 
            have killed thousands of people either because they touched them 
            after getting out of the bathtub or shower while still wet or 
            because the appliance fell into the water. Look for brass pull 
            chains in bathroom lighting fixtures. If one exists, have owner 
            attach a string to the end of it as a temporary precaution, then 
            order it replaced with a wall switch as required by the electrical 
            code.To sum up, in broad 
            terms, the housing inspector's investigation of specified electrical 
            elements in a house is made to detect any obvious evidence of an 
            insufficient power supply, to ensure the availability of adequate 
            and safe lighting and electrical facilities, and to discover and 
            correct any obvious hazard. Because electricity is a technical, 
            complicated field, the housing inspector, when in doubt, should 
            consult his supervisor. He cannot, however, close the case until 
            appropriate corrective action has been taken on all such 
            referralsXIII. 
            Wattage Consumption of Electrical AppliancesXIV. 
            Motor CurrentsTable 
            of Contents | Acknowledgements 
            | Foreword 
            | Chapter1 
            | Chapter 
            2Chapter 
            3 | Chapter 
            4 | Chapter 
            5 | Chapter 
            6 | Chapter 
            7Chapter 
            8 | Chapter 
            9 | Chapter 
            10 | Chapter 
            11 |                                                           | **Chapter 8 Electrical Aspects of a 
            Housing Inspection** |                                                                                     |                                    |            | I. Definitions |          |                          | II.  Flow of Electric 
            Current |                                               |                                   | III. Electric Service 
            Entrance |                |                                                           | IV.  
            Grounding |                                                           |  | V.  Two- or Three-Wire 
            Electric Services |  |                                                                                     | VI.  Residential Wiring 
            Adequacy |                                                    |  | VII.  Wire Size and 
            Types |  |  | VIII.  Electric Service 
            Panel                                                                                                               |                                                                                              |                                                               | IX.  Overcurrent 
            Devices | 
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
|**Chapter 8 Electrical Aspects of a 
            Housing Inspection**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |                                                           | XIII.  Wattage 
            Consumption of Electrical Appliances     
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |                                                           | XIV.  Motor 
            Currents                                    
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
|There are two basic codes 
            concerned with residential wiring that are of importance to the 
            housing inspector. The first is the local electrical code. The 
            purpose of this code is to safeguard persons and buildings and their 
            contents from hazards arising from the use of electricity for light, 
            heat, and power. The electrical code contains basic minimum 
            provisions considered necessary for safety. Compliance with this 
            code and proper maintenance will result in an installation 
            essentially free from hazard but not necessarily efficient, 
            convenient, or adequate for good service or future expansion.
            The majority of 
            local electrical codes are modeled after the National Electrical 
            Code, published by the National Fire Prevention Association. Further 
            reference to the Code in the remainder of this chapter will indicate 
            the National Electrical Code, 1975 Edition. (1)Just because an 
            electrical installation was safe and adequate under the provisions 
            of the electrical code at the time of installation does not indicate 
            that the system is safe and adequate for use today. Hazards often 
            occur because of overloading of wiring systems by methods or usage 
            not in conformity with the code. This occurs because initial wiring 
            did not provide for increases in the use of electricity. For this 
            reason it is recommended that the initial installation be adequate 
            and that reasonable provisions for system changes be made as may be 
            required for future increase in the use of electricity.The other code that 
            contains electrical provisions is the local housing code. It 
            establishes minimum standards for artificial and natural lighting 
            and ventilation, specifies the minimum number of electric outlets 
            and lighting fixtures per room, and prohibits temporary wiring 
            except under certain circumstances. In addition, the housing code 
            usually requires that all components of the electrical system be 
            installed and maintained in a safe condition so as to prevent fire 
            or electric shock.This chapter 
            contains electrical terms and major features of a residential wiring 
            system that should be familiar to the housing inspector. It also 
            contains a review of the steps involved in the electrical 
            inspection, as well as commonly found conditions.I.  
            DefinitionsA  Electricity 
            - is energy that can be used to run household appliances; it can 
            produce light and heat, shocks and numerous other effects.B  Current - 
            the flow of electricity through a circuit.1  
              Alternating current is an electrical current that reverses its 
              direction of flow at regular intervals: For example, it would 
              alternate 60 times every second in a 60-cycle system. This type of 
              power is commonly found in homes.
              2  Direct 
              current is an electric current flowing in one direction. This type 
              of current is not commonly found in today's 
              homes.****C Ampere - the unit 
            used in measuring intensity of flow of electricity. Symbol for it is 
            "I."
            D  Volt - the 
            unit for measuring electrical pressure or force, which is known as 
            electromotive force. Symbol for it is "E."E  Watt - is 
            the unit of electric power. Volts X Amperes = Watts.F  Circuit - 
            the flow of electricity through two or more wires from the supply 
            source to one or more outlets and back to the source.G  Circuit 
            Breaker - a safety device used to break the flow of electricity by 
            opening the circuit automatically in the event of overloading or 
            used to open or close it manually.H  Short 
            Circuit-is a break in the flow of electricity through a circuit due 
            to the load caused by improper connection between hot and neutral 
            wires (have the electrical inspector check for its location).I  Conductor - 
            any substance capable of conveying an electric current. In the home, 
            copper wire is usually used.1  Bare 
              conductor is one with no insulation or covering.
              2  Covered 
              conductor is one covered with one Or more layers of 
              insulation.****J  Fuse - a safety 
            device that cuts off the flow of electricity when the current 
            flowing through the fuse exceeds its rated capacity.
            K  Ground - to 
            connect with the earth-as to ground an electric wire directly to the 
            earth or indirectly through a water pipe or some other conductor. 
            Usually a green-colored wire is used for grounding the whole 
            electrical system to the earth. A white wire is then usually used to 
            ground individual electrical components of the whole system.L  Conductor 
            Gauge - a numerical system used to label electric conductor sizes, 
            given in American Wire Gauge (AWG). The larger the AWG number the 
            smaller the wire size.M  Hot Wires - 
            those that carry the electric current or Power to the load; they are 
            usually black or red.N  Service - 
            the conductor and equipment for delivering energy from the 
            electricity supply system to the wiring system of the 
            premises.O  Service 
            Drop - the overhead service connectors from the last pole or other 
            aerial support to and including the splices, if any, connecting to 
            the service entrance conductors at the building or other 
            structure.P  Insulator - 
            a material that will not permit the passage of electricity.Q  Neutral 
            Wire - the third wire in a three-wire distribution circuit; it is 
            usually white or light gray and is connected to the ground.R  Service 
            Panel - main panel or cabinet through which electricity is brought 
            to building and distributed. It contains the main disconnect switch 
            and fuses or circuit breakers.S  Voltage 
            Drop - a voltage loss when wires carry current. The longer the cord 
            the greater the voltage drop.II.  Flow 
            of Electric CurrentElectricity is 
            usually generated by a generator that converts mechanical energy 
            into electrical energy. The electricity is then run through a 
            transformer where voltage is increased to several hundred thousand 
            volts and in some instances to a million or more volts. This high 
            voltage is necessary in order to increase the efficiency of power 
            transmission over long distances.This 
            high-transmission voltage is then stepped down (reduced) to normal 
            115/230-volt household current by a transformer located near the 
            point of use (residence). The electricity is then transmitted to the 
            house by a series of wires called a "service drop." In areas where 
            the electric wiring is underground, the wires leading to the 
            building are buried in the ground.In order for 
            electric current to flow, it must travel from a higher to a lower 
            potential voltage. In an electrical system the hot wires (black or 
            red) are at a higher potential than the neutral or ground wire 
            (white or green). Therefore, current will flow between the hot wires 
            and the neutral or ground wires.The voltage is a 
            measure of the force at which electricity is delivered. It is 
            similar to pressure in a water supply system.Current is measured 
            in amperes and is the quantity of flow of electricity. It is similar 
            to measuring water in gallons per second.A watt is equal to 
            volts times amperes. It is a measure of how much power is flowing. 
            Electricity is sold in quantities of watt-hours.The earth, by 
            virtue of moisture contained within the soil, serves as a very 
            effective conductor. Therefore, in power transmission, instead of 
            having both the hot and neutral wires carried by the transmission 
            poles, one lead of the generator is connected to the ground, which 
            serves as a conductor (see Figure 8-1). Only hot wires are carried 
            by the transmission towers. At the house, or point where the 
            electricity is to be used, the circuit is completed by another 
            connection to ground.The electric power 
            utility provides a ground somewhere in its local distribution 
            system; therefore, there is a ground wire in addition to the hot 
            wires within the service drop. In Figure 8-1 this ground can be seen 
            at the power pole that contains the stepdown transformer.In addition to the 
            ground connection provided by the electric utility, every building 
            is required to have an independent ground, called a "system 
            ground."The system ground 
            provides for limiting the voltage upon the circuit, which might 
            otherwise occur through exposure to lighting, or for limiting the 
            maximum potential to ground due to normal voltage. Therefore, the 
            system ground's main purpose is to protect the electric system 
            itself and offer limited protection to the user.Figure 8-1. Electrical Power 
            FlowThe system ground 
            serves the same purpose as the power company's ground, however, 
            being closer to the building it has a lower resistance.The "equipment 
            ground," which we will discuss later in this chapter, protects man 
            from potential harm during the use of certain electrical 
            equipment.The system ground 
            should be a continuous wire of low resistance and of sufficient size 
            to conduct current safely from lightning and overloads.III.  
            Electric Service EntranceA Service 
            DropThe "Entrance Head" 
            (see Figure 8-2) should be attached to the building at least 10 feet 
            above ground, to prevent accidental contact by people. The conductor 
            should clear all roofs by at least 8 feet and residential driveways 
            by 12 feet. For public streets, alleys, roads, and driveways on 
            other than residential property the clearance must be 18 
feet.The wires or 
            conductor should be of sufficient size to carry the load and not 
            smaller than No. 8 copper or equivalent.Figure 8-2. Entrance 
            HeadFor connecting wire 
            from the entrance head to the service drop wires, the National 
            Electrical Code requires that the service entrance conductors be 
            installed either (I) below the level of the service head, or (2) 
            below the termination of the service entrance cable sheath. Drip 
            loops must be formed on individual conductors. This will prevent 
            water from entering the electric service system.The wires that form 
            "entrance cable" should extend 36 inches from the entrance head, to 
            provide a sufficient length to connect service drop wires to the 
            building with insulators (see Figure 8-2).The entrance cable 
            may be a special type of armored outdoor type of wire or it may be 
            enclosed in a conduit. The electric power meter may be located 
            either within or outside the building. In either instance, the meter 
            must be located before the main power disconnect.Figure 8-3 shows an 
            armored cable service entrance. The armored cable is anchored to the 
            building with metal straps spaced every 4 feet. The cable is run 
            down the wall and through a hole drilled through the building. The 
            cable is then connected to the service panel, which should be 
            located within 1 foot of where the cable enters the building.The ground wire 
            need not be insulated. This ground wire may be either solid or 
            stranded copper, or a material with an equivalent resistance.Figure 8-3. Service 
            Entrance, Armored CableFigure 8-4 shows 
            the use of thin-wall conduit in a service entrance.Figure 8-4. Service 
            Entrance, Conduit TypeB Underground 
            ServiceWhen wires are run 
            underground they must be protected from moisture and physical 
            damage. The opening in the building foundation where the underground 
            service enters the building must be moisture proof. Local codes 
            should be referred to, concerning allowable materials for this type 
            of service entrance.C Electric 
            MeterThe electric meter 
            may be located inside or outside the building, as shown in Figure 
            8-3 or 8-4. The meter itself is weatherproof and is plugged into a 
            weatherproof socket (see Figure 8-5). The electric power company 
            furnishes the meter, the socket may or may not be furnished by the 
            power company.Figure 8-5. Electric 
            MeterIV. 
            GroundingThe system ground 
            consists of grounding the neutral incoming wire as well as the 
            neutral wire of the branch circuits. The equipment ground consists 
            of grounding the metal parts of the service entrance, such as the 
            service switch, as well as the service entrance conduit, armor, or 
            cable.The usual ground 
            connection is to a water pipe of the city water system. The 
            connection should be made to the street side of the cold water meter 
            as shown in Figure 8-6.Figure 8-6.View of a Typical 
            Service EntranceIf the water meter 
            is located near the street curb, then the ground connection should 
            be made to the cold water pipe as close as possible to where it 
            enters the building.It is not unusual 
            for a water meter to be removed from a building for service. If the 
            ground connection is made at a point in the water piping system on 
            the building side of the water meter, the ground circuit will be 
            broken upon removal of the meter. This broken ground circuit 
            represents a shock hazard if both sides of the water meter 
            connections should be touched simultaneously.In some instances 
            the connections between the water meter to pipes are electrically 
            very poor. In this case, if the ground connection is made on the 
            building side of the water meter, there may not be an effective 
            ground.In order to prevent 
            the two aforementioned situations the code requires that an 
            effective bonding shall be provided around any equipment that is 
            likely to be disconnected for repairs or replacement. This is 
            illustrated in Figure 8-7. The same jumper arrangement would be 
            required for a water meter that is installed near the curb. In many 
            installations the water meter mounting bracket is designed to serve 
            as an electric jumper.Figure 8-7. Water Meter 
            JumperOften an amateur 
            mechanic, in the process of doing a household repair, will 
            disconnect the house ground. Therefore, the housing inspector should 
            always check the house ground to see if it is properly 
            connected.Figure 8-8 shows a 
            typical grounding scheme at the service box of a residence. In this 
            figure, only the grounded neutral wires are shown. The neutral strap 
            is an uninsulated metal strip that is riveted directly to the 
            service box. The ground wires from the service entrance, branch 
            circuits, and house ground are joined by this strip.Figure 8-8. Typical 
            Grounding Scheme at EntranceWhen a city water 
            supply is not available for grounding, a substitute must be made. 
            The most common ground is a pipe or rod that is driven into the 
            ground a distance of at least 8 feet. If the pipe is made of steel 
            or iron, it must be 3% inch in diameter and galvanized. A copper 
            ground pipe of 34 inch diameter is sufficient.The code requires 
            that a ground rod be entirely independent of and kept at least 6 
            feet from any other ground of the type used for radio, telephone, or 
            lightning rods.V.  Two- or 
            Three-Wire Electric ServicesOne of the wires in 
            every installation is grounded. This neutral wire is always white. 
            The hot wires are usually black or red or some other color. but 
            never white.The potential 
            difference or voltage between the hot wires and the ground or 
            neutral of a normal residential electrical system is 115 volts. 
            Thus, where we have a two-wire installation (one hot and one 
            neutral) only 11 5-volt Power is available (see Figure 8-9). When 
            three wires are installed (two hot and one neutral) either 115- or 
            230-volt power is available. In a three-wire system the voltage 
            between the neutral and either of the hot wires is 115; between the 
            two hot wires it is 230 volts.Figure 8-9. Ground 
            ConnectionThe major advantage 
            of a three-wire system is that it permits the operation of heavy 
            electrical equipment such as laundry dryers, cooking ranges, and air 
            conditioners, the majority of which require 230-volt circuits. In 
            addition, the three-wire system is split at the service panel into 
            two 115-volt systems to supply power for small appliances and 
            electric lights. The result is a doubling of the number of circuits, 
            and possibly a corresponding increase in the number of branch 
            circuits, with a reduction of the probability of fire caused by 
            overloading electrical circuits.VI.  
            Residential Wiring AdequacyThe use of 
            electricity in the home has risen sharply since the 1930's. Many 
            home owners have failed to repair or improve their wiring to keep it 
            safe and up to date. The National Electrical Code recommends that 
            individual residences be provided with a minimum of 100-ampere 
            three-wire service. This type service is sufficient in a one-family 
            house or dwelling unit to provide safe and adequate electric supply 
            for the lighting, refrigerator, iron, and an 8,000-watt cooking 
            range, plus other appliances requiring a total of up to 10,000 watts 
            altogether.Some homes have a 
            60-ampere, three-wire service. It is recommended that these homes be 
            rewired for at least the minimum of 100 amperes recommended in the 
            National Code since they are safely capable of supplying current 
            only for lighting and portable appliances such as a cooking range 
            and regular dryer (4,500 watts), or an electric hot-water heater 
            (2,500 watts) and cannot handle additional major appliances.Other homes today 
            have only a 30-ampere, 115-volt, two-wire service. This system can 
            safely handle only a limited amount of lighting, a few minor 
            appliances, and no major appliances. Therefore, this size service is 
            substandard in terms of modern household needs for electricity. 
            Furthermore, it constitutes a fire hazard and a threat to the safety 
            of the home and the occupants.VII.  Wire 
            Size and TypesA Wire SizeElectric power 
            flows over wire. It flows with relative ease (little resistance) in 
            some materials such as copper and with a substantial amount of 
            resistance in iron. If iron wire were used it would have to be 10 
            times as large as copper wire.Copper wire sizes 
            are indicated by a number. No. 14 is most commonly used in 
            residential branch circuits. No. 14 is the smallest permitted by the 
            Code for use in a branch circuit with a 15-ampere capacity. No. 16, 
            18, and 20 are progressively smaller than No. 14 and are usually 
            used for extension wires. As the number of the wire becomes smaller 
            the size and current capacity of the wire increases. No. 1 is the 
            heaviest wire usually used in ordinary household wiring.Wire of correct 
            size must be used for two reasons: current capacity and voltage 
            drop.When current 
              flows through a wire it creates heat. The greater the amount of 
              flow, the greater the amount of heat generated. (Doubling the 
              amperes without changing the wire size increases the amount of 
              heat by four times.) The heat is electric energy that has been 
              converted into heat energy by the resistance of the wire; the heat 
              created by the coils in a toaster is an example. This heat 
              developed in an electrical conductor is wasted, and thus the 
              electric energy used to generate it is wasted. If the amount of 
              heat generated by the flow of current through the wire becomes 
              excessive, a fire may result. Therefore, the code sets the maximum 
              permissible current that may flow through a certain type and size 
              wire.
              The following are 
              examples of current capacities for copper wire of various 
              sizes:****Size 
            wire(AWG)    #14 #12 #10 #8 Max. 
            capacity, 15 20 30 40 amperes
            In addition to 
              heat generation there will be a reduction in voltage as a result 
              of attempting to force more current through a wire than it is 
              capable of carrying. Certain appliances, such as induction-type 
              electric motors, may be damaged if operated at too low a 
              voltage.****B Wire Types 
            Wire markings - 
              All wires must be marked to indicate the maximum working voltage, 
              the proper type letter or letters for the type wire specified in 
              the code, the manufacturer's name or trademark. and the AWG size 
              or circular-mil area.Insulations 
              used-There are a variety of wire types which can be used for a 
              wide range of temperature and moisture conditions. The 1975 
              National Electrical Code should be consulted to determine the 
              proper wire for specific conditions.C Types of 
            Cable
            Nonmetallic 
              Sheathed Cable - This type of cable consists of wires wrapped in a 
              paper layer, followed by another spiral layer of paper, and 
              enclosed in a fabric braid, which is treated with 
              moisture-resistant and fire-resistant compounds. Figure 8-10 shows 
              this type of cable, which often is marketed under the "Romex" 
              name. This type of cable can be used only indoors and in 
              permanently dry locations.Armored Cable - 
              This type of cable is commonly known by the BX or Flexsteel trade 
              names. Wires are wrapped in a tough paper and covered with a 
              strong spiral flexible steel armor. This type of cable is shown in 
              Figure 8-11 and may be used only in permanently dry indoor 
              locations. Armored cable must be supported by a strap or staple 
              every 6 feet and within 24 inches of every switch or junction box, 
              except for concealed runs in old work where it is impossible to 
              mount straps.Other Cable 
              -Cables are also available with other outer coatings of metals 
              such as copper, bronze, and aluminum for use in a variety of 
              conditions.****D Flexible Cords
            Flexible cords are 
            used to connect lamps, appliances, and other devices to outlets. 
            Each wire consists of many strands of fine wire for flexibility. 
            Extension cords in AWG sizes 16 to 18 are usually fine for lamps and 
            smaller appliances, if the cord is not too long. A commonly accepted 
            standard limits their length to 8 feet of unspliced cord. This keeps 
            the cords short enough to prevent the excessive voltage drops, 
            minimizes the possibility of fire caused by overheating of the wire 
            due to overload, and also minimizes the danger of someone's tripping 
            over them.E Open 
WiringOpen wiring is a 
            wiring method using knobs, nonmetallic tubes, cleats, and flexible 
            tubing for the protection and support of insulated conductors in or 
            on buildings and not concealed by the structure. The term "open 
            wiring" does not mean exposed, bare wiring. In dry locations when 
            not exposed to severe physical damage, conductors may be separately 
            encased in flexible tubing. Tubing should be in continuous lengths 
            not exceeding 15 feet and secured to the surface by straps not more 
            than 4? feet apart. They should be separated from other conductors 
            by at least 2? inches and should have a permanently maintained 
            airspace between them and any and all pipes they cross.Figure 8-10. Nonmetallic 
            Sheath CableFigure 8-11. Armored 
            CableF Concealed Knob 
            and Tube WiringConcealed knob and 
            tube wiring is a wiring method using knobs, tubes, and flexible 
            nonmetallic tubing for the protection and support of insulated wires 
            concealed in hollow spaces of walls and ceilings of buildings. This 
            wiring method is similar to open wiring, and like open wiring, is 
            usually found only in older buildings.VIII. Electric 
            Service PanelService 
            SwitchThis is a main 
            switch that will disconnect the entire electrical system at one 
            time. The main fuses or circuit breakers are usually located within 
            the "Service Switch" box. The branch circuit fuse or circuit breaker 
            may also be located within this box.According to the 
            code, the switch must be "externally operable." This condition is 
            fulfilled if the switch can be operated without the operator's being 
            exposed to electrically active parts. Older switches use external 
            handles as shown in Figure 8-12.Figure 8-12. Two Wire Single 
            Phase Grounded Service Panel (Fuse Type)Most of today's 
            service switches do not have hinged switch blades. Instead, the main 
            fuse is mounted on a small insulated block that can be pulled out of 
            the switch. When this block is removed, the circuit is broken just 
            as if the blades had been operated with a handle.The neutral 
            terminal or wire of a grounded circuit must never be interrupted by 
            a fuse or circuit breaker. In some installations the service switch 
            is a "solid neutral" switch. This means that the neutral wire in the 
            switch is not broken by the switch or a fuse.When circuit 
            breakers instead of fuses are used in homes, the use of main circuit 
            breakers may or may not be required. If it takes not more than six 
            movements of the hand to open all the branch circuit breakers, no 
            main breaker or switch or fuse will be required ahead of the 
            branch-circuit breakers. Thus, a house with seven or more branch 
            circuits requires a separate disconnect means or a main circuit 
            breaker ahead of the branch circuit breakers (see Figure 
            8-13).Figure 8-13. Three Wire 
            Grounded Single Phase Circuit Breaker Service PanelIX. Overcurrent 
            DevicesThe amperage 
            (current flow) in any wire is limited to the maximum permitted by 
            using an overcurrent device of a specific size as specified by the 
            code. Two types of overcurrent devices are in common use: circuit 
            breakers and fuses; both are rated in amperes. The overcurrent 
            device must be rated at equal or lower capacity than the wire of the 
            circuit it Protects.A Circuit Breakers 
            (Fuseless) Service PanelsA circuit breaker 
            (see Figure 8-14) looks something like an ordinary electric light 
            switch. There is a handle that may be used to turn power on or off. 
            Inside is a simple mechanism that, in case of a circuit overload, 
            trips the switch and breaks the circuit. The circuit breaker may be 
            reset by simply flipping the switch. A circuit breaker is capable of 
            taking harmless short-period overloads (such as the heavy initial 
            current required in the starting of a shut off valve washing machine 
            or air conditioner) without tripping but protects against prolonged 
            overloads. After the cause of trouble has been located and 
            corrected, the power is easily restored by flipping the circuit 
            breaker switch (circuit breakers are modem substitutes for fuses). 
            Fuseless service panels are usually broken up into the following 
            circuits.Figure 8-14. Circuit 
            Breaker1 A 100-ampere or 
            larger main circuit breaker that shuts off all power.2 A 40-ampere 
            circuit for an appliance such as an electric cooking range.3 A 30-ampere 
            circuit for clothes dryer, hot water heater, or central air 
            conditioning.4 A 20-ampere 
            circuit for kitchen, small appliances, and power tools.5 A 15-ampere 
            circuit for general purpose lighting, TV, and vacuum cleaner.6 Space for 
            circuits to be added if needed for future IICP.B Fused Ampere 
            Service Panel or Fuse Box
            Fuse-type panel 
            boxes are generally found in older homes. They are equally as safe 
            and adequate as a circuit breaker of equivalent capacity, provided 
            fuses of the proper size are used.A fuse (see Figure 
            8-15), like a circuit breaker, is designed to protect a circuit 
            against the dangers of overloading and short circuits and does this 
            in two manners:a  When a 
              fuse is blown by a short circuit the metal strip is instantly 
              heated to an extremely high temperature, and this heat causes it 
              to vaporize. A fuse blown by a short circuit may be easily 
              recognized because the window of the fuse usually becomes 
              discolored.
              b  In a fuse 
              blown by overload the metal strip is melted at its weakest point, 
              and this breaks the flow of current to the load. In this case the 
              window of the fuse remains clear; therefore, a blown fuse caused 
              by an overload may also be easily recognized.Sometimes, although 
            a fuse has not been blown, the bottom of the fuse may be severely 
            discolored and pitted. This indicates a loose connection due to the 
            fuse's not being screwed in properly.Generally, all 
            fused panel boxes are wired similarly for two- and three-wire 
            systems. In a two-wirecircuit panel box the black or red hot wire is 
            connected to a terminal of the main disconnect, and the white or 
            light gray neutral wire is connected to the neutral strip, which is 
            then grounded to the pipe on the street side of the water 
            meter.In a three-wire 
            system the black and red hot wires are connected to separate 
            terminals of the main disconnect, and the neutral wire is grounded 
            the same as for a two-wire system (see Figure 8-12). Below each fuse 
            is a terminal to which a black or red wire is connected. The white 
            or light gray neutral wires are then connected to the neutral strip. 
            Each fuse indicates a separate circuit.Non-tamperable 
              Fuses - All ordinary plug fuses, shown in Figure 8-15, have the 
              same diameter and physical appearance regardless of their current 
              capacity. Thus, if a circuit designed for a 15-ampere fuse is 
              overloaded so that the 15-ampere fuse blows out, nothing will 
              prevent a person from replacing the 15-ampere fuse with a 20- or 
              30-ampere fuse, which may not blow out. If a circuit wired with 
              No. 14 wire (current capacity 15 amperes) is fused with a 20- or 
              30-ampere fuse and an overload develops, more current than the No. 
              14 wire is safely capable of carrying could pass through the 
              circuit. The result would be a heating of the wire and a potential 
              fire.
              Type S fuses, 
              shown in Figure 8-15, have different lengths and diameter threads 
              for each different amperage capacity. An adapter is first inserted 
              into the ordinary fuse holder, which adapts the fuse holder for 
              only one capacity fuse. Once the adapter is inserted, it cannot be 
              removed.Cartridge 
              Fuses
              Figure 8-15 shows 
              two different types of cartridge fuses. A cartridge fuse protects 
              an electric circuit in the same manner as an ordinary plug fuse 
              already described protects it. Cartridge fuses are often used as 
              main fuses.****Figure 8-15. Types of 
            FusesX.  
            Electric CircuitsAn electric circuit in good 
            repair carries electricity through two or three wires from the 
            source of supply to an outlet and hack to the source.
            A  Branch 
            CircuitA branch circuit is 
            an electric circuit that supplies electric current to a limited 
            number of electric outlets and fixtures. A residence generally has 
            many branch circuits. Each is protected against short circuits and 
            overloads by a 15- or 20 ampere fuse or circuit breaker.The number of 
            outlets per branch circuit varies from building to building. The 
            code requires enough light circuits so that 3 watts of power will be 
            available for each square foot of floor area in a house. A circuit 
            wired with No. 14 wire and protected by a 15-ampere overcurrent 
            protection device provides 15 X 115 or 1,725 watts; each circuit is 
            obviously enough for 1,725/3 or 575 square feet.Note that 575 is a 
            minimum figure; if future use is considered, 500 or even 400 square 
            feet per branch circuit should be usedB Special Appliance 
            CircuitsThe branch circuit 
            will provide electric power for lighting, radio, television, and 
            small portable appliances. However, the larger electric appliances 
            usually found in the kitchen consume more power and must have their 
            own special circuit.Section 220-3b of 
            the code requires two special circuits to serve only appliance 
            outlets in kitchen, laundry, pantry, family-room, dining room, and 
            breakfast room. Both circuits must be extended to the kitchen; the 
            other rooms may be served by either one or both of these circuits. 
            No lighting outlets may be connected to these circuits, and they 
            must be wired with No. 12 wire and protected by a 20-ampere 
            overcurrent device. Each circuit will have a capacity of 20 X 115 or 
            2,300 watts, which is not too much when one considers that toasters 
            often require over 1,600 watts.C  Individual 
            Appliance CircuitsIt is customary to 
            provide a circuit for each of the following appliances:
            RangeWater 
              heaterAutomatic 
              laundryClothes 
              dryerGarbage 
              disposerDishwasherFurnaceWater 
              pump****Note that these circuits may 
            be either 115 volts or 230 volts, depending on the particular 
            appliance or motor installed.
            D  Outlet 
            Switch and Junction Boxes The code requires that every switch, 
            outlet, and joint in wire or cable be housed in a box. Every fixture 
            must be mounted on a box. Most boxes are made of metal with a 
            galvanized finish. Figure 8-16 shows a typical outlet box.When a cable of any 
            style is used for wiring, the code requires that it be securely 
            anchored with a connector to each box it enters.Figure 8-16. Outlet 
            BoxE  Grounding 
            OutletsAn electrical 
            appliance may appear to be in good repair, and yet it might be a 
            danger to the user. Consider a portable electric drill. It consists 
            of an electric motor inside a metal casing. When the switch is 
            depressed, the current flows to the motor, and the drill rotates. As 
            a result of wear, however, the insulation on the wire inside the 
            drill may deteriorate and allow the hot side of the power cord to 
            come in contact with the metal casing. This will not affect the 
            operation of the drill.A person fully 
            clothed using the drill in the living room, which has a dry floor, 
            will not receive a shock, even though he is in contact with the 
            electrified drill case. His body is not grounded, because of the dry 
            floor. If, however, the operator should be standing on a wet 
            basement floor, his body might be grounded, and when he touches the 
            electrified drill case, current will pass through his body.In order to protect 
            man, the drill case is usually connected to the system ground by 
            means of a wire called an "appliance ground." In this instance, as 
            the drill is plugged in, current will flow between the shorted hot 
            wire and the drill case and cause the overcurrent device to break 
            the circuit. Thus the appliance ground has protected man.The appliance 
            ground is the third wire found on many appliances.The appliance 
            ground on the appliance will be of no use unless the outlet into 
            which the appliance is plugged is grounded. The outlet is grounded 
            by being in physical contact with a ground outlet box. The outlet 
            box is grounded by having a third ground wire, or a grounded 
            conduit, as part of the circuit wiring.All new buildings 
            are required to have grounded outlets (as shown in Figure 8-17). The 
            outlet may be tested by using a circuit tester. The circuit tester 
            should light when both of its leads are plugged into the two 
            elongated parallel openings of the outlet. In addition, the tester 
            should light when one lead is plugged into the round third opening 
            and the other is plugged into the hot side of the outlet.If the conventional 
            two-opening outlet is used, it still may be grounded. In this 
            instance the screw that holds the outlet cover plate is the 
            third-wire ground. The tester should light when one lead is in 
            contact with a clean paint-free metal outlet cover plate screw and 
            the hot side of the outlet. If the tester fails to light then the 
            outlet is not grounded. If the outlet is not grounded then the 
            tester will not function.If a two-opening 
            outlet is grounded, it may be adapted for use by a three-wire 
            appliance by using an adapter. The loose-wire portion of the adapter 
            should be secured behind the metal screw of the outlet plate 
            cover.Many appliances 
            such as electric shavers and some new hand tools are double 
            insulated and are safe without having a third ground wire.Figure 8-17. Grounded Type 
            Receptacle**XI.  Common 
            Electrical Violations**A  The most 
            apparent requirements that a housing inspector must check are the 
            existence of the power supply; the types, locations, and conditions 
            of the wiring in use; and the existence of the number of wall 
            outlets or ceiling fixtures required by his local code and their 
            condition. In making his investigations, these considerations will 
            serve as useful guides:Power 
              Supply - Where is it located, is it grounded properly, and is 
              it at least of minimum capacity required to supply current safely 
              for lighting and the major and minor appliances in the 
              dwelling?Panel Box 
              Covers or Doors - These should be accessible only from the 
              front and should be sealed in such a way that they can be operated 
              safely without the danger of contact with live or exposed parts of 
              the wiring system.Switch, 
              Outlets, and Junction Boxes-These also must be covered to 
              protect against danger of electric shock.Frayed or 
              Bare Wires- These are usually the result of long use and a 
              drying out and cracking of the insulation, which leave the wires 
              exposed, or else a result of constant friction and rough handling 
              of the wire, which cause it to fray or become bare. Wiring in this 
              condition constitutes a safety hazard, and correction of such 
              defects should be ordered immediately.Electric 
              Cords Under Rugs or Other Floor Coverings - Putting electric 
              cords in locations such as these is prohibited because of the 
              potential fire hazard caused by continuing contact over a period 
              of time between these heat-bearing cords and the flammable floor 
              coverings. Direct the occupant to shift the cords to a safe 
              location, explain why, and make sure it is done before you 
              leave.Bathroom 
              Lighting- It should include at least one permanently 
              installed ceiling or wall light fixture with a wall switch and 
              plate so located and maintained that there is no danger of short 
              circuiting from use of other bathroom facilities or splashing of 
              water. Fixture or cover plates should be insulated or 
              grounded.Lighting of 
              Public Hallways, Stairways, Landings, and Foyers - A common 
              standard here is sufficient lighting to provide illumination of 10 
              foot-candles on every part of these areas at all times. Sufficient 
              lighting means that a person can clearly see his feet on all parts 
              of the stairways and halls. Every public hall and stairway in a 
              structure containing less than three dwelling units may be 
              supplied with conveniently located light switches controlling an 
              adequate lighting system that may be turned on when needed. 
              instead of full-time lighting.Habitable 
              Room Lighting- The standard here may be two floor convenience 
              outlets - although floor outlets are dangerous unless protected by 
              proper dust and water covers-or one convenience outlet and one 
              wall or ceiling electric light fixture. This number constitutes an 
              absolute and often inadequate minimum given the contemporary 
              widespread use of electricity in the home. The minimum should be 
              that number required to provide adequate lighting and power to 
              accommodate lighting and appliances normally used in each 
              room.Octopus 
              Outlets or Wiring - This term is applied to outlets into which 
              plugs have been inserted and are being used to permit more than 
              two lights or portable appliances, such as a TV, lamp, or radio, 
              to be connected to the electrical system. The condition occurs 
              where the number of outlets is insufficient to accommodate the 
              normal use of the room. This practice overloads the circuit and is 
              a potential source of fire, which may be caused by overloading the 
              circuit.Outlet 
              Covers- Every outlet and receptacle must be covered by a 
              protective plate to prevent contact of its wiring or terminals 
              with the body, combustible object or splashing 
            water.**The 
            following items are conditions that cause needless dangers and must 
            also be corrected:**
            **Excessive 
            or faulty fusing**-The wire's capacity must not be exceeded 
            by the fuse or circuit breaker capacity or be left unprotected by 
            faulty fusing or circuit breakers. Fuses and circuit breakers are 
            safety devices designed to "blow" as a means of protection against 
            over loadings of the electrical system or one or more of its 
            circuits. Pennies under fuses are put there to bypass the fuse. 
            These are illegal and must be removed. Overfusing is done for the 
            same reason. The latter can be prevented by the installation of 
            modern fusestats, which prevent use of any fuse of a higher amperage 
            than can be handled by the circuit it serves.**Cords run 
            through walls or doorways and hanging cords or wires-**This 
            is a makeshift-type installation and most often is installed by an 
            unqualified handyman or do-it-yourself occupant. The inspector 
            should check with his local electrical section to determine the 
            policy regarding this type of insulation and govern his action in 
            accordance with the electrical section's policies.**Temporary 
            wiring** - This type of installation should not be allowed, 
            with the exception of extension cords that go directly from portable 
            lights and electric fixtures to convenience outlets.**Excessively 
            long extension cords** - This requirement does not apply to 
            specially designed extension cords for operating portable tools and 
            trouble lights. Cities operating under modern code standards limit 
            the length of loose cords or extension lines to a maximum of 8 feet. 
            This is necessary because those that are too long will overheat if 
            overloaded or if a short circuit develops and thus create a fire 
            hazard. Even shorter lengths are feasible in housing with new or 
            updated wring systems that include one convenience outlet every 12 
            feet around the perimeter of the room.**Dead or 
            dummy outlet**s - These are sometimes installed to deceive 
            the inspection agency. This is why all outlets must be tested or the 
            occupants questioned to see if these are alive and functioning 
            properly. A dead outlet cannot be counted to determine compliance 
            with the code.**XII. Steps Involved in Actual 
            Inspection**
            A Testing 
              ToolsThe basic tools 
            required by an inspector of housing for making an electrical 
            inspection are a fuse and circuit tester and a 
flashlight.
            B Danger of 
              TechniquesThe first thing is 
            to remember you are in a strange house and the layout is unfamiliar 
            to you. The second thing to remember is that you are dealing with 
            electricity-take no chances. Go to the water meter and check the 
            ground. It should connect to the water line on the street side of 
            the water meter or else be equipped with a jumper wire. Do not touch 
            any box or wire until you are sure of the ground. Go to the main 
            fuse box and check all fuses in all boxes. Note the condition of the 
            wiring and of the box itself and check whether it is overfused or 
            not. Examine all wiring in the cellar. Make sure you are standing in 
            a dry spot before touching any electrical device. Do not disassemble 
            the fuse box or other devices. Decisions must be made on what you 
            see. If in doubt, consult your supervisor.
            Make note whether 
            any fuse boxes or junction boxes are uncovered. Examine all wiring 
            for frayed or bare spots, improper splicing, or rotted, worn, or 
            inadequate insulation.Avoid all careless touching.**When in doubt - DON'T!**If you see bare wire, 
            have the owner call an electrician. Look for wires or cords in 
            use in the cellar. Many work benches are lighted by an old lamp that 
            was once in the parlor and now has a spliced or badly frayed cord or 
            both. Be certain all switch boxes and outlets are in a tight, sound 
            condition.Make sure that the 
            emergency switch for the oil burner is at the top of the cellar 
            stairs, not on top of the unit.If you find an 
            electric clothes washer-clothes dryer combination in a dwelling, it 
            should have a 240-volt circuit 30-ampere service connected to a 
            separate fuse or circuit breaker. Washer-dryer combinations and 
            other portable appliances in the entire house should be served by 
            sufficiently heavy service. If either of these special lines is not 
            available under the above-stated conditions, consult your 
            supervisor.An electric range 
            needs a 50-ampere circuit, 240 volts. A dishwasher needs a 
            20-ampere, 120-volt circuit. A separate three wire circuit must be 
            installed for an electric water heater. Continue your inspection 
            this way through the house. In the bathroom look for the usual 
            items, but also check for dangerous items such as radios or plug in 
            portable electric heaters. Have them removed immediately. Such items 
            have killed thousands of people either because they touched them 
            after getting out of the bathtub or shower while still wet or 
            because the appliance fell into the water. Look for brass pull 
            chains in bathroom lighting fixtures. If one exists, have owner 
            attach a string to the end of it as a temporary precaution, then 
            order it replaced with a wall switch as required by the electrical 
            code.To sum up, in broad 
            terms, the housing inspector's investigation of specified electrical 
            elements in a house is made to detect any obvious evidence of an 
            insufficient power supply, to ensure the availability of adequate 
            and safe lighting and electrical facilities, and to discover and 
            correct any obvious hazard. Because electricity is a technical, 
            complicated field, the housing inspector, when in doubt, should 
            consult his supervisor. He cannot, however, close the case until 
            appropriate corrective action has been taken on all such 
            referralsXIII. 
            Wattage Consumption of Electrical AppliancesXIV. 
            Motor Currents                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          
|Table 
            of Contents | Acknowledgements 
            | Foreword 
            | Chapter1 
            | Chapter 
            2Chapter 
            3 | Chapter 
            4 | Chapter 
            5 | Chapter 
            6 | Chapter 
            7Chapter 
            8 | Chapter 
            9 | Chapter 
            10 | Chapter 
            11                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  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                     | Environmental Hazards and 
            Health Effects    |                                                                        | Vessel Sanitation - Sanitary 
            Inspection of International Cruise Ships
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   | Environmental 
            Public Health Tracking        |                                                                        |