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##  A Survey of Educational Change Models. ERIC Digest.                          

Change isn't new, and neither is its study. We have a rich set of               frameworks, solidly grounded in empirical studies and practical                 applications. Most contributions may be classified under a set of               major perspectives, or "models" of change. These perspectives are               prevalent in the research, and combine to yield a 360 degree view of            the change process. In each case, one author or group of authors is             selected as the epitome of that perspective (Ellsworth, 2000). A                small group of studies from disciplines outside educational                     change (in some cases outside education) also contribute to key                 concepts not found elsewhere in the literature. 
Everett Rogers,               one of the "elder statesmen" of change research, notes that change              is a specialized instance of the general communication                          model (Rogers, 1995, pp. 5-6). Ellsworth expands on this notion to              create a framework that organizes these perspectives to make the                literature more accessible to the practitioner (Ellsworth,                      2000). 
Ellsworth's framework might be summarized as follows: a                change agent wishes to communicate an innovation to an intended                 adopter. This is accomplished using a change process, which                     establishes a channel through the change environment. However, this             environment also contains resistance that can disrupt the change                process or distort how the innovation appears to the intended                   adopter (Ellsworth, p. 26). By uniting these tactics in service to a            systemic strategy, we improve our chances of effective, lasting                 change. PULLING IT ALL TOGETHERWe must strive to guide all our            change efforts with a systemic understanding of the context in which            we undertake them. Nevertheless, depending on the circumstance, or              as the implementation effort progresses, it may be most effective to            focus interventions on a particular component of the framework at a             time. 
Anyone trying to improve schools, for example teachers,                 principals, students, district administrators, consultants, parents,            community leaders, or government representatives may look to The New            Meaning of Educational Change (Fullan & Stiegelbauer, 1991) to                  decide where to start (or to stop an inappropriate change). 
From              there, read Systemic Change in Education (Reigeluth & Garfinkle,                1994), to consider the system being changed. Consider all                       assumptions about the nature of that system (its purpose, members,              how it works, its governing constraints and so forth). Question                 those assumptions, to see whether they still hold true. Look inside             the system to understand its subsystems or stakeholders and how they            relate to one another and to the system as a whole. Look outside the            system too, to know how other systems (like business or higher                  education) are interrelated with it, and how it (and these other                systems) in turn relate to the larger systems of community, nation,             or human society. The new understanding may illuminate current goals            for the proposed innovation, (or concerns for the change you are                resisting) and may indicate some specific issues that may                       emerge. 
This understanding is crucial for diagnosing the system's             needs, and how an innovation serves or impedes them. Now, clearly               embarked upon the change process, read a discussion of that change              process in The Change Agent's Guide (Havelock & Zlotolow, 1995) to              guide and plan future efforts. The Guide serves as the outline for a            checklist, to ensure that the right resources are acquired at the               proper time. The Guide will also help you conduct and assess a trial            of the innovation in a way that is relevant and understandable to               stakeholders. It will help extend implementation both in and around             the system...and it will help to prepare others within the system to            recognize when it is time to change again. 
At some point one must             commit to a plan, and act. The Concerns-Based Adoption Model (Hall &            Hord, 1987) provides tools to "keep a finger on the pulse" of change            and to collect the information needed. The model's guidelines help              readers to understand the different concerns stakeholders experience            as change progresses. This, in turn, will help readers to design and            enact interventions when they will be most effective. 
Even the                most effective change effort usually encounters some resistance.                Strategies for Planned Change (Zaltman & Duncan, 1977) can help                 narrow down the cause(s) of resistance. Perhaps some stakeholders               see the innovation as eroding their status. Possibly others would               like to adopt the innovation, but lack the knowledge or skills to do            so. Opposition may come from entrenched values and beliefs, or from             lack of confidence that the system is capable of successful                     change. 
One way to approach such obstacles is to modify or adapt              the innovation's attributes. Even if the actual innovation cannot be            altered, it may be possible to change the perceptions of the                    innovation among stakeholders. For example, instead of competing                with them, perhaps it is more appropriately seen as a tool that will            help others achieve appropriate goals. Whether one modifies the                 attributes or merely their perceptions, Diffusion of                            Innovations (Rogers, 1995) identifies the ones that are generally               most influential, and will help readers select an approach. 
Other             obstacles may arise from the environment in which change is                     implemented.  The "Conditions for Change" (Ely, 1990) can help you              address those deficiencies. Possibly a clearer statement of                     commitment by top leaders (or more evident leadership by example) is            needed. Or maybe more opportunity for professional development is               required, to help the stakeholders learn how to use their new                   tool(s). 
Of course, this is not a fixed sequence. Involvement may             start when resistance to an innovation is noticed. If so, begin with            Zaltman and Duncan (1977), then turn to Reigeluth and                           Garfinkle (1994) to identify the systemic causes of that resistance.            If you are an innovation developer, begin with Rogers (1995), then              use the systemic diagnosis in Reigeluth and Garfinkle to guide                  selection of the attributes needed for your innovation. The                     professional change agent may begin with Havelock and                           Zlotolow (1995), to plan an overall change effort. The models are               also frequently interrelated. For example, when modifying innovation            attributes pursuant to Rogers (1995), one might make an IC Component            Checklist (see Hall & Hord, 1987) to avoid accidental elimination of            a critical part of the innovation. When assessing the presence or               absence of the conditions for change (Ely, 1990), verify that the               systemic conditions mentioned in Reigeluth and Garfinkle (1994) are             present as well. While using the Concerns-Based Adoption                        Model (Hall & Hord, 1987) to design interventions aimed at                      stakeholders at a particular level of use or stage of concern,                  consider the psychological barriers to change presented by Zaltman              and Duncan (1977). REACHING OUT, REACHING ACROSSMuch useful               knowledge of the change process comes from other fields as                      well-particularly the business-inspired domains of Human Performance            Technology (HPT) and Human Resource Development (HRD). Include these            other knowledge bases as an involvement with educational change                 grows. 
Reach out to other disciplines to share experiences and to             benefit from theirs.  Reach across to other stakeholders, to build              the sense of community and shared purpose necessary for the changes             that must lie ahead.  The road won't always be easy and everyone                won't always agree which path to take when the road forks...but with            mutual respect, honest work, and the understanding that we all have             to live with the results, we can get where we need to                           go. SUCCEEDING SYSTEMATICALLYThe lessons of the classical                 change models are as valid today-and just as essential for the                  change agent to master-as they have ever been. Yet a single                     innovation (like a new technology or teaching philosophy) that is               foreign to the rest of the system may be rejected, like an                      incompatible organ transplant is rejected by a living system.                   Success depends on a coordinated "bundle" of innovations-generally              affecting several groups of stakeholders-that results in a coherent             system after implementation. 
These are exciting times to be a part            of education. They are not without conflict...but conflict is what              we make of it. Its Chinese ideogram contains two characters: one                is "danger" and the other "hidden opportunity." We choose which                 aspect of conflict-and of change-we emphasize. RESOURCESCraig,            R. (1996). "The ASTD training and development handbook: A guide to              human resource development." New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 
Ellsworth,            J.B. (2000). "Surviving change: A survey of educational change                  models." Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and                    Technology. (ED 443 417) 
Ely, D. (1990). "Conditions that                     facilitate the implementation of educational technology                         innovations." Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 23(2),             298-305. (EJ 421 756) 
Fullan, M., & Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). "The             new meaning of educational change." New York, NY: Teachers College              Press. (ED 354 588) 
Hall, G., & Hord, S. (1987)." Change in                   schools: Facilitating the process." Albany, NY: State University of             New York Press. (ED 332 261) 
Havelock, R., & Zlotolow,                        S. (1995). "The change agent's guide," (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs,             NJ: Educational Technology Publications. (ED 381 886) 
Reigeluth,              C., & Garfinkle, R. (1994). "Systemic change in education."                     Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. (ED 367              055) 
Rogers, E.M. (1995). "Diffusion of innovations," (4th ed.).              New York, NY: The Free Press. 
Stolovitch, H., & Keeps,                        E. (1999). "Handbook of human performance technology: A                         comprehensive guide for analyzing and solving performance problems              in organizations." San Francisco, CA:                                           Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer. 
Zaltman, G., & Duncan,                                  R. (1977). "Strategies for planned change." New York, NY: John Wiley            and Sons. 
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This ERIC Digest was prepared by James B.                   Ellsworth, Ph.D. Professor of Online Education, College of                      Continuing Education, U.S. Naval War                                            College <[email protected]> 
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ERIC Digests are in the                public domain and may be freely reproduced and                                  disseminated. 
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This publication is funded              in part with Federal funds from the U.S. Department of Education                under contract number ED-99-CO-0005. The content of this publication            does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S.                  Department of Education nor does mention of trade names, commercial             products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. government.            The Department of Education's web address is: http://www.ed.gov.             **Title:** A Survey of Educational Change Models. ERIC Digest.                          **Note:** This digest is based on "Surviving Change: A Survey of Educational              Change Models" by James B. Ellsworth; see ED 443 417.                        **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology, Syracuse University,            621 Skytop Rd., Suite 160, Syracuse, NY 13244-5290; Tel:                        315-443-3640; Tel: 800-464-9107 (Toll Free); Fax: 315-443-5448;                 e-mail: [email protected]; Web site: http://ericir.syr.edu/ithome.         **Descriptors:**  Change Agents,  Change Strategies,  Educational Change, Educational            Development,  Educational Research, Educational Resources,                      Elementary Secondary Education,  Models,  Research and Development,             Systems Development                                                          **Identifiers:** ERIC Digests                                                                 
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