____________

The Authors:

____________

Harvey E. Kennedy, Retired, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Pearl River, LA 70452; Gregory J. Nowacki,

Forest Ecologist, Region 10, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Juneau, AK 99802.

Preface

Old growth is widely acknowledged today as an essential part of managed forests, particularly on public lands. However, this

concept is relatively new, evolving since the 1970's when a grassroots movement in the Pacific Northwest began in earnest to

define old growth. In response to changes in public attitude, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, began

reevaluating its policy regarding old-growth forests in the 1980's. Indeed, the ecological significance of old growth and its

contribution to biodiversity were apparent. It was also evident that definitions were needed to adequately assess and manage the

old-growth resource. However, definitions of old growth varied widely among scientists. To address this discrepancy and other

old-growth issues, the National Old-Growth Task Group was formed in 1988. At the recommendation of this committee, old

growth was officially recognized as a distinct resource by the Forest Service, greatly enhancing its status in forest management

planning. The committee devised "The Generic Definition and Description of Old-Growth Forests" to serve as a basis for

further work and to ensure uniformity among Forest Service Stations and Regions. Emphasis was placed on the quantification

of old-growth attributes.

At the urging of the Chief of the Forest Service, all Forest Service Stations and Regions began developing old-growth

definitions for specific forest types. Because the Southern and Eastern Regions share many forest communities (together they

encompass the entire Eastern United States), their efforts were combined, and a cooperative agreement was established with

The Nature Conservancy for technical support. The resulting project represents the first large-scale effort to define old growth

for all forests in the Eastern United States. This project helped bring the old-growth issue to public attention in the East.

Definitions will first be developed for broad forest types and based mainly on published information and so must be viewed

accordingly. Refinements will be made by the Forest Service as new information becomes available. This document represents

1 of 35 forest types for which old-growth definitions will be drafted.

In preparing individual old-growth definitions, authors followed the National Old-Growth Task Group guidelines, which differ

from the standard General Technical Report format in two ways—the abstract (missing in this report) and the literature citations

are listed in the Southern Journal of Applied Forestry style. Allowing these deviations will ensure consistency across

organizational and geographic boundaries.

April 1997

Southern Research Station

P.O. Box 2680

Asheville, NC 28802
An Old-Growth Definition for Seasonally

Wet Oak-Hardwood Woodlands

Harvey E. Kennedy and Gregory J. Nowacki

Introduction

Southern bottomland hardwoods occur on approximately 32

million acres [13 million hectares (ha)] of forest land in

river bottoms, minor stream bottoms, and swamps from

Virginia to east Texas (McKnight and Johnson 1980). These

ecosystems support a wide variety of tree species and

communities (Meadows and Stanturf 1996), one of which is

seasonally wet oak-hardwood woodlands. Past geologic

events led to the formation of broad stream valleys in these

areas because of the erodable, sedimentary geologic

materials. Although the stream valleys of the Coastal Plain

may be quite old, most of the floodplain sediments were

formed in recent geologic times (Wharton et al. 1982).

An active river in an alluvial valley constantly cuts its banks

on one side and deposits the soil downstream on the

opposite side to form new land. Spring floods gradually

raise the land by depositing coarser sediments near the

riverbanks to build natural levees, and by dropping finer

sediments farther back, to form low, broad, poorly drained

"slackwater" areas. Complex but recognizable species

associations characterize these sites. Cottonwood (Populus

deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.) and willow (Salix nigra Marsh.)

are pioneer species on natural levees and are succeeded by

riverfront species, then by oaks (Quercus spp.) and other

species. A similar succession occurs in the backlands as

sloughs, swamps, and oxbow lakes fill with sediment. 

Seasonally wet oak-hardwood woodlands can eventually

occur on any of these sites (Putnam et al. 1960).

Seasonally Wet Oak-Hardwood Woodlands

Description of Forest Type Group

General Location—Seasonally wet oak-hardwood

woodlands are scattered throughout the Eastern United

States, ranging primarily from the Midwest south to eastern

Oklahoma and Texas and eastward to Virginia. Commonly

referred to as oak glades or flatwoods, these open

woodlands develop best within the Ohio, Arkansas, and

southern Mississippi River valleys.

Site Characteristics—These woodlands occur principally

on river bottom lands and isolated depressions seasonally

flooded for short periods. Soils are clayey; many have clay

layers, deposited during river flooding, that may be mistaken

for hardpans. Although soil drainage is poor, moisture

conditions in these forests fluctuate dramatically. In

summer, soil moisture deficits may occur if clay layers limit

the rooting space available for trees and prevent the upward

movement of water from lower wet zones. 

Species—Principal species are pin oak (Quercus palustris

Muenchh.), willow oak (Q. phellos L.), white oak (Q. alba

L.), water oak (Q. nigra L.), diamondleaf oak (Q. laurifolia

Michx.), and Nuttall oak (Q. nuttallii Palmer). Post oak (Q.

stellata Wang.) predominates the Cross Timbers area of

Texas and Oklahoma. Common associates include overcup

oak (Q. lyrata Walt.), red maple (Acer rubrum L.),

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.), water hickory

[Carya aquatica (Michx. f.) Nutt.], and waterlocust

(Gleditsia aquatica Marsh.)

Site Disturbance—If, in presettlement times, surfaces dried

out during summer, low-intensity fires could have occurred.

Although such burns would probably have been confined

primarily to the litter layer, they would have helped maintain

the open conditions of these woodlands by checking woody

regeneration. Large oaks are fire tolerant and were largely

unaffected by surface burns, whereas fire-sensitive species

such as red maple, American elm (Ulmus americana L.),

and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) were

adversely affected. Even though fires have been largely

controlled over the last century, the open condition of these

woodlands is usually maintained due to the unusual

hydrologic constraints of the sites.

Associated Society of American Foresters Forest Cover

Types

One or more principal species in the seasonally wet oakhardwood woodlands are associate species in the following

Society of American Foresters forest cover types:

40—post oak-blackjack oak (in part)

53—white oak (in part)

65—pin oak-sweetgum (in part)

88—willow oak-water oak-diamondleaf (laurel) oak (in

part)
2

Physiographic Provinces (after Fenneman 1938)

C Coastal Plain (all sections except Floridian)

C Appalachian plateaus (unglaciated Allegheny Plateau

section)

C Interior low plateaus (all sections) Meadows (see footnote 1) found an average of 16 to 20

C Central lowland (till plains, dissected till plains, and dead trees per acre (40 to 49 trees per ha), representing 12

Osage Plains sections) to 14 percent of the total number of trees. Most of these

C Ozark plateaus (all sections) were Nuttall oak, sweetgum, and elm.

C Ouachita (all sections)

Old-Growth Conditions

Living Tree Component

Old-growth, seasonally wet oak-hardwood woodlands is

usually a mixture of tree species, chiefly oaks, of many sizes

and ages. The canopy is typically multilayered (table 1), and

tree age varies accordingly, from young reproduction

(Winters et al. 1938, Arkansas Department of Planning

1974) occurring in openings created by dead trees or

windthrow, to mature trees 150 years old or more. Large 1

canopy trees may reach 110 feet [33.5 meters (m)] in height

(see footnote 1).

Winters et al. (1938) describe a typical old-growth stand.

The woodland contained 174 trees per acre (70.5 trees per

ha) ranging in size from 2 to 40 inches (5 to 102 centimeters

[cm]) in diameter at breast height (d.b.h.). Fifty-nine percent

of the trees were 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) in d.b.h., 24

percent were 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm) in d.b.h., 8.5

percent were 14 to 18 inches (36 to 46 cm) in d.b.h., 6

percent were 20 to 28 inches (51 to 71 cm) in d.b.h., 2

percent were 30 to 38 inches (76 to 97 cm) in d.b.h., and

less than 1 percent were 40 inches (102 cm) or larger in

d.b.h. Sixty-two percent of the trees were classified as good

(potentially usable sawtimber). Thirty-four percent were

sound culls, that is, trees with no rot, but having poorly

formed, excessively limby boles, or other defects. Three

percent were classified as rotten culls; trees that would

eventually become snags or fall. Winters et al. (1938)

defined rotten cull trees as (1) sawlog-size trees containing

at least half their board-foot volume in logs culled because

of rot and (2) smaller trees containing at least half their

cubic foot volume in rotten material. These trees represented

about 3 percent of all diameter classes or 5.6 trees per acre

(13.8 trees per ha).

Dead Tree Component

Woody debris is difficult to quantify for this forest type

group. Because of prevailing high temperature and relative

humidity, decay organisms are very active, resulting in rapid

decomposition (3 to 4 years) of downed woody debris.

Consequently, woody debris is scarce and composed almost

exclusively of recently fallen tree limbs and boles. No

literature defined or quantified the amount of downed wood

in this forest type.

Understory Characteristics

Understory vegetation is commonly a diverse mixture of

young trees, vines, and shrubs that range from sparse to very

thick (Putnam et al. 1960, Arkansas Department of Planning

1974). Small woody species, such as planertree (Planera

aquatica J.F. Gmelin), buttonbush (Cephalanthus

occidentalis L.), wild grape (Vitis spp.), pepper-vine

[Ampelopsis arborea (L.) Koehne], trumpet-creeper

[Campsis radicans (L.) Seeman], poison-ivy

[Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze], and honeysuckle

(Lonicera spp.) usually originate ahead of tree reproduction

and, at times, may form virtually impenetrable thickets

(Putnam et al. 1960, Arkansas Department of Planning

1974). Tree regeneration is thus largely excluded. Small

trees are common in the understory and include American

hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana Walt.), eastern

hophornbeam [Ostyra virginiana (Miller) K. Koch],

flowering dogwood (Cornus florida L.), and hawthorn

(Crataegus spp.).

Young seedlings of canopy-tree species develop either from

seed or sprouts and are typically most abundant beneath

canopy gaps. During unfavorable periods (e.g., intense

competition/shade), tree seedlings frequently die back and

resprout. Where a thick mat of underbrush is present, it may

take 20 years for tree seedlings to grow through this layer.

Seedling and sapling development is most rapid in openings,

which, in old growth, can be 300 feet (91.4 m) in diameter

(Arkansas Department of Planning 1974). Chief obstacles to

old-growth regeneration include shade, flooding, and fire.

Together these factors largely control seedling and sapling

composition.

 Meadows, J.S. February 1990. Study on long-term timber growth and 1

quality following an improvement cutting in an uneven-aged stand vs.

clearcutting to produce an even-aged stand. Unpublished report. On file

with: Southern Research Station, Southern Hardwoods Laboratory, P.O.

Box 227, Stoneville, MS 38776.
3

Table 1 (English units)—Standardized table of old-growth attributes for seasonally wet oak-hardwood 

woodlands 

Value Quantifiable _______________________ Number

attribute Range Mean of stands References a

Stand density (no./acre)

—trees $4 in d.b.h. 40-215 125.0 3 Meadows, unpublished datab

Putnam and Bull 1932

Society of American Foresters 1980

Stand basal area (ft /acre) 2

—trees $4 in d.b.h. 44.3-214.1 90.9 3 Meadows, unpublished datab

Putnam and Bull 1932

Society of American Foresters 1980

Age of large trees (yrs)c

—all species 80-150 85.0 3 Meadows, unpublished datab

Putnam and Bull 1932

Society of American Foresters 1980

Number of 4-in. size classes

—4 in d.b.h. 9 9.0 1 Society of American Foresters 1980

D.b.h. (or maximum d.b.h.)

of largest trees (in)

—all species 45 45.0 1 Meadows, unpublished datab

Society of American Foresters 1980

Standing snags (no./acre)

—snags $4 in d.b.h. 0-75 20.0 2 Meadows, unpublished datab

Society of American Foresters 1980

Downed logs (ft /acre) 3 d -- -- --

Decadent trees (no./acre)e

—$4 in d.b.h. 0-60 44.0 3 Meadows, unpublished datab

Putnam and Bull 1932

Society of American Foresters 1980

Number of canopy layers Multilayered -- 5 Arkansas Dept. of Planning 1974 d

Meadows, unpublished datab

Putnam and Bull 1932

Putnam et al. 1960

Society of American Foresters 1980

Percent canopy in gapsd -- -- --

Other featuresd -- -- --

 Number of stands may not equal the number of citations. a

 Meadows, J.S. February 1990. Study on long-term timber growth and quality following an improvement cutting in an uneven-aged stand b

vs. clearcutting to produce an even-aged stand. Unpublished report. On file with: Southern Research Station, Southern Hardwoods

Laboratory, P.O. Box 227, Stoneville, MS 38776.

 Includes dominant and codominant trees that make up the upper canopy. c

 Data not available. d

 Includes deformed, bole-scarred, spike-topped, and wind-damaged trees. e
4

Table 1 (metric units)—Standardized table of old-growth attributes for seasonally wet oak-hardwood 

woodlands 

Value Quantifiable _______________________ Number

attribute Range Mean of stands References a

Stand density (no./ha)

—trees $10-cm d.b.h. 100-506 308.0 3 Meadows, unpublished datab

Putnam and Bull 1932

Society of American Foresters 1980

Stand basal area (m /ha) 2

—trees $10-cm d.b.h. 110-528 225.0 3 Meadows, unpublished datab

Putnam and Bull 1932

Society of American Foresters 1980

Age of large trees (yrs)c

—all species 80-150 85.0 3 Meadows, unpublished datab

Putnam and Bull 1932

Society of American Foresters 1980

Number of 10-cm size classes

—starting at 10-cm d.b.h. 9 9.0 1 Society of American Foresters 1980

D.b.h. (or maximum d.b.h.)

of largest trees (cm)

—all species 114 114.0 1 Meadows, unpublished datab

Society of American Foresters 1980

Standing snags (no./ha)

—snags $10-cm d.b.h. 0-185 49.0 1 Meadows, unpublished datab

Society of American Foresters 1980

Downed logs (m /ha) 3 d -- -- --

Decadent trees (no./ha)e

—trees $10-cm d.b.h. 0-152 107.0 3 Meadows, unpublished datab

Putnam and Bull 1932

Society of American Foresters 1980

Number of canopy layers Multilayered -- 5 Arkansas Dept. of Planning 1974 d

Meadows, unpublished datab

Putnam and Bull 1932

Putnam et al. 1960

Society of American Foresters 1980

Percent canopy in gapsd -- -- --

Other featuresd -- -- --

 Number of stands may not equal the number of citations. a

 Meadows, J.S. February 1990. Study on long-term timber growth and quality following an improvement cutting in an uneven-aged stand b

vs. clearcutting to produce an even-aged stand. Unpublished report. On file with: Southern Research Station, Southern Hardwoods

Laboratory, P.O. Box 227, Stoneville, MS 38776.

 Includes dominant and codominant trees that make up the upper canopy. c

 Data not available. d

 Includes deformed, bole-scarred, spike-topped, and wind-damaged trees. e
5

Soils and Microtopography

These woodlands occur principally along streams where

there is seasonal flooding for short periods. Coarse sediment

deposited near the bank of the river during floods forms

narrow ridges or natural levees (Putnam et al. 1960). Farther

from the river, where flood waters eddy and slow, finer

sediments are deposited, forming low, broad areas of poorly

drained, slack water clay soils. Seasonally wet oakhardwood woodlands may occur on any of these sites (i.e.,

low ridges, flats, and sloughs). Because of their lowland

situation and unique soil properties (e.g., clay hardpans),

soil moisture in these woodlands tends to fluctuate

dramatically throughout the year, from excessively moist

during high water to moisture deficits during the growing

season. Soil pH varies from approximately 5.0 to 8.0,

depending on age, topography, and parent material. The

organic mat (0 horizon) is usually several inches thick, and

organic-matter content in the A horizon can be as high as 5

percent.

Even though this definition is for seasonally wet oakhardwood woodlands, we must keep in mind this oak type is

transitory. The soils that support this group would normally

be occupied first by the pioneer species (cottonwood and

willow), followed by the riverfront type and the oaks. Over

most of its range, the seasonally wet oak-hardwood

woodland would ultimately be replaced by more tolerant

types and finally beech (Fagus spp.) -magnolia (Magnolia

spp.) as the climax if succession were allowed to proceed

naturally. Only good forest management can maintain the

seasonally wet oak-hardwood woodland type.

Other Important Features

The abundance of undergrowth usually makes these

woodlands good habitat for deer. However, the number of

deer may be limited by flooding, especially in the absence of

high, wooded ground (Arkansas Department of Planning

1974). Many bird and rodent species usually inhabit these

woodlands, especially during the old-growth stage. Aquatic

animals (e.g., fishes, amphibians) can also be numerous

during wet periods.

Forest Dynamics and Succession

Only small, scattered remnants of old-growth, seasonally

wet, oak-hardwood woodlands remain. Because of the long

history of logging and other human disturbances, most

present-day woodlands differ from their presettlement

counterparts. However, based on regeneration trends, the

natural forces that formed past woodlands are still working

today, so recovery from human disturbance seems likely for

many stands (Arkansas Department of Planning 1974).

A typical succession for these woodlands is as follows:

within 15 years of a stand-initiating disturbance, a full

canopy is produced by trees and large shrubs. Over the next

30 to 50 years, the woodland will mature and old-growth

processes will begin (e.g., canopy-tree deaths, gap-phase

regeneration). Within 100 to 150 years, mature trees will

begin to die, and, as younger trees replace them, a "multipleaged" forest will develop (Arkansas Department of Planning

1974). This process could continue for another 100 years or

until the next stand-altering disturbance.

Winters et al. (1938) reported that settlement in the North

Louisiana Delta began early in the 19th century. By 1850,

cotton was being produced on much of the high, riverfront

land where water transportation was easily available. The

pattern of land disturbance they described in that area is

probably typical of most of the area where seasonally

flooded oak-hardwood woodlands were found.

During the Civil War and the subsequent reconstruction

period, agriculture was interrupted and thousands of acres of

abandoned farmland reverted to forests. Shortly after 1900,

large timber companies began to acquire land, and lumber

production became an important industry. World War I

brought another agricultural boom, and cutover timberlands

were converted to farming again. Land clearing for farming

continued until the depression of the 1930's. Much of the

remaining virgin forest was also cutover by the late 1930's to

the early 1940's. By the late 1930's, only about half the

original forests remained. Clearing continued at a rapid pace

through the late 1970's, by which time only about 20 percent

of the original forest in the Lower Mississippi River valley

was left.

Presently, much of the cleared land is in crop production

and will probably remain so. Some acreage that is marginal

to submarginal for agriculture may be converted to forest

under government programs, such as the Conservation

Reserve Program and the Wetlands Restoration Project.

However, these tracts will make up only a small portion of

the total land area and will take a long time to develop into

old-growth forests.
6

Representative Old-Growth Stands Other Related Publications

Some representative stands exist on the 2,700-acre (1093.5-

ha) Delta Experimental Forest, Washington County,

Stoneville, MS, and the 58,000-acre (23,490.0-ha) Delta

National Forest, Sharkey County, Rolling Fork, MS.

Another unique site is located on the Edgefield Ranger

District of the Sumter National Forest. A non-alluvial

swamp forest, dominated by large willow oak, is located at

this site. Soils are a montmorillonite clay (Nelson 1986).

There are probably other representative stands unknown to

the authors. Areas where other representative old-growth

stands may appear include Coochie Brake, Winn Parish,

LA; Big Oak Tree Natural Area, Big Oak Tree State Park,

MO; Deep Slough, St. Charles County, MO; and Quercus

Flatwoods Natural Area, George White State Forest

Nursery, MO.

References tolerance and related characteristics of trees of the bottomland forests of

Arkansas Department of Planning. 1974. Arkansas natural area plan. State

of Arkansas, Arkansas Dep. of Planning, Little Rock, AR. 248 p.

Fenneman, N.M. 1938. Physiography of Eastern United States. McGrawHill, New York. 714 p.

McKnight, J.S., and R.L. Johnson. 1980. Hardwood management in

southern bottomlands. For. Farmer 39(5):31-39.

Meadows, James S., and John A. Stanturf. 1996. Silvicultural systems for

bottomland hardwood forests. For. Ecol. Manage. (In press.) 

Nelson, John B. 1986. The natural communities of South Carolina. S.C.

Wildl. and Marine Resour. Dep., Columbia, SC. 55 p.

Putnam, J.A., and Henry Bull. 1932. The trees of the bottomlands of the

Mississippi River Delta region. Occas. Pap. 27. U.S. Dep. Agric. For.

Serv., South. For. Exp. Stn.. 205 p.

Putnam, John A., George M. Furnival, and J.S. McKnight. 1960.

Management and inventory of southern hardwoods. U.S. Dep. Agric.

Handb. 181. 102 p.

Society of American Foresters. 1980. Forest cover types of the United

States and Canada. Eyre, F.H., (ed.). Washington, DC. 148 p.

Wharton, C.H., W.M. Kitchens, E.C. Pendleton, and T.W. Sipe. 1982. The

ecology of bottomlands hardwood swamps of the Southeast: a

community profile. FSW/OBS-81/37. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. 133 p.

Winters, R.K., J.A. Putnam, and I.F. Eldredge. 1938. Forest resources of

the North-Louisiana Delta. Misc. Publ. 309. U.S. Dep. Agric. 49 p.

Allen, James A., and Harvey E. Kennedy, Jr. 1989. Bottomland hardwood

reforestation in the Lower Mississippi Valley. U.S. Dep. Int., Fish and

Wildl.Serv., Nat. Wetlands Center, Slidell, LA; U.S. Dep. Agric. For.

Serv., South. For. Exp. Stn., Stoneville, MS.

Delcourt, H.R. 1976. Presettlement vegetation of the north of Red River

land district, Louisiana. Castanea 41:122-139.

Fralish, J.S. 1988. Diameter-height-biomass relationships for Quercus and

Carya in Posen Woods Nature Preserve. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 81:31-38.

Garren, K.H. 1943. Effects of fire on vegetation of the Southeastern United

States. Bot. Rev. 9:617-654.

Hosner, J.F., and L.S. Minckler. 1963. Bottomland hardwood forests of

Southern Illinois--regeneration and succession. Ecology 44:29-41.

Ladd, D. 1991. Reexamination of the role of fire in Missouri oak

woodlands. P. 67-80 in Proc. Oak Woods Manage. Workshop. Eastern

Illinois Univ., Charleston, IL. 

McKnight, J.S., D.D. Hook, O.G. Langdon, and R.L. Johnson. 1981. Flood

the Southern U.S. P. 29-69 in Wetlands of bottomland hardwood

forests, Clark, J.R., and J. Benforado (eds.). Elsevier Sci. Publ., New

York. 

Menges, E.S., R.W. Dolan, and D.J. McGrath. 1987. Vegetation,

environment, and fire in a post oak flatwoods/barrens association in

southwestern Indiana. HRI Rep. 98. Holcomb Res. Inst. 39 p.

Stearns, F. 1991. Oak woods: an overview. P. 1-7 in Oak Woods

Management Workshop. Eastern Illinois Univ., Charleston, IL.

Thom, R.H., and G. Iffrig. 1985. Directory of Missouri natural areas.

Missouri Nat. Areas Comm. 115 p.

Waggoner, G.S. 1975. Eastern deciduous forest. Vol. 1 Southeastern

evergreen and oak-pine region. NFS 135. Nat. Park Serv., Nat. Hist.

Theme Stud. 206 p.
Kennedy, Harvey E.; Nowacki, Gregory J. 1997. An old-growth definition

for seasonally wet oak-hardwood woodlands. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-8.

Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern

Research Station. 6 p.

An interim definition of old-growth, seasonally wet, oak-hardwood woodlands

is presented to assist in management of these communities until comprehensive

definitions based on research can be formulated. The basic criteria for

identifying old-growth, seasonally wet, oak-hardwood woodland communities

in the South are also presented.

Keywords: Bottomland hardwoods, flatwoods, oak glades, old growth, oldgrowth stands, Quercus spp., South.
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