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##  ESL Instruction and Adults with Learning Disabilities. ERIC Digest.          

Some adult English language learners experience difficulty in                   sustaining employment and showing progress on assessment measures.              This may be due, in part, to learning disabilities. According to the            federal Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities, learning                disabilities are disorders "that create difficulty in acquiring and             using skills such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, and                 reasoning. These disorders can also inhibit mathematical abilities              and social interactions" (Brown & Ganzglass, 1998, p. 2). Learning              disabilities are generally thought to be caused by a dysfunction in             the central nervous system, and people who have learning                        disabilities are considered to possess average or above-average                 intelligence (Seattle-King County Private Industry Council, 2000).              Little is known about how these disabilities affect the adult                   learner of English as a second language (ESL). 
This digest reviews            what is known about adult ESL learners and learning disabilities,               suggests ways to identify and assess ESL adults who may have                    learning disabilities, and offers practical methods for both                    instruction and teacher training. LEARNING DISABILITIES IN A                  SECOND LANGUAGELearners may show learning disabilities in a                 second language when they do not in their first. A learning                     disability may be so subtle in a first language that it is masked by            an individual's compensatory strategies, e.g., getting general                  information through the overall context when specific words or                  concepts are not understood, and substituting known words for words             that cause difficulty. These strategies may not be available to the             learner in the new language (Ganschow & Sparks, 1993). Sometimes a              learning disability does not manifest itself in the learner's first             language "because of the systematic structure or transparent nature             of his native language versus English" (D. Shewcraft, personal                  communication, June 2000). For example, a reading disability may be             more pronounced in English than in Spanish, where the sound-symbol              correspondence system is more predictable. IDENTIFYING LEARNING               DISABLED ESL ADULTSIt is thought that the percentage of learning            disabled students in adult education classes may exceed the                     percentage in the population as a whole, with some estimates as high            as 80% (Seattle-King County Private Industry Council, 2000).                    Although it is not known if this is true in ESL classes, there is a             general sense in the field that it may not be true. Unlike native               speakers in adult education programs, many ESL learners were not                unsuccessful in their previous educational experience. Rather, they             are enrolled in programs to learn to speak, read, and write in a new            language. Therefore, care should be taken before labeling ESL                   learners as learning disabled. 
Being identified as learning                   disabled can be stigmatizing for anyone--adult, child, native                   English speaker, or ESL learner (McCormick, 1991). Educators stress             the importance of weighing the advantages of identifying adult                  learners as learning disabled (planning instruction to help                     learners, making them eligible for services, and so forth) against              the possible stigma of the label (Almanza, Singleton, & Terrill,                1995/96). 
Before testing and labeling an adult ESL student as                 learning disabled, other reasons for lack of expected progress                  should be considered. Educators (Adkins, Sample, & Birman, 1999;                Almanza, Singleton, & Terrill, 1995/96; Grognet, 1997; Schwarz &                Burt, 1995) have noted the following reasons for slow progress in               learning English: 
* Limited academic skills in a learner's native             language due to limited previous education 
* Lack of effective                study habits 
* The interference of a learner's native language,               particularly if the learner is used to a non-Roman alphabet 
* A               mismatch between the instructor's teaching style and the learner's              expectations of how the class will be conducted 
* Stress or trauma            that refugees and other immigrants have experienced, causing                    symptoms such as difficulty in concentration and memory                         dysfunction 
* Sociocultural factors such as age, physical health,             social identity, and even diet 
* External problems with work,                 health, and family 
* Sporadic attendance 
* Lack of practice                 outside the classroom 
These behaviors or problems will most likely            affect all learning, whereas a learning disability usually affects              only one area of learning. ASSESSING THE LEARNERThe use of                standardized testing to identify learning disabilities presents                 problems. First, instruments designed to diagnose learning                      disabilities are usually normed on native English speakers, so the              results cannot be reliably used with learners whose first language              is not English. Second, since the concepts and language being tested            may have no direct translation, the validity of tests translated                into the native language is questionable. Third, most tests are                 primarily designed for and normed on younger students and may not be            suitable for adults. 
No single assessment technique is sufficient             to diagnose a learning disability; multiple assessment measures are             necessary. Even before an interview or other assessments are                    administered, instructors should answer the following questions                 about a learner: 
1  Has the problem persisted over time? 
2  Has             the problem resisted normal instruction? 
3  Does the learner show             a clear pattern of strengths and weaknesses in class? 
4  Does the             learner show a clear pattern of strengths and weaknesses outside of             class? 
5  Does the problem interfere with learning or a life                  activity in some way to a significant degree? 
If the responses to             these questions are affirmative, there is probably a learning                   problem that should be looked into more closely. The following are              suggestions on how to do this. 
* Interview learners. This can                 provide a variety of useful information, such as educational and                language history and social background, the learner's strengths, and            the learner's perception on the nature of the suspected problem. 
*            Collect information about the learner's work. Portfolio assessment,             where measurements of learner progress in reading and writing are               considered along with attendance data, writing samples,                         autobiographical information, and work on class assignments, can                provide a broad picture of the learner's performance. Keeping a                 learner portfolio is helpful in documenting the persistence of                  problems as well as which teaching strategies have worked or not                worked. 
* Use visual screening and routine hearing tests. What                appears to be a learning disability may be due in part to                       developmental visual problems or correctable auditory                           problems. INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND MATERIALSLearning                     disabilities affect learning in any language and must therefore be a            guiding factor in designing instruction for the adult learner with              disabilities. Educators of learning disabled children and                       adults (Almanza, Singleton, & Terrill, 1995/96; Baca & Cervantes,               1991; Ganschow & Sparks, 1993) give the following suggestions for               providing instruction. 
* Be highly structured and predictable. 
*            Teach small amounts of material at one time in sequential steps. 
*            Include opportunities to use several senses and learning                        strategies. 
* Provide multisensory reviews. 
* Recognize and                 build on learners' strengths and prior knowledge. 
* Simplify                  language but not content. 
* Emphasize content words and make                  concepts accessible through the use of pictures, charts, maps,                  etc. 
 *Reinforce main ideas and concepts through rephrasing rather            than through verbatim repetition. 
* Be aware that learners often              can take in information, but may experience difficulty retrieving it            and sorting it appropriately. 
* Provide a clean, uncluttered,                 quiet, and well-lit learning environment. 
In adult basic education            and adult ESL instruction where little time or money is spent on                program capacity building through research and teacher training,                there are few instructional models to look toward (Burt & Keenan,               1998). However, some programs are developing their own practical                guides and disseminating them to a wider audience (Hatt & Nichols,              1995; Shewcraft & Witkop, 1998). 
Technology has potential for                 assisting adult learners with learning disabilities to acquire a                second language; computers have proven to be particularly                       useful (Gerber & Reiff, 1994; Riviere, 1996). In fact, adult ESL                learners who have had limited success in learning English report                that working one-on-one in the computer lab with a teacher seems                more comfortable and productive than being one of many students in a            crowded classroom (Almanza, Singleton, & Terrill, 1995/96). Using               assistive technology can build self-esteem as well as provide                   immediate feedback, two things all adult language learners can                  benefit from. CONCLUSIONAlthough a learning disability does               not effect all areas of learning, it may have a significant impact              on the social and work life of the learner. Therefore, the field of             adult ESL must intensify its efforts to assist learning disabled                adult ESL learners and their teachers. Such efforts require greater             and more long-term sources of funding for research, specifically in             the areas of assessment and instruction, training, and assistive                technology. REFERENCESAdkins, M.A., Sample, B., & Birman,                 D. (1999). "Mental health and the adult ESL refugee: The role of the            ESL teacher." ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse               for ESL Literacy Education. 
Almanza, D., Singleton, K., & Terrill,            L. (1995/96). Learning disabilities in adult ESL: Case studies and              directions. "The Year in Review," 5, 1-6. 
Baca, L., & Cervantes,              H.T. (1991). "Bilingual special education." ERIC Digest. Reston, VA:            Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted Children. (ED 333                       618) 
Brown, R., & Ganzglass, E. (1998). "Serving welfare                      recipients with learning disabilities in a work first                           environment." [On-line]                                                         <http://www.nga.org/pubs/issuebriefs/1998/980728learning.asp> Burt,             M., & Keenan, F. (1998). "Trends in staff development for adult ESL             instructors." ERIC Q&A. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for              ESL Literacy Education. (ED 423 711) 
Ganschow, L., & Sparks,                  R. (1993). Foreign language and learning disabilities: Issues,                  research and teaching implications. In S.A. Vogel & P. B.                       Adelman (Eds.), "Success for college students with learning                     disabilities" (pp. 283-322). New York: Springer-Verlag. 
Gerber,               P.J., & Reiff, H.B. (Eds.). (1994). "Learning disabilities in                   adulthood: Persisting problems and evolving issues." Stoneham, MA:              Butterworth-Heineman. 
Grognet, A.G. (1997). "Elderly refugees and             language learning." Denver, CO: Spring Institute for International              Studies. (ED 416 721) 
Hatt, P., & Nichols, E. (1995). "Links in               learning." West Hill, Ontario, Canada: MESE Consulting,                         Ltd. 
McCormick, K. (1991). Myth #14: All literacy problems are the            result of learning disabilities. "The Literacy Beat 4"(2),                      1-4. 
Riviere, A. (1996). "Assistive technology: Meeting the needs             of adults with learning disabilities." Washington, DC: National                 Adult Literacy and Learning Disabilities Center. 
Seattle-King                 County Private Industry Council. (2000). Learning Disabilities                  Project Website. http://www.skcpic.org/ 
Schwarz R., & Burt,                   M. (1995). "ESL instruction for learning disabled adults." ERIC                 Digest. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy                 Education. (ED 379 966) 
Shewcraft, D.F., & Witkop, E. (1998). "Do             my ESOL students have learning disabilities?" Pittsfield, MA:                   Western Massachusetts Young Adults With Learning Disabilities (YALD)            Project. 
ERIC/NCLE Digests and Q & As are available free of charge            from the National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Education (NCLE),              4646 40th Street NW, Washington, DC 20016-1859; (202) 362-0700, ext.            200; e-mail: [email protected]. on the web at                                        www.cal.org/ncle/DIGESTS. 
Documents with ED numbers can be ordered            from ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS) at                               800-443-ERIC (3742) or 703-440-1400; fax: 703-440-1408; e-mail:                 http://edrs.com. 
The National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy                  Education (NCLE) is operated by the Center for Applied                          Linguistics (CAL) with funding from the U.S. Department of                      Education (ED), Office of Vocational and Adult Education, under                 contract no. RI 93002010. The opinions expressed in this report do              not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or                    ED. 
Visit NCLE on the World Wide Web at http://www.cal.org/ncle            **Title:** ESL Instruction and Adults with Learning Disabilities. ERIC Digest.          **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** ERIC/NCLE, 4646 40th Street NW, Washington, DC 20016. For full                  texts: http://www.cal.org/ncle/DIGESTS.                                      **Descriptors:** Adult Education, Classroom Techniques,  English (Second Language),               Learning Disabilities, Literacy, Second Language Instruction,                  Second Language Learning, Teaching Methods                                   **Identifiers:** ERIC Digests                                                                 
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