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##  African Americans and Self-Help Education: The Missing Link in Adult            Education. ERIC Digest No. 222.                                              

Mainstream literature on adult development examines the unique life             changes of adults using the theoretical models of Maslow, Rogers,               Levinson, Sheehy, and Belenky et al., to name a few. Yet, as                    Ross-Gordon (1991) has emphasized, there is a need for a                        multicultural perspective in adult education research. She                      states, "If we are to truly listen to learners representing                     multicultural perspectives we must be open to looking at the world              from their perspectives" (p. 10). In this Digest, I assert that a               multicultural approach to adult education and self-help must include            a review of literature that examines self-help education and its                impact on African Americans' learning and development. An approach              to adult learning that integrates the various dimensions of the                 lives of African American learners must be researched for the future            growth of the field of adult education. 
Recently, African-American            writers in the popular press and academicians (Eric Copage, Iyanla              Vanzant, Dennis Kimbro, bell hooks) have focused their attention on             issues of self-help and personal growth for African American adults,            as evidenced by the growth in the number of books written in the                genre of self-help and African American consumers' book-buying                  habits (Smikle 2000). The majority of African American consumers are            women in their thirties and forties with higher education, who are              in the work force and/or married with families. The types of                    self-help books these women buy most often include books on                     self-esteem, gender issues, or spiritual enlightenment, as well as              biographies of well-known African Americans such as Maya Angelou or             Oprah Winfrey, whose lives serve as inspiring models. 
The purpose             of this Digest is to recognize the significant role of the field of             self-help education and self-help literature in the lives of African            American adults and to pose the question, How can we expand the                 knowledge base and scope of self-help education for African                     Americans? AFRICAN AMERICANS AND ADULT LEARNINGThe basic                  models of learning, development, and program planning in adult                  education have often been developed with little concern for the                 unique needs of African Americans (Colin 1994). Current theories of             adult learning have also been criticized for their lack of cultural             understanding and the role that race, economics, and gender play in             the learning transaction. For example, Flannery (1995) argues that              three of the main theories of adult education--andragogy,                       self-directed learning, and perspective transformation--focus                   heavily on the individual and do not recognize the value of groups.             She observes that some racial and ethnic groups, such as African                Americans, place greater emphasis on "communal values." Flannery                explains, "communal values include knowledge which is valued, how               learning occurs, [and] communication patterns of working together               for the good of the community" (pp. 153-154). Flannery contends that            adult learning theories must be mindful of the influence of social,             historical, and economic roles in adult education and "must                     acknowledge that people and cultures vary in how they learn" (p.                156). Theories "must become inclusive and give voice to all people              and groups, allowing missing voices (women, working-class persons,              persons of color) to narrate their diverse stories of how and where             they learn, and about their values of learning" (p. 156). 
If we               look beyond some of the traditional models and formal approaches to             learning, there are many ways to examine the learning needs and                 habits of African American adults. Any discussion of self-help for              African Americans must include the interplay of race, economics,                power, and education. This can be achieved through the Africentric              perspective. As defined by Guy (1996), the Africentric perspective              is a "culturally grounded philosophical perspective that reflects               the intellectual traditions of both African and African American                cultures. Africentrism is understood as an attempt to reclaim a                 sense of identity, community, and power in the face of Eurocentric              cultural hegemony" (p. 21). Therefore, when focusing on the learning            and development of African American adults, learning models that                reflect the Africentric perspective should be considered (Colin                 1994). Africentric learning models "focus on the development of the             racial self and the bond between the individual and the racial group            and the impact that racist interactions have on the development of              the self-ethnic image" (Colin 1991, p. 58). Colin notes that the                work of Cross (1971, 1978), DuBois ([1903] 1969), Parham (1989), and            Thomas (1971) should be considered in developing models for learning            and development. 
Africentric books present issues and problems                from the African American perspective. People who have been                     oppressed by the European / white perspective and who have come to              believe the black stereotypes that have been projected onto them                need the redefinition that Africentric books can offer them, because            they are too closely identified with the stereotypes to be able to              break out of them on their own. Africentric books present sensitive             issues and point out those hidden barriers that only other African              Americans who have experienced them first hand would know. In                   contrast, a general self-help book would simply discuss general                 rules for how to achieve something, without looking at the hidden               barriers that create obstacles for blacks. Africentric self-help                books are usually intended for blacks who want to have successful               lives and professions in "white America," while still maintaining               their African American identity. It is this focus on reinforcing                one's multicultural identity, while also giving one the survival                skills for "making it" in the mainstream, that distinguishes                    Africentric self-help books. 
Today, one of the main philosophical             ideologies of adult education programs has been the focus on the                personal growth of the individual or what is often referred to                  as "self-actualization" or student-centered learning (Maslow 1968;              Rogers 1961). Yet, given the African American experience, this is               nothing new to African Americans. The concept of self-help, which               became popular with the wave of New Age ideas, has been the mainstay            of the African American community. From the days of slavery, African            Americans have had to develop coping skills just to stay alive. At              first, self-help for African America was embedded in the spirituals,            sermons, faith communities, slave songs, and coded hymns that the               white master could not understand. Self-help and adult education are            part of the African American cultural heritage, as exemplified by               such men as Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois. 
Booker T.               Washington believed that African Americans needed first to take care            of their survival and safety needs and then worry about the more                complex needs of belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization.                Once the basic needs were met, then they could focus on economic                independence, home and land ownership, and starting a business. The             humanistic efforts of adult educators like Booker T. placed the                 personal needs of the learners first; learning for personal change              was a secondary but essential characteristic of adult education.                Washington advocated self-help within the race and engaged African              Americans to pursue "industrial" education, which he felt would                 allow them to be more independent. At that point, they would know               how to position themselves strategically in the social, political,              and economic structure of America. Denton (1993) asserts that                   today's adult education programs are in fact modeled after                      Washington's principles and his contribution to the field of adult              education. Denton describes how Booker T. Washington's philosophy of            adult education led the way for the mainstream white American writer            Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The humanistic perspective on              adult education, not only among African Americans but in general,               may not have come about without the influence of men like Washington            or DuBois. 
W. E. B. DuBois believed in self-help for African                  Americans and understood the social dynamics that race played in                America for blacks. DuBois's answer to the problems that confronted             Black America was the power of education to transform the race, in              contrast to Booker T.'s humanistic philosophy. DuBois was concerned             with the activism that African Americans needed in order to gain                social and political freedoms. In other words, he did not want to               wait to meet survival needs first, but was more militant about the              need to demand one's rights. He understood the interplay of race,               economics, and education and the conflicting feelings many blacks               had of being an American and being black. DuBois's self-help                    philosophy is therefore more aggressive than Booker T.'s. As with               the work of Booker T., DuBois's book, The Souls of Black                        Folks (1903), can be regarded as one of the early books on self-help            education in America because it promotes survival skills acquired               through education. 
Another example is Marcus Garvey's "self-ethnic            reliance" model. Garvey insisted that African Americans rely on                 their own initiative, and he believed that "the only limitations                they had were those that they placed on themselves...the                        effectiveness of white control and oppressive constraints was                   dependent upon whether [one] believed in the doctrine of racial                 inferiority and acted accordingly, and... their negative self-ethnic            image and fatalistic attitude were not due to a state of being                  ordained by God" (Colin 1996, p. 54). Colin argues that we need to              consider all previous models when planning new approaches for                   African Americans. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSIf self-help             efforts continue to be important to African American adults and to              adult education, we must study the ways in which African American               adults pursue learning that facilitates personal growth and                     self-help and can lead to self-actualization. Given the strong need             for self-help education in the lives of African Americans, adult                education cannot continue to ignore this area of adult development              and learning in America. Adult educators can contribute to and                  enhance the area of self-help education by exploring essential                  questions and assisting adults in critically selecting and analyzing            self-help literature to maximize their learning experiences using               these books as a resource. 
Questions such as the following could              be explored: What is the basic educational philosophy of self-help              and inspirational literature aimed at African Americans? Can reading            this type of literature and engaging in this type of self-education             lead to greater self-awareness, personal growth, or personal                    development? Can self-help books provide or provoke                             praxis (reflection and action) in order to assist African American              adults understand themselves better? What impact does low                       self-esteem have on self-help education? Why has adult education                neglected the area of self-help education? 
Research is needed to              discover the applicability of the mainstream models of self-help for            African Americans. Such research can identify the areas where                   mainstream models are lacking. Although self-help by definition is              all about the individual, adult education can promote social action             as well. The African American community can benefit from collective             efforts at self-help. Research can also be done to distinguish                  valuable self-help literature, based on researched data, versus                 poorly researched and poorly written books that can mislead and may             even harm the reader. Such research can identify the helpful                    literature we can incorporate into the classroom for African                    American adult education. Adult educators can also research where               the fine line is between (1) counseling learners on their lives                 and (2) letting learners evaluate the concepts in a self-help book              for themselves--the goal being to sharpen their analytical and                  critical thinking skills and not necessarily to "fix" their lives               for them. 
As the self-help literature and mentality pervades every            area of society, it is important for adult educators to understand              this phenomenon and how it affects adult growth and development.                This is especially critical, as it may provide additional                       information about adult development, growth, and learning processes             for African Americans. Adult education focuses on three learning                theories based on an adult's characteristics, life situations, and              consciousness raising (Merriam 1987). Adult education for African               Americans must address these in light of Africentrism. Adult                    educators can incorporate adult self-help literature in their                   programs and classes. Adult educators can also offer new,                       Africentric models based specifically on ethnic identity or gender              identity. Other ethnic self-help models, such as those of immigrants            to America, can also be used to establish new strategies for adult              education for African Americans. REFERENCESColin, S. A. J.,               III. "African Ameripean Scholars and Scholarship: Who Will Bell the             Cat?" In PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIRST BLACK GRADUATE STUDENT SYMPOSIUM              IN ADULT EDUCATION. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University,                       1991. 
Colin, S. A. J., III. "Adult and Continuing Education                   Graduate Programs. Prescriptions for the Future." NEW DIRECTIONS FOR            ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION no. 61 (Spring 1994): 53-62. 
Colin,            S. "Marcus Garvey: Africentric Adult Education for Self-ethnic                  Reliance." In FREEDOM ROAD: ADULT EDUCATION OF AFRICAN AMERICANS,               edited by E. A. Peterson. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company,              1996. 
Cross, W. E. "The Negro to Black Conversion Experience:                 Toward a Psychology of Black Liberation." BLACK WORLD 20, no.                   9 (1971): 13-27. 
Cross, W. E. "The Cross and Thomas Models of                 Psychological Nigrescence." JOURNAL OF BLACK PSYCHOLOGY 5, no.                  1 (1978): 3-19. 
Denton, V. L. BOOKER T. WASHINGTON AND THE ADULT              EDUCATION MOVEMENT. Gainesville: University Press of Florida,                   1993. 
DuBois, W. E. B. THE SOULS OF BLACK FOLK. New York: American            Library, 1969. (Originally published 1903.) 
Flannery, D. D. "Adult            Education and the Politics of the Theoretical Text." In CRITICAL                MULTICULTURALISM: UNCOMMON VOICES IN A COMMON STRUGGLE, edited by B.            Kanpol and P. McLaren. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey 1995. 
Guy,             T. C. "Africentrism and Adult Education: Outlines of an Intellectual            Tradition with Implications for Adult Education." Paper presented at            the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Adult and                    Continuing Education, Charlotte, NC, October 29, 1996. (ED 409                  457) 
Maslow, A. TOWARD A PSYCHOLOGY OF BEING. New York: Van                   Nostrand, 1968. 
Merriam, S. B. "Adult Learning and Theory                     Building: A Review." ADULT EDUCATION QUARTERLY 37, no. 4 (Summer                1987): 187-198. 
Parham, T. A. "Nigrescence: The Transformation of             Black Consciousness across the Life Cycle." In BLACK ADULT                      DEVELOPMENT AND AGING, edited by R. L. Jones. Berkeley, CA: Cobb and            Henry Publishers, 1989. 
Rogers, C. R. ON BECOMING A PERSON; A                 THERAPIST'S VIEW OF PSYCHOTHERAPY. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,                    1961. 
Ross-Gordon, J. M. "Needed: A Multicultural Perspective for             Adult Education Research." ADULT EDUCATION QUARTERLY 42, no.                    1 (1991): 1-6. 
Smikle, K., ed. BUYING POWER OF BLACK AMERICA.                 Chicago, IL: Target Market News, 2000. 
Thomas, C. BOYS NO MORE.               Beverly Hills, CA: Glencoe Press, 1971. 
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This project has              been funded at least in part with Federal funds from the U.S.                   Department of Education under Contract No. ED-99-CO-0013. The                   content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views              or policies of the U.S. Department of Education nor does mention of             trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement            by the U.S. Government. Digests may be freely reproduced and are                available at http://ericacve.org/fulltext.asp.                               **Title:** African Americans and Self-Help Education: The Missing Link in Adult            Education. ERIC Digest No. 222.                                              **Document Type:** Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073); **Available From:** For full text: http://www.ericacve.org/fulltext.asp.                         **Descriptors:** Adult Basic Education,  Adult Education, Adults,  Afrocentrism,                  Blacks, Class Organization, Cultural Relevance, Curriculum,                     Educational Needs,  Educational Theories, Females, Group                       Activities, Group Experience, Group Instruction,                                Grouping (Instructional Purposes), Instructional Program Divisions,             Males, Models,  Relevance (Education), Self Actualization, Self Help            Programs, Womens Education                                                   **Identifiers:** African Americans                                                            
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