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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
|NCEH Fact 
            Sheets | NCEH 
            Brochures                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |                                                          
|**Chapter 1: Trends in 
            Housing****Table of 
            Contents**I.  The History of 
            HousingII.  Trends in Housing 
            InspectionIII.  Role of Health 
            Agencies in HousingIV.  SummaryReferencesMembers of countless 
            communities throughout America are raising critical questions about 
            the adequacy and effectiveness of local housing code enforcement 
            programs. These critics feel deep concern over the fact that 1966 
            found "some four million urban families living in homes of such 
            disrepair as to violate decent housing standards.'' For this reason, 
            they insist everything possible be done to guarantee that present 
            and future inspection efforts lead to rapid and adequate upgrading 
            of the substandard but salvageable housing in each community and 
            that the neighborhoods be made more desirable places in which to 
            live.
            In order to meet 
            these demands effectively, inspectors of housing and their 
            supervisors should first acquaint themselves with the origin of 
            public concern about housing problems; the past, present, and new 
            approaches to housing code administration; the expanded role of the 
            inspection function in the neighborhood improvement effort; and the 
            general nature of their role and responsibilities. **I.  The 
            History of Housing**The first public 
            policies on housing in this country were established during the 
            Colonial period. Many of the early settlers built houses with wooden 
            chimneys and thatched roofs which were the causes of frequent fires. 
            Consequently, several of the colonies passed regulations prohibiting 
            these. One of the first was the Plymouth Colony, which in 1626 
            passed a law stipulating that new houses should not be thatched but 
            roofed with either board or pale and the like. In 1648 wooden or 
            plastered chimneys were prohibited on new houses in New Amsterdam, 
            and chimneys on existing houses were decreed to be inspected 
            regularly. In Charlestown in 1740, following a disastrous fire. the 
            general assembly passed an act that declared that all buildings 
            should be of brick or stone, that all "tall'' wooded houses must be 
            pulled down by 1745, and that the use of wood was to be confined to 
            window frames. shutters, and to exterior work. This law was 
            obviously unenforceable because, as we learn from other publications 
            during that period, more Charlestown houses were made of timber than 
            of brick.Social control over 
            housing was exerted in other ways. Early settlers in Pennsylvania 
            frequently dug caves out of the banks of the Delaware River and used 
            these as primitive-type dwellings. Some of these shelters were still 
            in use as late as 1687 when the Provincial Council ordered 
            inhabitants to provide for themselves other habitations, in order to 
            have the said caves or houses destroyed. In some New England 
            communities, around the turn of the 18th century, standards were 
            raised considerably higher by local ordinances. In East Greenwich, 
            it had been the custom to build houses 14 feet square with posts 9 
            feet high; in 1727 the town voted that houses shall be built 18 feet 
            square with posts 15 feet high with chimneys of stone or brick as 
            before.During the early 
            days of this country, basic sanitation was very poor, primarily 
            because outdoor privies served as the general means of sewage 
            disposal. The principal problems created by the use of these privies 
            involved their nearness to the streets and their easy accessibility 
            to hogs and goats. In 1652, Boston prohibited the building of 
            privies within 12 feet of the street. The Dutch of New Amsterdam in 
            1657 prohibited the throwing of rubbish and filth into the streets 
            or canal and required the householders to keep the streets clean and 
            orderly.After the early 
            Colonial period we pass into an era of very rapid metropolitan 
            growth along the eastern seashore. This growth was due largely to 
            the immigration of people from Europe. Frequently these immigrants 
            arrived without money or jobs and were forced to move in with 
            friends or relatives. This led to severe overcrowding. Most of the 
            information available pertains to New York City, because the 
            situation there was worse than that in any other city in the 
            country. It received the majority of the immigrants, many of whom 
            were unable to move beyond the city. The most serious housing 
            problems began in New York about ] 840 when the first tenements were 
            built. These provided such substandard housing and such unhealthy, 
            crowded living conditions that a social reform movement was imminent 
            in New York.During the early 
            part of the 19th century, the only housing control authority was 
            that vested in the fire wardens, whose objective was to prevent 
            fires, and the health wardens, who were charged with the enforcement 
            of general sanitation. In 1867, with the passing of the Tenement 
            Housing Act, New York City began to face the problem of substandard 
            housing. This law represented the first comprehensive legislation of 
            its kind in this country. The principal features of the act are 
            summarized as follows: for every room occupied for sleeping in a 
            tenement or lodging house, if it does not communicate directly with 
            the external air, a ventilating or transom window to the neighboring 
            room or hall; a proper fire escape on every tenement or lodging 
            house; the roof to be kept in repair and the stairs to have 
            bannisters; water closets or privies - at least one to every twenty 
            occupants for all such houses; after July 1, 1867, permits for 
            occupancy of every cellar not previously occupied as a dwelling; 
            cleansing of every lodging house to the satisfaction of the Board of 
            Health, which is to have access at any time; reporting of all cases 
            of infectious disease to the Board by the owner or his agent; 
            inspection and, if necessary, disinfection of such houses; and 
            vacation of buildings found to be out of repair. There were also 
            regulations governing distances between buildings, heights of rooms, 
            and dimensions of windows. The terms "tenement house," "lodging 
            house," and "cellar" were defined.Although this act 
            had some beneficial influences on overcrowding, sewage disposal, 
            lighting, and ventilation, it did not correct the evils of crowding 
            on lots and did not provide for adequate ventilation for inner 
            rooms. In 1879, a second tenement act, amending the first, was 
            passed adding restrictions on the amount of lot coverage and 
            providing for a window opening of at least 12 square feet in every 
            room. Several attempts in 1882, 1884, and 1895 were made to amend 
            this original act and provide for occupancy standards, but they were 
            relatively unenforceable. While these numerous acts remedied only 
            slightly the serious problems of the tenements, they did show the 
            city's acknowledgment of the problems.' This public acknowledgment, 
            however, was seldom shared by the owners of the tenements, or, in 
            some cases, by the courts. The most famous case, in 1892, involved 
            Trinity Church, at that time one of the largest owners of tenements 
            in New York City. In the case, the City of New York accused Trinity 
            Church of violating provisions of the Act of 1882 by failing to 
            provide running water on every floor of its buildings. A district 
            court levied a fine of $200 against the Church. which in turn 
            appealed to the Court of Common Pleas to have the law set aside as 
            unconstitutional. Incredibly the court agreed unanimously to uphold 
            the landlord's position. stating there is no evidence nor can the 
            court judicially know that the presence and distribution of water on 
            the several floors will conduce to the health of the occupants . . . 
            there is no necessity for legislative compulsion on a landlord to 
            distribute water through the stories of his building; since if 
            tenants require it, self-interest and the rivalry of competition are 
            sufficient to secure it . . . now, if it be competent for the 
            legislature to impose an expense upon a landlord in order that 
            tenants be furnished with water in their rooms instead of in the 
            yard or basement, at what point must this police power pause? . . . 
            a conclusion contrary to the present decision would involve the 
            essential principle of that species of socialism under the regime of 
            which the individual disappears and is absorbed by a collective 
            being called the 'state',a principle utterly repugnant to the spirit 
            of our political system and necessarily fatal to our form of 
            liberty. Fortunately, 3 years later, the city health department was 
            granted an appeal from the court order, and eventually the 
            constitutionality of the law was upheld.Jacob A. Riis, 
            Lawrence Veiller, and others did much during this period to champion 
            the cause of better living conditions. Their efforts resulted in the 
            Tenement House Act of 1901, a milestone in housing and an extremely 
            comprehensive document for its time. It began with concise 
            definitions of certain terms that were to become important in court 
            actions. It contained provisions for protection from fire, requiring 
            that every tenement erected thereafter, and exceeding 60 feet in 
            height, should be fireproof. In addition, there were specific 
            provisions regarding fire escapes on both new and existing houses. 
            More light and ventilation were required; coverage was restricted to 
            not more than 70 percent on interior lots and 90 percent on corner 
            lots. There were special provisions governing rear yards, inner 
            courts, and buildings on the same lot with the tenement house. At 
            least one window of specified dimensions was required for every 
            room, including the bathroom. Minimum size of rooms was specified as 
            were certain characteristics for public halls. Significantly 
            included were provisions concerning planning for the individual 
            apartments in order to assure privacy. One of the most important 
            provisions of the Tenement Act was the requirement for running water 
            and water closets in each apartment in new tenement houses. Special 
            attention was given to basements and cellars, the law requiring not 
            only that they be damp proof but also that permits be obtained 
            before they were occupied. One novel section of this act prohibited 
            the use of any part of the building as a house of 
            prostitution.The basic 
            principles and methodology established in the Tenement Act of 1901 
            still underlie much of the housing efforts in New York City today. 
            Philadelphia, a city that can be compared with New York from the 
            standpoint of age. was fortunate to have farsighted leaders in its 
            early stage of development. Since 1909, with the establishment of 
            the Philadelphia Housing Association, the city has had almost 
            continual inspection and improvement.Although Chicago is 
            approximately two centuries younger than New York, it enacted 
            housing legislation as early as 1889 and health legislation as early 
            as 1881. Regulations on ventilation, light, drainage, and plumbing 
            of dwellings were put into effect in 1896. Many of the structures, 
            however, were built of wood, were dilapidated. and constituted 
            serious fire hazards.Before 1892, all 
            government involvement in housing was at a local level. In 1892, 
            however, the Federal Government passed a resolution authorizing 
            investigation of slum conditions in cities containing 200,000 or 
            more inhabitants. At that time these included the cities of 
            Baltimore, Boston, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Chicago, Cincinnati, 
            Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, 
            Pittsburgh, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Washington. Much 
            controversy surrounded the involvement of the Federal Government in 
            housing. The Commissioner of Labor was forced to write an extensive 
            legal opinion concerning the constitutionality of expenditures by 
            the Federal Government in this area. The result was that Congress 
            appropriated only $20,000 to cover the expenses of this project. The 
            lack of funds limited actual investigations to Baltimore, Chicago, 
            New York, and Philadelphia and did not cover housing conditions in 
            toto within these cities. Facts obtained from the investigation were 
            very broad, covering items such as the number of saloons per number 
            of inhabitants, number of arrests, distribution of males and 
            females, proportion of foreign-born inhabitants, degree of 
            illiteracy, kinds of occupations of the residents, conditions of 
            their health, their earnings, and the number of voters.The 20th century 
            started off rather poorly in the area of housing. No significant 
            housing legislation was passed until 1929 when the New York State 
            legislature passed its Multiple Dwelling Law. This law continued the 
            Tenement Act of New York City but replaced many provisions of the 
            1901 law with less strict requirements. Other cities and states 
            followed New York State's example and permitted less strict 
            requirements in their codes. This decreased what little emphasis 
            there was in enforcement of building laws so that during the 1920's 
            the cities had worked themselves into a very poor state of housing. 
            Conditions in America declined to such a state by the 30's that 
            President Franklin D. Roosevelt's shocking report to the people was 
            "that one-third of the nation is ill-fed, ill-housed, and 
            ill-clothed." With this the Federal Government launched itself 
            extensively into the field of housing. The first Federal housing law 
            was passed in 1934. One of the purposes of this act was to create a 
            sounder mortgage system through the provision of a permanent system 
            of government insurance for residential mortgages. The Federal 
            Housing Administration was created to carry out the objectives of 
            this act.Many other Federal 
            laws followed: the Veterans Administration becoming involved in 
            guaranteeing of loans, the Home Loan Bank Board, Federal National 
            Mortgage Association, Communities Facilities Administration, Public 
            Housing Administration, and the Public Works Administration. With 
            the U.S. Housing Act of 1937, the Federal Government entered the 
            area of slum clearance and urban renewal, requiring one slum 
            dwelling to be eliminated for every new unit built under the Housing 
            Administration program. It was not until the passage of the Housing 
            Act of 1949 that the Federal Government entered into slum clearance 
            on a comprehensive basis.The many 
            responsibilities in housing administered by various agencies within 
            the Federal Government proved to be unwieldy. Hence, in 1966 the 
            Department of Housing and Urban Development was created to have 
            prime responsibilities for the Federal Government's involvement in 
            the field of housing. II.  Trends in 
            Housing InspectionHistorically, local 
            provisions for the inspection of housing have been completely 
            inadequate. Usually the function has been split among two or more 
            agencies, and the pertinent code sections have been spread among 
            several local ordinances.Following the work 
            of C. E. A. Winslow, minimum code standards were made available and 
            resulted in the passing of housing codes. This consolidation of 
            housing requirements resulted in the field of housing inspection. 
            Originally much of the work was devoted to complaint and referral 
            inspections.**A Complaint 
            and Referral Inspections**In most communities 
            the housing inspectors are expected to center their efforts 
            primarily on complaint and referral inspections. This approach 
            satisfies the persons making the complaints and referrals and helps 
            improve some of the municipality's substandard housing. However, it 
            does little to bring about general improvements in any section of 
            the community and actually constitutes an inefficient way of using 
            the available inspection manpower because the men have to spend so 
            much time traveling from one area to another.Many supervisors 
            and inspectors realize this unsystematic method not only wastes time 
            but also is an ineffective way of upgrading housing and curbing 
            blight. First, on complaint inspections the inspectors are usually 
            instructed to confine their investigations to the dwelling unit 
            specifically involved unless the general conditions are so bad that 
            an inspection of the entire building is deemed necessary. This means 
            most complaint inspections are piecemeal and do not ordinarily bring 
            entire dwellings up to code standards. Second, even though numerous 
            complaints are unwarranted, inspectors are often given so many to 
            check each day that they do not have time to inspect other obviously 
            substandard houses in the vicinity of those complained about. 
            Consequently, these "rotten apples" are left to spoil the block, 
            while the house that has been improved stands alone.Too often 
            inspection agencies have found they did not have enough facts on 
            hand about the extent and distribution of the substandard housing in 
            their communities. Thus, they were unable to convince their 
            superiors and the public about the inadequacy of complaint 
            inspections as the major method of uncovering violations and 
            checking residential blight in neighborhoods. It is the consensus of 
            housing officials that area inspections are the most effective way 
            of doing both.2 Fortunately, in the 1960's, as one city after 
            another began developing the comprehensive community renewal plans 
            provided for in the Housing Act of 1959, this information finally 
            started to become available. It verified the need for systematic 
            inspections on a neighborhood basis. Congress further emphasized the 
            importance of this new approach by including Section 301 in the 
            Housing Act of 1964. This required all cities engaged in urban 
            renewal to have comprehensive area inspection programs in operation 
            by March 1967, and thereafter, in order to remain eligible for 
            national renewal funds.B  
            **Neighborhood Inspection Technique**The area or 
            neighborhood inspection technique is a more recent type of 
            inspection and one which begins to face up to the problems of saving 
            neighborhoods from urban blight. While this is a step forward, it is 
            merely one of several steps required if urban blight and its 
            associated human suffering are to be minimized or controlled.Throughout this 
            manual the terms "area" or "neighborhood" are used interchangeably 
            and refer to a readily identifiable portion of a community. Whether 
            this consists of so many blocks, an entire neighborhood, or a 
            section thereof, it should be of such size as to permit the local 
            code enforcement team to inspect and systematically effect minimum 
            housing standards within a manageable time.This means that 
            area inspection programs involve systematic cellar-to-roof, 
            house-to-house, block-to-block inspections of all properties within 
            the specific area and include all the follow-up work required to 
            bring the substandard housing up to code standards within a 
            reasonable period. By putting major emphasis on this type effort 
            instead of on the complaint-oriented approach, blight is checked and 
            an overall upgrading of residential sections is achieved in one 
            portion of a community after another. Thus, systematic area 
            inspection is both a longer lasting and a much more effective method 
            of improving housing and stabilizing property values than the 
            traditional complaint method.Usually a 
            municipality combines its area work with some complaint and referral 
            inspections. This is not objectionable so long as major emphasis is 
            given to the area programs, and the inspectors move through the 
            various sections of town systematically. Only in this way can a 
            community's housing inspection program contribute adequately to the 
            municipal efforts to upgrade all substandard housing and stem the 
            deterioration of individual homes and neighborhoods. A percentage of 
            the inspection force should, however, be primarily assigned to 
            complaint and referral work so that prompt action can be taken on 
            all cases in which the problems are too severe to await action in 
            connection with the area inspections.While the area-wide 
            or neighborhood inspections will correct violations of the housing 
            code, this is all they will accomplish. Once these neighborhoods are 
            brought up to standard, inspectors will move on to other 
            neighborhoods but be forced to return at a later time and repeat the 
            process.If a neighborhood 
            has declined to the extent that there is a large amount of housing 
            violations, then it is obvious that something or someone or both 
            have caused the neighborhood to deteriorate. Any effort that does 
            not also eliminate the cause for deterioration can only be a token 
            effort and frequently a wasted effort. Unless a housing program 
            evaluates the total neighborhood for both housing violations and for 
            environmental stresses within the neighborhood that may have caused 
            the deterioration of the housing, then the inspectional effort has 
            not been complete.What then are these 
            "environmental stresses"? Environmental stresses are the elements 
            within a neighborhood that influence the physical, mental, and 
            emotional well-being of the occupants. They include items such as 
            noise, glare, excessive land covering, nonresidential land uses, and 
            extensive traffic problems. If a housing program is to be complete, 
            these stresses must be identified and assessed. Then efforts must be 
            made in conjunction with other departments within the city to 
            program capital improvement budgets to alleviate or minimize these 
            stresses.These two types of 
            inspection are the field involvement of the housing inspector. He 
            must inspect not only the houses for violations but also the 
            neighborhoods for environmental stresses. This will provide him with 
            knowledge of physical conditions within the neighborhood. As 
            mentioned previously, however, this is not the whole problem in most 
            neighborhoods. Generally, the very difficult problem of the human 
            element is involved. Many buildings and neighborhoods deteriorate 
            because of apathy on the part of the neighborhood inhabitants. 
            Efforts must be made to motivate the slum dweller to work towards a 
            better living environment. Experience by the Public Health Service 
            (PHS) in motivational training has shown it to be very effective in 
            raising the living standards of neighborhood populations.In summary then, a 
            housing inspection effort should be made up of three parts: First, a 
            neighborhood or area-wide housing inspection procedure; second, a 
            neighborhood analysis procedure to identify, assess, and eventually 
            control environmental stresses; and third, a program of motivational 
            training for slum dwellers to raise the living standards of the 
            neighborhood . **III.  
            Role of Health Agencies in Housing**Up until the end of 
            World War II, most local housing hygiene programs were carried on by 
            the health departments. After WW II! health agencies began to drift 
            away from the field of housing hygiene. This gap was filled by a 
            variety of other city agencies including building departments, 
            police departments, fire departments. and more recently created 
            departments of licenses and inspections. Regardless which department 
            administers the housing code, the health department, if it is to 
            live up to its responsibilities of protecting the public health, 
            must have an involvement in housing. A general statement of PHS 
            policy is that the basic responsibility of health agencies with 
            regard to housing is to see to it that local and state governments 
            take action to ensure that all occupied housing meets minimum public 
            health standards. This basic responsibility falls upon federal, 
            state. and local health agencies alike.Several kinds of 
            governmental action are required. These include: (I) adoption of 
            minimum health standards in housing, (2) conduct of a program to 
            achieve and maintain these standards, (3) periodic evaluation of the 
            standards to ensure their current adequacy, and (4) monitoring of 
            the standards enforcement effort to guarantee that public health 
            values are provided. Health agencies, in order to meet their 
            responsibilities, must accept the role of either stimulating or 
            carrying out these four required kinds of governmental 
action.In communities that 
            have neither standards nor program, the health agency has the 
            responsibility of initiating both by stimulating the required 
            governmental action. Stimulation may be direct, through elected or 
            appointed officials, or indirect, by generating public support that 
            will trigger official action.**IV. Summary**
            Several basic 
            thoughts are contained in this chapter.A  
            Housing is an old, well-established but often overlooked topic 
            within this country. Indications are, however, that the broad field 
            of housing will receive much more attention from the policy makers 
            throughout the country within the coming years.B  No 
            single agency can eliminate urban blight. A concentrated effort of 
            all city departments, private concerns, and political bodies must be 
            focused on small sections (neighborhoods) to minimize or control 
            urban blight and its associated human sufferings.C  A 
            housing effort cannot be successful if it is merely an inspection of 
            houses for code compliance. There must also be a united effort to 
            eliminate environmental stresses within the neighborhood and instill 
            motivation in slum dwellers to desire and work towards improving 
            their environment.**REFERENCES**President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Demonstration Cities" message 
            to Congress, January 26, 1966."Enforcement of Housing Codes," Harvard Law Review, Vol. 78. 
            No. 4, Feb. 1965, p. 807.Table 
            of Contents | Acknowledgements 
            | Foreword 
            | Chapter1 
            | Chapter 
            2Chapter 
            3 | Chapter 
            4 | Chapter 
            5 | Chapter 
            6 | Chapter 
            7Chapter 
            8 | Chapter 
            9 | Chapter 
            10 | Chapter 
            11 |                                                           | **Chapter 1: Trends in 
            Housing**                                                            |                                                                                             | **Table of 
            Contents** |            |         | I.  The History of 
            Housing |                          |              | II.  Trends in Housing 
            Inspection |                                   |                 | III.  Role of Health 
            Agencies in Housing |                                                           |  | IV.  Summary                                              |  |                                                        | References |                                                                                             | Members of countless 
            communities throughout America are raising critical questions about 
            the adequacy and effectiveness of local housing code enforcement 
            programs. These critics feel deep concern over the fact that 1966 
            found "some four million urban families living in homes of such 
            disrepair as to violate decent housing standards.'' For this reason, 
            they insist everything possible be done to guarantee that present 
            and future inspection efforts lead to rapid and adequate upgrading 
            of the substandard but salvageable housing in each community and 
            that the neighborhoods be made more desirable places in which to 
            live.
            In order to meet 
            these demands effectively, inspectors of housing and their 
            supervisors should first acquaint themselves with the origin of 
            public concern about housing problems; the past, present, and new 
            approaches to housing code administration; the expanded role of the 
            inspection function in the neighborhood improvement effort; and the 
            general nature of their role and responsibilities. **I.  The 
            History of Housing**The first public 
            policies on housing in this country were established during the 
            Colonial period. Many of the early settlers built houses with wooden 
            chimneys and thatched roofs which were the causes of frequent fires. 
            Consequently, several of the colonies passed regulations prohibiting 
            these. One of the first was the Plymouth Colony, which in 1626 
            passed a law stipulating that new houses should not be thatched but 
            roofed with either board or pale and the like. In 1648 wooden or 
            plastered chimneys were prohibited on new houses in New Amsterdam, 
            and chimneys on existing houses were decreed to be inspected 
            regularly. In Charlestown in 1740, following a disastrous fire. the 
            general assembly passed an act that declared that all buildings 
            should be of brick or stone, that all "tall'' wooded houses must be 
            pulled down by 1745, and that the use of wood was to be confined to 
            window frames. shutters, and to exterior work. This law was 
            obviously unenforceable because, as we learn from other publications 
            during that period, more Charlestown houses were made of timber than 
            of brick.Social control over 
            housing was exerted in other ways. Early settlers in Pennsylvania 
            frequently dug caves out of the banks of the Delaware River and used 
            these as primitive-type dwellings. Some of these shelters were still 
            in use as late as 1687 when the Provincial Council ordered 
            inhabitants to provide for themselves other habitations, in order to 
            have the said caves or houses destroyed. In some New England 
            communities, around the turn of the 18th century, standards were 
            raised considerably higher by local ordinances. In East Greenwich, 
            it had been the custom to build houses 14 feet square with posts 9 
            feet high; in 1727 the town voted that houses shall be built 18 feet 
            square with posts 15 feet high with chimneys of stone or brick as 
            before.During the early 
            days of this country, basic sanitation was very poor, primarily 
            because outdoor privies served as the general means of sewage 
            disposal. The principal problems created by the use of these privies 
            involved their nearness to the streets and their easy accessibility 
            to hogs and goats. In 1652, Boston prohibited the building of 
            privies within 12 feet of the street. The Dutch of New Amsterdam in 
            1657 prohibited the throwing of rubbish and filth into the streets 
            or canal and required the householders to keep the streets clean and 
            orderly.After the early 
            Colonial period we pass into an era of very rapid metropolitan 
            growth along the eastern seashore. This growth was due largely to 
            the immigration of people from Europe. Frequently these immigrants 
            arrived without money or jobs and were forced to move in with 
            friends or relatives. This led to severe overcrowding. Most of the 
            information available pertains to New York City, because the 
            situation there was worse than that in any other city in the 
            country. It received the majority of the immigrants, many of whom 
            were unable to move beyond the city. The most serious housing 
            problems began in New York about ] 840 when the first tenements were 
            built. These provided such substandard housing and such unhealthy, 
            crowded living conditions that a social reform movement was imminent 
            in New York.During the early 
            part of the 19th century, the only housing control authority was 
            that vested in the fire wardens, whose objective was to prevent 
            fires, and the health wardens, who were charged with the enforcement 
            of general sanitation. In 1867, with the passing of the Tenement 
            Housing Act, New York City began to face the problem of substandard 
            housing. This law represented the first comprehensive legislation of 
            its kind in this country. The principal features of the act are 
            summarized as follows: for every room occupied for sleeping in a 
            tenement or lodging house, if it does not communicate directly with 
            the external air, a ventilating or transom window to the neighboring 
            room or hall; a proper fire escape on every tenement or lodging 
            house; the roof to be kept in repair and the stairs to have 
            bannisters; water closets or privies - at least one to every twenty 
            occupants for all such houses; after July 1, 1867, permits for 
            occupancy of every cellar not previously occupied as a dwelling; 
            cleansing of every lodging house to the satisfaction of the Board of 
            Health, which is to have access at any time; reporting of all cases 
            of infectious disease to the Board by the owner or his agent; 
            inspection and, if necessary, disinfection of such houses; and 
            vacation of buildings found to be out of repair. There were also 
            regulations governing distances between buildings, heights of rooms, 
            and dimensions of windows. The terms "tenement house," "lodging 
            house," and "cellar" were defined.Although this act 
            had some beneficial influences on overcrowding, sewage disposal, 
            lighting, and ventilation, it did not correct the evils of crowding 
            on lots and did not provide for adequate ventilation for inner 
            rooms. In 1879, a second tenement act, amending the first, was 
            passed adding restrictions on the amount of lot coverage and 
            providing for a window opening of at least 12 square feet in every 
            room. Several attempts in 1882, 1884, and 1895 were made to amend 
            this original act and provide for occupancy standards, but they were 
            relatively unenforceable. While these numerous acts remedied only 
            slightly the serious problems of the tenements, they did show the 
            city's acknowledgment of the problems.' This public acknowledgment, 
            however, was seldom shared by the owners of the tenements, or, in 
            some cases, by the courts. The most famous case, in 1892, involved 
            Trinity Church, at that time one of the largest owners of tenements 
            in New York City. In the case, the City of New York accused Trinity 
            Church of violating provisions of the Act of 1882 by failing to 
            provide running water on every floor of its buildings. A district 
            court levied a fine of $200 against the Church. which in turn 
            appealed to the Court of Common Pleas to have the law set aside as 
            unconstitutional. Incredibly the court agreed unanimously to uphold 
            the landlord's position. stating there is no evidence nor can the 
            court judicially know that the presence and distribution of water on 
            the several floors will conduce to the health of the occupants . . . 
            there is no necessity for legislative compulsion on a landlord to 
            distribute water through the stories of his building; since if 
            tenants require it, self-interest and the rivalry of competition are 
            sufficient to secure it . . . now, if it be competent for the 
            legislature to impose an expense upon a landlord in order that 
            tenants be furnished with water in their rooms instead of in the 
            yard or basement, at what point must this police power pause? . . . 
            a conclusion contrary to the present decision would involve the 
            essential principle of that species of socialism under the regime of 
            which the individual disappears and is absorbed by a collective 
            being called the 'state',a principle utterly repugnant to the spirit 
            of our political system and necessarily fatal to our form of 
            liberty. Fortunately, 3 years later, the city health department was 
            granted an appeal from the court order, and eventually the 
            constitutionality of the law was upheld.Jacob A. Riis, 
            Lawrence Veiller, and others did much during this period to champion 
            the cause of better living conditions. Their efforts resulted in the 
            Tenement House Act of 1901, a milestone in housing and an extremely 
            comprehensive document for its time. It began with concise 
            definitions of certain terms that were to become important in court 
            actions. It contained provisions for protection from fire, requiring 
            that every tenement erected thereafter, and exceeding 60 feet in 
            height, should be fireproof. In addition, there were specific 
            provisions regarding fire escapes on both new and existing houses. 
            More light and ventilation were required; coverage was restricted to 
            not more than 70 percent on interior lots and 90 percent on corner 
            lots. There were special provisions governing rear yards, inner 
            courts, and buildings on the same lot with the tenement house. At 
            least one window of specified dimensions was required for every 
            room, including the bathroom. Minimum size of rooms was specified as 
            were certain characteristics for public halls. Significantly 
            included were provisions concerning planning for the individual 
            apartments in order to assure privacy. One of the most important 
            provisions of the Tenement Act was the requirement for running water 
            and water closets in each apartment in new tenement houses. Special 
            attention was given to basements and cellars, the law requiring not 
            only that they be damp proof but also that permits be obtained 
            before they were occupied. One novel section of this act prohibited 
            the use of any part of the building as a house of 
            prostitution.The basic 
            principles and methodology established in the Tenement Act of 1901 
            still underlie much of the housing efforts in New York City today. 
            Philadelphia, a city that can be compared with New York from the 
            standpoint of age. was fortunate to have farsighted leaders in its 
            early stage of development. Since 1909, with the establishment of 
            the Philadelphia Housing Association, the city has had almost 
            continual inspection and improvement.Although Chicago is 
            approximately two centuries younger than New York, it enacted 
            housing legislation as early as 1889 and health legislation as early 
            as 1881. Regulations on ventilation, light, drainage, and plumbing 
            of dwellings were put into effect in 1896. Many of the structures, 
            however, were built of wood, were dilapidated. and constituted 
            serious fire hazards.Before 1892, all 
            government involvement in housing was at a local level. In 1892, 
            however, the Federal Government passed a resolution authorizing 
            investigation of slum conditions in cities containing 200,000 or 
            more inhabitants. At that time these included the cities of 
            Baltimore, Boston, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Chicago, Cincinnati, 
            Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, 
            Pittsburgh, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Washington. Much 
            controversy surrounded the involvement of the Federal Government in 
            housing. The Commissioner of Labor was forced to write an extensive 
            legal opinion concerning the constitutionality of expenditures by 
            the Federal Government in this area. The result was that Congress 
            appropriated only $20,000 to cover the expenses of this project. The 
            lack of funds limited actual investigations to Baltimore, Chicago, 
            New York, and Philadelphia and did not cover housing conditions in 
            toto within these cities. Facts obtained from the investigation were 
            very broad, covering items such as the number of saloons per number 
            of inhabitants, number of arrests, distribution of males and 
            females, proportion of foreign-born inhabitants, degree of 
            illiteracy, kinds of occupations of the residents, conditions of 
            their health, their earnings, and the number of voters.The 20th century 
            started off rather poorly in the area of housing. No significant 
            housing legislation was passed until 1929 when the New York State 
            legislature passed its Multiple Dwelling Law. This law continued the 
            Tenement Act of New York City but replaced many provisions of the 
            1901 law with less strict requirements. Other cities and states 
            followed New York State's example and permitted less strict 
            requirements in their codes. This decreased what little emphasis 
            there was in enforcement of building laws so that during the 1920's 
            the cities had worked themselves into a very poor state of housing. 
            Conditions in America declined to such a state by the 30's that 
            President Franklin D. Roosevelt's shocking report to the people was 
            "that one-third of the nation is ill-fed, ill-housed, and 
            ill-clothed." With this the Federal Government launched itself 
            extensively into the field of housing. The first Federal housing law 
            was passed in 1934. One of the purposes of this act was to create a 
            sounder mortgage system through the provision of a permanent system 
            of government insurance for residential mortgages. The Federal 
            Housing Administration was created to carry out the objectives of 
            this act.Many other Federal 
            laws followed: the Veterans Administration becoming involved in 
            guaranteeing of loans, the Home Loan Bank Board, Federal National 
            Mortgage Association, Communities Facilities Administration, Public 
            Housing Administration, and the Public Works Administration. With 
            the U.S. Housing Act of 1937, the Federal Government entered the 
            area of slum clearance and urban renewal, requiring one slum 
            dwelling to be eliminated for every new unit built under the Housing 
            Administration program. It was not until the passage of the Housing 
            Act of 1949 that the Federal Government entered into slum clearance 
            on a comprehensive basis.The many 
            responsibilities in housing administered by various agencies within 
            the Federal Government proved to be unwieldy. Hence, in 1966 the 
            Department of Housing and Urban Development was created to have 
            prime responsibilities for the Federal Government's involvement in 
            the field of housing. II.  Trends in 
            Housing InspectionHistorically, local 
            provisions for the inspection of housing have been completely 
            inadequate. Usually the function has been split among two or more 
            agencies, and the pertinent code sections have been spread among 
            several local ordinances.Following the work 
            of C. E. A. Winslow, minimum code standards were made available and 
            resulted in the passing of housing codes. This consolidation of 
            housing requirements resulted in the field of housing inspection. 
            Originally much of the work was devoted to complaint and referral 
            inspections.**A Complaint 
            and Referral Inspections**In most communities 
            the housing inspectors are expected to center their efforts 
            primarily on complaint and referral inspections. This approach 
            satisfies the persons making the complaints and referrals and helps 
            improve some of the municipality's substandard housing. However, it 
            does little to bring about general improvements in any section of 
            the community and actually constitutes an inefficient way of using 
            the available inspection manpower because the men have to spend so 
            much time traveling from one area to another.Many supervisors 
            and inspectors realize this unsystematic method not only wastes time 
            but also is an ineffective way of upgrading housing and curbing 
            blight. First, on complaint inspections the inspectors are usually 
            instructed to confine their investigations to the dwelling unit 
            specifically involved unless the general conditions are so bad that 
            an inspection of the entire building is deemed necessary. This means 
            most complaint inspections are piecemeal and do not ordinarily bring 
            entire dwellings up to code standards. Second, even though numerous 
            complaints are unwarranted, inspectors are often given so many to 
            check each day that they do not have time to inspect other obviously 
            substandard houses in the vicinity of those complained about. 
            Consequently, these "rotten apples" are left to spoil the block, 
            while the house that has been improved stands alone.Too often 
            inspection agencies have found they did not have enough facts on 
            hand about the extent and distribution of the substandard housing in 
            their communities. Thus, they were unable to convince their 
            superiors and the public about the inadequacy of complaint 
            inspections as the major method of uncovering violations and 
            checking residential blight in neighborhoods. It is the consensus of 
            housing officials that area inspections are the most effective way 
            of doing both.2 Fortunately, in the 1960's, as one city after 
            another began developing the comprehensive community renewal plans 
            provided for in the Housing Act of 1959, this information finally 
            started to become available. It verified the need for systematic 
            inspections on a neighborhood basis. Congress further emphasized the 
            importance of this new approach by including Section 301 in the 
            Housing Act of 1964. This required all cities engaged in urban 
            renewal to have comprehensive area inspection programs in operation 
            by March 1967, and thereafter, in order to remain eligible for 
            national renewal funds.B  
            **Neighborhood Inspection Technique**The area or 
            neighborhood inspection technique is a more recent type of 
            inspection and one which begins to face up to the problems of saving 
            neighborhoods from urban blight. While this is a step forward, it is 
            merely one of several steps required if urban blight and its 
            associated human suffering are to be minimized or controlled.Throughout this 
            manual the terms "area" or "neighborhood" are used interchangeably 
            and refer to a readily identifiable portion of a community. Whether 
            this consists of so many blocks, an entire neighborhood, or a 
            section thereof, it should be of such size as to permit the local 
            code enforcement team to inspect and systematically effect minimum 
            housing standards within a manageable time.This means that 
            area inspection programs involve systematic cellar-to-roof, 
            house-to-house, block-to-block inspections of all properties within 
            the specific area and include all the follow-up work required to 
            bring the substandard housing up to code standards within a 
            reasonable period. By putting major emphasis on this type effort 
            instead of on the complaint-oriented approach, blight is checked and 
            an overall upgrading of residential sections is achieved in one 
            portion of a community after another. Thus, systematic area 
            inspection is both a longer lasting and a much more effective method 
            of improving housing and stabilizing property values than the 
            traditional complaint method.Usually a 
            municipality combines its area work with some complaint and referral 
            inspections. This is not objectionable so long as major emphasis is 
            given to the area programs, and the inspectors move through the 
            various sections of town systematically. Only in this way can a 
            community's housing inspection program contribute adequately to the 
            municipal efforts to upgrade all substandard housing and stem the 
            deterioration of individual homes and neighborhoods. A percentage of 
            the inspection force should, however, be primarily assigned to 
            complaint and referral work so that prompt action can be taken on 
            all cases in which the problems are too severe to await action in 
            connection with the area inspections.While the area-wide 
            or neighborhood inspections will correct violations of the housing 
            code, this is all they will accomplish. Once these neighborhoods are 
            brought up to standard, inspectors will move on to other 
            neighborhoods but be forced to return at a later time and repeat the 
            process.If a neighborhood 
            has declined to the extent that there is a large amount of housing 
            violations, then it is obvious that something or someone or both 
            have caused the neighborhood to deteriorate. Any effort that does 
            not also eliminate the cause for deterioration can only be a token 
            effort and frequently a wasted effort. Unless a housing program 
            evaluates the total neighborhood for both housing violations and for 
            environmental stresses within the neighborhood that may have caused 
            the deterioration of the housing, then the inspectional effort has 
            not been complete.What then are these 
            "environmental stresses"? Environmental stresses are the elements 
            within a neighborhood that influence the physical, mental, and 
            emotional well-being of the occupants. They include items such as 
            noise, glare, excessive land covering, nonresidential land uses, and 
            extensive traffic problems. If a housing program is to be complete, 
            these stresses must be identified and assessed. Then efforts must be 
            made in conjunction with other departments within the city to 
            program capital improvement budgets to alleviate or minimize these 
            stresses.These two types of 
            inspection are the field involvement of the housing inspector. He 
            must inspect not only the houses for violations but also the 
            neighborhoods for environmental stresses. This will provide him with 
            knowledge of physical conditions within the neighborhood. As 
            mentioned previously, however, this is not the whole problem in most 
            neighborhoods. Generally, the very difficult problem of the human 
            element is involved. Many buildings and neighborhoods deteriorate 
            because of apathy on the part of the neighborhood inhabitants. 
            Efforts must be made to motivate the slum dweller to work towards a 
            better living environment. Experience by the Public Health Service 
            (PHS) in motivational training has shown it to be very effective in 
            raising the living standards of neighborhood populations.In summary then, a 
            housing inspection effort should be made up of three parts: First, a 
            neighborhood or area-wide housing inspection procedure; second, a 
            neighborhood analysis procedure to identify, assess, and eventually 
            control environmental stresses; and third, a program of motivational 
            training for slum dwellers to raise the living standards of the 
            neighborhood . **III.  
            Role of Health Agencies in Housing**Up until the end of 
            World War II, most local housing hygiene programs were carried on by 
            the health departments. After WW II! health agencies began to drift 
            away from the field of housing hygiene. This gap was filled by a 
            variety of other city agencies including building departments, 
            police departments, fire departments. and more recently created 
            departments of licenses and inspections. Regardless which department 
            administers the housing code, the health department, if it is to 
            live up to its responsibilities of protecting the public health, 
            must have an involvement in housing. A general statement of PHS 
            policy is that the basic responsibility of health agencies with 
            regard to housing is to see to it that local and state governments 
            take action to ensure that all occupied housing meets minimum public 
            health standards. This basic responsibility falls upon federal, 
            state. and local health agencies alike.Several kinds of 
            governmental action are required. These include: (I) adoption of 
            minimum health standards in housing, (2) conduct of a program to 
            achieve and maintain these standards, (3) periodic evaluation of the 
            standards to ensure their current adequacy, and (4) monitoring of 
            the standards enforcement effort to guarantee that public health 
            values are provided. Health agencies, in order to meet their 
            responsibilities, must accept the role of either stimulating or 
            carrying out these four required kinds of governmental 
action.In communities that 
            have neither standards nor program, the health agency has the 
            responsibility of initiating both by stimulating the required 
            governmental action. Stimulation may be direct, through elected or 
            appointed officials, or indirect, by generating public support that 
            will trigger official action.**IV. Summary**
            Several basic 
            thoughts are contained in this chapter.A  
            Housing is an old, well-established but often overlooked topic 
            within this country. Indications are, however, that the broad field 
            of housing will receive much more attention from the policy makers 
            throughout the country within the coming years.B  No 
            single agency can eliminate urban blight. A concentrated effort of 
            all city departments, private concerns, and political bodies must be 
            focused on small sections (neighborhoods) to minimize or control 
            urban blight and its associated human sufferings.C  A 
            housing effort cannot be successful if it is merely an inspection of 
            houses for code compliance. There must also be a united effort to 
            eliminate environmental stresses within the neighborhood and instill 
            motivation in slum dwellers to desire and work towards improving 
            their environment.**REFERENCES** |           |  | President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Demonstration Cities" message 
            to Congress, January 26, 1966. |  |  | "Enforcement of Housing Codes," Harvard Law Review, Vol. 78. 
            No. 4, Feb. 1965, p. 807.                                                      |                                                                                              | Table 
            of Contents | Acknowledgements 
            | Foreword 
            | Chapter1 
            | Chapter 
            2Chapter 
            3 | Chapter 
            4 | Chapter 
            5 | Chapter 
            6 | Chapter 
            7Chapter 
            8 | Chapter 
            9 | Chapter 
            10 | Chapter 
            11 |  | 
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
|**Chapter 1: Trends in 
            Housing**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
|**Table of 
            Contents**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |                                                           | I.  The History of 
            Housing                                                                 
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |                                                           | II.  Trends in Housing 
            Inspection                                                          
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |                                                           | III.  Role of Health 
            Agencies in Housing                                                   
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |                                                           | IV.  Summary                                                                                             
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |                                                           | References                                                                                               
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              
|Members of countless 
            communities throughout America are raising critical questions about 
            the adequacy and effectiveness of local housing code enforcement 
            programs. These critics feel deep concern over the fact that 1966 
            found "some four million urban families living in homes of such 
            disrepair as to violate decent housing standards.'' For this reason, 
            they insist everything possible be done to guarantee that present 
            and future inspection efforts lead to rapid and adequate upgrading 
            of the substandard but salvageable housing in each community and 
            that the neighborhoods be made more desirable places in which to 
            live.
            In order to meet 
            these demands effectively, inspectors of housing and their 
            supervisors should first acquaint themselves with the origin of 
            public concern about housing problems; the past, present, and new 
            approaches to housing code administration; the expanded role of the 
            inspection function in the neighborhood improvement effort; and the 
            general nature of their role and responsibilities. **I.  The 
            History of Housing**The first public 
            policies on housing in this country were established during the 
            Colonial period. Many of the early settlers built houses with wooden 
            chimneys and thatched roofs which were the causes of frequent fires. 
            Consequently, several of the colonies passed regulations prohibiting 
            these. One of the first was the Plymouth Colony, which in 1626 
            passed a law stipulating that new houses should not be thatched but 
            roofed with either board or pale and the like. In 1648 wooden or 
            plastered chimneys were prohibited on new houses in New Amsterdam, 
            and chimneys on existing houses were decreed to be inspected 
            regularly. In Charlestown in 1740, following a disastrous fire. the 
            general assembly passed an act that declared that all buildings 
            should be of brick or stone, that all "tall'' wooded houses must be 
            pulled down by 1745, and that the use of wood was to be confined to 
            window frames. shutters, and to exterior work. This law was 
            obviously unenforceable because, as we learn from other publications 
            during that period, more Charlestown houses were made of timber than 
            of brick.Social control over 
            housing was exerted in other ways. Early settlers in Pennsylvania 
            frequently dug caves out of the banks of the Delaware River and used 
            these as primitive-type dwellings. Some of these shelters were still 
            in use as late as 1687 when the Provincial Council ordered 
            inhabitants to provide for themselves other habitations, in order to 
            have the said caves or houses destroyed. In some New England 
            communities, around the turn of the 18th century, standards were 
            raised considerably higher by local ordinances. In East Greenwich, 
            it had been the custom to build houses 14 feet square with posts 9 
            feet high; in 1727 the town voted that houses shall be built 18 feet 
            square with posts 15 feet high with chimneys of stone or brick as 
            before.During the early 
            days of this country, basic sanitation was very poor, primarily 
            because outdoor privies served as the general means of sewage 
            disposal. The principal problems created by the use of these privies 
            involved their nearness to the streets and their easy accessibility 
            to hogs and goats. In 1652, Boston prohibited the building of 
            privies within 12 feet of the street. The Dutch of New Amsterdam in 
            1657 prohibited the throwing of rubbish and filth into the streets 
            or canal and required the householders to keep the streets clean and 
            orderly.After the early 
            Colonial period we pass into an era of very rapid metropolitan 
            growth along the eastern seashore. This growth was due largely to 
            the immigration of people from Europe. Frequently these immigrants 
            arrived without money or jobs and were forced to move in with 
            friends or relatives. This led to severe overcrowding. Most of the 
            information available pertains to New York City, because the 
            situation there was worse than that in any other city in the 
            country. It received the majority of the immigrants, many of whom 
            were unable to move beyond the city. The most serious housing 
            problems began in New York about ] 840 when the first tenements were 
            built. These provided such substandard housing and such unhealthy, 
            crowded living conditions that a social reform movement was imminent 
            in New York.During the early 
            part of the 19th century, the only housing control authority was 
            that vested in the fire wardens, whose objective was to prevent 
            fires, and the health wardens, who were charged with the enforcement 
            of general sanitation. In 1867, with the passing of the Tenement 
            Housing Act, New York City began to face the problem of substandard 
            housing. This law represented the first comprehensive legislation of 
            its kind in this country. The principal features of the act are 
            summarized as follows: for every room occupied for sleeping in a 
            tenement or lodging house, if it does not communicate directly with 
            the external air, a ventilating or transom window to the neighboring 
            room or hall; a proper fire escape on every tenement or lodging 
            house; the roof to be kept in repair and the stairs to have 
            bannisters; water closets or privies - at least one to every twenty 
            occupants for all such houses; after July 1, 1867, permits for 
            occupancy of every cellar not previously occupied as a dwelling; 
            cleansing of every lodging house to the satisfaction of the Board of 
            Health, which is to have access at any time; reporting of all cases 
            of infectious disease to the Board by the owner or his agent; 
            inspection and, if necessary, disinfection of such houses; and 
            vacation of buildings found to be out of repair. There were also 
            regulations governing distances between buildings, heights of rooms, 
            and dimensions of windows. The terms "tenement house," "lodging 
            house," and "cellar" were defined.Although this act 
            had some beneficial influences on overcrowding, sewage disposal, 
            lighting, and ventilation, it did not correct the evils of crowding 
            on lots and did not provide for adequate ventilation for inner 
            rooms. In 1879, a second tenement act, amending the first, was 
            passed adding restrictions on the amount of lot coverage and 
            providing for a window opening of at least 12 square feet in every 
            room. Several attempts in 1882, 1884, and 1895 were made to amend 
            this original act and provide for occupancy standards, but they were 
            relatively unenforceable. While these numerous acts remedied only 
            slightly the serious problems of the tenements, they did show the 
            city's acknowledgment of the problems.' This public acknowledgment, 
            however, was seldom shared by the owners of the tenements, or, in 
            some cases, by the courts. The most famous case, in 1892, involved 
            Trinity Church, at that time one of the largest owners of tenements 
            in New York City. In the case, the City of New York accused Trinity 
            Church of violating provisions of the Act of 1882 by failing to 
            provide running water on every floor of its buildings. A district 
            court levied a fine of $200 against the Church. which in turn 
            appealed to the Court of Common Pleas to have the law set aside as 
            unconstitutional. Incredibly the court agreed unanimously to uphold 
            the landlord's position. stating there is no evidence nor can the 
            court judicially know that the presence and distribution of water on 
            the several floors will conduce to the health of the occupants . . . 
            there is no necessity for legislative compulsion on a landlord to 
            distribute water through the stories of his building; since if 
            tenants require it, self-interest and the rivalry of competition are 
            sufficient to secure it . . . now, if it be competent for the 
            legislature to impose an expense upon a landlord in order that 
            tenants be furnished with water in their rooms instead of in the 
            yard or basement, at what point must this police power pause? . . . 
            a conclusion contrary to the present decision would involve the 
            essential principle of that species of socialism under the regime of 
            which the individual disappears and is absorbed by a collective 
            being called the 'state',a principle utterly repugnant to the spirit 
            of our political system and necessarily fatal to our form of 
            liberty. Fortunately, 3 years later, the city health department was 
            granted an appeal from the court order, and eventually the 
            constitutionality of the law was upheld.Jacob A. Riis, 
            Lawrence Veiller, and others did much during this period to champion 
            the cause of better living conditions. Their efforts resulted in the 
            Tenement House Act of 1901, a milestone in housing and an extremely 
            comprehensive document for its time. It began with concise 
            definitions of certain terms that were to become important in court 
            actions. It contained provisions for protection from fire, requiring 
            that every tenement erected thereafter, and exceeding 60 feet in 
            height, should be fireproof. In addition, there were specific 
            provisions regarding fire escapes on both new and existing houses. 
            More light and ventilation were required; coverage was restricted to 
            not more than 70 percent on interior lots and 90 percent on corner 
            lots. There were special provisions governing rear yards, inner 
            courts, and buildings on the same lot with the tenement house. At 
            least one window of specified dimensions was required for every 
            room, including the bathroom. Minimum size of rooms was specified as 
            were certain characteristics for public halls. Significantly 
            included were provisions concerning planning for the individual 
            apartments in order to assure privacy. One of the most important 
            provisions of the Tenement Act was the requirement for running water 
            and water closets in each apartment in new tenement houses. Special 
            attention was given to basements and cellars, the law requiring not 
            only that they be damp proof but also that permits be obtained 
            before they were occupied. One novel section of this act prohibited 
            the use of any part of the building as a house of 
            prostitution.The basic 
            principles and methodology established in the Tenement Act of 1901 
            still underlie much of the housing efforts in New York City today. 
            Philadelphia, a city that can be compared with New York from the 
            standpoint of age. was fortunate to have farsighted leaders in its 
            early stage of development. Since 1909, with the establishment of 
            the Philadelphia Housing Association, the city has had almost 
            continual inspection and improvement.Although Chicago is 
            approximately two centuries younger than New York, it enacted 
            housing legislation as early as 1889 and health legislation as early 
            as 1881. Regulations on ventilation, light, drainage, and plumbing 
            of dwellings were put into effect in 1896. Many of the structures, 
            however, were built of wood, were dilapidated. and constituted 
            serious fire hazards.Before 1892, all 
            government involvement in housing was at a local level. In 1892, 
            however, the Federal Government passed a resolution authorizing 
            investigation of slum conditions in cities containing 200,000 or 
            more inhabitants. At that time these included the cities of 
            Baltimore, Boston, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Chicago, Cincinnati, 
            Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, 
            Pittsburgh, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Washington. Much 
            controversy surrounded the involvement of the Federal Government in 
            housing. The Commissioner of Labor was forced to write an extensive 
            legal opinion concerning the constitutionality of expenditures by 
            the Federal Government in this area. The result was that Congress 
            appropriated only $20,000 to cover the expenses of this project. The 
            lack of funds limited actual investigations to Baltimore, Chicago, 
            New York, and Philadelphia and did not cover housing conditions in 
            toto within these cities. Facts obtained from the investigation were 
            very broad, covering items such as the number of saloons per number 
            of inhabitants, number of arrests, distribution of males and 
            females, proportion of foreign-born inhabitants, degree of 
            illiteracy, kinds of occupations of the residents, conditions of 
            their health, their earnings, and the number of voters.The 20th century 
            started off rather poorly in the area of housing. No significant 
            housing legislation was passed until 1929 when the New York State 
            legislature passed its Multiple Dwelling Law. This law continued the 
            Tenement Act of New York City but replaced many provisions of the 
            1901 law with less strict requirements. Other cities and states 
            followed New York State's example and permitted less strict 
            requirements in their codes. This decreased what little emphasis 
            there was in enforcement of building laws so that during the 1920's 
            the cities had worked themselves into a very poor state of housing. 
            Conditions in America declined to such a state by the 30's that 
            President Franklin D. Roosevelt's shocking report to the people was 
            "that one-third of the nation is ill-fed, ill-housed, and 
            ill-clothed." With this the Federal Government launched itself 
            extensively into the field of housing. The first Federal housing law 
            was passed in 1934. One of the purposes of this act was to create a 
            sounder mortgage system through the provision of a permanent system 
            of government insurance for residential mortgages. The Federal 
            Housing Administration was created to carry out the objectives of 
            this act.Many other Federal 
            laws followed: the Veterans Administration becoming involved in 
            guaranteeing of loans, the Home Loan Bank Board, Federal National 
            Mortgage Association, Communities Facilities Administration, Public 
            Housing Administration, and the Public Works Administration. With 
            the U.S. Housing Act of 1937, the Federal Government entered the 
            area of slum clearance and urban renewal, requiring one slum 
            dwelling to be eliminated for every new unit built under the Housing 
            Administration program. It was not until the passage of the Housing 
            Act of 1949 that the Federal Government entered into slum clearance 
            on a comprehensive basis.The many 
            responsibilities in housing administered by various agencies within 
            the Federal Government proved to be unwieldy. Hence, in 1966 the 
            Department of Housing and Urban Development was created to have 
            prime responsibilities for the Federal Government's involvement in 
            the field of housing. II.  Trends in 
            Housing InspectionHistorically, local 
            provisions for the inspection of housing have been completely 
            inadequate. Usually the function has been split among two or more 
            agencies, and the pertinent code sections have been spread among 
            several local ordinances.Following the work 
            of C. E. A. Winslow, minimum code standards were made available and 
            resulted in the passing of housing codes. This consolidation of 
            housing requirements resulted in the field of housing inspection. 
            Originally much of the work was devoted to complaint and referral 
            inspections.**A Complaint 
            and Referral Inspections**In most communities 
            the housing inspectors are expected to center their efforts 
            primarily on complaint and referral inspections. This approach 
            satisfies the persons making the complaints and referrals and helps 
            improve some of the municipality's substandard housing. However, it 
            does little to bring about general improvements in any section of 
            the community and actually constitutes an inefficient way of using 
            the available inspection manpower because the men have to spend so 
            much time traveling from one area to another.Many supervisors 
            and inspectors realize this unsystematic method not only wastes time 
            but also is an ineffective way of upgrading housing and curbing 
            blight. First, on complaint inspections the inspectors are usually 
            instructed to confine their investigations to the dwelling unit 
            specifically involved unless the general conditions are so bad that 
            an inspection of the entire building is deemed necessary. This means 
            most complaint inspections are piecemeal and do not ordinarily bring 
            entire dwellings up to code standards. Second, even though numerous 
            complaints are unwarranted, inspectors are often given so many to 
            check each day that they do not have time to inspect other obviously 
            substandard houses in the vicinity of those complained about. 
            Consequently, these "rotten apples" are left to spoil the block, 
            while the house that has been improved stands alone.Too often 
            inspection agencies have found they did not have enough facts on 
            hand about the extent and distribution of the substandard housing in 
            their communities. Thus, they were unable to convince their 
            superiors and the public about the inadequacy of complaint 
            inspections as the major method of uncovering violations and 
            checking residential blight in neighborhoods. It is the consensus of 
            housing officials that area inspections are the most effective way 
            of doing both.2 Fortunately, in the 1960's, as one city after 
            another began developing the comprehensive community renewal plans 
            provided for in the Housing Act of 1959, this information finally 
            started to become available. It verified the need for systematic 
            inspections on a neighborhood basis. Congress further emphasized the 
            importance of this new approach by including Section 301 in the 
            Housing Act of 1964. This required all cities engaged in urban 
            renewal to have comprehensive area inspection programs in operation 
            by March 1967, and thereafter, in order to remain eligible for 
            national renewal funds.B  
            **Neighborhood Inspection Technique**The area or 
            neighborhood inspection technique is a more recent type of 
            inspection and one which begins to face up to the problems of saving 
            neighborhoods from urban blight. While this is a step forward, it is 
            merely one of several steps required if urban blight and its 
            associated human suffering are to be minimized or controlled.Throughout this 
            manual the terms "area" or "neighborhood" are used interchangeably 
            and refer to a readily identifiable portion of a community. Whether 
            this consists of so many blocks, an entire neighborhood, or a 
            section thereof, it should be of such size as to permit the local 
            code enforcement team to inspect and systematically effect minimum 
            housing standards within a manageable time.This means that 
            area inspection programs involve systematic cellar-to-roof, 
            house-to-house, block-to-block inspections of all properties within 
            the specific area and include all the follow-up work required to 
            bring the substandard housing up to code standards within a 
            reasonable period. By putting major emphasis on this type effort 
            instead of on the complaint-oriented approach, blight is checked and 
            an overall upgrading of residential sections is achieved in one 
            portion of a community after another. Thus, systematic area 
            inspection is both a longer lasting and a much more effective method 
            of improving housing and stabilizing property values than the 
            traditional complaint method.Usually a 
            municipality combines its area work with some complaint and referral 
            inspections. This is not objectionable so long as major emphasis is 
            given to the area programs, and the inspectors move through the 
            various sections of town systematically. Only in this way can a 
            community's housing inspection program contribute adequately to the 
            municipal efforts to upgrade all substandard housing and stem the 
            deterioration of individual homes and neighborhoods. A percentage of 
            the inspection force should, however, be primarily assigned to 
            complaint and referral work so that prompt action can be taken on 
            all cases in which the problems are too severe to await action in 
            connection with the area inspections.While the area-wide 
            or neighborhood inspections will correct violations of the housing 
            code, this is all they will accomplish. Once these neighborhoods are 
            brought up to standard, inspectors will move on to other 
            neighborhoods but be forced to return at a later time and repeat the 
            process.If a neighborhood 
            has declined to the extent that there is a large amount of housing 
            violations, then it is obvious that something or someone or both 
            have caused the neighborhood to deteriorate. Any effort that does 
            not also eliminate the cause for deterioration can only be a token 
            effort and frequently a wasted effort. Unless a housing program 
            evaluates the total neighborhood for both housing violations and for 
            environmental stresses within the neighborhood that may have caused 
            the deterioration of the housing, then the inspectional effort has 
            not been complete.What then are these 
            "environmental stresses"? Environmental stresses are the elements 
            within a neighborhood that influence the physical, mental, and 
            emotional well-being of the occupants. They include items such as 
            noise, glare, excessive land covering, nonresidential land uses, and 
            extensive traffic problems. If a housing program is to be complete, 
            these stresses must be identified and assessed. Then efforts must be 
            made in conjunction with other departments within the city to 
            program capital improvement budgets to alleviate or minimize these 
            stresses.These two types of 
            inspection are the field involvement of the housing inspector. He 
            must inspect not only the houses for violations but also the 
            neighborhoods for environmental stresses. This will provide him with 
            knowledge of physical conditions within the neighborhood. As 
            mentioned previously, however, this is not the whole problem in most 
            neighborhoods. Generally, the very difficult problem of the human 
            element is involved. Many buildings and neighborhoods deteriorate 
            because of apathy on the part of the neighborhood inhabitants. 
            Efforts must be made to motivate the slum dweller to work towards a 
            better living environment. Experience by the Public Health Service 
            (PHS) in motivational training has shown it to be very effective in 
            raising the living standards of neighborhood populations.In summary then, a 
            housing inspection effort should be made up of three parts: First, a 
            neighborhood or area-wide housing inspection procedure; second, a 
            neighborhood analysis procedure to identify, assess, and eventually 
            control environmental stresses; and third, a program of motivational 
            training for slum dwellers to raise the living standards of the 
            neighborhood . **III.  
            Role of Health Agencies in Housing**Up until the end of 
            World War II, most local housing hygiene programs were carried on by 
            the health departments. After WW II! health agencies began to drift 
            away from the field of housing hygiene. This gap was filled by a 
            variety of other city agencies including building departments, 
            police departments, fire departments. and more recently created 
            departments of licenses and inspections. Regardless which department 
            administers the housing code, the health department, if it is to 
            live up to its responsibilities of protecting the public health, 
            must have an involvement in housing. A general statement of PHS 
            policy is that the basic responsibility of health agencies with 
            regard to housing is to see to it that local and state governments 
            take action to ensure that all occupied housing meets minimum public 
            health standards. This basic responsibility falls upon federal, 
            state. and local health agencies alike.Several kinds of 
            governmental action are required. These include: (I) adoption of 
            minimum health standards in housing, (2) conduct of a program to 
            achieve and maintain these standards, (3) periodic evaluation of the 
            standards to ensure their current adequacy, and (4) monitoring of 
            the standards enforcement effort to guarantee that public health 
            values are provided. Health agencies, in order to meet their 
            responsibilities, must accept the role of either stimulating or 
            carrying out these four required kinds of governmental 
action.In communities that 
            have neither standards nor program, the health agency has the 
            responsibility of initiating both by stimulating the required 
            governmental action. Stimulation may be direct, through elected or 
            appointed officials, or indirect, by generating public support that 
            will trigger official action.**IV. Summary**
            Several basic 
            thoughts are contained in this chapter.A  
            Housing is an old, well-established but often overlooked topic 
            within this country. Indications are, however, that the broad field 
            of housing will receive much more attention from the policy makers 
            throughout the country within the coming years.B  No 
            single agency can eliminate urban blight. A concentrated effort of 
            all city departments, private concerns, and political bodies must be 
            focused on small sections (neighborhoods) to minimize or control 
            urban blight and its associated human sufferings.C  A 
            housing effort cannot be successful if it is merely an inspection of 
            houses for code compliance. There must also be a united effort to 
            eliminate environmental stresses within the neighborhood and instill 
            motivation in slum dwellers to desire and work towards improving 
            their environment.**REFERENCES**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |                                                           | President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Demonstration Cities" message 
            to Congress, January 26, 1966.
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              |                                                           | "Enforcement of Housing Codes," Harvard Law Review, Vol. 78. 
            No. 4, Feb. 1965, p. 807.     
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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