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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |                                                          
|**Chapter 4: Building Aspects of a 
            Housing Inspection****Table of 
            Contents**I. Background 
            FactorsII.  Housing 
            Construction TerminologyIII.  
            StructureIV.  Discussion of 
            Inspection TechniquesV.  Noise as an 
            Environmental StressThe principle function of a 
            house is to furnish protection from the elements. In its current 
            stage, however, our civilization requires that a home provide not 
            only shelter but also privacy, safety, and reasonable protection of 
            our physical and mental health. A living facility that fails to 
            offer these essentials through adequately designed and properly 
            maintained interiors and exteriors cannot be termed "healthful 
            housing." **I.  Background 
            Factors**
            In this chapter, a 
            building will be considered in terms of its major components: 
            heating, plumbing, and electrical systems. Each of these items will 
            be examined in detail in future chapters. Attention will be given in 
            this chapter to the portions of a building not visible upon 
            completion of the ceiling, roof, and interior and exterior walls in 
            order to give the reader an understanding of generally accepted 
            construction practices. Emphasis, however, will be placed upon the 
            visible interior and exterior parts of a completed dwelling that 
            have a bearing on the soundness, state of repair, and safety of the 
            dwelling both during intended use and in the event of a fire. These 
            are some of the elements that the housing inspector must examine 
            when making a thorough housing inspection. **II.  Housing 
            Construction Terminology**(Key to Component 
            Parts Numbered in Figure 4-1)**Figure 4-1. Housing 
            Construction Terminology**A  Fireplace 

            Chimney - 
              A vertical masonry shaft of reinforced concrete or other approved 
              noncombustible, heat resisting material enclosing one or more 
              flues. It removes the products of combustion from solid, liquid, 
              or gaseous fuel.Flue 
              Liner - The flue is the hole in the chimney. The liner, 
              usually of terra cotta, protects the brick from harmful smoke 
              gases.Chimney 
              Cap - This top is generally of concrete. It protects the brick 
              from weather.Chimney 
              Flashing - Sheet-metal flashing provides a tight joint between 
              chimney and roof.Firebrick 
              - An ordinary brick cannot withstand the heat of direct fire, and 
              so special firebrick is used to line the 
              fireplace.Ash Dump 
              - A trap door to let the ashes drop to a pit below, from where 
              they may be easily removed.Cleanout 
              Door - The door to the ash pit or the bottom of a chimney 
              through which the chimney can be cleaned.Chimney 
              Breast- The inside face or front of a fireplace 
              chimney.Hearth - 
              The floor of a fireplace that extends into the room for safety 
              purposes.**B  Roof**Ridge- 
              The top intersection of two opposite adjoining roof 
              surfaces.Ridge 
              Board - The board that follows along under the 
              ridge.Roof 
              Rafters - The structural members that support the 
              roof.Collar 
              Beam - Really not a beam at all. A tie that keeps the roof 
              from spreading. Connects similar rafters on opposite side of 
              roof.Roof 
              Insulation - An insulating material (usually rock wool or 
              fiberglass) in a blanket form placed between the roof rafters for 
              the purpose of keeping a house warm in the winter, cool in the 
              summer.Roof 
              Sheathing - The boards that provide the base for the finished 
              roof.Roofing - 
              The wood, asphalt, or asbestos shingles - or tile, slate or metal 
              - that form the outer protection against the 
              weather.Corner 
              Bracing - Diagonal strips to keep the frame square and 
              plumb.Sheathing 
              - The first layer of outer wall covering nailed to the 
              studs.Joist- 
              The structural members or beams that hold up the floor or ceiling, 
              usually 2x10's or 2x12's spaced 16 inches apart.Bridging 
              - Cross bridging or solid. Members at the middle or third points 
              of joist spans to brace one to the next and to prevent their 
              twisting.Subflooring - The rough boards that are laid over 
              the joist. Usually laid diagonally.Flooring 
              Paper - A felt paper laid on the rough floor to stop air 
              infiltration and, to some extent, noise.Finish 
              Flooring - Usually hardwood, of tongued and grooved 
              strips.Building 
              Paper - Paper placed outside the sheathing, not as a vapor 
              barrier, but to prevent water and air from leaking in. Building 
              paper is also used as a tarred felt under shingles or siding to 
              keep out moisture or wind.Beveled 
              Siding - Sometimes called clapboards, with a thick butt and a 
              thin upper edge lapped to shed water.Wall 
              Insulation - A blanket of wool or reflective foil placed 
              inside the walls.Metal 
              Lath - A mesh made from sheet metal onto which plaster is 
              applied.D  Foundation and 
              BasementFinished 
              Grade Line - The top of the ground at the 
              foundation.Foundation 
              Wall - The wall of poured concrete (shown) or concrete blocks 
              that rests on the footing and supports the remainder of the house 
              .Termite 
              Shield - A metal baffle to prevent termites from entering the 
              frame.Footing - 
              The concrete pad that carries the entire weight of the house upon 
              the earth.Footing Drain 
              Tile - A pipe with cracks at the joints to allow underground 
              water to drain in and away before it gets into the 
              basement.Basement 
              Floor Slab- The 4 or 5-inch layer of concrete that forms the 
              basement floor.Gravel Fill- Placed under the slab to allow drainage and to guard against 
              a damp floor.Girder - 
              A main beam upon which floor joists rest. Usually of steel, but 
              also of wood.Backfill 
              - Earth, once dug out, that has been replaced and tamped down 
              around the foundation.Areaway - 
              An open space to allow light and air to a window. Also called a 
              light well.Area Wall 
              - The wall, of metal or concrete, that forms the open 
              area. E  Windows and 
              DoorsWindow 
              -An opening in a building for admitting light and air. It usually 
              has a pane or panes of glass and is set in a frame or sash that is 
              generally movable for opening and shutting.Window 
              Frame - The lining of the window opening.Window 
              Sash - The inner frame, usually movable, that holds the 
              glass.Lintel - 
              The structural beam over a window or door 
              opening.Window 
              Casing - The decorative strips surrounding a window opening on 
              the inside. F  Stairs and 
              EntryEntrance 
              Canopy - A roof extending over the entrance 
              door.Furring - 
              Falsework or framework necessary to bring the outer surface to 
              where we want it.Stair 
              Tread - The horizontal strip where we put our foot when we 
              climb up or down the stairs.Stair 
              Riser-The vertical board connecting one tread to the 
              next.Stair 
              Stringer - The sloping board that supports the ends of 
              the steps.Newel - 
              The post that terminates the railing.Stair 
              Rail - The bar used for a handhold when we use the 
              stairs.Balusters 
              - Vertical rods or spindles supporting a 
              rail.**III. 
            Structure**
            **A  
            Foundation**The word 
            **foundation** is used to mean:Construction 
              below grade such as footings, cellar or basement 
              walls.The composition 
              of the earth on which the building rests.Special 
              construction such as pilings and piers used to support the 
              building.The foundation bed may be composed of solid rock, sand, 
            gravel, or unconsolidated sand or clay. Rock, sand, or gravel are 
            the most reliable foundation materials. Unconsolidated sand and 
            clay, though found in many sections of the country, are not as 
            desirable. because they are subject to sliding and settling.
            The footing (see 
            Figure 4-2) distributes the weight of the building over a sufficient 
            area of ground so as to ensure that the foundation walls will stand 
            properly. Footings are usually constructed of a masonry-type 
            material such as concrete; however, in the past wood and stone have 
            been used. Some older houses have been constructed without 
            footings.Although it is 
            usually difficult to determine the condition of a footing without 
            excavating the foundation, a footing in a state of disrepair or lack 
            of a footing will usually be indicated either by large cracks or 
            by settlement in the foundation walls (see Figure 4-3). 
            **Figure 4-2. 
            Foundation Details****Figure 4-3. 
            Foundation Cracks**Foundation wall 
            cracks are usually diagonal, starting from the top, the bottom, or 
            the end of the wall. Cracks that do not extend to at least one edge 
            of the wall may not be caused by foundation problems. Such wall 
            cracks may be due to other structural problems and should also be 
            reported.The foundation 
            walls support the weight of the structure and transfer this weight 
            to the footings. The foundation walls may be made of stone, brick, 
            concrete, or concrete blocks and should be moisture proofed with 
            either a membrane of water-proof material or a coating of portland 
            cement mortar. The membrane may consist of plastic sheeting or a 
            sandwich of standard roofing felt joined and covered with tar or 
            asphalt. The purpose of water-proofing the foundation walls is to 
            prevent water from penetrating the wall material and leaving the 
            basement or cellar walls damp.Holes in the 
            foundation walls are a common finding in many old houses. These 
            holes may be caused by missing bricks or blocks. Holes and cracks in 
            a foundation wall are undesirable because they make a convenient 
            entry for rats and other rodents and also indicate the possibility 
            of further structural deterioration. These holes should not be 
            confused with adequately installed vents in the foundation wall that 
            permit ventilation and prevent moisture entrapment.The basement or 
            cellar floor should be made of concrete placed on at least 6 inches 
            of gravel. The purpose of a concrete floor is to protect the 
            basement or cellar from invasion by rodents or from flooding. The 
            gravel distributes ground water movements under the concrete floor, 
            reducing the possibility of the water's penetrating the floor. A 
            waterproof membrane, such as plastic sheeting, should be laid before 
            the concrete is placed for additional protection against 
            flooding.The basement or 
            cellar floor should be gradually but uniformly sloped towards a 
            drain or a series of drains from all directions. These drains permit 
            the basement or cellar floor to be drained if it becomes flooded 
            .Evidence of 
            ineffective waterproofing or moisture proofing will be indicated by 
            water or moisture marks on the floor and walls.Cellar doors, 
            hatchways, and basement windows should be weathertight and rodent 
            proof. A hatchway can be inspected by standing at the lower portion 
            with the doors closed; if daylight can be seen, the door probably 
            needs repair.B  
            FramingMany different 
            types of house-farming systems are found in various sections of the 
            country; however, the majority of the members in each framing system 
            are the same. They include:Foundation 
              Sills: (see Figure 4-4 and 4-5). The purpose of the sill is to 
              provide support or a bearing surface for the outside walls of the 
              building. The sill is the first part of the frame to be placed and 
              rests directly on the foundation wall. It is bolted to the 
              foundation wall by sill anchors. It is good practice to protect 
              the sill against termites by extending the foundation wall to at 
              least 18 inches above the ground and using a noncorroding metal 
              shield continuously around the outside top of the foundation 
              wall.Flooring 
              Systems: (see Figure 4-5). The flooring system is composed of 
              a combination of girders, joists, sub-flooring, and finished 
              flooring that may be made up of concrete, steel, or wood. Joists 
              are laid perpendicular to the girders, at about 16 inches on 
              centers, and are the members to which the sub-flooring is 
              attached. When the subfloor is wood, it may be nailed at either 
              right angles or diagonally to the joists.
              As shown in 
              Figure 4-5, a girder is a member that in certain framing systems 
              supports the joists and is usually a larger section than the 
              joists it supports. Girders are found in framing systems where 
              there are no interior bearing walls or where the span between 
              bearing walls is greater than the joists are capable of spanning. 
              The most common application of a girder is to support the first 
              floor in residences. Often a board known as a ledger is applied to 
              the side of a wood girder or beam to form a ledge for the joists 
              to rest upon. The girder, in turn, is supported by wood posts or 
              steel "lally columns" which extend from the cellar or basement 
              floor to the girder.Studs: (see Figure 4-4 and 4-5). Wall studs are almost always 
              2 by 4 inches; studs 2 by 6 inches are occasionally used to 
              provide a wall thick enough to permit the passage of waste pipes. 
              There are two types of walls or partitions: bearing and 
              nonbearing. A bearing wall is constructed at right angles to and 
              supports the joists. A nonbearing wall or partition acts as a 
              screen or enclosure; hence, the headers in it are often parallel 
              to the joists of the floor above.
              **Figure 4-4. Wall 
              Framing****Figure 
              4-5. Floor Construction**In general, studs 
              like joists are spaced 16 inches on center. In light construction 
              such as garages and summer cottages where plaster is omitted, or 
              some other material is used for a wall finish wider spacing on 
              studs is common.Openings for 
              windows or doors must be framed in studs. This framing consists of 
              horizontal members called "headers," and vertical members called 
              "trimmers" (see Figure 4-l).Since the 
              vertical spaces between studs can act as flues to transmit flames 
              in the event of a fire, ''fire stops" are important in preventing 
              or retarding fire from spreading through a building by way of air 
              passages in walls, floors, and partitions. Fire stops are wood 
              obstructions placed between studs or floor joists to prevent fire 
              from spreading in these natural fluespaces.Interior Wall 
              Finish: Many types of materials are used for covering interior 
              walls and ceilings, but the principal types are plaster and 
              dry-wall construction. Plaster is a mixture, usually lime, sand, 
              and water, applied in two or three coats to lath to form a 
              hard-wall surface. Dry-wall finish is a material that requires 
              little, if any, water for application. More specifically, dry-wall 
              finish may be gypsum board, plywood, fiberboard, or wood in 
              various sizes and forms.
              Gypsum board is a 
              sheet material composed of a gypsum filler faced with paper. 
              Sheets are usually 4 feet wide and can be obtained in lengths up 
              to 12 feet. In dry-wall construction, gypsum boards are fastened 
              to the studs either vertically or horizontally and then painted. 
              The edges along the length of the sheet are recessed to receive 
              joint cement and tape.A plaster finish 
              requires a base upon which plaster can be spread. Wood lath at one 
              time was the plaster base most commonly used, but today 
              gypsum-board lath is more popular. It has paper faces with a 
              gypsum filler. Such lath is 16 by 48 inches and 1/2 or 3/8 inches 
              thick.It is applied 
              horizontally across the studs. Gypsum lath may be perforated to 
              improve the bond and thus lengthen the time the plaster can remain 
              intact when exposed to fire. The building codes in some cities 
              require that gypsum lath be perforated. Expanded-metal lath may 
              also be used as a plaster base. Expanded-metal lath consists of 
              sheet metal slit and expanded to form openings to hold the 
              plaster. Metal lath is usually 27 by 96 inches and is fastened to 
              the studs.Plaster is 
              applied over the base to a minimum thickness of 1/2 inch. Because 
              some drying may take place in wood-framing members after the house 
              is completed, some shrinkage can be expected, which, in turn, may 
              cause plaster cracks to develop around openings and in corners. 
              Strips of lath imbedded in the plaster at these locations prevent 
              cracks.On the inside 
              face of studs that form an exterior wall, vapor barriers are used 
              to prevent condensation on the wall. The vapor barrier is an 
              asphalted paper or metal foil through which moisture-laden air 
              cannot travel.Stairways: (see Figure 4-6). The general purpose of 
              the standards for stairway dimensions is to ensure that there is 
              adequate headroom, width, and uniformity riser and tread size of 
              every step to accommodate the expected traffic on each stairway 
              safely.
              Interior 
              stairways should be not less than 44 inches in width. The width of 
              a stairway may be reduced to 36 inches in one- and two-farnily 
              dwellings. Stairs with closed risers should have maximum risers of 
              8? inches and a minimum tread of 9 inches plus 1 ?-inch nosing. 
              Basement stairs are often constructed with open risers. These 
              stairs should have maximum risers of 8? inches and minimum treads 
              of 9 inches plus ?-inch nosing. The headroom in all parts of the 
              stair enclosure should be no less than 80 inches.Exterior stairway 
              dimensions should be the same as those called for in interior 
              stairways, except that the headroom requirement does not 
              apply. **Figure 4-6. 
              Stairway**Windows: 
              The four general classifications of windows for residences 
              are:a Double-hung 
              sash window that moves up or down, balanced by weights hung on 
              chains or ropes, or springs on each side.
              
              b Casement 
              window sash is hinged at the side and can be hung so that it will 
              swing outward or inward.
              
              c Awning 
              window-usually has two or more glass panes that are hinged at the 
              top and swing about a horizontal axis.
              
              d Sliding window 
              - usually has two or more glass panes that slide past one another 
              on a horizontal track.The principal parts of a 
            double-hung window (see Figure 4-7) are the lights, the top rail 
            framing members, bars or muntins that separate the lights, stiles - 
            side-framing members, bottom rail, sash weights, and sash cords or 
            chains. (All rails are horizontal, all stiles vertical.) The 
            casement window's principal parts include: top and bottom rails, 
            muntins, butt hinges, and jamb. All types of windows should open 
            freely and close securely.
            The exterior sill 
            is the bottom projection of a window. The drip cap is a separate 
            piece of wood projecting over the top of the window and is a 
            component of the window casing. **Figure 4-7. Window 
            Details**Doors:There 
            are many styles of doors both for exterior and interior use. 
            Interior doors should offer a reasonable degree of privacy. Exterior 
            doors must, in addition to offering privacy, protect the interior of 
            the structure from the elements. The various parts of a door have 
            the same definitions as the corresponding parts of a window.The most common 
            types of doors are:a  Batten 
            door: This consists of boards nailed together in various ways. 
            The simplest is two layers nailed to each other at right angles, 
            usually with each layer at 4; degrees to the vertical.Another type of 
            batten door consists of vertical boards nailed at right angles to 
            several (two to four) cross strips called ledgers, with diagonal 
            bracing members nailed between ledgers. If vertical members 
            corresponding to ledgers are added at the sides, the verticals are 
            called frames.Batten doors are 
            often found in cellars and other places where appearance is not a 
            factor and economy is desired.b Flush 
            doors: Solid flush doors are perfectly flat, usually on both 
            sides, although occasionally they are made flush on one side and 
            paneled on the other. Flush doors sometimes are solid planking, but 
            they are commonly veneered and possess a core of small pieces of 
            white pine or other wood. These pieces are glued together with 
            staggered end joints. Along the sides, top, and bottom are glued 
            32-inch edge strips of the same wood, used to create a smooth 
            surface that can be cut or planed. The front and back faces are then 
            covered with a 1/8- to 1/4-inch layer of veneer.Solid flush doors 
            may be used on both the interior and exterior.c Hollow - 
            core doors: These, like solid flush doors, are perfectly flat, but 
            unlike solid doors, the core consists mainly of a grid of crossed 
            wooden slats or some other type of grid construction. Faces are 
            3-ply plywood instead of one or two plies of veneer, and the surface 
            veneer may be any species of wood, usually hardwood. The edges of 
            the core are solid wood and are made wide enough at the appropriate 
            places to accommodate locks and butts. Doors of this kind are 
            considerably lighter than solid flush doors.Hollow-core doors 
            are usually used as interior doors.d Paneled doors:Most doors are paneled, with most panels consisting of solid 
            wood or plywood, either "raised" or "flat," although exterior doors 
            frequently have one or more panels of glass, in which case they are 
            called "lights." One or more panels may be employed although the 
            number seldom exceeds eight. Paneled doors may be used both on the 
            interior or exterior.In addition to the 
            various types of wood doors, metal is often used as veneer or for 
            the frame.In general, the 
            horizontal members are called rails and the vertical members are 
            called stiles. Every door has a top and bottom rail, and some may 
            have intermediate rails. There are always at least two stiles. one 
            on each side of the door.The frame of a 
            doorway is the portion to which the door is hinged. It consists of 
            two side jambs and a head jamb, with an integral or attached stop 
            against which the door closes.Exterior door 
            frames are ordinarily of softwood plank, with side rabbitted to 
            receive the door in the same way as casement windows. At the foot is 
            a sill, made of hardwood to withstand the wear of traffic, and 
            sloped down and out to shed water.Interior door 
            frames are similar to exterior, except that they are often set 
            directly on the hardwood flooring without a sill.Building codes 
            throughout the country call for doors in various locations within 
            the structure to be fire resistant. These doors are often covered 
            with metal or some other fire-resistant materials. and some are 
            completely constructed of metal. Fire-resistant doors are usually 
            located between a garage and a house, stairwells and hallways, all 
            boiler rooms. The fire resistance rating required for various doors 
            differs with local fire codesC Roof Framing 
            (see Figures 4-1,4-4,4-8, and 4-9)Rafters serve the 
            same purpose for the roof as joists do for floors, i.e., providing 
            support for sheathing and roofing material. Rafters are usually 
            spaced 20 inches on center.Collar Beam: 
              Collar beams are ties between rafters on opposite sides of the 
              roof. If the attic is to be used for rooms, the collar beam may 
              double as the ceiling joist.Purlin: A purlin 
              is the horizontal member that forms the support for the rafters at 
              the intersection of the two slopes of a gambrel 
              roof.Ridge Board: A 
              ridge board is a horizontal member against which the rafters rest 
              at their upper ends; it forms a lateral tie to make them 
              secureHip: Like a 
              ridge except that it slopes. The intersection of two adjacent, 
              rather than two opposite, roof planes.Roof Boards: The 
              manner in which roof boards are applied depends upon the type of 
              roofing material. Roof boards may vary from tongue-and-groove 
              lumber to plywood panels.Dormer: The term 
              dormer window is applied to all windows in the roof of a building, 
              whatever their size and shape.D  Exterior 
            Walls and Trim (see Figure 4-4 and 4-9) Exterior walls are 
            enclosure walls whose purpose is to make the building weather-tight. 
            In most one- to three-story buildings they also serve as bearing 
            walls. These walls may be made of many different 
            materials.
            Frequently used 
            framed exterior walls appear to be of brick construction. In this 
            situation, the brick is only one course thick and is called a brick 
            veneer. It supports nothing but itself and is kept from toppling by 
            ties connected to the frame wall.In frame 
            construction the base material of the exterior walls is called 
            "sheathing." The sheathing material may be square-edge, shiplap, or 
            tongue-and-groove boards.In recent 
            construction there has been a strong trend toward the use of plywood 
            or composition panels.Sheathing, in 
            addition to serving as a base course for the finished siding 
            material, stiffens the frame to resist sway caused by wind. It is 
            for this reason that sheathing has been applied diagonally on frame 
            buildings.The finished siding 
            may be clapboard, shingles, aluminum, brick asphalt, wood, and so 
            forth, or a combination thereof. Good aluminum siding has a backer 
            board that serves as added insulation and affords rigidity to the 
            siding. Projecting cornices are a decorative trim found at the top 
            of the building's roofline. A parapet wall is that part of the 
            masonry wall that extends up and beyond the roofline and is capped 
            with a noncombustible material. It helps prevent spread of fire, 
            provides a rest for fire department ladders, and helps prevent 
            people on the roof from falling off.Many types of 
            siding, shingles, and other exterior coverings are applied over the 
            sheathing. Wood siding, cedar, and other wood shingles or shakes, 
            clapboard, common siding (called bevel siding), composition siding, 
            asbestos, cement shingles, asbestos-cement siding, and the 
            aforementioned aluminum siding are commonly used for exterior 
            coverings. Clapboards and common siding differ only in the length of 
            the pieces. Clapboards are 4 feet long while panel siding comes in 
            lengths from 6 to 16 feet. Composition siding is made of felt and 
            asphalt, which are often shaped to look like brick. Asbestos and 
            cement shingles are rigid and produce a covering that is fire 
            resistant. Cedar wood shingles are also manufactured with a backer 
            board that gives insulation and fire-resistant qualities. Asbestos 
            cement siding made of asbestos fiber and portland cement has good 
            fire-resistant qualities and is a rigid covering.E  Roof 
            Coverings (Flexible Material Class)Asphalt 
              Shingle: The principal damage to asphalt shingle roofs is 
              caused by the action of strong winds on shingles nailed too high. 
              Usually the shingles affected by winds are those in the four or 
              five courses nearest the ridge and in the area extending about 5 
              feet down from the edge or rake of the roof.Asphalt 
              Built-up Roofs:These may be unsurfaced, the coating of 
              bitumen being exposed directly to the weather, or they may be 
              surfaced having slag or gravel imbedded in the bituminous coating. 
              The use of surfacing material is desirable as a protection against 
              wind damage and the elements. This type of roof should have enough 
              pitch to drain water readily.Coal Tar 
              Pitch Built-up Roofs: This type roof must be surfaced with 
              slag or gravel. Coal tar pitch built-up roof should always be used 
              on deck pitched less than 34 inch per foot; that is, where water 
              may collect and stand. This type roof should be inspected on 
              completion, 6 months later, and then at least once a year, 
              preferably in the fall. When the top coating of bitumen shows 
              damage or has become badly weathered, it should be renewed (rigid 
              material class).Slate 
              Roofs: The most common problem with slate roofs is the 
              replacement of broken slates. Roofs of this type normally render 
              long service with little or no repair.Tile 
              Roofs: Replacement of broken shingle tiles is the main 
              maintenance problem. This is one of the most expensive roofing 
              materials. It requires very little maintenance and gives long 
              service.Copper Roofs:Usually are of 16-ounce copper sheeting and applied to 
              permanent structures. When properly installed, they require 
              practically no maintenance or repair. Proper installation allows 
              for expansion and contraction with changes in temperature.Galvanized 
              Iron Roofs: Maintenance is done principally by removing rust 
              and keeping roof well painted. Leaks can be corrected by 
              renailing, caulking, or replacing all or part of the sheet or 
              sheets in disrepair.Wood Shingle 
              Roofs: The most important factors of this type roof are its 
              pitch and exposure, the character of wood, kind of nails used, and 
              preservative treatment given shingles. Creosote and coal tar 
              preservative are satisfactory for both treated and untreated 
              shingles.Flashing: 
              Valleys in roofs that are formed by the junction of two downward 
              slopes may be finished, open, or closed. In a closed valley the 
              slates, tiles, or shingles of one side meet those of the other. 
              and the flashing below them may be comparatively narrow. In an 
              open valley, the flashing, which may be made of zinc, copper, or 
              aluminum, is laid in a continuous strip, extending 12 to 18 inches 
              on each side of the valley, while the tiles or slates do not come 
              within 4 to 6 inches of it.
              The ridges built 
              up on a sloping roof where it runs down against a vertical 
              projection, like a chimney or a skylight, should be weatherproofed 
              with flashing.Metal flashings 
              are generally used with slate, tile, metal, and wood shingles. 
              Failure of roof flashing is usually due to exposed nails that have 
              come loose. The loose nails allow the flashing to lift with 
              leakage resulting.Gutters and 
              Leaders: Gutters and leaders should be of noncombustible 
              materials. They should be securely fastened to the structure and 
              spill into a storm sewer if the neighborhood is so provided. When 
              there is no storm sewer, a concrete or stone block placed on the 
              ground beneath the leader prevents water from eroding the lawn. 
              This store block is called a splash block. Gutters will not become 
              plugged if protected against clogging of leaves and twigs. Gutters 
              should be checked every spring and fall and then cleaned out when 
              necessary.**Figures 4-8 & 
            4-9 Cornice Construction.****IV. 
            Discussion of Inspection Techniques**
            A serious building 
            defect may often be observed during a housing inspector's routine 
            examination. In many cases it is beyond the scope of the housing 
            inspector's background to analyze the underlying causes and to 
            recommend a course of action that will facilitate repair in an 
            efficient and economical manner. In situations such as this, it is 
            important that the inspector realize his limitations and refer the 
            matter to the proper expert.A prime example of 
            a technically complex situation that a housing inspector might 
            observe is a leaning, buckling, or bulging foundation or bearing 
            wall. This problem may be the result of a number of hidden or 
            interacting problems. For example, it may be the result of 
            differential building settlement or failure of a structural beam or 
            girder. It is beyond the scope of the housing inspector's 
            responsibilities to discover the cause of the defect, but it is his 
            responsibility to note the problem and refer it to the proper 
            authority. In this case the proper authority would be a building 
            inspector.In the 
            aforementioned situation where a bulging foundation wall was 
            discovered, this would obviously constitute a violation of the 
            housing ordinance and should be written up as such by the housing 
            inspector. Since the housing inspector is generally not qualified to 
            determine whether the house should be evacuated because it is in 
            danger of imminent collapse, he should seek the advice of a building 
            inspector.A question that 
            frequently arises is**which violations should be referred 
            to an expert?** Needless to say, circumstances that 
            obviously fall within the jurisdiction of another department should 
            be referred to the department. The housing inspector should discuss 
            with his supervisor any situation in which he feels inadequate to 
            make a decision. In all cases the inspector should inform his 
            supervisor before referring a problem to another agency or 
            expert.Another reason for 
            referral to other departments is that when a remedial action is 
            completed the other department will be in a better position to 
            determine whether the job is satisfactory.This principle of 
            referral should be applied to every portion of the inspection, 
            whether it deals with health, heating, plumbing, gas, or electrical 
            as well as structural defects.Certain structural 
            items should be recognized as unsafe by the housing inspector. For 
            example, a beam that has sagged or slanted may cause a portion of or 
            an entire floor to sag or slope. Where a sagging or sloping floor is 
            found, examine the ceiling of the room below or the basement for a 
            broken or dropped girder or joist.Doors and windows 
            that are out of level will not close completely. It may be possible 
            to see outside light through openings around window rails and door 
            jambs. If an inspector detects such a situation, the condition of 
            the supporting girders, girts, posts, and studs should be 
            questioned, since this condition is evidence that some of these 
            members may be termite infested or rotted and may be causing the 
            outside wall to sag. Glass panes in doors and windows should be 
            replaced if found to be broken or missing. Windows should also be 
            checked for proper operation, and items such as broken sash cords or 
            chains noted.If the roof of the 
            structure appears to be sagging, the inspector should make a special 
            effort to examine the rafters, purlin, collar beams, and ridge 
            boards if these members are exposed as in unfinished attics. The 
            condition of the roof boards may be examined while he is in the 
            attic. If light can be seen between these boards the roof is 
            unsound. Evidence of a leaking roof will be indicated by loose 
            plaster or peeling or stained paint and wall paper. Areas of the 
            roof where flashing occurs, such as around the chimney, are frequent 
            origins of roof leaks. It is essential that the leak be found and 
            repaired, not only to prevent the entrance of moisture into the 
            building, but also to prevent the loosening of the plaster, rotting 
            of timbers, and extension of damage to the remainder of the 
            house.Gutters and rain 
            leaders should be placed around the entire building to insure proper 
            drainage of water. This will lessen the possibility of seepage of 
            water through siding and window frames, and entrance of water into 
            the cellar or basement. Lack of or leaking gutters may result in 
            rotting of the siding or erosion of the exposed portion of the 
            cellar or basement walls. This situation commonly exists where the 
            mortar between bricks or concrete blocks in foundation walls is 
            found to be heavily eroded. Gutters should be free from dirt and 
            leaves.The exterior siding 
            should be in sound, weathertight condition. Peeled or worn paint on 
            wood siding will expose the bare wood to the elements and result in 
            splitting and warping of siding. This condition will eventually lead 
            to the entrance of rain water with resultant rotting of the 
            sheathing and studs as well as inside dampness and falling plaster. 
            Sound and painted siding will prevent major repairs and expenses in 
            the future. This condition will often be particularly prevalent on 
            the north face of the structure.Roof and chimneys 
            should be inspected for tilting, missing bricks, deterioration of 
            flashing, and pointing of chimney bricks. In addition, roof covering 
            should be checked for broken spots and missing shingles or tiles. 
            Roof doors should be metal clad, self-closing, tight fitting, and 
            unlockable. The roof should also be examined for weather-tightness 
            and broken TV antennas.Porches should be 
            carefully examined for weakened treads, missing or cracked boards, 
            holes, and holes covered with tin plates, railing rigidity, missing 
            posts, handrail rigidity, condition of the columns that support the 
            porch roof, and the condition of the porch roof itself. The open 
            section beneath the porch should be inspected for broken 
            lattice-work. Check under the porch for accumulation of dirt and 
            debris that can offer a harborage for vermin and rodents.Loose plaster and 
            missing or peeling wallpaper or paint should be noted. Bugs and 
            cockroaches eat the paste from the wallpaper while leaving behind 
            loose paper.The basic parts of 
            a stairway that a housing inspector should be able to identify 
            correctly are the following:A  
              RiserB TreadC  NosingD  
              HandrailE  Balustrade and Balusters, the Vertical Members 
              that Support the Handrail, andF  The Soffit, Underpart of 
              the Stairway.In the examination of a stairway (be careful to turn the 
            light on) initially check the underside, if visible, to see if it is 
            intact. Then proceed slowly up the stairs placing full weight on 
            each tread and checking for loose, wobbling, or uneven treads and 
            risers. Regardless of the size of the treads or risers they should 
            all be of uniform size. For all stairs that rise 3 or more feet, a 
            handrail should be present and in a sound and rigid 
condition.
            Any fireplace 
            should conform to the requirements of the local code. An unused 
            fireplace that has its opening covered with wallpaper or other 
            material should have a solid seal behind the paper. Operable 
            fireplaces should have a workable damper and a fire screen, and 
            should be clean.Garages and 
            accessory structures should be inspected in the same manner as the 
            main building.Sidewalks and 
            driveways, whether constructed of flagstone, concrete, or asphalt, 
            should be checked for creaking, buckling, and other conditions 
            dangerous to pedestrian travel.Stone, brick, or 
            concrete steps should be inspected for cracks, deterioration, and 
            pointing.Fences should be in 
            a sound condition and painted. Fire escapes should be checked for 
            paint condition, loose or broken treads and rails, proper operating 
            condition, and proper connection to the house. **V. 
            Noise as an Environmental Stress**People feel 
            comfortable in an environment with a low-level, soothing, steady, 
            unobtrusive level of sound, typical of the natural undisturbed 
            environment. All of us have experienced the anguish that noise can 
            cause, whether it be noise from a neighbor's television, the 
            grinding of truck gears while asleep, the persistent whine of a fan 
            motor, or the sound of children racing down the halls. These 
            annoyances experienced in the home are producing public demands for 
            noise control legislation.Not only is noise 
            disturbing, but studies also indicate that extreme noise can cause 
            deafness and perhaps interfere with other bodily functions.While few existing 
            housing ordinances contain enforceable noise provisions, noise 
            problems must be considered by the building inspector because they 
            intimately affect and are affected by his decisions. As a housing 
            inspector, you can help residents by suggesting corrective noise 
            measures that can be taken; you can refer them to agencies, if 
            needed, for corrective action; you can help them to understand that 
            their noisy environment can place limitations on their behavior, 
            capabilities, and satisfaction with their home.Noise is unwanted 
            sound. Noise can travel through air or through the building 
            structure. The first stage of noise control is the control of sound 
            at its source. If attempts to quiet the source are not completely 
            successful, then other; more expensive corrective measures will be 
            required.Although a visual 
            examination of a dwelling may detect some sources of noise leaks 
            (see Figure 4-10) such as wide gaps or cracks at ceiling, floor, or 
            adjoining wall edges, it is usually inadequate since it fails to 
            detect sources of noise leaks hidden from the eye. A far more 
            effective test is to be alert for the operation of some noisy device 
            like a vacuum cleaner in a closed room and listen near the other 
            side of the wall for any noise leakage. The ear is a reasonably good 
            sensing device. If a noise leak is noticed, the partition may be 
            surveyed at critical points with a bright flashlight while an 
            observer looks for light leakage in a darkened room on the other 
            side. Detection of any light leakage in the darkened room will 
            signify a noise leak. **Figure 4-10 
            Transmission Of Airborne Noise**Noise carried as 
            vibration by a building structure is called structure-borne noise. 
            Detecting structure-borne noise caused by the operation of 
            mechanical equipment is somewhat more difficult (see Figure 4-11). 
            With noisy equipment in operation, the inspector can sometimes 
            locate noise leaks or structure-borne noise paths by conducting 
            similar hearing tests along with pressing the ear against various 
            room surfaces or using fingertips to sense the vibration of these 
            surfaces.A  Airborne 
            NoiseThe sources of 
            airborne noise that cause the most frequent disturbances in the home 
            are audio instruments such as televisions. radios. phonographs, or 
            pianos; adults and children speaking loudly, singing, crying and 
            shouting; household appliances such as garbage disposals, 
            dishwashers, vacuum cleaners, clothes washers, and dryers; plumbing 
            noises such as pipes knocking, toilets flushing, and water 
            running.The disturbing 
            influences of airborne noise are generally limited to the areas near 
            the noise source. For example, a phonograph may cause annoyance in 
            rooms of a neighbor's apartment adjacent to the phonograph but 
            rarely in rooms farther removed unless doors or passageways are left 
            open. Sound absorption materials such as carpeting, acoustical tile, 
            drapery, and upholstered furniture in the intervening rooms may 
            often provide a significant reduction in the disturbing noise before 
            it reaches rooms where quiet is desired.Under no conditions 
            should sound-absorptive materials be used on the surfaces of walls 
            and ceilings for the sole purpose of preventing the transmission of 
            sound as structure-borne noise. To do so would be a complete waste 
            of effort. To illustrate, imagine the noise conducted by a wall 
            constructed solely of drapery or acoustical tile attached to studs. 
            The noise level in the room would be reduced, but sound produced in 
            the room would pass through the wall to adjoining rooms with little, 
            if any, reduction in noise level. Sound absorptive materials should 
            be used in and near areas of high noise levels to limit airborne 
            noise at the source of the noise and reduce the effects of noise 
            along corridors.The transmission of 
            noise from one completely enclosed room to an adjoining room 
            separated by a partition wall may be either direct transmission 
            through the wall, indirect transmission through other walls, 
            ceilings, and floors common to both rooms, or through corridors 
            adjacent to such rooms.In some older wood 
            frame houses, the open troughs between studs and joists are 
            efficient sound transmission paths. This noise transmission by 
            indirect paths is known as "flanking transmission" (see Figure 4-10 
            and 4-11). In addition to the flanking paths, there may be noise 
            leaks particularly along the ceiling, floor, and sidewall edges of 
            the wall. In order to obtain the highest sound insulation 
            performance, a partition wall must be of airtight construction. Care 
            must be exercised to seal all openings, gaps, holes, joints, and 
            penetrations of piping and conduits with a nonsetting caulking 
            compound. Even hairline cracks, particularly at adjoining wall, 
            floor. and ceiling edges, transmit a substantially greater amount of 
            noise than would normally be expected on the basis of the size of 
            the crack.It is often helpful 
            to use one sound to drown out another disturbing noise; for example, 
            music on the radio can be used to drown out the noise of traffic. 
            The use of sound to drown out noise is particularly useful in 
            masking noises that occur infrequently, such as accelerating or 
            braking vehicles, periodic mechanical equipment noise, barking dogs, 
            laughter, or shouting.B  
            Structure-Borne Noise**Figure 4-11. Flanking 
            Transmission Of Impact And Structure-borne Noise**Structure-borne 
            noise occurs when wall, floor, or other building elements are set 
            into vibration by direct contact with vibrating sources such as me 
            chanical equipment or domestic appliances. A small, vibrating pipe 
            firmly attached to a plywood or gypsum wall panel will amplify the 
            vibration noise. An illustration of this amplification of structure 
            borne noise is provided by the sound board of a piano. The major 
            sources of structure-borne noise are the impact of walking on wood 
            floors or of slamming doors, plumbing system noises, heating and 
            air-conditioning system noises, noise from mechanical equipment or 
            appliances, and vibration from sources outside the building. If the 
            vibration is severe enough, it may have adverse effects not only on 
            tile occupants of a building but also on the building 
            structure.Household 
            appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, sewing machines, 
            clothes dryers, televisions, and pianos should be vibration isolated 
            from the floor by means of rubber mounts placed under them if 
            disturbing structure-borne noise is to be avoided. Residents should 
            also be cautioned against locating these noise sources along party 
            walls and in particular against mounting these appliances and 
            kitchen cabinets 'directly on party walls so that the walls act as 
            sounding boards in adjoining apartments. Window air-conditioners 
            should be completely vibration isolated from the surrounding window 
            frame by rubber gaskets and padding. The importance of isolating a 
            vibrating source from the structure in the control of equipment 
            noise cannot be overemphasized.Another source of 
            disturbing structure-borne noise is squeaking of wood floors. Some 
            squeaks can be eliminated by lubricating the tongues of wood floor 
            boards with mineral oil applied sparingly to the openings between 
            adjacent boards. Loose finish flooring may be securely fastened to 
            subflooring by surface nailing into the subfloor and preferably the 
            joists. Ring-type nails or sawtooth staples properly spaced should 
            be used in nailing finish flooring to subflooring. In an exposed 
            joist structure, where finish flooring is warped, driving screws up 
            through the subfloor and into the finish floor will be effective in 
            drawing the layers of flooring tightly together to reduce 
            noise.Of course, noise 
            caused by the impact of walking or scraping can be substantially 
            reduced by the use of carpets. In the case of door slams, the impact 
            noise may be eliminated by the use of door closers or rubber 
            bumpers.The noisy hammering 
            of a plumbing system is usually caused by the sudden interruption of 
            water flow, for example, by a quick closing or opening of a 
            tap.Air chambers can be 
            built into the plumbing system to reduce water hammer. The air 
            pockets, rubber inserts, or spring elements in air chambers act to 
            reduce noise. Air chambers are explained in Chapter 6.Defective, loose, 
            or worn valve stems create intense chattering of the plumbing 
            system. The defective device can frequently be found without 
            difficulty, since immediate use of the device causes the vibration, 
            which generally occurs at some low-flowvelocity setting and 
            diminishes or disappears at a higher flow setting. For example, if a 
            chattering noise occurs when a particular faucet or tap is opened 
            partially and diminishes when fully opened, the faucet more than 
            likely has some loose or defective parts and should be 
            repaired.Noise can be a very 
            complex problem. The housing inspector is not expected to be an 
            acoustics expert. Nor is he expected to be able to analyze and solve 
            the noise problems that an acoustics consultant would normally 
            handle. He can, however, help teach the public that the annoyances 
            and stress caused by noise can be partially alleviated by a simple 
            awareness of common noise problems found in many residences.Although the 
            housing inspector is not an expert in the fields of zoning, 
            plumbing, building, and electrical systems, he should- be familiar 
            with the applicable code in each of the respective fields. 
            Familiarization with these codes will better enable him to recognize 
            violations.Table 
            of Contents | Acknowledgements 
            | Foreword 
            | Chapter1 
            | Chapter 
            2Chapter 
            3 | Chapter 
            4 | Chapter 
            5 | Chapter 
            6 | Chapter 
            7Chapter 
            8 | Chapter 
            9 | Chapter 
            10 | Chapter 
            11 |                                                           | **Chapter 4: Building Aspects of a 
            Housing Inspection** |                                                                                     | **Table of 
            Contents** |            |         | I. Background 
            Factors |                          |              | II.  Housing 
            Construction Terminology |                                   |                 | III.  
            Structure |                                                           |  | IV.  Discussion of 
            Inspection Techniques    |  |                                                        | V.  Noise as an 
            Environmental Stress |                                                                                     | The principle function of a 
            house is to furnish protection from the elements. In its current 
            stage, however, our civilization requires that a home provide not 
            only shelter but also privacy, safety, and reasonable protection of 
            our physical and mental health. A living facility that fails to 
            offer these essentials through adequately designed and properly 
            maintained interiors and exteriors cannot be termed "healthful 
            housing." **I.  Background 
            Factors**
            In this chapter, a 
            building will be considered in terms of its major components: 
            heating, plumbing, and electrical systems. Each of these items will 
            be examined in detail in future chapters. Attention will be given in 
            this chapter to the portions of a building not visible upon 
            completion of the ceiling, roof, and interior and exterior walls in 
            order to give the reader an understanding of generally accepted 
            construction practices. Emphasis, however, will be placed upon the 
            visible interior and exterior parts of a completed dwelling that 
            have a bearing on the soundness, state of repair, and safety of the 
            dwelling both during intended use and in the event of a fire. These 
            are some of the elements that the housing inspector must examine 
            when making a thorough housing inspection. **II.  Housing 
            Construction Terminology**(Key to Component 
            Parts Numbered in Figure 4-1)**Figure 4-1. Housing 
            Construction Terminology**A  Fireplace 

            Chimney - 
              A vertical masonry shaft of reinforced concrete or other approved 
              noncombustible, heat resisting material enclosing one or more 
              flues. It removes the products of combustion from solid, liquid, 
              or gaseous fuel.Flue 
              Liner - The flue is the hole in the chimney. The liner, 
              usually of terra cotta, protects the brick from harmful smoke 
              gases.Chimney 
              Cap - This top is generally of concrete. It protects the brick 
              from weather.Chimney 
              Flashing - Sheet-metal flashing provides a tight joint between 
              chimney and roof.Firebrick 
              - An ordinary brick cannot withstand the heat of direct fire, and 
              so special firebrick is used to line the 
              fireplace.Ash Dump 
              - A trap door to let the ashes drop to a pit below, from where 
              they may be easily removed.Cleanout 
              Door - The door to the ash pit or the bottom of a chimney 
              through which the chimney can be cleaned.Chimney 
              Breast- The inside face or front of a fireplace 
              chimney.Hearth - 
              The floor of a fireplace that extends into the room for safety 
              purposes.**B  Roof**Ridge- 
              The top intersection of two opposite adjoining roof 
              surfaces.Ridge 
              Board - The board that follows along under the 
              ridge.Roof 
              Rafters - The structural members that support the 
              roof.Collar 
              Beam - Really not a beam at all. A tie that keeps the roof 
              from spreading. Connects similar rafters on opposite side of 
              roof.Roof 
              Insulation - An insulating material (usually rock wool or 
              fiberglass) in a blanket form placed between the roof rafters for 
              the purpose of keeping a house warm in the winter, cool in the 
              summer.Roof 
              Sheathing - The boards that provide the base for the finished 
              roof.Roofing - 
              The wood, asphalt, or asbestos shingles - or tile, slate or metal 
              - that form the outer protection against the 
              weather.Corner 
              Bracing - Diagonal strips to keep the frame square and 
              plumb.Sheathing 
              - The first layer of outer wall covering nailed to the 
              studs.Joist- 
              The structural members or beams that hold up the floor or ceiling, 
              usually 2x10's or 2x12's spaced 16 inches apart.Bridging 
              - Cross bridging or solid. Members at the middle or third points 
              of joist spans to brace one to the next and to prevent their 
              twisting.Subflooring - The rough boards that are laid over 
              the joist. Usually laid diagonally.Flooring 
              Paper - A felt paper laid on the rough floor to stop air 
              infiltration and, to some extent, noise.Finish 
              Flooring - Usually hardwood, of tongued and grooved 
              strips.Building 
              Paper - Paper placed outside the sheathing, not as a vapor 
              barrier, but to prevent water and air from leaking in. Building 
              paper is also used as a tarred felt under shingles or siding to 
              keep out moisture or wind.Beveled 
              Siding - Sometimes called clapboards, with a thick butt and a 
              thin upper edge lapped to shed water.Wall 
              Insulation - A blanket of wool or reflective foil placed 
              inside the walls.Metal 
              Lath - A mesh made from sheet metal onto which plaster is 
              applied.D  Foundation and 
              BasementFinished 
              Grade Line - The top of the ground at the 
              foundation.Foundation 
              Wall - The wall of poured concrete (shown) or concrete blocks 
              that rests on the footing and supports the remainder of the house 
              .Termite 
              Shield - A metal baffle to prevent termites from entering the 
              frame.Footing - 
              The concrete pad that carries the entire weight of the house upon 
              the earth.Footing Drain 
              Tile - A pipe with cracks at the joints to allow underground 
              water to drain in and away before it gets into the 
              basement.Basement 
              Floor Slab- The 4 or 5-inch layer of concrete that forms the 
              basement floor.Gravel Fill- Placed under the slab to allow drainage and to guard against 
              a damp floor.Girder - 
              A main beam upon which floor joists rest. Usually of steel, but 
              also of wood.Backfill 
              - Earth, once dug out, that has been replaced and tamped down 
              around the foundation.Areaway - 
              An open space to allow light and air to a window. Also called a 
              light well.Area Wall 
              - The wall, of metal or concrete, that forms the open 
              area. E  Windows and 
              DoorsWindow 
              -An opening in a building for admitting light and air. It usually 
              has a pane or panes of glass and is set in a frame or sash that is 
              generally movable for opening and shutting.Window 
              Frame - The lining of the window opening.Window 
              Sash - The inner frame, usually movable, that holds the 
              glass.Lintel - 
              The structural beam over a window or door 
              opening.Window 
              Casing - The decorative strips surrounding a window opening on 
              the inside. F  Stairs and 
              EntryEntrance 
              Canopy - A roof extending over the entrance 
              door.Furring - 
              Falsework or framework necessary to bring the outer surface to 
              where we want it.Stair 
              Tread - The horizontal strip where we put our foot when we 
              climb up or down the stairs.Stair 
              Riser-The vertical board connecting one tread to the 
              next.Stair 
              Stringer - The sloping board that supports the ends of 
              the steps.Newel - 
              The post that terminates the railing.Stair 
              Rail - The bar used for a handhold when we use the 
              stairs.Balusters 
              - Vertical rods or spindles supporting a 
              rail.**III. 
            Structure**
            **A  
            Foundation**The word 
            **foundation** is used to mean:Construction 
              below grade such as footings, cellar or basement 
              walls.The composition 
              of the earth on which the building rests.Special 
              construction such as pilings and piers used to support the 
              building.The foundation bed may be composed of solid rock, sand, 
            gravel, or unconsolidated sand or clay. Rock, sand, or gravel are 
            the most reliable foundation materials. Unconsolidated sand and 
            clay, though found in many sections of the country, are not as 
            desirable. because they are subject to sliding and settling.
            The footing (see 
            Figure 4-2) distributes the weight of the building over a sufficient 
            area of ground so as to ensure that the foundation walls will stand 
            properly. Footings are usually constructed of a masonry-type 
            material such as concrete; however, in the past wood and stone have 
            been used. Some older houses have been constructed without 
            footings.Although it is 
            usually difficult to determine the condition of a footing without 
            excavating the foundation, a footing in a state of disrepair or lack 
            of a footing will usually be indicated either by large cracks or 
            by settlement in the foundation walls (see Figure 4-3). 
            **Figure 4-2. 
            Foundation Details****Figure 4-3. 
            Foundation Cracks**Foundation wall 
            cracks are usually diagonal, starting from the top, the bottom, or 
            the end of the wall. Cracks that do not extend to at least one edge 
            of the wall may not be caused by foundation problems. Such wall 
            cracks may be due to other structural problems and should also be 
            reported.The foundation 
            walls support the weight of the structure and transfer this weight 
            to the footings. The foundation walls may be made of stone, brick, 
            concrete, or concrete blocks and should be moisture proofed with 
            either a membrane of water-proof material or a coating of portland 
            cement mortar. The membrane may consist of plastic sheeting or a 
            sandwich of standard roofing felt joined and covered with tar or 
            asphalt. The purpose of water-proofing the foundation walls is to 
            prevent water from penetrating the wall material and leaving the 
            basement or cellar walls damp.Holes in the 
            foundation walls are a common finding in many old houses. These 
            holes may be caused by missing bricks or blocks. Holes and cracks in 
            a foundation wall are undesirable because they make a convenient 
            entry for rats and other rodents and also indicate the possibility 
            of further structural deterioration. These holes should not be 
            confused with adequately installed vents in the foundation wall that 
            permit ventilation and prevent moisture entrapment.The basement or 
            cellar floor should be made of concrete placed on at least 6 inches 
            of gravel. The purpose of a concrete floor is to protect the 
            basement or cellar from invasion by rodents or from flooding. The 
            gravel distributes ground water movements under the concrete floor, 
            reducing the possibility of the water's penetrating the floor. A 
            waterproof membrane, such as plastic sheeting, should be laid before 
            the concrete is placed for additional protection against 
            flooding.The basement or 
            cellar floor should be gradually but uniformly sloped towards a 
            drain or a series of drains from all directions. These drains permit 
            the basement or cellar floor to be drained if it becomes flooded 
            .Evidence of 
            ineffective waterproofing or moisture proofing will be indicated by 
            water or moisture marks on the floor and walls.Cellar doors, 
            hatchways, and basement windows should be weathertight and rodent 
            proof. A hatchway can be inspected by standing at the lower portion 
            with the doors closed; if daylight can be seen, the door probably 
            needs repair.B  
            FramingMany different 
            types of house-farming systems are found in various sections of the 
            country; however, the majority of the members in each framing system 
            are the same. They include:Foundation 
              Sills: (see Figure 4-4 and 4-5). The purpose of the sill is to 
              provide support or a bearing surface for the outside walls of the 
              building. The sill is the first part of the frame to be placed and 
              rests directly on the foundation wall. It is bolted to the 
              foundation wall by sill anchors. It is good practice to protect 
              the sill against termites by extending the foundation wall to at 
              least 18 inches above the ground and using a noncorroding metal 
              shield continuously around the outside top of the foundation 
              wall.Flooring 
              Systems: (see Figure 4-5). The flooring system is composed of 
              a combination of girders, joists, sub-flooring, and finished 
              flooring that may be made up of concrete, steel, or wood. Joists 
              are laid perpendicular to the girders, at about 16 inches on 
              centers, and are the members to which the sub-flooring is 
              attached. When the subfloor is wood, it may be nailed at either 
              right angles or diagonally to the joists.
              As shown in 
              Figure 4-5, a girder is a member that in certain framing systems 
              supports the joists and is usually a larger section than the 
              joists it supports. Girders are found in framing systems where 
              there are no interior bearing walls or where the span between 
              bearing walls is greater than the joists are capable of spanning. 
              The most common application of a girder is to support the first 
              floor in residences. Often a board known as a ledger is applied to 
              the side of a wood girder or beam to form a ledge for the joists 
              to rest upon. The girder, in turn, is supported by wood posts or 
              steel "lally columns" which extend from the cellar or basement 
              floor to the girder.Studs: (see Figure 4-4 and 4-5). Wall studs are almost always 
              2 by 4 inches; studs 2 by 6 inches are occasionally used to 
              provide a wall thick enough to permit the passage of waste pipes. 
              There are two types of walls or partitions: bearing and 
              nonbearing. A bearing wall is constructed at right angles to and 
              supports the joists. A nonbearing wall or partition acts as a 
              screen or enclosure; hence, the headers in it are often parallel 
              to the joists of the floor above.
              **Figure 4-4. Wall 
              Framing****Figure 
              4-5. Floor Construction**In general, studs 
              like joists are spaced 16 inches on center. In light construction 
              such as garages and summer cottages where plaster is omitted, or 
              some other material is used for a wall finish wider spacing on 
              studs is common.Openings for 
              windows or doors must be framed in studs. This framing consists of 
              horizontal members called "headers," and vertical members called 
              "trimmers" (see Figure 4-l).Since the 
              vertical spaces between studs can act as flues to transmit flames 
              in the event of a fire, ''fire stops" are important in preventing 
              or retarding fire from spreading through a building by way of air 
              passages in walls, floors, and partitions. Fire stops are wood 
              obstructions placed between studs or floor joists to prevent fire 
              from spreading in these natural fluespaces.Interior Wall 
              Finish: Many types of materials are used for covering interior 
              walls and ceilings, but the principal types are plaster and 
              dry-wall construction. Plaster is a mixture, usually lime, sand, 
              and water, applied in two or three coats to lath to form a 
              hard-wall surface. Dry-wall finish is a material that requires 
              little, if any, water for application. More specifically, dry-wall 
              finish may be gypsum board, plywood, fiberboard, or wood in 
              various sizes and forms.
              Gypsum board is a 
              sheet material composed of a gypsum filler faced with paper. 
              Sheets are usually 4 feet wide and can be obtained in lengths up 
              to 12 feet. In dry-wall construction, gypsum boards are fastened 
              to the studs either vertically or horizontally and then painted. 
              The edges along the length of the sheet are recessed to receive 
              joint cement and tape.A plaster finish 
              requires a base upon which plaster can be spread. Wood lath at one 
              time was the plaster base most commonly used, but today 
              gypsum-board lath is more popular. It has paper faces with a 
              gypsum filler. Such lath is 16 by 48 inches and 1/2 or 3/8 inches 
              thick.It is applied 
              horizontally across the studs. Gypsum lath may be perforated to 
              improve the bond and thus lengthen the time the plaster can remain 
              intact when exposed to fire. The building codes in some cities 
              require that gypsum lath be perforated. Expanded-metal lath may 
              also be used as a plaster base. Expanded-metal lath consists of 
              sheet metal slit and expanded to form openings to hold the 
              plaster. Metal lath is usually 27 by 96 inches and is fastened to 
              the studs.Plaster is 
              applied over the base to a minimum thickness of 1/2 inch. Because 
              some drying may take place in wood-framing members after the house 
              is completed, some shrinkage can be expected, which, in turn, may 
              cause plaster cracks to develop around openings and in corners. 
              Strips of lath imbedded in the plaster at these locations prevent 
              cracks.On the inside 
              face of studs that form an exterior wall, vapor barriers are used 
              to prevent condensation on the wall. The vapor barrier is an 
              asphalted paper or metal foil through which moisture-laden air 
              cannot travel.Stairways: (see Figure 4-6). The general purpose of 
              the standards for stairway dimensions is to ensure that there is 
              adequate headroom, width, and uniformity riser and tread size of 
              every step to accommodate the expected traffic on each stairway 
              safely.
              Interior 
              stairways should be not less than 44 inches in width. The width of 
              a stairway may be reduced to 36 inches in one- and two-farnily 
              dwellings. Stairs with closed risers should have maximum risers of 
              8? inches and a minimum tread of 9 inches plus 1 ?-inch nosing. 
              Basement stairs are often constructed with open risers. These 
              stairs should have maximum risers of 8? inches and minimum treads 
              of 9 inches plus ?-inch nosing. The headroom in all parts of the 
              stair enclosure should be no less than 80 inches.Exterior stairway 
              dimensions should be the same as those called for in interior 
              stairways, except that the headroom requirement does not 
              apply. **Figure 4-6. 
              Stairway**Windows: 
              The four general classifications of windows for residences 
              are:a Double-hung 
              sash window that moves up or down, balanced by weights hung on 
              chains or ropes, or springs on each side.
              
              b Casement 
              window sash is hinged at the side and can be hung so that it will 
              swing outward or inward.
              
              c Awning 
              window-usually has two or more glass panes that are hinged at the 
              top and swing about a horizontal axis.
              
              d Sliding window 
              - usually has two or more glass panes that slide past one another 
              on a horizontal track.The principal parts of a 
            double-hung window (see Figure 4-7) are the lights, the top rail 
            framing members, bars or muntins that separate the lights, stiles - 
            side-framing members, bottom rail, sash weights, and sash cords or 
            chains. (All rails are horizontal, all stiles vertical.) The 
            casement window's principal parts include: top and bottom rails, 
            muntins, butt hinges, and jamb. All types of windows should open 
            freely and close securely.
            The exterior sill 
            is the bottom projection of a window. The drip cap is a separate 
            piece of wood projecting over the top of the window and is a 
            component of the window casing. **Figure 4-7. Window 
            Details**Doors:There 
            are many styles of doors both for exterior and interior use. 
            Interior doors should offer a reasonable degree of privacy. Exterior 
            doors must, in addition to offering privacy, protect the interior of 
            the structure from the elements. The various parts of a door have 
            the same definitions as the corresponding parts of a window.The most common 
            types of doors are:a  Batten 
            door: This consists of boards nailed together in various ways. 
            The simplest is two layers nailed to each other at right angles, 
            usually with each layer at 4; degrees to the vertical.Another type of 
            batten door consists of vertical boards nailed at right angles to 
            several (two to four) cross strips called ledgers, with diagonal 
            bracing members nailed between ledgers. If vertical members 
            corresponding to ledgers are added at the sides, the verticals are 
            called frames.Batten doors are 
            often found in cellars and other places where appearance is not a 
            factor and economy is desired.b Flush 
            doors: Solid flush doors are perfectly flat, usually on both 
            sides, although occasionally they are made flush on one side and 
            paneled on the other. Flush doors sometimes are solid planking, but 
            they are commonly veneered and possess a core of small pieces of 
            white pine or other wood. These pieces are glued together with 
            staggered end joints. Along the sides, top, and bottom are glued 
            32-inch edge strips of the same wood, used to create a smooth 
            surface that can be cut or planed. The front and back faces are then 
            covered with a 1/8- to 1/4-inch layer of veneer.Solid flush doors 
            may be used on both the interior and exterior.c Hollow - 
            core doors: These, like solid flush doors, are perfectly flat, but 
            unlike solid doors, the core consists mainly of a grid of crossed 
            wooden slats or some other type of grid construction. Faces are 
            3-ply plywood instead of one or two plies of veneer, and the surface 
            veneer may be any species of wood, usually hardwood. The edges of 
            the core are solid wood and are made wide enough at the appropriate 
            places to accommodate locks and butts. Doors of this kind are 
            considerably lighter than solid flush doors.Hollow-core doors 
            are usually used as interior doors.d Paneled doors:Most doors are paneled, with most panels consisting of solid 
            wood or plywood, either "raised" or "flat," although exterior doors 
            frequently have one or more panels of glass, in which case they are 
            called "lights." One or more panels may be employed although the 
            number seldom exceeds eight. Paneled doors may be used both on the 
            interior or exterior.In addition to the 
            various types of wood doors, metal is often used as veneer or for 
            the frame.In general, the 
            horizontal members are called rails and the vertical members are 
            called stiles. Every door has a top and bottom rail, and some may 
            have intermediate rails. There are always at least two stiles. one 
            on each side of the door.The frame of a 
            doorway is the portion to which the door is hinged. It consists of 
            two side jambs and a head jamb, with an integral or attached stop 
            against which the door closes.Exterior door 
            frames are ordinarily of softwood plank, with side rabbitted to 
            receive the door in the same way as casement windows. At the foot is 
            a sill, made of hardwood to withstand the wear of traffic, and 
            sloped down and out to shed water.Interior door 
            frames are similar to exterior, except that they are often set 
            directly on the hardwood flooring without a sill.Building codes 
            throughout the country call for doors in various locations within 
            the structure to be fire resistant. These doors are often covered 
            with metal or some other fire-resistant materials. and some are 
            completely constructed of metal. Fire-resistant doors are usually 
            located between a garage and a house, stairwells and hallways, all 
            boiler rooms. The fire resistance rating required for various doors 
            differs with local fire codesC Roof Framing 
            (see Figures 4-1,4-4,4-8, and 4-9)Rafters serve the 
            same purpose for the roof as joists do for floors, i.e., providing 
            support for sheathing and roofing material. Rafters are usually 
            spaced 20 inches on center.Collar Beam: 
              Collar beams are ties between rafters on opposite sides of the 
              roof. If the attic is to be used for rooms, the collar beam may 
              double as the ceiling joist.Purlin: A purlin 
              is the horizontal member that forms the support for the rafters at 
              the intersection of the two slopes of a gambrel 
              roof.Ridge Board: A 
              ridge board is a horizontal member against which the rafters rest 
              at their upper ends; it forms a lateral tie to make them 
              secureHip: Like a 
              ridge except that it slopes. The intersection of two adjacent, 
              rather than two opposite, roof planes.Roof Boards: The 
              manner in which roof boards are applied depends upon the type of 
              roofing material. Roof boards may vary from tongue-and-groove 
              lumber to plywood panels.Dormer: The term 
              dormer window is applied to all windows in the roof of a building, 
              whatever their size and shape.D  Exterior 
            Walls and Trim (see Figure 4-4 and 4-9) Exterior walls are 
            enclosure walls whose purpose is to make the building weather-tight. 
            In most one- to three-story buildings they also serve as bearing 
            walls. These walls may be made of many different 
            materials.
            Frequently used 
            framed exterior walls appear to be of brick construction. In this 
            situation, the brick is only one course thick and is called a brick 
            veneer. It supports nothing but itself and is kept from toppling by 
            ties connected to the frame wall.In frame 
            construction the base material of the exterior walls is called 
            "sheathing." The sheathing material may be square-edge, shiplap, or 
            tongue-and-groove boards.In recent 
            construction there has been a strong trend toward the use of plywood 
            or composition panels.Sheathing, in 
            addition to serving as a base course for the finished siding 
            material, stiffens the frame to resist sway caused by wind. It is 
            for this reason that sheathing has been applied diagonally on frame 
            buildings.The finished siding 
            may be clapboard, shingles, aluminum, brick asphalt, wood, and so 
            forth, or a combination thereof. Good aluminum siding has a backer 
            board that serves as added insulation and affords rigidity to the 
            siding. Projecting cornices are a decorative trim found at the top 
            of the building's roofline. A parapet wall is that part of the 
            masonry wall that extends up and beyond the roofline and is capped 
            with a noncombustible material. It helps prevent spread of fire, 
            provides a rest for fire department ladders, and helps prevent 
            people on the roof from falling off.Many types of 
            siding, shingles, and other exterior coverings are applied over the 
            sheathing. Wood siding, cedar, and other wood shingles or shakes, 
            clapboard, common siding (called bevel siding), composition siding, 
            asbestos, cement shingles, asbestos-cement siding, and the 
            aforementioned aluminum siding are commonly used for exterior 
            coverings. Clapboards and common siding differ only in the length of 
            the pieces. Clapboards are 4 feet long while panel siding comes in 
            lengths from 6 to 16 feet. Composition siding is made of felt and 
            asphalt, which are often shaped to look like brick. Asbestos and 
            cement shingles are rigid and produce a covering that is fire 
            resistant. Cedar wood shingles are also manufactured with a backer 
            board that gives insulation and fire-resistant qualities. Asbestos 
            cement siding made of asbestos fiber and portland cement has good 
            fire-resistant qualities and is a rigid covering.E  Roof 
            Coverings (Flexible Material Class)Asphalt 
              Shingle: The principal damage to asphalt shingle roofs is 
              caused by the action of strong winds on shingles nailed too high. 
              Usually the shingles affected by winds are those in the four or 
              five courses nearest the ridge and in the area extending about 5 
              feet down from the edge or rake of the roof.Asphalt 
              Built-up Roofs:These may be unsurfaced, the coating of 
              bitumen being exposed directly to the weather, or they may be 
              surfaced having slag or gravel imbedded in the bituminous coating. 
              The use of surfacing material is desirable as a protection against 
              wind damage and the elements. This type of roof should have enough 
              pitch to drain water readily.Coal Tar 
              Pitch Built-up Roofs: This type roof must be surfaced with 
              slag or gravel. Coal tar pitch built-up roof should always be used 
              on deck pitched less than 34 inch per foot; that is, where water 
              may collect and stand. This type roof should be inspected on 
              completion, 6 months later, and then at least once a year, 
              preferably in the fall. When the top coating of bitumen shows 
              damage or has become badly weathered, it should be renewed (rigid 
              material class).Slate 
              Roofs: The most common problem with slate roofs is the 
              replacement of broken slates. Roofs of this type normally render 
              long service with little or no repair.Tile 
              Roofs: Replacement of broken shingle tiles is the main 
              maintenance problem. This is one of the most expensive roofing 
              materials. It requires very little maintenance and gives long 
              service.Copper Roofs:Usually are of 16-ounce copper sheeting and applied to 
              permanent structures. When properly installed, they require 
              practically no maintenance or repair. Proper installation allows 
              for expansion and contraction with changes in temperature.Galvanized 
              Iron Roofs: Maintenance is done principally by removing rust 
              and keeping roof well painted. Leaks can be corrected by 
              renailing, caulking, or replacing all or part of the sheet or 
              sheets in disrepair.Wood Shingle 
              Roofs: The most important factors of this type roof are its 
              pitch and exposure, the character of wood, kind of nails used, and 
              preservative treatment given shingles. Creosote and coal tar 
              preservative are satisfactory for both treated and untreated 
              shingles.Flashing: 
              Valleys in roofs that are formed by the junction of two downward 
              slopes may be finished, open, or closed. In a closed valley the 
              slates, tiles, or shingles of one side meet those of the other. 
              and the flashing below them may be comparatively narrow. In an 
              open valley, the flashing, which may be made of zinc, copper, or 
              aluminum, is laid in a continuous strip, extending 12 to 18 inches 
              on each side of the valley, while the tiles or slates do not come 
              within 4 to 6 inches of it.
              The ridges built 
              up on a sloping roof where it runs down against a vertical 
              projection, like a chimney or a skylight, should be weatherproofed 
              with flashing.Metal flashings 
              are generally used with slate, tile, metal, and wood shingles. 
              Failure of roof flashing is usually due to exposed nails that have 
              come loose. The loose nails allow the flashing to lift with 
              leakage resulting.Gutters and 
              Leaders: Gutters and leaders should be of noncombustible 
              materials. They should be securely fastened to the structure and 
              spill into a storm sewer if the neighborhood is so provided. When 
              there is no storm sewer, a concrete or stone block placed on the 
              ground beneath the leader prevents water from eroding the lawn. 
              This store block is called a splash block. Gutters will not become 
              plugged if protected against clogging of leaves and twigs. Gutters 
              should be checked every spring and fall and then cleaned out when 
              necessary.**Figures 4-8 & 
            4-9 Cornice Construction.****IV. 
            Discussion of Inspection Techniques**
            A serious building 
            defect may often be observed during a housing inspector's routine 
            examination. In many cases it is beyond the scope of the housing 
            inspector's background to analyze the underlying causes and to 
            recommend a course of action that will facilitate repair in an 
            efficient and economical manner. In situations such as this, it is 
            important that the inspector realize his limitations and refer the 
            matter to the proper expert.A prime example of 
            a technically complex situation that a housing inspector might 
            observe is a leaning, buckling, or bulging foundation or bearing 
            wall. This problem may be the result of a number of hidden or 
            interacting problems. For example, it may be the result of 
            differential building settlement or failure of a structural beam or 
            girder. It is beyond the scope of the housing inspector's 
            responsibilities to discover the cause of the defect, but it is his 
            responsibility to note the problem and refer it to the proper 
            authority. In this case the proper authority would be a building 
            inspector.In the 
            aforementioned situation where a bulging foundation wall was 
            discovered, this would obviously constitute a violation of the 
            housing ordinance and should be written up as such by the housing 
            inspector. Since the housing inspector is generally not qualified to 
            determine whether the house should be evacuated because it is in 
            danger of imminent collapse, he should seek the advice of a building 
            inspector.A question that 
            frequently arises is**which violations should be referred 
            to an expert?** Needless to say, circumstances that 
            obviously fall within the jurisdiction of another department should 
            be referred to the department. The housing inspector should discuss 
            with his supervisor any situation in which he feels inadequate to 
            make a decision. In all cases the inspector should inform his 
            supervisor before referring a problem to another agency or 
            expert.Another reason for 
            referral to other departments is that when a remedial action is 
            completed the other department will be in a better position to 
            determine whether the job is satisfactory.This principle of 
            referral should be applied to every portion of the inspection, 
            whether it deals with health, heating, plumbing, gas, or electrical 
            as well as structural defects.Certain structural 
            items should be recognized as unsafe by the housing inspector. For 
            example, a beam that has sagged or slanted may cause a portion of or 
            an entire floor to sag or slope. Where a sagging or sloping floor is 
            found, examine the ceiling of the room below or the basement for a 
            broken or dropped girder or joist.Doors and windows 
            that are out of level will not close completely. It may be possible 
            to see outside light through openings around window rails and door 
            jambs. If an inspector detects such a situation, the condition of 
            the supporting girders, girts, posts, and studs should be 
            questioned, since this condition is evidence that some of these 
            members may be termite infested or rotted and may be causing the 
            outside wall to sag. Glass panes in doors and windows should be 
            replaced if found to be broken or missing. Windows should also be 
            checked for proper operation, and items such as broken sash cords or 
            chains noted.If the roof of the 
            structure appears to be sagging, the inspector should make a special 
            effort to examine the rafters, purlin, collar beams, and ridge 
            boards if these members are exposed as in unfinished attics. The 
            condition of the roof boards may be examined while he is in the 
            attic. If light can be seen between these boards the roof is 
            unsound. Evidence of a leaking roof will be indicated by loose 
            plaster or peeling or stained paint and wall paper. Areas of the 
            roof where flashing occurs, such as around the chimney, are frequent 
            origins of roof leaks. It is essential that the leak be found and 
            repaired, not only to prevent the entrance of moisture into the 
            building, but also to prevent the loosening of the plaster, rotting 
            of timbers, and extension of damage to the remainder of the 
            house.Gutters and rain 
            leaders should be placed around the entire building to insure proper 
            drainage of water. This will lessen the possibility of seepage of 
            water through siding and window frames, and entrance of water into 
            the cellar or basement. Lack of or leaking gutters may result in 
            rotting of the siding or erosion of the exposed portion of the 
            cellar or basement walls. This situation commonly exists where the 
            mortar between bricks or concrete blocks in foundation walls is 
            found to be heavily eroded. Gutters should be free from dirt and 
            leaves.The exterior siding 
            should be in sound, weathertight condition. Peeled or worn paint on 
            wood siding will expose the bare wood to the elements and result in 
            splitting and warping of siding. This condition will eventually lead 
            to the entrance of rain water with resultant rotting of the 
            sheathing and studs as well as inside dampness and falling plaster. 
            Sound and painted siding will prevent major repairs and expenses in 
            the future. This condition will often be particularly prevalent on 
            the north face of the structure.Roof and chimneys 
            should be inspected for tilting, missing bricks, deterioration of 
            flashing, and pointing of chimney bricks. In addition, roof covering 
            should be checked for broken spots and missing shingles or tiles. 
            Roof doors should be metal clad, self-closing, tight fitting, and 
            unlockable. The roof should also be examined for weather-tightness 
            and broken TV antennas.Porches should be 
            carefully examined for weakened treads, missing or cracked boards, 
            holes, and holes covered with tin plates, railing rigidity, missing 
            posts, handrail rigidity, condition of the columns that support the 
            porch roof, and the condition of the porch roof itself. The open 
            section beneath the porch should be inspected for broken 
            lattice-work. Check under the porch for accumulation of dirt and 
            debris that can offer a harborage for vermin and rodents.Loose plaster and 
            missing or peeling wallpaper or paint should be noted. Bugs and 
            cockroaches eat the paste from the wallpaper while leaving behind 
            loose paper.The basic parts of 
            a stairway that a housing inspector should be able to identify 
            correctly are the following:A  
              RiserB TreadC  NosingD  
              HandrailE  Balustrade and Balusters, the Vertical Members 
              that Support the Handrail, andF  The Soffit, Underpart of 
              the Stairway.In the examination of a stairway (be careful to turn the 
            light on) initially check the underside, if visible, to see if it is 
            intact. Then proceed slowly up the stairs placing full weight on 
            each tread and checking for loose, wobbling, or uneven treads and 
            risers. Regardless of the size of the treads or risers they should 
            all be of uniform size. For all stairs that rise 3 or more feet, a 
            handrail should be present and in a sound and rigid 
condition.
            Any fireplace 
            should conform to the requirements of the local code. An unused 
            fireplace that has its opening covered with wallpaper or other 
            material should have a solid seal behind the paper. Operable 
            fireplaces should have a workable damper and a fire screen, and 
            should be clean.Garages and 
            accessory structures should be inspected in the same manner as the 
            main building.Sidewalks and 
            driveways, whether constructed of flagstone, concrete, or asphalt, 
            should be checked for creaking, buckling, and other conditions 
            dangerous to pedestrian travel.Stone, brick, or 
            concrete steps should be inspected for cracks, deterioration, and 
            pointing.Fences should be in 
            a sound condition and painted. Fire escapes should be checked for 
            paint condition, loose or broken treads and rails, proper operating 
            condition, and proper connection to the house. **V. 
            Noise as an Environmental Stress**People feel 
            comfortable in an environment with a low-level, soothing, steady, 
            unobtrusive level of sound, typical of the natural undisturbed 
            environment. All of us have experienced the anguish that noise can 
            cause, whether it be noise from a neighbor's television, the 
            grinding of truck gears while asleep, the persistent whine of a fan 
            motor, or the sound of children racing down the halls. These 
            annoyances experienced in the home are producing public demands for 
            noise control legislation.Not only is noise 
            disturbing, but studies also indicate that extreme noise can cause 
            deafness and perhaps interfere with other bodily functions.While few existing 
            housing ordinances contain enforceable noise provisions, noise 
            problems must be considered by the building inspector because they 
            intimately affect and are affected by his decisions. As a housing 
            inspector, you can help residents by suggesting corrective noise 
            measures that can be taken; you can refer them to agencies, if 
            needed, for corrective action; you can help them to understand that 
            their noisy environment can place limitations on their behavior, 
            capabilities, and satisfaction with their home.Noise is unwanted 
            sound. Noise can travel through air or through the building 
            structure. The first stage of noise control is the control of sound 
            at its source. If attempts to quiet the source are not completely 
            successful, then other; more expensive corrective measures will be 
            required.Although a visual 
            examination of a dwelling may detect some sources of noise leaks 
            (see Figure 4-10) such as wide gaps or cracks at ceiling, floor, or 
            adjoining wall edges, it is usually inadequate since it fails to 
            detect sources of noise leaks hidden from the eye. A far more 
            effective test is to be alert for the operation of some noisy device 
            like a vacuum cleaner in a closed room and listen near the other 
            side of the wall for any noise leakage. The ear is a reasonably good 
            sensing device. If a noise leak is noticed, the partition may be 
            surveyed at critical points with a bright flashlight while an 
            observer looks for light leakage in a darkened room on the other 
            side. Detection of any light leakage in the darkened room will 
            signify a noise leak. **Figure 4-10 
            Transmission Of Airborne Noise**Noise carried as 
            vibration by a building structure is called structure-borne noise. 
            Detecting structure-borne noise caused by the operation of 
            mechanical equipment is somewhat more difficult (see Figure 4-11). 
            With noisy equipment in operation, the inspector can sometimes 
            locate noise leaks or structure-borne noise paths by conducting 
            similar hearing tests along with pressing the ear against various 
            room surfaces or using fingertips to sense the vibration of these 
            surfaces.A  Airborne 
            NoiseThe sources of 
            airborne noise that cause the most frequent disturbances in the home 
            are audio instruments such as televisions. radios. phonographs, or 
            pianos; adults and children speaking loudly, singing, crying and 
            shouting; household appliances such as garbage disposals, 
            dishwashers, vacuum cleaners, clothes washers, and dryers; plumbing 
            noises such as pipes knocking, toilets flushing, and water 
            running.The disturbing 
            influences of airborne noise are generally limited to the areas near 
            the noise source. For example, a phonograph may cause annoyance in 
            rooms of a neighbor's apartment adjacent to the phonograph but 
            rarely in rooms farther removed unless doors or passageways are left 
            open. Sound absorption materials such as carpeting, acoustical tile, 
            drapery, and upholstered furniture in the intervening rooms may 
            often provide a significant reduction in the disturbing noise before 
            it reaches rooms where quiet is desired.Under no conditions 
            should sound-absorptive materials be used on the surfaces of walls 
            and ceilings for the sole purpose of preventing the transmission of 
            sound as structure-borne noise. To do so would be a complete waste 
            of effort. To illustrate, imagine the noise conducted by a wall 
            constructed solely of drapery or acoustical tile attached to studs. 
            The noise level in the room would be reduced, but sound produced in 
            the room would pass through the wall to adjoining rooms with little, 
            if any, reduction in noise level. Sound absorptive materials should 
            be used in and near areas of high noise levels to limit airborne 
            noise at the source of the noise and reduce the effects of noise 
            along corridors.The transmission of 
            noise from one completely enclosed room to an adjoining room 
            separated by a partition wall may be either direct transmission 
            through the wall, indirect transmission through other walls, 
            ceilings, and floors common to both rooms, or through corridors 
            adjacent to such rooms.In some older wood 
            frame houses, the open troughs between studs and joists are 
            efficient sound transmission paths. This noise transmission by 
            indirect paths is known as "flanking transmission" (see Figure 4-10 
            and 4-11). In addition to the flanking paths, there may be noise 
            leaks particularly along the ceiling, floor, and sidewall edges of 
            the wall. In order to obtain the highest sound insulation 
            performance, a partition wall must be of airtight construction. Care 
            must be exercised to seal all openings, gaps, holes, joints, and 
            penetrations of piping and conduits with a nonsetting caulking 
            compound. Even hairline cracks, particularly at adjoining wall, 
            floor. and ceiling edges, transmit a substantially greater amount of 
            noise than would normally be expected on the basis of the size of 
            the crack.It is often helpful 
            to use one sound to drown out another disturbing noise; for example, 
            music on the radio can be used to drown out the noise of traffic. 
            The use of sound to drown out noise is particularly useful in 
            masking noises that occur infrequently, such as accelerating or 
            braking vehicles, periodic mechanical equipment noise, barking dogs, 
            laughter, or shouting.B  
            Structure-Borne Noise**Figure 4-11. Flanking 
            Transmission Of Impact And Structure-borne Noise**Structure-borne 
            noise occurs when wall, floor, or other building elements are set 
            into vibration by direct contact with vibrating sources such as me 
            chanical equipment or domestic appliances. A small, vibrating pipe 
            firmly attached to a plywood or gypsum wall panel will amplify the 
            vibration noise. An illustration of this amplification of structure 
            borne noise is provided by the sound board of a piano. The major 
            sources of structure-borne noise are the impact of walking on wood 
            floors or of slamming doors, plumbing system noises, heating and 
            air-conditioning system noises, noise from mechanical equipment or 
            appliances, and vibration from sources outside the building. If the 
            vibration is severe enough, it may have adverse effects not only on 
            tile occupants of a building but also on the building 
            structure.Household 
            appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, sewing machines, 
            clothes dryers, televisions, and pianos should be vibration isolated 
            from the floor by means of rubber mounts placed under them if 
            disturbing structure-borne noise is to be avoided. Residents should 
            also be cautioned against locating these noise sources along party 
            walls and in particular against mounting these appliances and 
            kitchen cabinets 'directly on party walls so that the walls act as 
            sounding boards in adjoining apartments. Window air-conditioners 
            should be completely vibration isolated from the surrounding window 
            frame by rubber gaskets and padding. The importance of isolating a 
            vibrating source from the structure in the control of equipment 
            noise cannot be overemphasized.Another source of 
            disturbing structure-borne noise is squeaking of wood floors. Some 
            squeaks can be eliminated by lubricating the tongues of wood floor 
            boards with mineral oil applied sparingly to the openings between 
            adjacent boards. Loose finish flooring may be securely fastened to 
            subflooring by surface nailing into the subfloor and preferably the 
            joists. Ring-type nails or sawtooth staples properly spaced should 
            be used in nailing finish flooring to subflooring. In an exposed 
            joist structure, where finish flooring is warped, driving screws up 
            through the subfloor and into the finish floor will be effective in 
            drawing the layers of flooring tightly together to reduce 
            noise.Of course, noise 
            caused by the impact of walking or scraping can be substantially 
            reduced by the use of carpets. In the case of door slams, the impact 
            noise may be eliminated by the use of door closers or rubber 
            bumpers.The noisy hammering 
            of a plumbing system is usually caused by the sudden interruption of 
            water flow, for example, by a quick closing or opening of a 
            tap.Air chambers can be 
            built into the plumbing system to reduce water hammer. The air 
            pockets, rubber inserts, or spring elements in air chambers act to 
            reduce noise. Air chambers are explained in Chapter 6.Defective, loose, 
            or worn valve stems create intense chattering of the plumbing 
            system. The defective device can frequently be found without 
            difficulty, since immediate use of the device causes the vibration, 
            which generally occurs at some low-flowvelocity setting and 
            diminishes or disappears at a higher flow setting. For example, if a 
            chattering noise occurs when a particular faucet or tap is opened 
            partially and diminishes when fully opened, the faucet more than 
            likely has some loose or defective parts and should be 
            repaired.Noise can be a very 
            complex problem. The housing inspector is not expected to be an 
            acoustics expert. Nor is he expected to be able to analyze and solve 
            the noise problems that an acoustics consultant would normally 
            handle. He can, however, help teach the public that the annoyances 
            and stress caused by noise can be partially alleviated by a simple 
            awareness of common noise problems found in many residences.Although the 
            housing inspector is not an expert in the fields of zoning, 
            plumbing, building, and electrical systems, he should- be familiar 
            with the applicable code in each of the respective fields. 
            Familiarization with these codes will better enable him to recognize 
            violations. |                                                    | Table 
            of Contents | Acknowledgements 
            | Foreword 
            | Chapter1 
            | Chapter 
            2Chapter 
            3 | Chapter 
            4 | Chapter 
            5 | Chapter 
            6 | Chapter 
            7Chapter 
            8 | Chapter 
            9 | Chapter 
            10 | Chapter 
            11 |            |  | 
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
|**Chapter 4: Building Aspects of a 
            Housing Inspection**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       
|**Table of 
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
|The principle function of a 
            house is to furnish protection from the elements. In its current 
            stage, however, our civilization requires that a home provide not 
            only shelter but also privacy, safety, and reasonable protection of 
            our physical and mental health. A living facility that fails to 
            offer these essentials through adequately designed and properly 
            maintained interiors and exteriors cannot be termed "healthful 
            housing." **I.  Background 
            Factors**
            In this chapter, a 
            building will be considered in terms of its major components: 
            heating, plumbing, and electrical systems. Each of these items will 
            be examined in detail in future chapters. Attention will be given in 
            this chapter to the portions of a building not visible upon 
            completion of the ceiling, roof, and interior and exterior walls in 
            order to give the reader an understanding of generally accepted 
            construction practices. Emphasis, however, will be placed upon the 
            visible interior and exterior parts of a completed dwelling that 
            have a bearing on the soundness, state of repair, and safety of the 
            dwelling both during intended use and in the event of a fire. These 
            are some of the elements that the housing inspector must examine 
            when making a thorough housing inspection. **II.  Housing 
            Construction Terminology**(Key to Component 
            Parts Numbered in Figure 4-1)**Figure 4-1. Housing 
            Construction Terminology**A  Fireplace 

            Chimney - 
              A vertical masonry shaft of reinforced concrete or other approved 
              noncombustible, heat resisting material enclosing one or more 
              flues. It removes the products of combustion from solid, liquid, 
              or gaseous fuel.Flue 
              Liner - The flue is the hole in the chimney. The liner, 
              usually of terra cotta, protects the brick from harmful smoke 
              gases.Chimney 
              Cap - This top is generally of concrete. It protects the brick 
              from weather.Chimney 
              Flashing - Sheet-metal flashing provides a tight joint between 
              chimney and roof.Firebrick 
              - An ordinary brick cannot withstand the heat of direct fire, and 
              so special firebrick is used to line the 
              fireplace.Ash Dump 
              - A trap door to let the ashes drop to a pit below, from where 
              they may be easily removed.Cleanout 
              Door - The door to the ash pit or the bottom of a chimney 
              through which the chimney can be cleaned.Chimney 
              Breast- The inside face or front of a fireplace 
              chimney.Hearth - 
              The floor of a fireplace that extends into the room for safety 
              purposes.**B  Roof**Ridge- 
              The top intersection of two opposite adjoining roof 
              surfaces.Ridge 
              Board - The board that follows along under the 
              ridge.Roof 
              Rafters - The structural members that support the 
              roof.Collar 
              Beam - Really not a beam at all. A tie that keeps the roof 
              from spreading. Connects similar rafters on opposite side of 
              roof.Roof 
              Insulation - An insulating material (usually rock wool or 
              fiberglass) in a blanket form placed between the roof rafters for 
              the purpose of keeping a house warm in the winter, cool in the 
              summer.Roof 
              Sheathing - The boards that provide the base for the finished 
              roof.Roofing - 
              The wood, asphalt, or asbestos shingles - or tile, slate or metal 
              - that form the outer protection against the 
              weather.Corner 
              Bracing - Diagonal strips to keep the frame square and 
              plumb.Sheathing 
              - The first layer of outer wall covering nailed to the 
              studs.Joist- 
              The structural members or beams that hold up the floor or ceiling, 
              usually 2x10's or 2x12's spaced 16 inches apart.Bridging 
              - Cross bridging or solid. Members at the middle or third points 
              of joist spans to brace one to the next and to prevent their 
              twisting.Subflooring - The rough boards that are laid over 
              the joist. Usually laid diagonally.Flooring 
              Paper - A felt paper laid on the rough floor to stop air 
              infiltration and, to some extent, noise.Finish 
              Flooring - Usually hardwood, of tongued and grooved 
              strips.Building 
              Paper - Paper placed outside the sheathing, not as a vapor 
              barrier, but to prevent water and air from leaking in. Building 
              paper is also used as a tarred felt under shingles or siding to 
              keep out moisture or wind.Beveled 
              Siding - Sometimes called clapboards, with a thick butt and a 
              thin upper edge lapped to shed water.Wall 
              Insulation - A blanket of wool or reflective foil placed 
              inside the walls.Metal 
              Lath - A mesh made from sheet metal onto which plaster is 
              applied.D  Foundation and 
              BasementFinished 
              Grade Line - The top of the ground at the 
              foundation.Foundation 
              Wall - The wall of poured concrete (shown) or concrete blocks 
              that rests on the footing and supports the remainder of the house 
              .Termite 
              Shield - A metal baffle to prevent termites from entering the 
              frame.Footing - 
              The concrete pad that carries the entire weight of the house upon 
              the earth.Footing Drain 
              Tile - A pipe with cracks at the joints to allow underground 
              water to drain in and away before it gets into the 
              basement.Basement 
              Floor Slab- The 4 or 5-inch layer of concrete that forms the 
              basement floor.Gravel Fill- Placed under the slab to allow drainage and to guard against 
              a damp floor.Girder - 
              A main beam upon which floor joists rest. Usually of steel, but 
              also of wood.Backfill 
              - Earth, once dug out, that has been replaced and tamped down 
              around the foundation.Areaway - 
              An open space to allow light and air to a window. Also called a 
              light well.Area Wall 
              - The wall, of metal or concrete, that forms the open 
              area. E  Windows and 
              DoorsWindow 
              -An opening in a building for admitting light and air. It usually 
              has a pane or panes of glass and is set in a frame or sash that is 
              generally movable for opening and shutting.Window 
              Frame - The lining of the window opening.Window 
              Sash - The inner frame, usually movable, that holds the 
              glass.Lintel - 
              The structural beam over a window or door 
              opening.Window 
              Casing - The decorative strips surrounding a window opening on 
              the inside. F  Stairs and 
              EntryEntrance 
              Canopy - A roof extending over the entrance 
              door.Furring - 
              Falsework or framework necessary to bring the outer surface to 
              where we want it.Stair 
              Tread - The horizontal strip where we put our foot when we 
              climb up or down the stairs.Stair 
              Riser-The vertical board connecting one tread to the 
              next.Stair 
              Stringer - The sloping board that supports the ends of 
              the steps.Newel - 
              The post that terminates the railing.Stair 
              Rail - The bar used for a handhold when we use the 
              stairs.Balusters 
              - Vertical rods or spindles supporting a 
              rail.**III. 
            Structure**
            **A  
            Foundation**The word 
            **foundation** is used to mean:Construction 
              below grade such as footings, cellar or basement 
              walls.The composition 
              of the earth on which the building rests.Special 
              construction such as pilings and piers used to support the 
              building.The foundation bed may be composed of solid rock, sand, 
            gravel, or unconsolidated sand or clay. Rock, sand, or gravel are 
            the most reliable foundation materials. Unconsolidated sand and 
            clay, though found in many sections of the country, are not as 
            desirable. because they are subject to sliding and settling.
            The footing (see 
            Figure 4-2) distributes the weight of the building over a sufficient 
            area of ground so as to ensure that the foundation walls will stand 
            properly. Footings are usually constructed of a masonry-type 
            material such as concrete; however, in the past wood and stone have 
            been used. Some older houses have been constructed without 
            footings.Although it is 
            usually difficult to determine the condition of a footing without 
            excavating the foundation, a footing in a state of disrepair or lack 
            of a footing will usually be indicated either by large cracks or 
            by settlement in the foundation walls (see Figure 4-3). 
            **Figure 4-2. 
            Foundation Details****Figure 4-3. 
            Foundation Cracks**Foundation wall 
            cracks are usually diagonal, starting from the top, the bottom, or 
            the end of the wall. Cracks that do not extend to at least one edge 
            of the wall may not be caused by foundation problems. Such wall 
            cracks may be due to other structural problems and should also be 
            reported.The foundation 
            walls support the weight of the structure and transfer this weight 
            to the footings. The foundation walls may be made of stone, brick, 
            concrete, or concrete blocks and should be moisture proofed with 
            either a membrane of water-proof material or a coating of portland 
            cement mortar. The membrane may consist of plastic sheeting or a 
            sandwich of standard roofing felt joined and covered with tar or 
            asphalt. The purpose of water-proofing the foundation walls is to 
            prevent water from penetrating the wall material and leaving the 
            basement or cellar walls damp.Holes in the 
            foundation walls are a common finding in many old houses. These 
            holes may be caused by missing bricks or blocks. Holes and cracks in 
            a foundation wall are undesirable because they make a convenient 
            entry for rats and other rodents and also indicate the possibility 
            of further structural deterioration. These holes should not be 
            confused with adequately installed vents in the foundation wall that 
            permit ventilation and prevent moisture entrapment.The basement or 
            cellar floor should be made of concrete placed on at least 6 inches 
            of gravel. The purpose of a concrete floor is to protect the 
            basement or cellar from invasion by rodents or from flooding. The 
            gravel distributes ground water movements under the concrete floor, 
            reducing the possibility of the water's penetrating the floor. A 
            waterproof membrane, such as plastic sheeting, should be laid before 
            the concrete is placed for additional protection against 
            flooding.The basement or 
            cellar floor should be gradually but uniformly sloped towards a 
            drain or a series of drains from all directions. These drains permit 
            the basement or cellar floor to be drained if it becomes flooded 
            .Evidence of 
            ineffective waterproofing or moisture proofing will be indicated by 
            water or moisture marks on the floor and walls.Cellar doors, 
            hatchways, and basement windows should be weathertight and rodent 
            proof. A hatchway can be inspected by standing at the lower portion 
            with the doors closed; if daylight can be seen, the door probably 
            needs repair.B  
            FramingMany different 
            types of house-farming systems are found in various sections of the 
            country; however, the majority of the members in each framing system 
            are the same. They include:Foundation 
              Sills: (see Figure 4-4 and 4-5). The purpose of the sill is to 
              provide support or a bearing surface for the outside walls of the 
              building. The sill is the first part of the frame to be placed and 
              rests directly on the foundation wall. It is bolted to the 
              foundation wall by sill anchors. It is good practice to protect 
              the sill against termites by extending the foundation wall to at 
              least 18 inches above the ground and using a noncorroding metal 
              shield continuously around the outside top of the foundation 
              wall.Flooring 
              Systems: (see Figure 4-5). The flooring system is composed of 
              a combination of girders, joists, sub-flooring, and finished 
              flooring that may be made up of concrete, steel, or wood. Joists 
              are laid perpendicular to the girders, at about 16 inches on 
              centers, and are the members to which the sub-flooring is 
              attached. When the subfloor is wood, it may be nailed at either 
              right angles or diagonally to the joists.
              As shown in 
              Figure 4-5, a girder is a member that in certain framing systems 
              supports the joists and is usually a larger section than the 
              joists it supports. Girders are found in framing systems where 
              there are no interior bearing walls or where the span between 
              bearing walls is greater than the joists are capable of spanning. 
              The most common application of a girder is to support the first 
              floor in residences. Often a board known as a ledger is applied to 
              the side of a wood girder or beam to form a ledge for the joists 
              to rest upon. The girder, in turn, is supported by wood posts or 
              steel "lally columns" which extend from the cellar or basement 
              floor to the girder.Studs: (see Figure 4-4 and 4-5). Wall studs are almost always 
              2 by 4 inches; studs 2 by 6 inches are occasionally used to 
              provide a wall thick enough to permit the passage of waste pipes. 
              There are two types of walls or partitions: bearing and 
              nonbearing. A bearing wall is constructed at right angles to and 
              supports the joists. A nonbearing wall or partition acts as a 
              screen or enclosure; hence, the headers in it are often parallel 
              to the joists of the floor above.
              **Figure 4-4. Wall 
              Framing****Figure 
              4-5. Floor Construction**In general, studs 
              like joists are spaced 16 inches on center. In light construction 
              such as garages and summer cottages where plaster is omitted, or 
              some other material is used for a wall finish wider spacing on 
              studs is common.Openings for 
              windows or doors must be framed in studs. This framing consists of 
              horizontal members called "headers," and vertical members called 
              "trimmers" (see Figure 4-l).Since the 
              vertical spaces between studs can act as flues to transmit flames 
              in the event of a fire, ''fire stops" are important in preventing 
              or retarding fire from spreading through a building by way of air 
              passages in walls, floors, and partitions. Fire stops are wood 
              obstructions placed between studs or floor joists to prevent fire 
              from spreading in these natural fluespaces.Interior Wall 
              Finish: Many types of materials are used for covering interior 
              walls and ceilings, but the principal types are plaster and 
              dry-wall construction. Plaster is a mixture, usually lime, sand, 
              and water, applied in two or three coats to lath to form a 
              hard-wall surface. Dry-wall finish is a material that requires 
              little, if any, water for application. More specifically, dry-wall 
              finish may be gypsum board, plywood, fiberboard, or wood in 
              various sizes and forms.
              Gypsum board is a 
              sheet material composed of a gypsum filler faced with paper. 
              Sheets are usually 4 feet wide and can be obtained in lengths up 
              to 12 feet. In dry-wall construction, gypsum boards are fastened 
              to the studs either vertically or horizontally and then painted. 
              The edges along the length of the sheet are recessed to receive 
              joint cement and tape.A plaster finish 
              requires a base upon which plaster can be spread. Wood lath at one 
              time was the plaster base most commonly used, but today 
              gypsum-board lath is more popular. It has paper faces with a 
              gypsum filler. Such lath is 16 by 48 inches and 1/2 or 3/8 inches 
              thick.It is applied 
              horizontally across the studs. Gypsum lath may be perforated to 
              improve the bond and thus lengthen the time the plaster can remain 
              intact when exposed to fire. The building codes in some cities 
              require that gypsum lath be perforated. Expanded-metal lath may 
              also be used as a plaster base. Expanded-metal lath consists of 
              sheet metal slit and expanded to form openings to hold the 
              plaster. Metal lath is usually 27 by 96 inches and is fastened to 
              the studs.Plaster is 
              applied over the base to a minimum thickness of 1/2 inch. Because 
              some drying may take place in wood-framing members after the house 
              is completed, some shrinkage can be expected, which, in turn, may 
              cause plaster cracks to develop around openings and in corners. 
              Strips of lath imbedded in the plaster at these locations prevent 
              cracks.On the inside 
              face of studs that form an exterior wall, vapor barriers are used 
              to prevent condensation on the wall. The vapor barrier is an 
              asphalted paper or metal foil through which moisture-laden air 
              cannot travel.Stairways: (see Figure 4-6). The general purpose of 
              the standards for stairway dimensions is to ensure that there is 
              adequate headroom, width, and uniformity riser and tread size of 
              every step to accommodate the expected traffic on each stairway 
              safely.
              Interior 
              stairways should be not less than 44 inches in width. The width of 
              a stairway may be reduced to 36 inches in one- and two-farnily 
              dwellings. Stairs with closed risers should have maximum risers of 
              8? inches and a minimum tread of 9 inches plus 1 ?-inch nosing. 
              Basement stairs are often constructed with open risers. These 
              stairs should have maximum risers of 8? inches and minimum treads 
              of 9 inches plus ?-inch nosing. The headroom in all parts of the 
              stair enclosure should be no less than 80 inches.Exterior stairway 
              dimensions should be the same as those called for in interior 
              stairways, except that the headroom requirement does not 
              apply. **Figure 4-6. 
              Stairway**Windows: 
              The four general classifications of windows for residences 
              are:a Double-hung 
              sash window that moves up or down, balanced by weights hung on 
              chains or ropes, or springs on each side.
              
              b Casement 
              window sash is hinged at the side and can be hung so that it will 
              swing outward or inward.
              
              c Awning 
              window-usually has two or more glass panes that are hinged at the 
              top and swing about a horizontal axis.
              
              d Sliding window 
              - usually has two or more glass panes that slide past one another 
              on a horizontal track.The principal parts of a 
            double-hung window (see Figure 4-7) are the lights, the top rail 
            framing members, bars or muntins that separate the lights, stiles - 
            side-framing members, bottom rail, sash weights, and sash cords or 
            chains. (All rails are horizontal, all stiles vertical.) The 
            casement window's principal parts include: top and bottom rails, 
            muntins, butt hinges, and jamb. All types of windows should open 
            freely and close securely.
            The exterior sill 
            is the bottom projection of a window. The drip cap is a separate 
            piece of wood projecting over the top of the window and is a 
            component of the window casing. **Figure 4-7. Window 
            Details**Doors:There 
            are many styles of doors both for exterior and interior use. 
            Interior doors should offer a reasonable degree of privacy. Exterior 
            doors must, in addition to offering privacy, protect the interior of 
            the structure from the elements. The various parts of a door have 
            the same definitions as the corresponding parts of a window.The most common 
            types of doors are:a  Batten 
            door: This consists of boards nailed together in various ways. 
            The simplest is two layers nailed to each other at right angles, 
            usually with each layer at 4; degrees to the vertical.Another type of 
            batten door consists of vertical boards nailed at right angles to 
            several (two to four) cross strips called ledgers, with diagonal 
            bracing members nailed between ledgers. If vertical members 
            corresponding to ledgers are added at the sides, the verticals are 
            called frames.Batten doors are 
            often found in cellars and other places where appearance is not a 
            factor and economy is desired.b Flush 
            doors: Solid flush doors are perfectly flat, usually on both 
            sides, although occasionally they are made flush on one side and 
            paneled on the other. Flush doors sometimes are solid planking, but 
            they are commonly veneered and possess a core of small pieces of 
            white pine or other wood. These pieces are glued together with 
            staggered end joints. Along the sides, top, and bottom are glued 
            32-inch edge strips of the same wood, used to create a smooth 
            surface that can be cut or planed. The front and back faces are then 
            covered with a 1/8- to 1/4-inch layer of veneer.Solid flush doors 
            may be used on both the interior and exterior.c Hollow - 
            core doors: These, like solid flush doors, are perfectly flat, but 
            unlike solid doors, the core consists mainly of a grid of crossed 
            wooden slats or some other type of grid construction. Faces are 
            3-ply plywood instead of one or two plies of veneer, and the surface 
            veneer may be any species of wood, usually hardwood. The edges of 
            the core are solid wood and are made wide enough at the appropriate 
            places to accommodate locks and butts. Doors of this kind are 
            considerably lighter than solid flush doors.Hollow-core doors 
            are usually used as interior doors.d Paneled doors:Most doors are paneled, with most panels consisting of solid 
            wood or plywood, either "raised" or "flat," although exterior doors 
            frequently have one or more panels of glass, in which case they are 
            called "lights." One or more panels may be employed although the 
            number seldom exceeds eight. Paneled doors may be used both on the 
            interior or exterior.In addition to the 
            various types of wood doors, metal is often used as veneer or for 
            the frame.In general, the 
            horizontal members are called rails and the vertical members are 
            called stiles. Every door has a top and bottom rail, and some may 
            have intermediate rails. There are always at least two stiles. one 
            on each side of the door.The frame of a 
            doorway is the portion to which the door is hinged. It consists of 
            two side jambs and a head jamb, with an integral or attached stop 
            against which the door closes.Exterior door 
            frames are ordinarily of softwood plank, with side rabbitted to 
            receive the door in the same way as casement windows. At the foot is 
            a sill, made of hardwood to withstand the wear of traffic, and 
            sloped down and out to shed water.Interior door 
            frames are similar to exterior, except that they are often set 
            directly on the hardwood flooring without a sill.Building codes 
            throughout the country call for doors in various locations within 
            the structure to be fire resistant. These doors are often covered 
            with metal or some other fire-resistant materials. and some are 
            completely constructed of metal. Fire-resistant doors are usually 
            located between a garage and a house, stairwells and hallways, all 
            boiler rooms. The fire resistance rating required for various doors 
            differs with local fire codesC Roof Framing 
            (see Figures 4-1,4-4,4-8, and 4-9)Rafters serve the 
            same purpose for the roof as joists do for floors, i.e., providing 
            support for sheathing and roofing material. Rafters are usually 
            spaced 20 inches on center.Collar Beam: 
              Collar beams are ties between rafters on opposite sides of the 
              roof. If the attic is to be used for rooms, the collar beam may 
              double as the ceiling joist.Purlin: A purlin 
              is the horizontal member that forms the support for the rafters at 
              the intersection of the two slopes of a gambrel 
              roof.Ridge Board: A 
              ridge board is a horizontal member against which the rafters rest 
              at their upper ends; it forms a lateral tie to make them 
              secureHip: Like a 
              ridge except that it slopes. The intersection of two adjacent, 
              rather than two opposite, roof planes.Roof Boards: The 
              manner in which roof boards are applied depends upon the type of 
              roofing material. Roof boards may vary from tongue-and-groove 
              lumber to plywood panels.Dormer: The term 
              dormer window is applied to all windows in the roof of a building, 
              whatever their size and shape.D  Exterior 
            Walls and Trim (see Figure 4-4 and 4-9) Exterior walls are 
            enclosure walls whose purpose is to make the building weather-tight. 
            In most one- to three-story buildings they also serve as bearing 
            walls. These walls may be made of many different 
            materials.
            Frequently used 
            framed exterior walls appear to be of brick construction. In this 
            situation, the brick is only one course thick and is called a brick 
            veneer. It supports nothing but itself and is kept from toppling by 
            ties connected to the frame wall.In frame 
            construction the base material of the exterior walls is called 
            "sheathing." The sheathing material may be square-edge, shiplap, or 
            tongue-and-groove boards.In recent 
            construction there has been a strong trend toward the use of plywood 
            or composition panels.Sheathing, in 
            addition to serving as a base course for the finished siding 
            material, stiffens the frame to resist sway caused by wind. It is 
            for this reason that sheathing has been applied diagonally on frame 
            buildings.The finished siding 
            may be clapboard, shingles, aluminum, brick asphalt, wood, and so 
            forth, or a combination thereof. Good aluminum siding has a backer 
            board that serves as added insulation and affords rigidity to the 
            siding. Projecting cornices are a decorative trim found at the top 
            of the building's roofline. A parapet wall is that part of the 
            masonry wall that extends up and beyond the roofline and is capped 
            with a noncombustible material. It helps prevent spread of fire, 
            provides a rest for fire department ladders, and helps prevent 
            people on the roof from falling off.Many types of 
            siding, shingles, and other exterior coverings are applied over the 
            sheathing. Wood siding, cedar, and other wood shingles or shakes, 
            clapboard, common siding (called bevel siding), composition siding, 
            asbestos, cement shingles, asbestos-cement siding, and the 
            aforementioned aluminum siding are commonly used for exterior 
            coverings. Clapboards and common siding differ only in the length of 
            the pieces. Clapboards are 4 feet long while panel siding comes in 
            lengths from 6 to 16 feet. Composition siding is made of felt and 
            asphalt, which are often shaped to look like brick. Asbestos and 
            cement shingles are rigid and produce a covering that is fire 
            resistant. Cedar wood shingles are also manufactured with a backer 
            board that gives insulation and fire-resistant qualities. Asbestos 
            cement siding made of asbestos fiber and portland cement has good 
            fire-resistant qualities and is a rigid covering.E  Roof 
            Coverings (Flexible Material Class)Asphalt 
              Shingle: The principal damage to asphalt shingle roofs is 
              caused by the action of strong winds on shingles nailed too high. 
              Usually the shingles affected by winds are those in the four or 
              five courses nearest the ridge and in the area extending about 5 
              feet down from the edge or rake of the roof.Asphalt 
              Built-up Roofs:These may be unsurfaced, the coating of 
              bitumen being exposed directly to the weather, or they may be 
              surfaced having slag or gravel imbedded in the bituminous coating. 
              The use of surfacing material is desirable as a protection against 
              wind damage and the elements. This type of roof should have enough 
              pitch to drain water readily.Coal Tar 
              Pitch Built-up Roofs: This type roof must be surfaced with 
              slag or gravel. Coal tar pitch built-up roof should always be used 
              on deck pitched less than 34 inch per foot; that is, where water 
              may collect and stand. This type roof should be inspected on 
              completion, 6 months later, and then at least once a year, 
              preferably in the fall. When the top coating of bitumen shows 
              damage or has become badly weathered, it should be renewed (rigid 
              material class).Slate 
              Roofs: The most common problem with slate roofs is the 
              replacement of broken slates. Roofs of this type normally render 
              long service with little or no repair.Tile 
              Roofs: Replacement of broken shingle tiles is the main 
              maintenance problem. This is one of the most expensive roofing 
              materials. It requires very little maintenance and gives long 
              service.Copper Roofs:Usually are of 16-ounce copper sheeting and applied to 
              permanent structures. When properly installed, they require 
              practically no maintenance or repair. Proper installation allows 
              for expansion and contraction with changes in temperature.Galvanized 
              Iron Roofs: Maintenance is done principally by removing rust 
              and keeping roof well painted. Leaks can be corrected by 
              renailing, caulking, or replacing all or part of the sheet or 
              sheets in disrepair.Wood Shingle 
              Roofs: The most important factors of this type roof are its 
              pitch and exposure, the character of wood, kind of nails used, and 
              preservative treatment given shingles. Creosote and coal tar 
              preservative are satisfactory for both treated and untreated 
              shingles.Flashing: 
              Valleys in roofs that are formed by the junction of two downward 
              slopes may be finished, open, or closed. In a closed valley the 
              slates, tiles, or shingles of one side meet those of the other. 
              and the flashing below them may be comparatively narrow. In an 
              open valley, the flashing, which may be made of zinc, copper, or 
              aluminum, is laid in a continuous strip, extending 12 to 18 inches 
              on each side of the valley, while the tiles or slates do not come 
              within 4 to 6 inches of it.
              The ridges built 
              up on a sloping roof where it runs down against a vertical 
              projection, like a chimney or a skylight, should be weatherproofed 
              with flashing.Metal flashings 
              are generally used with slate, tile, metal, and wood shingles. 
              Failure of roof flashing is usually due to exposed nails that have 
              come loose. The loose nails allow the flashing to lift with 
              leakage resulting.Gutters and 
              Leaders: Gutters and leaders should be of noncombustible 
              materials. They should be securely fastened to the structure and 
              spill into a storm sewer if the neighborhood is so provided. When 
              there is no storm sewer, a concrete or stone block placed on the 
              ground beneath the leader prevents water from eroding the lawn. 
              This store block is called a splash block. Gutters will not become 
              plugged if protected against clogging of leaves and twigs. Gutters 
              should be checked every spring and fall and then cleaned out when 
              necessary.**Figures 4-8 & 
            4-9 Cornice Construction.****IV. 
            Discussion of Inspection Techniques**
            A serious building 
            defect may often be observed during a housing inspector's routine 
            examination. In many cases it is beyond the scope of the housing 
            inspector's background to analyze the underlying causes and to 
            recommend a course of action that will facilitate repair in an 
            efficient and economical manner. In situations such as this, it is 
            important that the inspector realize his limitations and refer the 
            matter to the proper expert.A prime example of 
            a technically complex situation that a housing inspector might 
            observe is a leaning, buckling, or bulging foundation or bearing 
            wall. This problem may be the result of a number of hidden or 
            interacting problems. For example, it may be the result of 
            differential building settlement or failure of a structural beam or 
            girder. It is beyond the scope of the housing inspector's 
            responsibilities to discover the cause of the defect, but it is his 
            responsibility to note the problem and refer it to the proper 
            authority. In this case the proper authority would be a building 
            inspector.In the 
            aforementioned situation where a bulging foundation wall was 
            discovered, this would obviously constitute a violation of the 
            housing ordinance and should be written up as such by the housing 
            inspector. Since the housing inspector is generally not qualified to 
            determine whether the house should be evacuated because it is in 
            danger of imminent collapse, he should seek the advice of a building 
            inspector.A question that 
            frequently arises is**which violations should be referred 
            to an expert?** Needless to say, circumstances that 
            obviously fall within the jurisdiction of another department should 
            be referred to the department. The housing inspector should discuss 
            with his supervisor any situation in which he feels inadequate to 
            make a decision. In all cases the inspector should inform his 
            supervisor before referring a problem to another agency or 
            expert.Another reason for 
            referral to other departments is that when a remedial action is 
            completed the other department will be in a better position to 
            determine whether the job is satisfactory.This principle of 
            referral should be applied to every portion of the inspection, 
            whether it deals with health, heating, plumbing, gas, or electrical 
            as well as structural defects.Certain structural 
            items should be recognized as unsafe by the housing inspector. For 
            example, a beam that has sagged or slanted may cause a portion of or 
            an entire floor to sag or slope. Where a sagging or sloping floor is 
            found, examine the ceiling of the room below or the basement for a 
            broken or dropped girder or joist.Doors and windows 
            that are out of level will not close completely. It may be possible 
            to see outside light through openings around window rails and door 
            jambs. If an inspector detects such a situation, the condition of 
            the supporting girders, girts, posts, and studs should be 
            questioned, since this condition is evidence that some of these 
            members may be termite infested or rotted and may be causing the 
            outside wall to sag. Glass panes in doors and windows should be 
            replaced if found to be broken or missing. Windows should also be 
            checked for proper operation, and items such as broken sash cords or 
            chains noted.If the roof of the 
            structure appears to be sagging, the inspector should make a special 
            effort to examine the rafters, purlin, collar beams, and ridge 
            boards if these members are exposed as in unfinished attics. The 
            condition of the roof boards may be examined while he is in the 
            attic. If light can be seen between these boards the roof is 
            unsound. Evidence of a leaking roof will be indicated by loose 
            plaster or peeling or stained paint and wall paper. Areas of the 
            roof where flashing occurs, such as around the chimney, are frequent 
            origins of roof leaks. It is essential that the leak be found and 
            repaired, not only to prevent the entrance of moisture into the 
            building, but also to prevent the loosening of the plaster, rotting 
            of timbers, and extension of damage to the remainder of the 
            house.Gutters and rain 
            leaders should be placed around the entire building to insure proper 
            drainage of water. This will lessen the possibility of seepage of 
            water through siding and window frames, and entrance of water into 
            the cellar or basement. Lack of or leaking gutters may result in 
            rotting of the siding or erosion of the exposed portion of the 
            cellar or basement walls. This situation commonly exists where the 
            mortar between bricks or concrete blocks in foundation walls is 
            found to be heavily eroded. Gutters should be free from dirt and 
            leaves.The exterior siding 
            should be in sound, weathertight condition. Peeled or worn paint on 
            wood siding will expose the bare wood to the elements and result in 
            splitting and warping of siding. This condition will eventually lead 
            to the entrance of rain water with resultant rotting of the 
            sheathing and studs as well as inside dampness and falling plaster. 
            Sound and painted siding will prevent major repairs and expenses in 
            the future. This condition will often be particularly prevalent on 
            the north face of the structure.Roof and chimneys 
            should be inspected for tilting, missing bricks, deterioration of 
            flashing, and pointing of chimney bricks. In addition, roof covering 
            should be checked for broken spots and missing shingles or tiles. 
            Roof doors should be metal clad, self-closing, tight fitting, and 
            unlockable. The roof should also be examined for weather-tightness 
            and broken TV antennas.Porches should be 
            carefully examined for weakened treads, missing or cracked boards, 
            holes, and holes covered with tin plates, railing rigidity, missing 
            posts, handrail rigidity, condition of the columns that support the 
            porch roof, and the condition of the porch roof itself. The open 
            section beneath the porch should be inspected for broken 
            lattice-work. Check under the porch for accumulation of dirt and 
            debris that can offer a harborage for vermin and rodents.Loose plaster and 
            missing or peeling wallpaper or paint should be noted. Bugs and 
            cockroaches eat the paste from the wallpaper while leaving behind 
            loose paper.The basic parts of 
            a stairway that a housing inspector should be able to identify 
            correctly are the following:A  
              RiserB TreadC  NosingD  
              HandrailE  Balustrade and Balusters, the Vertical Members 
              that Support the Handrail, andF  The Soffit, Underpart of 
              the Stairway.In the examination of a stairway (be careful to turn the 
            light on) initially check the underside, if visible, to see if it is 
            intact. Then proceed slowly up the stairs placing full weight on 
            each tread and checking for loose, wobbling, or uneven treads and 
            risers. Regardless of the size of the treads or risers they should 
            all be of uniform size. For all stairs that rise 3 or more feet, a 
            handrail should be present and in a sound and rigid 
condition.
            Any fireplace 
            should conform to the requirements of the local code. An unused 
            fireplace that has its opening covered with wallpaper or other 
            material should have a solid seal behind the paper. Operable 
            fireplaces should have a workable damper and a fire screen, and 
            should be clean.Garages and 
            accessory structures should be inspected in the same manner as the 
            main building.Sidewalks and 
            driveways, whether constructed of flagstone, concrete, or asphalt, 
            should be checked for creaking, buckling, and other conditions 
            dangerous to pedestrian travel.Stone, brick, or 
            concrete steps should be inspected for cracks, deterioration, and 
            pointing.Fences should be in 
            a sound condition and painted. Fire escapes should be checked for 
            paint condition, loose or broken treads and rails, proper operating 
            condition, and proper connection to the house. **V. 
            Noise as an Environmental Stress**People feel 
            comfortable in an environment with a low-level, soothing, steady, 
            unobtrusive level of sound, typical of the natural undisturbed 
            environment. All of us have experienced the anguish that noise can 
            cause, whether it be noise from a neighbor's television, the 
            grinding of truck gears while asleep, the persistent whine of a fan 
            motor, or the sound of children racing down the halls. These 
            annoyances experienced in the home are producing public demands for 
            noise control legislation.Not only is noise 
            disturbing, but studies also indicate that extreme noise can cause 
            deafness and perhaps interfere with other bodily functions.While few existing 
            housing ordinances contain enforceable noise provisions, noise 
            problems must be considered by the building inspector because they 
            intimately affect and are affected by his decisions. As a housing 
            inspector, you can help residents by suggesting corrective noise 
            measures that can be taken; you can refer them to agencies, if 
            needed, for corrective action; you can help them to understand that 
            their noisy environment can place limitations on their behavior, 
            capabilities, and satisfaction with their home.Noise is unwanted 
            sound. Noise can travel through air or through the building 
            structure. The first stage of noise control is the control of sound 
            at its source. If attempts to quiet the source are not completely 
            successful, then other; more expensive corrective measures will be 
            required.Although a visual 
            examination of a dwelling may detect some sources of noise leaks 
            (see Figure 4-10) such as wide gaps or cracks at ceiling, floor, or 
            adjoining wall edges, it is usually inadequate since it fails to 
            detect sources of noise leaks hidden from the eye. A far more 
            effective test is to be alert for the operation of some noisy device 
            like a vacuum cleaner in a closed room and listen near the other 
            side of the wall for any noise leakage. The ear is a reasonably good 
            sensing device. If a noise leak is noticed, the partition may be 
            surveyed at critical points with a bright flashlight while an 
            observer looks for light leakage in a darkened room on the other 
            side. Detection of any light leakage in the darkened room will 
            signify a noise leak. **Figure 4-10 
            Transmission Of Airborne Noise**Noise carried as 
            vibration by a building structure is called structure-borne noise. 
            Detecting structure-borne noise caused by the operation of 
            mechanical equipment is somewhat more difficult (see Figure 4-11). 
            With noisy equipment in operation, the inspector can sometimes 
            locate noise leaks or structure-borne noise paths by conducting 
            similar hearing tests along with pressing the ear against various 
            room surfaces or using fingertips to sense the vibration of these 
            surfaces.A  Airborne 
            NoiseThe sources of 
            airborne noise that cause the most frequent disturbances in the home 
            are audio instruments such as televisions. radios. phonographs, or 
            pianos; adults and children speaking loudly, singing, crying and 
            shouting; household appliances such as garbage disposals, 
            dishwashers, vacuum cleaners, clothes washers, and dryers; plumbing 
            noises such as pipes knocking, toilets flushing, and water 
            running.The disturbing 
            influences of airborne noise are generally limited to the areas near 
            the noise source. For example, a phonograph may cause annoyance in 
            rooms of a neighbor's apartment adjacent to the phonograph but 
            rarely in rooms farther removed unless doors or passageways are left 
            open. Sound absorption materials such as carpeting, acoustical tile, 
            drapery, and upholstered furniture in the intervening rooms may 
            often provide a significant reduction in the disturbing noise before 
            it reaches rooms where quiet is desired.Under no conditions 
            should sound-absorptive materials be used on the surfaces of walls 
            and ceilings for the sole purpose of preventing the transmission of 
            sound as structure-borne noise. To do so would be a complete waste 
            of effort. To illustrate, imagine the noise conducted by a wall 
            constructed solely of drapery or acoustical tile attached to studs. 
            The noise level in the room would be reduced, but sound produced in 
            the room would pass through the wall to adjoining rooms with little, 
            if any, reduction in noise level. Sound absorptive materials should 
            be used in and near areas of high noise levels to limit airborne 
            noise at the source of the noise and reduce the effects of noise 
            along corridors.The transmission of 
            noise from one completely enclosed room to an adjoining room 
            separated by a partition wall may be either direct transmission 
            through the wall, indirect transmission through other walls, 
            ceilings, and floors common to both rooms, or through corridors 
            adjacent to such rooms.In some older wood 
            frame houses, the open troughs between studs and joists are 
            efficient sound transmission paths. This noise transmission by 
            indirect paths is known as "flanking transmission" (see Figure 4-10 
            and 4-11). In addition to the flanking paths, there may be noise 
            leaks particularly along the ceiling, floor, and sidewall edges of 
            the wall. In order to obtain the highest sound insulation 
            performance, a partition wall must be of airtight construction. Care 
            must be exercised to seal all openings, gaps, holes, joints, and 
            penetrations of piping and conduits with a nonsetting caulking 
            compound. Even hairline cracks, particularly at adjoining wall, 
            floor. and ceiling edges, transmit a substantially greater amount of 
            noise than would normally be expected on the basis of the size of 
            the crack.It is often helpful 
            to use one sound to drown out another disturbing noise; for example, 
            music on the radio can be used to drown out the noise of traffic. 
            The use of sound to drown out noise is particularly useful in 
            masking noises that occur infrequently, such as accelerating or 
            braking vehicles, periodic mechanical equipment noise, barking dogs, 
            laughter, or shouting.B  
            Structure-Borne Noise**Figure 4-11. Flanking 
            Transmission Of Impact And Structure-borne Noise**Structure-borne 
            noise occurs when wall, floor, or other building elements are set 
            into vibration by direct contact with vibrating sources such as me 
            chanical equipment or domestic appliances. A small, vibrating pipe 
            firmly attached to a plywood or gypsum wall panel will amplify the 
            vibration noise. An illustration of this amplification of structure 
            borne noise is provided by the sound board of a piano. The major 
            sources of structure-borne noise are the impact of walking on wood 
            floors or of slamming doors, plumbing system noises, heating and 
            air-conditioning system noises, noise from mechanical equipment or 
            appliances, and vibration from sources outside the building. If the 
            vibration is severe enough, it may have adverse effects not only on 
            tile occupants of a building but also on the building 
            structure.Household 
            appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, sewing machines, 
            clothes dryers, televisions, and pianos should be vibration isolated 
            from the floor by means of rubber mounts placed under them if 
            disturbing structure-borne noise is to be avoided. Residents should 
            also be cautioned against locating these noise sources along party 
            walls and in particular against mounting these appliances and 
            kitchen cabinets 'directly on party walls so that the walls act as 
            sounding boards in adjoining apartments. Window air-conditioners 
            should be completely vibration isolated from the surrounding window 
            frame by rubber gaskets and padding. The importance of isolating a 
            vibrating source from the structure in the control of equipment 
            noise cannot be overemphasized.Another source of 
            disturbing structure-borne noise is squeaking of wood floors. Some 
            squeaks can be eliminated by lubricating the tongues of wood floor 
            boards with mineral oil applied sparingly to the openings between 
            adjacent boards. Loose finish flooring may be securely fastened to 
            subflooring by surface nailing into the subfloor and preferably the 
            joists. Ring-type nails or sawtooth staples properly spaced should 
            be used in nailing finish flooring to subflooring. In an exposed 
            joist structure, where finish flooring is warped, driving screws up 
            through the subfloor and into the finish floor will be effective in 
            drawing the layers of flooring tightly together to reduce 
            noise.Of course, noise 
            caused by the impact of walking or scraping can be substantially 
            reduced by the use of carpets. In the case of door slams, the impact 
            noise may be eliminated by the use of door closers or rubber 
            bumpers.The noisy hammering 
            of a plumbing system is usually caused by the sudden interruption of 
            water flow, for example, by a quick closing or opening of a 
            tap.Air chambers can be 
            built into the plumbing system to reduce water hammer. The air 
            pockets, rubber inserts, or spring elements in air chambers act to 
            reduce noise. Air chambers are explained in Chapter 6.Defective, loose, 
            or worn valve stems create intense chattering of the plumbing 
            system. The defective device can frequently be found without 
            difficulty, since immediate use of the device causes the vibration, 
            which generally occurs at some low-flowvelocity setting and 
            diminishes or disappears at a higher flow setting. For example, if a 
            chattering noise occurs when a particular faucet or tap is opened 
            partially and diminishes when fully opened, the faucet more than 
            likely has some loose or defective parts and should be 
            repaired.Noise can be a very 
            complex problem. The housing inspector is not expected to be an 
            acoustics expert. Nor is he expected to be able to analyze and solve 
            the noise problems that an acoustics consultant would normally 
            handle. He can, however, help teach the public that the annoyances 
            and stress caused by noise can be partially alleviated by a simple 
            awareness of common noise problems found in many residences.Although the 
            housing inspector is not an expert in the fields of zoning, 
            plumbing, building, and electrical systems, he should- be familiar 
            with the applicable code in each of the respective fields. 
            Familiarization with these codes will better enable him to recognize 
            violations.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               | Environmental 
            Public Health Tracking        |                                                                       |