Uniled States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Forest Service 

An Interim Old-Growth Definition 

for Cypress-Tupe o Communities 

in the Southeast 

Southern Margaret S. Devall 

Research Station 

A Section of the Old-Grow%h Definition Series 
The Author: 

Margaret S. Devall, Ecologist, Southern Research Station, 

U.S. Depament of Agriculture, Forest Service, Stoneville, MS 38776. 

Preface 

Old growth is widely acknowledged today as an essential part of managed forests, particularly on public lands. However, this 

concept is relatively new, evolving since the 1970's when a grassroots movement in the Pacific Northwest began in earnest to 

define old growth. In response to changes in public attitude, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, began 

reevaluating its policy regarding old-growth forests in the 1980's. Indeed, the ecological significance of old growth and its 

contribution to biodiversity were apparent. It was also evident that definitions were needed to adequately assess and manage the 

old-growth resource. However, definitions of old growth varied widely among scientists. To address this discrepancy and other 

old-growth issues, the National Old-Growth Task Group was formed in 1988. At the recommendation of this committee, old 

growth was officially recognized as a distinct resource by the Forest Service, greatly enhancing its status in forest management 

planning. The committee devised "The Generic Definition and Description of Old-Growth Forests" to serve as a basis for 

further work and to ensure uniformity among Forest Service Stations and Regions. Emphasis was placed on the quantification 

of old-growth attributes. 

At the urging of the Chief of the Forest Service, all Forest Service Stations and Regions began developing old-growth 

definitions for specific forest types, Because the Southern and Eastern Regions share many forest communities (together they 

encompass the entire Eastern United States), their efforts were combined, and a cooperative agreement was established with 

The Nature Conservancy for technical support. The resulting project represents the first large-scale effort to define old growth 

for all forests in the Eastern United States. This project helped bring the old-growth issue to public attention in the East. 

Definitions will first be developed for broad forest types and based mainly on published information and so must be viewed 

accordingly. Refinements will be made by the Forest Service as new information becomes available. This document represents 

1 of 35 forest types for which old-growth definitions will be drafted. 

In preparing individual old-growth definitions, authors followed National Old-Growth Task Group guidelines, which differ 

from the standard General Technical Report format in two ways-the abstract (missing in this report) and the literature 

citations (listed in Southern Journal of Applied Forestry style). Allowing for these deviations will ensure consistency across 

organizational and geographic boundaries. 

June 1998 

Southern Research Station 

P.O. Box 2680 

Asheville, NC 28802 
An Interim Old-Growth Definition for CypressTupelo Communities in the Southeast 

Margaret S. Devall 

Introduction 

Forested wetlands [cypress-tupelo (Tmdium spp.-Nyssa 

spp.)] as well as some bottomland hardwood forests, are of 

increasing interest in the South. They are important in water 

management, wildlife conservation, habitat diversity, and 

high quality timber (Ewel and Odom 1984). The acreage of 

such forests in the region has declined dramatically; for 

example, at the time of European colonization, Louisiana 

had an estimated 11 to 12 million acres 14.4 to 4.8 million 

hectares (ha)] of forested wetlands. At that time, wetlands 

were considered useful only after they had been drained. 

The Swamp Land Acts of 1849-50 granted Federally owned 

swamp lands to the States to be reclaimed and disposed of, 

and, by 1974, only about 49 percent of the original acreage 

remained (Turner and Craig 1980). 

Virgin cypress swamps were an important source of timber 

for early settlers. Cutting of cypress began as soon as the 

French and Spanish arrived in the gulf coastal area, and, by 

1723, they were exporting some cypress lumber. However, 

logging in swamps was difficult, and, although cypress 

lumbering slowly increased during the colonial period, only 

the best trees in the most accessible locations were cut. 

Industrial logging of cypress began around 1890; the 

dwindling northern lumber industry, availability of cheap 

land, and development of new logging and milling 

techniques caused a dramatic increase in the utilization of 

cypress. However, industrial exploitation of cypress was 

short-lived, and, by 1925, only a few stands of commercial 

importance remained (Mancil 1972). By the late 1930's, 

virgin cypress was extremely scarce. A memorandum 

written in 1939 by L. Cook, Chief of Forestry of the 

National Park Service, states: "In Louisiana, cypress logs 

that have been lying on the ground for many years are now 

being salvaged due to the growing scarcity of standing 

timber of large size." 

Description 

Cypress-tupelo forests occur mainly in the Coastal Plain 

physiographic province (after Fenneman 1938) from 

southern Delaware through southern Florida to southeastern 

Texas and extend northward along the Mississippi River 

and its major tributaries to southern Illinois. Most cypress is 

within 98.4 feet [30 meters (m)] above sea level (Harlow 

and Harrar 1969). This forest type is found almost 

exclusively in low areas prone to frequent flooding such as 

swamps, deep sloughs, alluvial flats of major river 

floodplains, swamps of tidal estuaries, margins of coastal 

marshes, and isolated depressions of the Coastal Plain. Finetextured mineral soils predominate in alluvial bottoms, 

whereas nonalluvial swamps and depressions have surfaces 

of muck or shallow peat. Most soils are poorly aerated due 

to saturated conditions. 

Principal tree species include baldcypress [Taxodium 

distichum (L.) Rich.], pondcypress (T. ascendens Brong.), 

water tupelo (N. aquatica L.), and swamp tupelo (N. bz!j?ora 

Walt.). Swamps may be composed of any of these species 

(Hall and Penfound 1939b). Baldcypress grows larger and 

faster than pondcypress and is usually associated with 

flowing water. Pondcypress ordinarily dominates shallow 

ponds, edges of strands, and other locations where water 

collects and stands for part of the year (Ewel and Odom 

1984). Hall and Penfound (1 939b) mention that 

pondcypress and slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) may be 

major components of the pine flatwoods of the lower 

Coastal Plain. Baldcypress is an important component of 

bottomland hardwood communities, but those forest types 

are not considered here. 

Tree species associated with baldcypress include red maple 

(Acer rubrum L.), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiam L.), 

southern magnolia (M grandtyora L.), sweetgum 

(Liquidambar styraciflua L.), and various oaks (Quercus 

spp.), ashes (Fraxinus spp.), and pines (Pinus spp). Small 

trees and shrubs include buttonbush (Cephalanthus 

occdentalis L.), poison-ivy [Toxicodendron radicans (L.) 

Kuntze-S], muscadine grape (Vitis rotundr;folia Michaux), 

Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneioides L.), cattail (Typa 

EatiJblia L.), lizardtail (Saururus cernuus L.), and various 

hollies (Ilex spp.), viburnums (Vibumum spp.), lyonias 

(Lyonia spp.), sedges, grasses, and ferns (Wilhite and 

Toliver 1990). 
Species associated with water tupelo are black willow (Salk 

nigra Marshall), swamp cottonwd (POPGL~MS heterophylla 

L.), red maple, waterlocust (Gleditsia agmtica Marshall), 

water-elm (Planera aguatica Walter ex J.F. Gmelin.), 

overcup oak (Q. lyrata Walter), water oak (Q, nigrck L,), 

water hickory [Caqu aquatica (Michaux f.)] green and 

pumpkin ash (F. pennsylvanica Marshall and F. profir& 

Bush-S), sweetgum, and redbay [Persea borbonia (L.) 

Sprengel.]. Small trees and shrubs associated with water 

tupelo include swamp-privet [Forestiera acuminata 

(Michaux) Poiret], buttonbush, sweetbay, Carolina ash (F. 

caroliniana Miller), poison sumac [T. vernix (L.) 

Kuntze-S], southern bayberry (Myrica cerifera L.), and 

dahoon (flex cassine L.) (Johnson 1990). 

Swamp tupelo often occurs in pure stands, although cypress 

and water tupelo may be associated with it. The species is 

confined to ponds and sloughs and to the deltas of streams 

(Hall and Penfound 1939b). Other common associates of 

swamp tupelo are red maple, buttonbush, buckwheat tree 

[Clijtonia monophylla (Lam.) Britton ex Sarg.], dogwood 

(Cornus spp.), swamp cynlla (Cyrilla racemiflora L.), 

swamp-privet, Carolina ash, loblolly-bay [Cordonia 

lasianthus (L.) Ellis], dahoon, inkberry [I. ghbra (L.) 

Gray], yaupon (I. vomitoria Aiton), fetterbush lyonia 

[Lyonia lucida (Lam.) K. Koch], and bayberry (Outcalt 

1990). 

Pondcypress is commonly found in shallow ponds of the 

Coastal Plain associated with swamp tupelo. Other species 

found along the margins and on slightly elevated positions 

in the ponds are pines, red maple, sweetbay, and loblollybay. Small trees and shrubs found in this habitat include 

buttonbush, yaupon, swamp cyrilla, viburnums, swampprivet, bayberry, inkberry, ferns, and vines. Pondcypress is 

also found in some swamps along black-water rivers and 

creeks, in Carolina bays, in the Okefenokee Swamp, and in 

pondcypress savannahs. On these sites, it may be associated 

with the species listed above and many others (Wilhite and 

Toliver 1990). 

Although these species are not considered shade tolerant, 

the forest type as a whole is considered successional stable 

(climax) on most sites because prolonged periods of deep 

flooding prevent seed germination and curtail invasion by 

more shade-tolerant species. However, where either 

sediment accumulates or the frequency of flooding 

diminishes, or both, this forest type may be replaced by 

others (e.g., bttomlmd hardwoods). Historically, low 

intensity, small-scale disturbances were probably most 

common in these forests, although proximity to the coast 

ensured occasional large-scale disturbance from storms. 

Due to hydric conditions, fie is unusual in these forests 

except during periods of drought. The principal tree spies 

typically have long life spans; baldcypress, for instance, can 

live longer than 1,600 years (firley 1990). Wide age 

dis~bution was probably chxacteristic of origin& oldgrowth stands, including trees 200 to 800 years old (Ewe1 

and Odom 1984). 

Associated Cover Types 

Following are the Society of American Foresters (SAF) 

forest cover types (Eyre 1980) and Region 8 and Southern 

Research Station forest types that correspond to the cypresstupelo community: 

Crosswalk with SAF forest cover types: 

1 OO--pondcypress 

10 l-baldcypress 

102-baldcypress-tupelo 

103-water tupelo-swamp tupelo 

USDA Forest Service Region 8 forest types: 

23-pondcypress 

24---baldcypress 

67-baldcypress-water tupelo 

Southern Research Station forest type: 

67-cypress-water tupelo 

Old-Growth Conditions 

Living Tree Component 

Botanists and foresters have been interested in the size of 

old-growth trees (Brown 1984) (table 1). Mattoon ( 19 15) 

found baldcypress trees with diameters up to 12 feet (3.6 m) 

above the swollen buttress and heights of 1 18 to 128 feet 

(36 to 39 m). Moore (1967) mentions that Andrew Brown 

purchased logs for his sawmill in Natchez, MS, that were 4 

to 12 feet (1 -2 to 3.6 m) in diameter with clear boles as long 

as 69 feet (2 1 m). In the early days of cypress logging, the 

largest trees were left in the forest because they were 

impossible to cut with the equipment available (Brown 

1984). Later, only defective trees were left. 

Pondcypress is a much smaller tree than baldcypress; it has 

a slender bole, usually not over 3 feet (1 m) in diameter, 

with rounded to flat-topped crowns (Brown 1984). Water 

tupelo is also much smaller than baldcypress. It is a 
Table 1 (Engiish units)4tandardized table of old-growth attributes for cypress-tupelo cornmunitis in the Southmt 

Quantifiable 

attribute Data 

No. of 

standsu References 

Stand density 

Tadurn distichurn > 1 in. d.b.h. 

7: distichurn 2 I in. d.b.h. 

Nyssa aqwtica 24 in. d.b.h. 

N. aquatica 220 in. d.b.h. 

N. aquatica > 1 in. d.b.h. 

N. biflom >1 in. d.b.h. 

7: ascendens >1.6 in. d.b.h. 

Mixed species >4 in. d.b.h. 

Mixed species >50 in. d.b.h. 

Stand basal area 

T. distichurn > 1 in. d.b.h. 

N. biflom >l in. d.b.h. 

T. ascendens 

Mixed species >4 in. d.b.h. 

Mixed species >50 in. d.b.h. 

Average age of large trees' 

T. distichurn 

N. aquatica 

T. ascendens 

N. biflom 

D.b.h. of largest trees 

T. distichurn 

N. aquatica 

N. biflora 

T. ascendens 

Live trees in main canopy 

(Years) 

500-1,000 max. 

700-800 

400-600 (up to 1,200) 

200-800 

93 

120-200 (up to 900) 

200 

Variation in tree diameter 

(Inches) 

36-60 

72 d.n.m 

48-60, rarely 144 

108- 120 

63.8 

30.2 

33.8 

36-48 

25-30 

36-48 

36-48 

46, 23.9 

24-36 

26.9 

8-27.5 d.n., 78 

Hall and Penfound 1939ab 

Hall and Penfound 1939bC 

Martin and Smith 199 ld 

Martin and Smith 199 ld 

Hall and Penfound 1939a 

Hall and Penfound 1939b 

Hall and Penfound 1939a 

Hall and Penfound 193933 

Hall and Penfound 1943e 

Schlesinger 1978 

Gresham, personal communicatiod 

Gresham, personal comunicationg 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Gresham, personal communicationf 

Gresham, personal communicationg 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Hall and Penfound 1939a 

Hall and Penfound 1939a 

Hall and Penfound 1939b 

Schlesinger 1978 

Gresham, personal comunicatiod 

Gresham, personal comunicationg 

Gresham, personal communication 

Gresham, personal communicatiod 

Gresham, personal communicationR 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Lynch 199 1 

Porcher 198 1 

Harlow and Harrar 1969 

Ewe1 and Odum 1984 

Martin and Smith 199 1 

Schlesinger 1978 

Hall and Penfound 1939b 

Harlow and Harrar 1969 

Lynch et al. 199 In 

Sargent 1965 

Lindsey et al. 196 1 

Gresham, personal communicationf 

Gresham, personal communicationg 

Cresham, personal communicationh 

Harlow and Harrar 1969 

Martin and Smith 199 1 

Lynch et al. 199 1 " 

Sargent 1965 

Gresham, personal communicationR 

Harlow and Harrar 1969 

Gresham, personal communicationR 

Schlesinger 1978 
Table 1 (English units-tandardized table of old-growth attributm for cypress-tupelo cowunities in the Southeast 

(continued) 

Quantifiable 

attribute Data 

No* of 

standsu References 

Standing snags 

T. distichum 

N. aguatica 

T. ascendens > 1.6 in. d.b.h. 

N, biflom >I in 

Mixed species, all sizes 

Downed logs 

T. distichum 

N. aquatica 

Mixed species, all sizes 

Layers 

Percent canopy in gaps0 

(Percent cover)P 

Height 

T. distichum 

N. aquatica 

N. biflom 

Tree canopy structure 

Main canopylsubcanopylshrub 

Main canopylshrub 

Main canapylminimal shrub & herb 

Other important features 

(Feet) 

Martin and Smith 199 1 

Martin and Smith 199 1 

Schlesinger 1978 

Hall and Penfound 1943 

Gresham, personal communicatiod 

Gresham, personal comunication8 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Martin and Smith 199 1 

Martin and Smith 199 1 

Gresham, personal comunicatiod 

Gresham, personal communication* 

Gresham, personal communication 

Hall and Penfound 1939a 

Schlesinger 1978 

Hall and Penfound 1943 

Gresham, personal communicatiod 

Gresham, personal communicationg 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Harlow and Hatrar 1969 

" Number of stands may not equal number of citations. 

No evidence of cutting or drainage. 

" Little human influence on stand. 

Virgin stand not subject to drainage or cutting. 

No evidence of cutting or burning. 

Personal communication. February 16, 1995. Charles A. Gresham, Associate Professor, College of Forest and Recreation Resources, The Belle W. Baruch 

Forest Science Institute, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC 29442. Data from four stands in Beidler Forest. ' Personal communication. February 16, 1995. Charles A. Gresham, Associate Professor, College of Forest and Recreation Resources, The Belle W. Baruch 

Forest Science Institute, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC 29442. Data from four stands in Congaree Swamp National Monument. 

personal communication. February 16, 1995. Charles A. Gresham Associate Professor, College of Forest and Recreation Resources, The Belle W. Baruch 

Forest Science Institute, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC 29442. Data from a stand in Santee Experimental Forest, Francis Marion National Forest. 

Measured at head height. 

Measured above swell. ' Measured 3 feet above swell. ' Dominant and ccwiominant overstory trees. 

" d.n. = diameter normal (18" above butt swell). 

" Lynch, Baker, T. Foti, and L Peacock. 1991. The White River-Lower Arkansas River megasite: A preserve design project. 95 p. Draft unpublished report. 

On file with: Arkansas Nature Conservancy, 601 N. University, Little Rock, AR 72205. 

" 100 measurements per stand. 

Percent of upward vertical view of canopy that was leaves and branches. ' Five out of I00 measurement points had 0- 19% of canopy occupied by leaves and branches. 
Table 1 (metric unitswtarrdardized table of old-growth attributes for cypress-tupelo comrnurrjties in the Southeast 

Quantifiable 

attribute Data 

No. of 

standsa References 

Stand density 

Tadurn distichurn >2.5 cm d.b,h. 

7: disn'chum 22.5 cm d.b.h. 

Nyssa aguatica 2 10 ern d.b.h. 

N. aquatica 250 cm d.b.h. 

N. aquatica >2.5 cm d.b.h. 

7: ascendens >4 cm d.b.h. 

Mixed species >10 cm d.b.h. 

Mixed species >50 cm d.b.h, 

Stand basal area 

7: distichurn >2.5 cm d.b.h. 

N. bijlom >2.5 cm d.b.h. 

T. ascendens 

Mixed species 310 cm d.b.h. 

Mixed species >50 cm d.b.h. 

Average age of large treesC 

7: distichurn 

N. aquatica 

X ascendens 

N. bijlora 

D.b.h. of largest brees 

7: distichum 

N. aquatica 

N. biflom 

T, ascendens 

Live trees in main empy 

(Years) 

500-1,000 max. 

700-800 

4oO-600 (up to 1,200) 

200-800 

93 

120-200 (up to 900) 

200 

Variation in tree diameter 

91-152 

183 d.n."' 

122-1 52, rarely 366 

275-305 

162 

76.7 

85.9 

91-122 

64-76 

91-122 

91-122 

117 

6 1-92 

68.4 

20-70 d.n., 2 rn 

Hall and Penfound 1 939ab 

Hall and Penfound 1 939bC 

Martin and Smith 1991d 

Martin and Smith 1991d 

Hall and Penfound 1939a 

Hall and Penfound 1939b 

Hall and Penfound 1939a 

Hall and Penfound 1939b 

Hall and Penfound 1943" 

Schlesinger I978 

Gresham, personal communicatiod 

Gresham, personal communicationR 

Gresham, personal comunicationh 

Gresham, personal communicatiod 

Gresham, personal communicationR 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Hall and Penfound 1939a 

Hall and Penfound 1939a 

Hall and Penfound 1939b 

Schlesinger 1978 

Gresham, personal communicatiod 

Gresham, personal communicationR 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Gresham, personal communicatiod 

Gresham, personal communicationR 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Lynch 199 1 

Porcher 198 1 

Harlow and Harrar 1969 

Ewe1 and Odum 1984 

Martin and Smith 199 1 

Schlesinger 1978 

Hall and Penfound 1939b 

Harlow and Hanar 1969 

Lynch et al. 199 1 " 

Sargent 1965 

Lindsey et al. 1961 

Gresham, personal communicationf 

Gresham personal communication" 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Harlow and Harrar 1969 

Martin and Smith 199 1 

Lynch et al. 199 1 " 

Sargent 1965 

Gresham, personal communicationR 

Harlow and Harrar 1969 

Gresham, personal communicationR 

Schlesinger 1978 
Table 1 Metric unitsbstandardized table of old-growth attributs for cypress-tupelo comudties in the Southeast 

(cantinu&) 

Quantifiable 

attribute Data 

No. of 

standsa References 

Standing snags 

T. distichurn 

M aquatica 

T. ascendens >4 cm d.b.h. 

N. biflom >2.5 cm d.b.h. 

Mixed species, all sizes 

Downed logs 

T, distichurn 

N. aquatica 

Mixed species, all sizes 

Layers 

Percent canopy in gaps" 

(Percent cover)' 

Height 

T. distichurn 

N. aquatica 

N. biflora 

Dead t-oarse wdy debris 

Several 

Several 

270 

34 

130 

63 

116 

Several 

Several 

198 

72 

336 

Tree canopy structure 

Main canopylsubcanopylshrub 

Main canopylshrub 

Main canopylminirnal shrub & herb 

Other important features 

Martin and Smith 199 1 

Martin and Smith 199 1 

Schlesinger 1978 

Hall and Penfound 1943 

Gresham, personal communicatiod 

Gresham, personal communicationg 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Martin and Smith 1991 

Martin and Smith 1991 

Gresham, personal communicatisnf 

Gresham, personal communicationg 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Hall and Penfound 1939a 

Schlesinger 1978 

Hall and Penfound 1943 

Gresham, personal communicatiod 

Gresham, personal communicationg 

Gresham, personal communicationh 

Harlow and Harrar 1969 

" Number of stands may not equal number of citations. 

No evidence of cutting or drainage. 

" Little human influence on stand. 

Virgin stand not subject to drainage or cutting. 

No evidence of cutting or burning. 

Personal communication. February 16, 1995. Charles A. Gresham, Associate Professor, College of Forest and Recreation Resources, The Belle W. Baruch 

Forest Science Institute, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC 29442. Data from four stands in Beidler Forest. 

Personal communication. February 16, 1995. Charles A. Gresham, Associate Professor, College of Forest and Recreation Resources, The Belle W. Baruch 

Forest Science Institute, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC 29442. Data from four stands in Congaree Swamp National Monument. 

Personal communication. Febntary 16, 1995. Charles A. Gresham, Associate Professor, College of Forest and Recreation Resources, The Belle W. Baruch 

Forest Science Institute, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC 29442. Data from a stand in Santee Experimental Forest, Francis Marion National Forest. ' Measured at head height. 

"easured above swell. 

Measured 3 feet above swell. 

Dominant and codominant overstory trees. 

" d.n. = diameter normal (18 inches above butt swell). 

" Lynch, Baker, T. Foti, and L Peacock. 1991. The White River-Lower Arkansas River megasite: A preserve design project. 95 p. Draft unpublished report. 

On file with: Arkansas Nature Conservancy, 601 N. University, Little Rock, AR 72205. 

" 100 measurements per stand. 

Percent of upward vertical view of canopy that was leaves and branches. 

Five out of 100 measurement points had O to 19% of canopy wcupied by leaves and branches. 
medium-to-large tree 79 to 92 feet high (24 to 28 m) and 3 

to 4 feet 1100 to 122 centimeters (em)] in diameter at breast 

height (d.b.h.) The mxhum in height is 1 10 feet (33.5 m) 

and 6 feet (183 cm) in d.b.h. Water tupelo is found on sites 

that are periodically under water (Harlow and Hmar 1969). 

Swamp tupelo is a small-to-medium-sized tree that inhabits 

swampy lake shores (Brown 1965). Both species have 

swollen buttresses and looping roots. 

Many early botanists visited cypress swamps, and numerous 

descriptions of the comunity type have been published. 

However, little quantitative data exist. In 1876, Ridgway 

(Liidsey et al. 1961) described Little Cypress Swamp across 

the Wabash River from Mt. Camel, IN. He stated that the 

swamp covered 20,000 acres (8094 ha), timbered mostly 

with baldcypress. The largest trees [9 to 10 feet (2.7 to 3 m) 

in diameter] had been cut usually at the beginning of the 

cylindrical portion of the tree. Ridgway wrote that the 

swollen buttresses of the trees were "growing so near 

together that the intervening spaces are entirely taken up by 

the knees, the whole surface thus being an irregular wooden 

one, with soil or water only in the depressions." Lindsey et 

al. (196 1) published a photograph of a huge baldcypress 

tree, taken near the mouth of the White River by Ridgway in 

1888, and labeled "average size mature Taodium." 

Williams, Inc. harvested several stands of virgin 

baldcypress from swamps in south Louisiana around 19 19. 

The number of board feet per tree harvested ranged from 

555 to 2,84 1 (1.3 1 to 6.70 m3) for live baldcypress, 288 to 

1,458 (0.68 to 3.42 m3) for dead baldcypress, and 407 to 

729 (0.96 to 1.72 m3) for water tupelo. During 1903 to 

1907, an average volume of 38,926 board feet per acre 

(226.76 m3 per ha) was harvested from 3,800 acres (1537 

ha) of cypress-tupelo swamp in the Bay Wallace area.' 

Hall and Penfound (1939b) studied a 200-year-old virgin 

swamp tupelo (N. biftbra) swamp at the edge of the Pearl 

River Valley in southeastern Louisiana. The trees, 82 feet 

(25 m) high, were slender above the conspicuous swollen 

buttresses; they had numerous looping roots. The d,b.h. 

averaged 25.7 inches (65.3 cm), whereas diameter above the 

buttresses [I0 feet (3 m)] averaged 14.5 inches (36.8 cm). 

Swamp tupelo was the only important tree component. 

Hall and Penfound (1939a) also investigated a virgin 

baldcypress-tupelo swamp that had invaded marshlands 

along the Pearl River. The authors measured trees >1 inch 

(22.5 cm) at head height, just above the swollen buttress, so 

"ersonal communication. 1992. Rudy Sparks, Vice President, Williams, 

Inc., 107 McGee Drive, Patterson, LA 70392. 

that better comp&sons could be made with other forest 

types (diameter at the bottleneck). They state that although 

Indian Village swamp was considered a baldcypress-gum 

swamp, it was really a Nyssa biflora conswies, with swamp 

ant species (55 percent of trees per acre 

and 65 percent of crown cover). The authors note that the 

basal area of the comety 203 square feet per acre (46.6 

m2 per ha) was approximately equal to that of a mature 

virgin longleaf pine comunity 205 square feet per acre (47 

m2 per ha). Swamp tupelo had a basal area of 139.5 square 

feet per acre (32 m2 per ha) and occupied 69 percent of the 

basal area; baldcypress, 16 percent; water tupelo, 14 

percent; and red maple, 1 percent. Average age of 

baldcypress was 85 years. The understory included 

individuals of the canopy species as well as pumpkin ash 

and buttonbush. 

Age Characteristics 

Harlow and Harrar (1969) reported that baldcypress trees in 

virgin stands averaged 400 to 6W years old with some up to 

1,200 years old. Other authors also describe baldcypress 

trees 500 to 1,000 years old (table 1). Although few 

baldcypress trees of that age are living today, Van Deusen et 

al. (1993) cored living baldcypress trees up to 1,270 years 

of age in swamps in Louisiana and Mississippi. 

Canopy Characteristics 

Old baldcypress trees have broad, low, rounded crows 

often 98 feet (30 m) across. Usually baldcypress makes up 

the canopy in this com~ty, whereas water tupelo or 

swamp tupelo make up the subcanopy. However, other 

combinations may also be found. 

Beidler Swamp is a 799-acre (728.5-ha) original growth 

tract with three climax bottom-land forests: swamp forest, 

hardwood bottom, and ridge bottom. The canopy 

baldcypress trees are 120 feet (36.6 m) tall, whereas the 

water tupelo subcanopy is approximately 80 feet (24.4 m) 

tall. The largest baldcypress trees are 5 to 6 feet (150 to 180 

cm) in diameter and 700 to 800 years old (Porcher 198 I).' 

Baldcypress and tupelo occur in pure stands in the lowest 

parts of the swamp, but, in the higher parts, other tree 

species occur. Carolina ash forms a subcanopy below the 

tupelo in some areas, usually growing from the bases of the 

baldcypress or water tupelo trees, Swamp tupelo is scattered 

Dennis, J.V. 1970. Four Holes Swamp, Berkeley and Dorchester 

Counties, SC: Study of the natural history and matters penaining to 

acquisition of one of the last large virgin bottomland swamps in the South. 

55 p. Unpublished report. On file with: The Nature Conservancy, 18 15 N. 

Lynn Street, Arlington, VA 22209. 
throughout the forest and occasionally reaches the canopy 

(Porcher 198 1 ). 

In hdian ViUlage Swamp (Mall and Penfound 1939a), total 

crown cover just as buds were opening was 20 percent. 

Swamp tupelo made up approxhately 65 percent of the 

cover, whereas the rest was formed by other canopy spies. 

When the trees were fully leafed out, crown cover was 60 

percent. 

Schlesinger ( 1978) studied 17 stands in the Okefenokee 

Swamp in Georgia. The forests were along the middle fork 

of the Suwannee River and are thought to be undisturw 

remnants of the former extensive forest. Canopy trees were 

8 to 28 inches (20 to '70 cm) in d.b.h. and 66 feet (20 m) tall. 

Water depth ranged from 6 inches to 3 feet (15 cm to 1 m). 

Pondcypress was by far the dominant species in the 

overstory, although density and basal area of cypress varied 

among sites by 1,448 to 7,702 stems per acre (586 to 3,119 

stems per ha) and 202 to 444 square feet per acre (46.5 to 

10 1.8 m2 per ha), diameter was measured above the 

swell-about 3 feet (1 m) above the water level. 

Dead Tree Component 

Standing Snags-Little data are available on the dead tree 

component of the cypress-tupelo community. Hall and 

Penfound (1939b) state that 302 living trees and 34 dead 

trees per acre (122. and 14 per ha) occurred in a swamp near 

Pearl River in southeastern Louisiana. Several of the early 

workers in swamps mentioned that herbaceous vegetation 

germinates and grows on logs and stumps because the 

swamp floor is too wet or flooded. 

Down Woody Debris-Very little data have been collected 

on large woody debris, but some studies of litterfall have 

been carried out. Annual litterfall in Okefenokee Swamp 

(Schlesinger 1978) was 0.067 pounds per square foot [328 

grams (g) per m2], with 68 percent falling between October 

and December. Of the total, 0.046 pounds per square foot 

(222 g per m2) (68 percent) was cypress needles, 0.0021 

pounds per square foot (10.23 g per m2) was cypress wigs, 

and 0.0089 pounds per square foot (43.37 g per m2) was 

bark. 

Understory Characteristics 

Cypress seeds do not germinate In water (Matloon 19 16, 

Dernaree 1932), so dense stands of cypress seedlings are 

established during per-iodic Brought when large areas of 

unoccupied soil are exposed. Distinct cohorts of equal-sized 

individuals are present as young trees. The cohorts reaching 

the canopy converge in size to form a canopy 1 1 to 16 

inches (28 to 40 cm) in diameter. As these trees age, 

separate groups merge, and old stands are dominated by a 

number of large individuals, Schlesinger (1978) found that 

the size of the average tree at a site grew sixfold as density 

was reduced, but forest biomass per ha remained the same. 

The large tupelo seeds are distributed by water. They 

become stranded in the mud as the water recedes, and many 

germinate. Seedlings on poorly drained sites grow slowly 

but are not as likely to be suppressed by other species as 

those that germinate in better drained sites (Harlow and 

Harrar 1969). Shade-tolerant seedlings generally cannot 

invade c ypress-tupelo swamps because of prolonged 

flooding. The shrub and herbaceous layers are often sparse, 

also because of flooding, whereas woody vines and 

epiphytes, especially Spanish moss, are common. 

Schlesinger (1978) reported that the biomass of Spanish 

moss in Okefenokee Swamp equaled the total biomass of 

herbaceous plants in most upland temperate forests. In deep 

water cypress-tupelo swamps, logs and stumps may support 

distinctive vegetation, and floating mats of litter or peat may 

serve the same purpose (Huenneke and Sharitz 1986). 

Woody species found in Indian Village Swamp (Hall and 

Penfound 1939a) include swamp tupelo, water tupelo, 

baldcypress, red maple, pumpkin ash, Virginia willow, and 

buttonbush, which the authors considered true swamp 

species. Border species that occurred on elevated portions 

of the swamp floor, around the bases of trees and on knees, 

as well as vines that climbed on the dominant swamp 

species were: yellow jessamine [Gelsemiurn sempewirens 

(L.) Aiton f.], poison ivy, bayberry, greenbrier (Smilax 

walteri mush.), wisteria [Wisteria frutescens var. 

mcrostachya (Nutt.) T.& G .], storax (Styrax amen'cana 

Lam.), pepper-vine [Ampelopsis arborea (L.) Kwhne], 

greenbrier (Smilax laurifolia L.), Carolina ash, Virginia 

creeper [Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planchon), 

dogwood (Cornus spp.), sweet pepperbush (Clethra 

alnij'blia L.), possum haw (Ilex decidua Walter), blackberry 

Rubus spp., and holly (Ilex opaca Aiton). 

Small individuals of waterlocust and water-elm occur 

throughout the Beidler Swamp, sometimes growing from the 

bases of baldcypress or tupelo and sometimes rooted in the 

soil. Four other tree species occur in the forest rooted on 

fallen logs, large cypress knees, and buttresses: laurel oak 

(Q. laurifolk Michaux), red maple, and Arnerican elm 

(Ulmus arnericam L.). The shrub layer in the Beidler 

Swamp is well developed on the high portion of the swamp 

forest, with the plants growing in the soil and on buttresses, 
knees, fallen logs, and stumps. Species include: Virginia 

willow, storax, fetterbush [Leucothoe racemosa (L. ) Gray], 

fetterbush lyonia, swamp dogwood (C. stricta Lam.), 

bulbonbush, viburnum, and possum haw, as well as vines 

and occasional canopy and subcanopy species. Where 

standing water occurs most of the year, the shrub hyer is 

sparse, with Virginia willow, storax, buttonbush, fetterbush, 

and fetterbush 1 yonia growing from buttresses (Porcher 

198 1). 

Density of shrubs >3 feet high (1 m) ranged from 36,8 18 to 

105,759 stems per acre (14,900 to 42,800 stems per ha) in 

the Okefenokee Swamp. Four species accounted for 7 1 

percent of the importance value: Virginia willow, fetterbush 

lyonia, fetterbush, and sweet pepperbush. There was little 

relation between the character of the shrub layer and the 

overstory. 

The herbaceous flora of the Beidler Swamp forest is 

particularly rich and varied. In the deep areas of the swamp, 

herbs are confined to floating logs, stumps, knees, and 

buttresses. Three species found only in this portion of the 

swamp are: skullcap (Scutellaria latiflora L.), lycopus 

(Lycopus rubellus Moench.), and St. John's wort 

(Hypericum virginicum L.). Other species that occur here as 

well as in higher areas of the swamp and adjacent 

communities include: netted chain-fern [Woodwardia 

aerolata (L.) Moore], false nettle [Boehmeria cylindrica 

(L.) Swartz], butterweed (Senecio glabellus Poiret), 

sensitive fern (Onoclea sensiblis L.), cardinal flower 

(Lobelia cardinalis L.), diodia (Diodia virginiana L.), and 

St. John's wort, Pokeweed (Phytohcca amen'cam L.) and 

dog-fennel (Eupatorium compositijfolium Walter), two weed 

species, are occasionally found here. Where high areas 

occur, the following herbs are found: obedient plant 

[Dracocephulum purpureum (Walter) McClintock], water 

pimpernel1 (Samolus pawiflorus Raf.), milkweed (Asclepias 

perennis Walter), golden club (Orontium aquaticum L.), 

peltanka [Peltanclra virginica (L.) Kunth.], bulrush 

(Scirpus divaricatus Ell.), bulrush (S. fontinalis Harper), 

proserpinaca (Proserpinaca palustn's L.), and cudinal 

flower. An occasional spruce pine (P, glabra Walter) 

sapling occurs here. It is apparent that this is a mature, 

climax forest because of the great size variation among 

dominant trees and the numerous fire-scamed stumps and 

trunks of live trees (Porcher 198 1). 

Only a few herbaceous species were found in Indian Village 

Swamp (Hall and Penfound 1939a) due to the low light 

intensity and long hydroperiod. The most comon species 

were proserpinaca, spider lily [Ifymenocallis occidentalis 

(Le Conte) Kunth.], rnicranthemum [Globi$era umbrosa 

(Walter) J.F. Gmelin-Sf, and bladderwort [Utrieularia 

mcrorhiza (LR Conte)-Sj. Species occu~ng rarely 

included pumpkin ash (seedlings), buttonbush (young), 

bacopa [Hydrotn'da caroliniam (Walter) Small-S], 

justicia [Justicia ovata var. lanceolata (Chapm.) R.W. 

Long], and greenbrier fS. walten' Pursh). Resurrection fern 

[Polypdium polypodiodies (L.) Watt] occasionally grew on 

the trunks of the trees and Spanish moss was conspicuous 

on the trees, especially on the mature trees. Little shrub or 

herbaceous cover was found (<2 percent, four species) in 

the nearby tupelo swamp (Hall and Penfound 1939b); this 

was attributed to the long hydroperiod, a great range in 

water level of 0 to 12 feet (0 to 3.7 m), and dense shade. 

The authors state that this is common in primeval swamps. 

Three conspicuous epiphytes were present: resurrection 

fern, green fly orchid [Amphiglottis conopsea (Aiton) 

Small-S], and Spanish moss, 

Soils 

Baldcypress grows best on deep, fine, sandy loam with 

moderately good drainage, but, because of competition, it is 

usually found in permanent swamps. The species extends 

into the coastal region of brackish tidewater but grows 

poorly there (Harlow and Harrar 1969). 

Baldcypress sites are distinguished by frequent, prolonged 

flooding with water of up to 10 feet (3 m) or more and flow 

rates of up to 4 miles [6 kilometers (krn)] per hour (although 

occasionally stagnant). The species is found on 

intermittently flooded and poorly drained phases of 

Spodosols, Ultisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, and Entisols. It 

occurs in the thennic and hyperthermic soil temperature 

regimes (Wilhite and Toliver 1990). 

Pondcypress occurs on the impoverished and poorly drained 

phases of Spodosols and Ultisols of the themic and 

hyperthemic soil temperature regimes. Soils range from 

sands to clays to mucks to peats. Pondcypress grows in 

shallow ponds and poorly drained sites on the Coastal Plain, 

seldom in the swamps of rivers and streams. Pondcypress 

gows on soils with a pH of 6.8 or lower, and baldcrpress 

occurs on soils with a pH of 5.5 or higher. Usually 

pondcypress sites are much less fertile than baldcrpress 

sites and are flat or with slight depressions called domes 

(Wilhite and Toliver 1990). 

Water tupelo grows in low, wet flats or sloughs and in deep 

swamps. It grows best in the sloughs and swamps of Coastal 

Plain rivers and in the large swamps of southwestern 

Louisiana and southeastern Texas. Water may reach a depth 

of 20 feet (6 m) and may remain as high as 13 feet (4 rn) for 
long periods. Soils that support water tupelo range from 

mucks and clays to silts and ands and are in the orders 

Alfisols, Entisols, Histisols, and hceptisols. Most are 

moderately to strongly acidic; subsoif often is rather 

pemable (Johnson 1990). 

Swamp tupelo grows on an assortment of wet, bottom-land 

soils, including organic mucks, heavy clays, and wet sands, 

mainly on soils of the orders Ultisols, Inceptisols, and 

Entisols. It thrives under flooded conditions and is seldom 

found on sites that are not inundated most of the growing 

season. The species occurs in headwater swamps, strands, 

ponds, river bottoms, bays, estuaries, and low coves. It does 

not usually occur in the deep parts of swamps. The water 

regime is more important than soil type for good growth of 

swamp tupelo; it grows best on soil that is continuously 

saturated, with shallow moving water (Outcalt 1990). 

Hall and Penfound (1939a) examined the water content of 

the soil in Indian Village Swamp. At the end of a long 

hydroperiod, the water content was 197 percent, 505 

percent, 343 percent, and 289 percent in the first, second, 

third, and fourth foot of the soil. The amount of material 

driven off by combustion (for the same samples) was 22 

percent, 44 percent, 39 percent, and 38 percent, 

respectively. Soil pH values ranged from 6.1 to 6.7. 

In the nearby tupelo area at times of flood, the amount of 

water at the 1-foot (0.3-m) level (as based on the dry weight 

of the soil) was 4.67 times the oven-dry weight of the soil, 

but this decreased to 1.22 at the 4-foot (1.2-m) level because 

little organic matter was present (Hall and Penfound 1939b). 

There was more sand at the 4-foot (1.2-m) level. The loss by 

combustion was approximately 1 1 percent at the 1- to 3-foot 

(0.3 to 0.9 m) levels and 9 percent at the 4-foot ( 1.2-m) 

level. The soil was strongly acidic (pH 5.1 to 5.3). 

Associated Flora and Fauna 

The cypress-tupelo community is an important habitat for 

numerous animals and birds including neotropical migrant 

birds. Bird censuses were carried out from 1979 to 1989 in 

the Francis Beidler Forest (a national Audubon sanctuary in 

Four Holes Swamp, SC). This is a virgin hardwood swamp 

forest with the largest stand of original growth cypress and 

water tupelo in the United States (Brunswig and Winton 

1978, Porcher 1981). Species present in the swamp 

included: northern parula warbler (Parula americam), bluegray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea), great crested 

flycatcher (Myiarchis crinitus), tufted titmouse (Parus 

bicolor), red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceous), yellow-billed 

cuckoo (Coccyzus am ricanus), prothonotary warbler 

(Protonotaria citrea), cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis), 

Acadian flycatcher (Empanax virescens), white-breated 

nuthat~h (Sitra carolinensis), hooded warbler (Wilsonicr 

citrim), yellow-throated warbler (Dendroica dominica), 

Carolina chickadee (Parus carolinensis), Carolina wren 

(nvothoncs ludovicianus), whiteeyed vireo (Vireo 

griseus), brownheaded cowbird (Molothncs ater), wood 

thrush (Hylocichla mustelina), pine warbler (Llendroica 

pinus), red-bellied woodpecker (Centurus carolinus), 

downy woodpecker (Picoides pubescens), wood duck (Aix 

sponsa), chimney swift (Chaetura pelagica), ruby-throated 

hmgbird (Archilochus colubris), eastern wood peewee 

(Contopus virens), Swainson's warbler (Limnothlypis 

wainsonii), summer tanager (Piranga rubra), barred owl 

(Strh varia), and pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus 

pileatus). Visitors included: the red-shouldered hawk (Buteo 

lineatus), yellowcrowned night heron (Nycticorm 

violacea), white ibis (Eudocimus albus), mourning dove 

(Zenaida macrou ra), blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), 

common crow (Corvus brachyvnchos), and fish crow 

(Corvus ossvragus). 

Although the old-growth cypress-tupelo community is an 

excellent habitat for fungi and mosses, little data are 

recorded on their occurrence in this community. Epiphytes 

were abundant in Indian Village Swamp (Hall and Penfound 

1939a); bryophytes grew on the lower 40 feet (12.2 m) of 

tree trunks. A community of Pallavicinia lyelli, sometimes 

with Odontoschism spp., occurred on the edges of the 

swamp on slight elevations, on knees, and around the bases 

of trees. Riccardia latifions and R. pinguis occurred on 

decaying logs. Fontinalis sullivanti inhabited the submerged 

bases of baldcypress and gum trees, and above that was a 

cornunity dominated by Porella pinnata. From the part of 

the trunks that were rarely submerged to about 30 feet (9 m) 

above the ground, there existed a community of 

Leucolejeunea clypeata, Leocolejeunea unciloba, Radula 

sullivanti, and other less numerous species. The upper 

portion of the trunks and some branches were colonized 

with a sparse xeric cornunity of Frullania spp. In the 

swamp tupelo swamp studied by Hall and Penfound 

(1939b), mosses and liverworts were common in the trunks 

of trees. 

Other Important Features 

Water quality is important to the old-growth baldcypresstupelo comunity, but little data on it are available. Michael 

Dawson provided water quality data for the Francis Beidler 
F~rest.~ Mean turbidity (1978-92) for q 

taken from two sites in the swamp ranged from 12.5 to 23.5 

at Canoe Me and from 13.7 to 22.7 for Goodson Me; pH 

ranged from 7.0 to 7.1 and 6.8 to 7.0; dissolved oxygen 

ranged from 5.0 to 9.5 and 4.3 to 9.1; hardness ranged from 

4.6 to 6.0 and 4.4 to 4.7; phosphates ranged from 0.27 to 

1.0 1 and 1.56 to 2.03, respectively. 

Forest Dynamics and Ecosystem Function 

Swamps such as red river cypress-tupelo swamps, with high 

nutrient input during flooding and alternating periods of 

decomposition, are among the most productive of 

ecosystems; however, swamps with little intra- or 

intersystem nutrient circulation, such a~ headwater swamps 

and cypress ponds, can be low in productivity. If permanent 

water inhibits decomposition and nutrient input via drainage 

is negligible, as in the Okefenokee system, tree growth will 

be slow and ultimate tree size will be small. In the 

Okefenokee system, the net effect of geological processes is 

to remove nutrients from circulation. The deepest peats in 

Bkefenokee are 6,500 years old, so nutrients have been 

accumulating for some time (Schlesinger 1978). 

Disturbance Regime-Ewe1 and Mitsch (1978) stated that 

dominance of cypress in some swamps is maintained partly 

by occasional fires that damage scarcer species. Schlesinger 

(1978) noted that numerous charcoal deposits, some at great 

depth, suggest that fire played an important role in the 

Okefenokee Swamp. Large fires occurred during droughts 

in 1844, 19 10, 1932, and 1954-55. Fire scars on the large 

pondcypress trees suggest that the understory must have 

been severely burned in 1954-55. Comparison of burned 

and unburned stands suggests that fire increases the 

dominance of cypress by reducing the number of species 

and the relative importance of broadleaf species. 

Hurricanes and other major disruptions strongly influence 

the strucme and com~sition of many forests and also 

affect succession (Lugo et al. 1983). However, the cypresstupelo community seems better able to withstand hurricanes 

and severe stom than other community types. Hhcane 

Hugo (September 2 1, 1989) seriously darnaged only 19 

percent of trees in sloughs of Congaree Swamp, SC, and 

few trees were uprooted. Hugo reduced canopy diversity by 

uprooting many species other than baldcypress and water 

' Dawson, Michael. 1995. Bird data and water chemistry. 16 p. 

Unpublished report. On file with: Francis Beidler Forest, 336 Sanctuary 

Road, Harleyville, SC 29448. 

tupelo, especially trees rooted on fallen logs, etc. Stoms 

such as Hu~cane Hugo can caufe changes in compsition 

for some time after they occur. The heavy fuel loads 

incrag the I&elihd of Tie, and resprouted trees will be 

more susceptible to wood-rotting organisms and further 

mechanical damage (Putz and Sharitz 199 1). 

Current Conditiom-me current forest comunity 

differs from that of presettlement time in several ways. 

Changes have occurred in the abundance of plants and 

animals that inhabit the cypress-tupelo community, and 

introduced plants and animals are causing problems. 

Although fires occurring in swamps during droughts can be 

difficult to put out, suppression of fires originating outside 

of swamps no doubt leads to less bming within. Large 

predators, such as the black bear and the Horida panther, 

are scarce everywhere, and thus are less likely to occur now 

in swamps than they were formerly. Partly due to the 

absence of large predators, animal herbivore populations are 

increasing and can influence the vegetative composition of 

the community. Introduced animals, such as the nutria 

(Myocastor coypu), are impeding baldcypress regeneration 

as they often destroy seedlings by eating the root collar. 

Introduced tree species, such as Chinese tallow [Sapium 

sebiferum (L.) Roxb.] and Brazilian pepper (Schinus 

terebinthifolia Raddi), are changing the composition of 

some cypress-tupelo communities. 

On most sites, the cypress-tupelo forest is considered a 

climax community because extended periods of flooding 

restrict invasion by shade-tolerant species. Disturbances 

such as hurricanes and fires also help to restrict entry of 

other tree species into swamps. However, if flooding is 

reduced or eliminated, the forest type may be replaced by 

shade-tolerant species. 

Representative Old-Growth Stands 

Areas where representative old-growth stands may appear 

include: 

Grassy Lake Natural National hdmark, Hempstead 

County, AR 

Moro Creek Bottoms Preserve, Cleveland and Calhoun 

Counties, AR 

* Big Cypress Bend, inside or near Fakahatchee Strand 

State Preserve, FX 

Big Cypress Nature Reserve, Collier County, FL 

* Bayou DeView Bald Cypress Stand, Monroe County, A.R 
Corkscrew Swamp Smctuaq, Collier County, FL 

Gum Swamp Research Natural Area, Osceola National 

Forest, FL 

Heather Island, Marion County, P;L 

Jim Creek Cypress Swamp, Tosohatchee State Reserve, 

FLd 

Orange Lake Cypress, Marion County, FL 

Strand West of Cow Bone Island, Seminole Indian 

Reservation, FL 

Pond Cypress Swamps, Apalachicola National Forest, FL 

Tate's Hell Swamp, Franklin County, FT, 

Ebenezer Creek Swamp, east of Springfield, GA 

Lewis Island Natural Area, northwest of Darien, GA 

Heron Pond, Johnson County, IL 

Little Black Slough, Johnson County, IL 

Lower Cache River State Natural Area, southern Illinois 

Bayou Sale Swamp, LA 

Big Cypress, Bienville Parish, LA 

Black Bayou Swamp, Tangipahoa Parish, LA 

Coochie Brake, southwest of Winnfield, LA 

Cunningham Brake, southwest of Cypress, LA 

Jim Reed Bayou SwamplBlack Bayou Swamp, 

Tangipahoa Parish, LA 

Wte Kitchen Preserve, near Slidell, LA 

Allred Lake Natural Area, Butler County, MO 

Big Oak Tree Natural Area, Big Oak Tree State Park, MO 

Cash Swamp Natural Area, Dunklin County, MO 

Black River Site, NC 

Beidler Sanctuary, Dorchester County, SC 

Congaree Swamp National Monument, south of 

Columbia, SC 

Four Holes Swamp, SC 

Guilliard Lake Scenic and Research Natural Area, 

Berkley County, SC 

Acknowledgment 

Thanks to Michael Dawson for data on Beidler Forest, to 

Rudy Sparks for data on old-growth cypress on Williams, 

Inc. lands, and to Charles Gresham for data on old-growth 

cypress in Beidler Forest, Congaree Swamp National 

Monument, and Francis Marion National Forest. We 

appreciate the helpful information provided by John Toliver 

and Latimore Smith. Greg Nowacki provided some of the 

references and infomation on the cypress-tupelo 

comunity, and the names of representative old-powth 

stands. 

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R.M., and B.H. Honkala (tech. coords.). U.S. Dep. Agric. Handb. 654. 

877 p. 
Devall, Margaret S. 1998. An interim old-growth definition for cypress-tupelo 

communities in the Southeast. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-19. Asheville, NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 

13 p. 

An interim definition of old-growth cypress-tupelo forests is presented to assist in 

management of these communities until comprehensive definitions based on research 

can be formulated. The basic criteria for identzying old-growth cypress-tupelo 

(Tdium distichum-Nyssa aquatica) communities in the South are presented. 

Keywords: Nyssa aquatica, N. biflora, old growth, old-growth stands, South, 

swamps, Tdium ascendens, T. distichurn, wetlands.