United States 

Department af 

Agriculture 

Forest Sew ice 

d-Growth Definition for 

Western Hardwood Ga ery Forests 

Southern Kelly Kindscher and Jenny Holah 

Research Station 

A Seetion of the Old-Growth UeEnllion Series 
The Authors: 

Kelly Gndscher, Assistant Scientist, and Jenny Holah, ch 

1 Survey, University of bn 

Preface 

Old growth is widely achowledged today as an essential part of managed forests, particularly on public lands. However, this 

concept is relatively new, evolving since the 1970's when a grassroots movement in the Pacific Northwest began in earnest to 

define old growth. In response to changes in public attitude, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, began 

reevaluating its policy regarding old-growth forests in the 1980's. Indeed, the ecological significance of old growth and its 

contribution to biodiversity were apparent. It was also evident that definitions were needed to adequately assess and manage 

the old-growth resource. However, definitions of old growth varied widely among scientists. To address this discrepancy and 

other old-growth issues, the National Old-Growth Task Group was formed in 1988. At the recommendation of this 

committee, old growth was officially recognized as a distinct resource by the Forest Service, greatly enhancing its status in 

forest management planning. The committee devised 'The Generic Definition and Description of Old-Growth Forests" to 

serve as a basis for further work and to ensure uniformity among Forest Service Stations and Regions. Emphasis was placed 

on the quantification of old-growth attributes. 

At the urging of the Chief of the Forest Service, all Forest Service Stations and Regions began developing old-growth 

definitions for specific forest types. Because the Southern and Eastern Regions share many forest communities (together they 

encompass the entire Eastern United States), their efforts were combined, and a cooperative agreement was established with 

The Nature Conservancy for technical support. The resulting project represents the first large-scale effort to define old growth 

for all forests in the Eastern United States. This project helped bring the old-growth issue to public attention in the East. 

Definitions will first be developed for broad forest types and based mainly on published information and so must be viewed 

accordingly. Refinements will be made by the Forest Service as new information becomes available. This document represents 

1 of 35 forest types for which old-growth definitions will be drafted. 

In preparing individual old-growth definitions, authors followed National Old-Growth Task Group guidelines, which differ 

from the standard General Technical Report format in two ways-the abstract (missing in this report) and the literature 

citations (listed in Southern Journal of Applied Forestry style). Allowing for these deviations will ensure consistency across 

organizational and geographic boundaries. 

September 1 998 

Southern Research Station 

P.O. Box 2680 

Asheville, NC 28802 
d-Growth Definition for Western 

Hardwood Ga ery Forests 

Kelly Kindscher and Jenny Holah 

Old-gro~h western hardwood gallery forests are found 

across the Great Plains and are an important plant 

community associated with stredm corridors. This plant 

community is dominated by the plains cottonwoaf (t"oputus 

deltoides var, occikntalis Rydb.) and associated stands of 

willow (XQlix spp.) trees. Its description is important for 

both future research and regional planning purposes. 

Hy&ological changes associated with dewtering of 

streams, irrigation, and fl d-control measures have 

significantly affected the composition of this forest type. 

General Description of Forest-Type Group 

Western hardwood gallery forests are lwatd along strams 

and rivers in the Great Plains. The dominant species is the 

plains cottonwood. The range of the western hardwood 

gallery forest type (hereaaer referred to as gallery forest) 

extends from southern Saskatchewan to northern Texas, 

from the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming, Montana, and 

Colorado to the western borders of Minnesota and Iowa, 

and the eastern brders of Kansas (Bradley and Smith 

1986). In this report, we define "old-growth" forests as 

stands in which the dominant species, plains cottonwOCK1, is 

over 80 years old. 

Several cottonwOCK1 species and subspies can be found in 

this tme, although P, <oides ssp, monilqera (Ait.) is the 

cornmon variety. Populus deltoides ssp. wislizenii (Wats.) 

occurs in the extreme southwestern part of the gallery 

fcrrest's range and is often mistaken for a variety of 

hemant" cottonwd (P. frerrzoatii Wars.) (Eckenwalder 

1977). Hybridization does wcw between plains cottonwOcXI 

md narrowleaf cottonwood (P. aaugusrvolia James) (found 

west of the Roeky -Mountains), which results in P, x 

acumimta Rydb. mis hybrid is widespread along Rmky 

Mountain streams Erorn Alkrta to northern Texas. Populus 

x jackla' Sarg, is a hybrid of P. deltoidex and P. balsamVera 

L. (a northern cottonwcKxl species) that wcurs on Rd 

plains along the U.S.<anada brder and in eastern 

Wyoming (Eckenwalder 1984). Other characteristic 

spe~ies of the gallery forest include peachleaf willow (S. 

amyg&lcrides Anderss.), black willow (5'. nigra Marsh.), 

sndbar willow (S. exigua Nutr.), winter grape (Vitis 

vulpina L.), and Virginia creeper [P~rthenocissus 

guinguefolia (L.) Planeh.]. 

Western gallery forests occur only along major rivers and 

streams in narrow strips that generally range from 32.8 feet 

to 393.6 feet [I0 to 120 meters (m)] wide (Eye 1980, 

Bradley and Smith 1986). These gallery forests are rarely 

found more than a few meters abve the river level 

(Johnson et al. 1976, Rothenkrger 1985, Johnson 1994). 

The major rivers associated with this forest type are the 

Canadian, Gimarron, Arkansas, Kansas, Republican, Platte, 

Niobrara, Missouri, Little Missouri, Red, and Milk. Prairie 

vegetation historically surrounded these gallery forests, but 

today much of the surrounding vegetation is under 

cultivation (Keammerer et al. 1975, Rothenksger 1985). 

The floristics of this community are unique. Ten percent of 

the species found along bttom-land forests in North 

Dakota are usually restricted to either western or eastern 

temperate herica but are found together in gallery forests 

(Keammerer et al. 1975). Young wstern hardwd gallery 

forests are composed of dense stands of willow and 

csttonwd, but hardwd diversity is greater in older 

stands where wrllows are a minor component (Johnson et 

al. 1976). 

Gallery forest soil development depends greatly on 

flooding. The soils consist of re~ently depositd alluvium 

substrates that include dwp, sandy, and clay toarns cvith 

good drainage and are often nitrogen poor (Wilson 1970, 

Keammerer et al. 1975, Rothenlrrerger 1985). Soil pH can 

range firom 6.6 to 8.4 (Ece 1965, Girard et al. 19855). Soil 

texture is highly variable, ranging from silty clay loam to 

clay loam to clay to Imm (Cirard et al. 1989). Gallery 

hest soils do not aftpar to br: mcxlified significantly by 

forest vegetation (Johnson et al, 1976)- me role of 

vegetation in soil development may be mme important in 

the future hause reservoirs and incrmsed groundwater 

mining have altered the hydrofogy of major rivers in this 

forest type. 

Precipitation is variable and generally increases &om west 

to east in the range of gallery forests. Upland vegetation 

also changes gradually from shortgrass prairie in the wst 

to tallgrass prairie in the east. Zn western Nmth Dakota 

gallery fmests, the precipitation can be as little as 13 to 16 
inches 133 to 4 1 centimeters (cm)] per year (Johnson et al. 

1976, Girard et al. 1987), wheras in the eastern and 

murhem parts of the range they can rweive over 30 inches 

(76 cm) annmlly, PrecipiBtion in much of the Great Plains 

area, especially the western region, is less than potential 

evaptranspiration. Thus, the dominant woody vegelation 

of gallery forests depnds on the water table rather than on 

precipitation for moisture (Keammerer et al. 1975, Johnson 

et a1, 1976). 

Summer temperatures can be extreme, exceeding 105 "F 

(58 "C) in Texas, Oklahoma, and southern Kansas. Sdace 

temFrature in the sandy floodplain along the Missouri in 

South Dakota can exceed 125 "F (69 "C) (Van Bruggen 

1961). Because of the extreme Great Plains climate, few 

mesophytic eastern species survive on the open prairie, but 

me eastern herhceous plants, such as columbine 

nsis L.), enchanter's nightshade [Circaea 

quadn'sulcata (Maxim.)], and Solomon's seal [Polygonatum 

biflorum (Walt.) Ell. ] find refuge in the riparian forests 

(Keammerer et al. 1975). 

In eke central Great Plains before the f 88O's, ripmian 

forests were uncommon and widely scattered along major 

rivers such as the western reaches of the Arkansas and 

Platte (Crouch 1979, Tomelleri 1984). This was probably 

due to the highly variable hydrology of the Great Plains 

rivers and the high frequency of fires on the prairie (Wells 

1968, Johnson et al. 1976). Rivers such as the Missouri and 

Platte would flood severely in the spring and then have 

little discharge during the fall (Johnson et al, 1976, 

Rothenkrger 1985). It is not clear which factors originally 

influenced tree growth along major rivers (Girard et al. 

1987). There is general agreement that fires were a major 

part of the prairie ecosystem (Wells 1968, Kiggins 1986), 

but the frequency and effeet of lightning-caused wildfires 

on gallery forests is unborn (Kiggins 1986). Some argue 

that the riparian woocilands esea@ fire and were adapted 

to it, or both, whereas others argue tbat homesteading and a 

decrase in fire frequency allowed gallery forests to expand 

their range (Wells 1968, Higgins 1986). Most of the early 

public land surveys show that forests were sparse along the 

major rivers. 

Great Plains rivers, such as the Missouri in North Dakota, 

meander& more in the past than they do today. Although 

the Missouri still meanders, the absence of icy, scouring 

spring flds has prevented any significant changes in its 

channel morphology. Discharges of the Missouri and many 

&her rivers are no longer seasonal but are controlled by 

raervoir releases (Johnson et al. 19'76). 

In the 19Ws, tree establishment along the Arkansas and 

other rivers in the Great Plains increased as water removd 

for sdace inrigation &rased the intensity of 

dis~harges (Tomelleri 19W). Many of the old cottonwds 

in the gallery farests of western Kansas and eastern 

Colorado were established during this priod. Grovvth of 

cottonwood and willow spies has shaply dwreased in the 

past 30 years because of reductions in groundwter due to 

mining for irrigation (Tomelleri 1984) and the construction 

of large reservoirs (Johnson et al. 1976). 

Saltcedar (Tanza~x pamiflora L.) has crowded river 

channels in the southwest part of the region, reducing 

establishment sites for willow and cottonwood (Cesink et 

al. 1970). In Nebraska and other areas of the Great Plains, 

the loss of the old deciduous woodlands has been due 

largely to agricultural expansion (Rothenberger 1985). 

Extensive grazing by cattle has also affected old-growth 

stands. Before settlement, gallery forests were grazed by 

bison, whose impact on pre-settlement forests was low, 

perhaps even negligible (Norland and Marlow 1984). Bison 

rend to spend less time than cattle do in watering arms. 

Bison aPso prefer open grassland to forest and favor grasses 

and forbs over browse. Cattle grazing and heavy deer 

browsing seem to have decreased saplings locally, 

especially elm (Ulmus spp.), along the Missouri River in 

North Dakota (Johnson et al. 1976). In contrast to 

undisturbed sites, more introduced species, such as prickly 

lettuce (Lactuca serriola L.), green foxtail [Setaria viridis 

(L.) Beauv.], and burdock [Arctiurn minus (Hill) Bernh.] 

were found in disturbed gallery forests in North Dakota, 

possibly as a result of past cultivation in the area 

(Keammerer et al. 1975). Other studies in more upland 

forests on the Great Plains have also shown changes in 

spies composition associated with extensive grazing 

(Girard et al. 1987). Horistic composition changes with 

varying degrees of grazing in wdy draws in North Dakota 

(Girard et al. 1987). Herbaceous cover was found to differ 

between grazed and ungrazed forests in Oklahoma. 

Extensive areas of Virginia wild rye (Elymus virginicus L.) 

mew in ungrazed areas and a greater abundance of giant 

ragweed (Ambrosr'a rrifida L.), wing-stern (Verbesina 

hellanthoides Michx.), pokeweed (Phytolluca americana 

L,), and Johnson-grass [Sorghum halepease (L,) Pers, J 

mew in grazed areas (Rice 1965). 
Old Growth versus Younger Stands 

The various trees, shrubs, and herbs found in gallery forests 

are list4 in table 1. Woody plant composition in old gallery 

fwests tends to vary greatly, espially the degre of 

dominance by cottonwoaf, herican elm (27. americana 

L.), green ash (Frminus pennsylvanica Marsh.), and 

boxeldet (Aeer neguadb L.). This may suggest that 

mvironmental vxiables not necessarily associated with 

stand age may influence the structure of old gallery forests. 

Variable patterns of erosion and sediment deposition may 

promote gallery forest heterogeneity in terms of tree age 

and spatial distribution of different plant communities 

(Johnson et al. 1976). Beeause of past disturbances, old 

gallery forests generally tended to occupy less area on the 

floodplains than younger gallery forests. This was found to 

be the case in North Dakota (Everitt 1968), although the 

situation is probslbly reversed today. 

Plant diversity was found to be a function of stand age in 

gallery forests along the Missouri River in North Dalrota. 

Diversity increased proportionally with stand age, dropping 

off just slightly in stands over 200 years old (Johnson et al. 

1976). Old stands also had more water available due to fine 

textured soils with abundant organic material (Johnson et 

al. 1976). Moist soil conditions in old forests may account 

for the high diversity of herbs, shrubs, and trees. 

Old stands have more dead limbs with total dead limb 

length ranging from 1,7 17 to 3,527 feet per acre [21 to 43 

m per 0.04 hectare (ha) plot], sknding snags ranging from 

4.9 to 9.3 feet per acre (12 to 23 per ha), and a higher 

number of cavities ranging from 19 to 30 cavities per acre 

(46 to 73 cavities per ha) than younger stands. nese 

~avities are used extensively by cavity-nesting birds such as 

the American kestrel, northern flicker, and red-headd 

wdpker (Sdgwick and Knopf 1990). 

Mthclugkr no representative stands recognized as this forest 

tqe have kn field verifid, the following stands, citd in 

the Literatwe, ptentially could be- recognizd as 

representative: 

I, South Dakota: scattered stands ktwn hke Sakakawea 

and Oabe Reservoir in the central Missowl River Valley 

(Meammerer el al, 1975, Johnson et a(, f 970), 

2. Alberta, Canada: southeastern part of the province along 

the Mik River, 18.63 miles [30 kilometers (km)] upstream 

from Fresno llieservoir (Bradley and Smith 1986). 

3, Montana: north-central part of the State along the Milk 

River, 15.53 miles (25 km) dom from the Fresno Reservoir 

(Bradley and Smith 1986). 

4, Nor& Dakota: a 0.62 1 -mile (1 -km) smtion along the 

Little Missouri River in the North Unit, medore Rmsevelt 

National Park (Everitt 1968). 

5. Colorado: an 18.63-mile (30-km) stretch along the South 

Platte River near Crook, bgan County (Sdgwick and 

hopf 1986). 

6. Nebraska: stands along the hwer Platte River Valley 

approximately 18.63 miles (30 km) southwest of Omaha 

(Rotbenberger 1985). 

Composition of Western Gdery 

Gottonwd is the most characteristic tree species of this 

type. It is found in all the successional stages and occupies 

the gratest basal area at most stages (table 2). Willow 

species, such as peachleaf willow (Salix anz)?gdaloides 

hderss.), sandbar willow (S. exigua Nutt.), black willow 

(S, nigra Mush.), yellow willow (S. Eutea Nutt.), and pussy 

willow (S. en'ocephala Michx.), are also characteristic of 

gallery forests but are dominant primarily in the early 

successional stages (Weaver 1960). me vegetation 

composition of gallery forest varies greatly kcause of its 

wide geographic extent. herican elm is found throughout 

the range of the gallery forest tpe, but its importance 

increases in the eastern and northern parts of the fmest 

range, especially in the late successional stages. However, 

Dutch elm disease has diminish& the importance of 

herican elm in gallery forests, as it bas in many other 

community tpes in the Eastern Gnited States, 

Grmn ash is also found throughout the range, except in 

Texas, extreme western Oklahoma, and southern Colorado, 

It generally increases in importance as stands age. Green 

ash establishes itself in mesic conditions tpical of the 

Eastern United States. nese conditions wcur only at the 

later stages of fldptain succession (Wilson 1970>, and 

green ash is ofien the dominant species in terms of 

abundance (Johnson 1950). Slippery elm Id1. ridbra Muhl.) 
Table I--Trees, shrubs, and herbs found in the various regions of western gallery forests' 

Common trees Common shrubs Cmmm herbs and grasses 

Acer negundo L. 

A, saccarinurn L. (2) 

Cava illinoensis (Wmgenh,) K. Koch (1) 

Caralpa speciosa Warder ex Engelm. (2) 

Celtis accidentalis L. (1, 2) 

Diospyros vi~iniana L. ( I ) 

Frainm pennsylvanica Marsh. 

Gleditsia trimanrhos L. (2) 

Juglans nigra L. 

Juniperus scopulorum Sarg. (3) 

J, virginiana L. (2) 

Plantanus occidentalis L. (2) 

Bopulus deltoides var. oecidentaiis Rydb. 

Prunus serotina Ehrh. (2) 

Quercus macrocarpa Miehx. (3) 

Salix qdaloides Anderss. 

S. eriocephala Michx. (2, 3) 

S. exigua Nutt. (2) 

S. lutea Nutt. (2, 3) 

S. nigra Marsh. 

dii Hook. & h. (I) 

Olmus cunericana L. 

U. pumila L. (2)" 

O. rubra Muhl. (2) 

Amlanchier alnijfolia (Nutt.) Nutt. (3) 

Amrpfia fruticosa L. (2) 

Celastrus scandens L. 

Clemtis ligusticifblia Nutt. 

Cocculus carolinus (L.) DC. ( I ) 

C. stolonqera Michx. (3) 

Corylus amricana Walt. (2) 

Elaeagnus augustifolia La* 

ft.fackura pomqera (Raf. ) Schneid. (2)* 

Morus alba L. 43) 

M. rrubra L. (2) 

sus quinguefolia (L.) Planch. 

ricana Mash. (2) 

Rhus glabra L. 

R. trilobata var. Barkley (2) 

Ribes mmissouriense Nutt . 

Rosa woordsii Lind!. 

Rubus occidentalis L. 

SaPnbucus canadensis L. (2) 

Shepherdia argentea Nutt, (3) 

Smilax hispida (Muhl.) Fern. 

Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook. 

S, orbiculatus Moench (1) 

Toxicodendron radicans Ktze. 

Vitis vulpina L. 

anthoxylum americanum L. (3) 

Ambrosia rrifida L. (I ) 

Anemclne canadensis L. (3) 

Andropogon gerardii Viman (2) 

Apocynm cannabinum L. (2) 

Aster lamis L. (3) 

Astragalus gracilis Nutt. (3) 

Bromus tectorum L. (2)" 

Carex spp. 

Conium maculatum L. (2) 

Cyperus esculentus L. ( 1) 

Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. ( 1 ) 

Distichlis stricta (Torr.) Ryd b. (2) 

Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. (2 ) 

Elymus canadensis L. 

E. virginicus L. (1 ) 

Equisetum spp. 

Erigeron philadelphicus L. (3) 

Galium aparine L. (2)" 

Gaura pamiflora Dougl. (2) 

Iielianthus grossesemtus Martens (2) 

I.i, tuberosa L. (2) 

Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) (2) 

Kochia scopnrin (L.) Roth (2)* 

Medicago lupulina L.* 

Melilrztus oJjficinalis (L.) Lam. (3)" 

Oxalis stricta L. (3) 

Panicum virgatum L. (3) 

Phalaris arundinacea L. (3)" 

Phlox pilosa L. (3) 

Phragmires convnunis Trin. (2)" 

Poa pratensis L. (3)" 

Rumex crispus L. (2)* 

Salsola kali L. (2)* 

Smilacina stellata ( L. ) Des f. 

Solidago altissim sensu Mackenz. 

Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. (I )* 

Spafiina pectinata Link. (2) 

Sporobolus airoides Torr. (2) 

Sfrophosvles helvola (L. ) Ell. (3) 

?-halictrunz ve~ulosum Trel. (3) 

Verbesina helianthoides Michx. ( I ) 

Xanthium spp. ( 1, 2)" 

( I ) = \prcies bund p~mrly in the southern range; (2) = species found pmlly in the central part of the range; (3) = spcies found In the nmhern extent ofrhe 

forect range, * = nonnatlte cpeaes. 

" Spectes wtthout numbers In paentheses are comrnon throughout the range of the gallery forest. 

NomencIafure folIows Flow <$the Great Phrns (Great Plains Flora Associatton 1986). 
Table 2 (English dts)-Table of old-grovvth attributes for western gallery hardwood forests 

Wanti~tive attribute Selected examples Mean No. of stands 

Stand density 

Acer negundo L. 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh. 

Poputus deltoides ssp. mniliJera 

(Ait .) Eckenwalder 

Salix amygdaloides Anderss. 

U%mus amn'cana L. 

Stand basal area 

A. negundo L. 

Celtis occidentalis L. 

Trees > 1 in. for a 

Comus drummondii C.A. Meyer 

Trees >4 in. for " 

I< pennsylvanica Marsh. 

P. deltoides ssp. monilifera 

(Ait .) Eckenwalder 

S. amygdaloihtes Aaderss. 

U. americanu L. 

Age of large trees 

P. deltoides ssp. monilifera 

( Ai t .) Ecken walder 

Quercus macrocarpa Michx. 

S. amygdaloides Anderss. 

U. amen'cana L. 

Maximum d. b.h. 

F. pennsylvanica Marsh, 

P. deltoides ssp. monilifera 

(Ait .) Ecken walder 

Standing snags 

F. pennsylvanica Marsh. 

P. deltoides ssp. mnilgera 

(Ait .) Eckenwalder 

U. americana L. 

Number per acre 

Total: 482 (NE)", 117 (ND)" 230 (ND)' Total trees: 276 54 

42 (ND)" 

75 (ND)~, 77 (ND)" 

~eet' per acre 

Total: 279 (W)a, 124 (ND)" 

1.7 (NE)a, 19 (ND)" 

3.9 

Years 

Total: 100-14 1+ (KS)e 

90+ (KS~ 80+ (SD)g, 200+ (ND)" ', 

90-1 10 (MTICanada)' 

300-350 (ND)" 

200-250 (ND)" 

300-350 (ND)" 

27 (ND)" 

30-41 (W)U. 58 (cold, 72+ (KS)! 

24-36 (ND)~ J, 76 (ND)' 

41 (ND)' 

Total: 33.7 (OK)' 

13.2 (OK)' 

Total: 202 
Table 2 (E~lish dts)-Table of dd-god attributa for western gallery fiardwoaf forests (cofltinued) 

Quantitative attribute Selwted examples Mean No. of stands 

bwed logs 

Decadent trees 

Canopy layers 

Canopy in gaps 

Other: canopy height 

13, deltoides ssp. monilifera 

(Ait .) Eckenwalder 

NaPlrber per are 

hwed cottonwood cited as 

"common" in older forestC 

Majority of trees cited as "decadentud 

2: dense shrub layer and an open 

cottonwood canopy (SD)g 

"multiple synusiums" in old-growth forests (ND)'j 

Canopy described as "open" 

Large trees widely spaced (SD, ND)~ ' gj' 

Feet 

Total: 49-52 (CO)m 

CO = Colorado, KS = Kansas, MT = Montana, NE = Nebraska, ND = North Dakota, OK = Qklafioma, SD = Swth Dakota. 

b d References: a R@enberger 1985, Girard.et al. 1989, Johnson et al. 1976, Sedgwick and Knopf 1986, ' Spencer et a1 1984,f~omelleri 1984, ' ~ohnson 1950, h k I 

Everitt 1968, ' Bradley and Smith 1986, Kearnmerer et al. 1975, Penfound 1956, Giraed et al. 1983, Sedgewick and Knopf 1990. 
Table 2 (mtric dts)-Table of old-growth attributes for western gallery hardwood forests 

Quantitative attribute Seleeted examples Mean No. of stands 

N~mlter per hectare 

Stand density Total: 1 191 (NE)@, 289 (ND)~, 568 (ND)" Total trees: 682 54 

Acer neguruto L. 104 (ND)' 

Fruinus pennqlvanica Marsh. 185 (ND)~, 190 (NDjC 

)Dopulus deltoides ssp. mnilifera 

(Ait) Eckenwalder 48 (ND)~, 190 (ND)", 25 (~0)~ 

Salix amygdaloides Anderss. 5 (ND)" 

bus americana L. 64 (ND)" 

~eted perhectare 

Stand basal area 

A. negudo L. 

Celtis occidentalis L. 

Trees >2.54 cm for " 

Comus drummdii C.A. Meyer 

Trees > 10.16 cm for 

F: pennsylvanica Marsh. 

P. deltoides ssp. mnilifera 

(Ait .) Eckenwalder 

S. amygdaloides Anderss. 

U. americana L. 

Total: 279 (NE)", 28.5 (ND) 

0.390 (I?E)", 4.36 (ND)C 

0.895 (NE)a 

8 (NE)", 20 (ND)" 

Years 

Age of large trees Total: 100- 14 1+ (KS)e 

P.deltoides ssp. mnilifera 

(Ait .) Eckenwalder 90+ (KS)', 80+ (SD)g, 

200+ (ND)' h, 90- 1 10 (MTICanada) ' 

Quercus macrocarpa Michx. 300-350 (ND)' 

S. amygdaloides Anderss. 200-250 (ND)" 

U. amen'cana L. 300-350 (ND)C 

Centimeters 

Maximum d.b.h. 

F. pennsylvanica Marsh. 68.6 (ND)" 

P. deltoides ssp. monilifera 

(Ait .) Ecken walder 76.2-104.1 (NE)@, 147.3 (co)~, 182.9+ (KS)! 

6 1.0-9 1.4 (NDjCJ, 193.0 (ND)" 

U. amn'cana L. 104.1 (ND)C 

Standing snags 

F, pennglvanica Marsh. 

P. deltoides ssp. monilqera 

(Ait.) Eckenwalder 

U. amn'cana L. 

Total: 83.3 (OK)' 

32.6 (OK)' 

Total: 46.4 
Table 2 (metric dts)-Table of otd-grovvth attributes for wstern gallery hardwood forests (continued) 

Quantitative attribute Selected examples Mean No. of stands 

Number per hectare 

hwed logs Dowed cottonwood cited as 

"commont' in older forestc 

Decadent trees Majority of trees cited as "decadentwd 

Number 

Canopy layers 

Canopy in gaps 

2: dense shrub layer and an open 

cottonwood canopy 

"multiple spusiums" in old-growth forests (ND)'' 

Canopy described as "open" 

Large trees widely spaced (SD, ND)~ gj' 

Meters 

Other: canopy height Total: 14.9- 15.8 (CO)" 

P. deltoides ssp. mnilifera 

(Ai t) Eckenwalder 18.624.1 (ND)', 29.9 (ND)~ 

CO = Colorado, KS = Kansas, MT = Montana, NE = Nebraska, ND = North Dakota, OK = Oklahoma, SD -- South Dakota. 

b f References: a Rothenberger 1985, Girard,et a1 1989, Johnson et al. 1976. Sedgwick and Knopf 1986, Spencer et al. 1984, Tomeliexi 1984, ~ohnson 1950. 

k Everitt 1968, ' Bradley and Smith 1986,' Keamrnerer et al. 1975, Penfound 1956, Girard et a!. 1983. " Sedgewick and Knopf 1990. 
occurs throughout the eastern part of the region. Siberian 

elm (U; pumila L.), an introduced spies &om Asia, is 

mmmon throughout the gallery forests. Persimmon 

(Diospyros virginiam L.) and pecan [Cary~l illinoense 

(Wangenh.) K. Kwh] are found primxily in the southern 

part of the gallery forest range in Oklahoma, Texas, and 

eastern Klansas (Brumwell 195 1). I.Iackbeny (Celtis 

occidentalis L.) is found throughout the range except for 

the western region. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) is 

dso a common floodplain tree that occurs in the 

southeastern part of the gallery forest range. Black walnut 

(Juglans nigra L.) and basswood (li'lia amen'cana L.) are 

mrnon in the older forests in the eastern range. Rocky 

Mountain juniper (Junipencs scopulorum Sarg .) is common 

in the northwestern part of the range, and eastern redcedar 

(J. virginiana L.) is common in the central and eastern 

parts. The range of redcedar has been expanding due to a 

decrease in fire frequency across the Great Plains 

(Rothenkrger 1985). 

Saltcedar, a species introduced from Eurasia for wrindbreak 

plantings, has dramatically increased in abundance within 

the past 50 years, especiaily in eastern Colorado, New 

Mexico, and western Kansas and Oklahoma. The increase 

in establishment sites for saltcedar seems to be due 

primarily to a decrease in springtime flash floods and water 

level fluctuations (Gesink et al. 1970). 

The most common shrubs and lianes found throughout this 

type are vrinter grape, Virginia creeper, and poison ivy 

[Izroxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze] . Another important 

shrub is hazelnut (Corylus amen'cana L.), common in 

North Dakota and the eastern parts of South Dakota, 

Nebraska, Kansas, and northeastern Oklahoma. Roughleaf 

dogwood ( Comus drummondii C. A. Meyer) is quite 

common in gallery forests in the southeastern part of their 

range, but its basal area is minimal due to its small size: 

betwan .9"3nd 3.11 inches (2.5 and 7.9 ern in diameter at 

breast height) (Gesink et al, 1970, Rothenkrger 1975). 

Osage-orange [rMaclura pornVera (Raf.) Schneid.] is a 

Gommon native tree in eastern Texas and Oklahoma, "st 

now oGcurs north and west of its native range into 

southeastern South Dakota, BuBalo krry [Shepherdia 

argentea ihrsh) Nutt. J and Saskatm servicekrry 

[Arnelanchier alnvolia (Sutt.) Nutt.] %cur commonly in 

the northern part of the gallery forest range. 

The oldest stands always contain very old, large, relic 

eottonwds but few young eottonwds kcause of their 

inability to reproduce in the shade (Everitt 1968, 

Kearnmerer et al. 1975). Green ash is becoming a more 

important component in northern gallery forests along the 

Missowi River as establishment sites for cottorlwood, 

willow, elm, and boxelder decrease due to flood control 

(Johnson et al. 1976). In some North Dakota gallery forests, 

Rocky Mountain juniper is becoming an increasingly 

dominant tree in the older forests (Everitt 1968). 

Age of trees and geographic lmation, which vary greatly, 

help determine the dominant canopy of a western gallery 

forest. A bottom-land forest in OMahoma along the South 

Canadian River, for example, is dominated by green ash, 

with cottonwood a major secondary species and willow 

absent as a major spies (Rice and Penfound 1956). In the 

same area, sandy flats along the river are nearly banen 

except for sandbar willow, cottonwood, and saltcedar. In 

.western Kansas, early pioneers of the late 1800's cited only 

four wdy species commonly present along the Arkansas 

River: plains cottonwood, sandbar and peachleaved willow, 

and false indigo (Amvpha fruticosa L.). Today, 

peachlaved willow and false indigo are rarely found in this 

area (Tomelleri 1984), though both can be found in eastern 

Kansas (Gesink et al. 1970). 

Boxelder is a small tree that is commonly bund but often in 

poorly drained areas with frequent standing water 

(Rothenkrger 1985). Gallery forests in the eastern portion 

of the range, with higher terraces above the floodplain, may 

have a mixture of bur oak (Quercus macrocalpa Michx.) 

with the more mesic tree species, such as elm and ash, 

forming the boundary between forest and prairie 

(Keammerer et al. 1975). 

The shrub component in old gallery forest is generally 

descriw as impenetrable because the extremely dense 

shrub and vine cover make walking difficult (Johnson 

1950). Sumac (Rhus spp.) can be dominant in the Missouri 

River forests in South Dakota when human disturbance is 

absent (Johnson 1950). Gallery forests in North Dakota and 

eastern Colorado have a high cover of woliberry 

(Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook ) and Wood's rose 

(Rosa Woodsii Lindl.), as wlI as a dense understory of 

green ash saplings (Sedgewick and Knopf 1986, Girard et 

al. 1989). Wdy vines can be particularly abundant in 

moist areas in the older forests, including winter grape, 

poison ivy, virgin"-bwer (Clematis virginia L.), and 

Virginia creeper. Chokecherry (Prunus virginiana L.) and 

Russian-olive (Elaeagnus augustqolia L.), an exotic but 

now naturalized species in the region, can occasionally 

attain tree size in northern gallery forests. Chokecherry is 

found in the older, more mesic forest stands and Russianolive in younger cottonwd stands (Johnson et al. 1976). 

Old forests in North Dakota rarely have a closed crow 
cover, allo\King sufficient light for a highly prolific herb 

and shrub component (Keammerer et al. 1975). 

The herbaceous and grass species found in gallery forests 

vary greatly with geographic location. The prairie grasses, 

forb, and shrubs that occur adjacent to this forest type are 

generally found within the transition zone betwen forest 

and prairie, Big blue-stem (Andropogon gerardii Vitman) 

and other tallgrass species are found within gallery forests 

in Kansas (Weaver 1960) and Oklahoma, mixed tall and 

shortgrass prairie species, as well as sand sagebrush 

(ArtemisiaJIili_fblia L.), are found near gallery forests of 

eastern Colorado (Sdguick and Knopf 19861, and 

shortgrass spe~ies are found in the transitional area 

between northem gallery forests and grassland (Johnson et 

al. 1976). Herbaceous ground cover also varies with 

grazing intensity, as was found in Oklahoma bottom-land 

forests (Rice 1965) and North Dakota riparian woodlands 

(Girard et al. 1987). Green ash and American elm are 

particularly susceptible to grazing damage (Girard et al. 

1987). Today, much of the land bordering gallery forests is 

agricultural (Rothenberger 1985, Sedgvvick and Knopf 

1998). 

Old-Growth Quantitative Attributes 

Table 2 lists the major quantitative attributes found in 

old-growth western gallery forests. The total density of tree 

stems varies greatly among sites, as well as among species. 

The number of trees per acre ranged from 1 17 to 482 (289 

to 1 191 per ha) in Nebraska along the Platte River. 

Although peachleaved willow is one of the few wdy 

spies to establish itself in the early successional stages, its 

density and basal lareas are quite limited in the old-grovvtb 

type, ranging from 1.1 square feet per acre (0.04 13 rn"per 

ha) in Nebraska along the Platte, to 5.4 squae feet per acre 

(0.203 rn2 per ha) along the Missouri in North Da_kota. In 

North Dakota gallery fotests, bth peachleaved vvillow and 

coltonwclrxl incrase in importance kVrth inerasing 

proximity to the river's sedge, regadless of &e age of the 

stand. ne oppsite relationship is found for green ash, 

boxelder, and American elm (Johnson et ail. 1946). Old 

faests can have an ex~ernely thick layer of green ash 

~ptings, ranging from 400 to 2,401) sterns per acre (488 to 

5,930 sterns per ha), and over 4W heriean elm and 

boxelder saplings per acre (988 pr ha) (Johnson et al. 

1976, Cirard et al, 1989). Rvv cottmwd and kllsw 

splings were found in gallery forests of various ages in 

Kmth Dakota due to their inability to reprduee under their 

own dense shade (Johnson et al, 1976). 

Although green ash can outnumber cottonwd, and 

herican elm can come close, neither rival the basal area 

cottonwood contsibutes to old-growth stands due to the 

massive size of old trees with diameters close to 6 feet (1.83 

m). Bur oak is often found to be the oldest tree in this type 

with some trees over 300 years old. However, as stands age 

it homes increasingly difficult to determine tree age, 

espeeially for cottonwOOd kause of its porous grovlth 

rings (Everitt 1968) and the increased decay inside older 

trees. Growth cores generally underestimate actual age 

(Bradley and Smith 1986). 

In a Nehaska study, the absolute frequency of lianes 

(number of lianes per total number of trees) is higher for 

this forest than for upland and transitional type forests 

(Rothenberger 1985). Nearly 36 percent of all woody 

species in these western hardwood gallery forests are vines. 

Dovvnd woody debris and standing snags are characteristic 

of old-growth gallery forests, with dowd wd, espeeially 

cottonwood, frequently cited as "common." Standing snags 

range from 33.7 trees per acre (83.3 trees per ha) in 

bottom-land forests of OMahoma to 0.3 coitonwd trees 

per acre (0.741 per ha) in northeastern Colorado. 

Canopy height can range from 59.06 feet to 98.4 feet (18 to 

30 m) for cottonwood trees found along the Platte River in 

Nebraska (Rothenberger 1985). The forests here have 

multiple layers, although two layers are most distinct: the 

open canopy and a dense, shrubby, "impenetrable" 

undergrowth. 

Historic versus Present-Day Fomsts 

Before the era of extensive flood control, which began in 

the 1960ks, &ought and overgrazing were cited as causing 

deterioration of an old bottom-land forest in Oklahoma 

(Penfound l953). Ellhstorically, the forests did not establish 

radily along rivers due in part to the extremely variable 

nature of the environment, as well as fire (Cesink et al. 

1970, Tomelleri 1984, Rothenkrger 1985). Mong the 

South Canadian Sver in Oklahoma and the Missouri aver 

in South Dakota, flash Rooding and shifring sand uprmted 

establishing plants (Ware and Penfound 1949, Van 

Bruggen 196 1 1. Roughr. high evaporation rates, and the 

intense hat of the sandy Rats also inhibit germination of 

many species, Gottonwd, willow, and saltcedar are able 

to establish during the Rd season and grow extensive rmt 

systems and -tall stems quickly, improving their chances of 

survival. Saltcedar, unlike willow and cottonwd, is able 

to diswse sds throughout the growing season, which 
increases its com~titive ability in such areas (Ware and 

Pen found 1949). 

Although gallery forests were ~dely scatter4 and rather 

sparse in the past, the small stands were important to early 

settlers and pioneers in eastern Colorado and western 

bnsas for firewood and construction (Cesink et al. 1970). 

Wen travel along the Santa Fe and Oregon Trails was at 

, the north side of the kkansas River was virtually 

bare of all trees, in part due to the heavy usage of timber by 

pioners who traveled on this side of the river (Tomelleri 

1984). Today there is a decrease in wooded area along the 

Arkansas fiver Erom east to west due to increased 

cultivation and grazing pressure in this region as well as 

increased mining of ground water for irrigation (Cesink et 

al. 1970). 

The reduction in fire frequency in these areas today has led, 

in part, to a general expansion of shrubs and mesic species, 

especially in upland areas with historically high fire 

frequencies. The increase of eastern redcedar, a 

fire-sensitive species, along the Platte in Nebraska is 

attributed to decreased fire frequency in the area 

(Rothenberger 1985). 

Historically, the establishment and growth of cottonwood 

forests were highly correlated with the river dynamics 

(Johnson et al. 1976, Rothenberger 1985, Bradley and 

Smith 1986). The current lack of spring flooding due to the 

presence of reservoirs is cited for the absence of young 

cottonwood stands along the Missouri, the Platte in 

Nebraska and Colorado, and the Milk in Montana. Flood 

control increases channel downcutting, reducing both 

floodplain width and "meandering." The high deposition 

that takes place in these meander areas, especially during 

floods, provides an adequate seedbed for cottonwood and 

willow species (Johnson et al. 1976). Minor flooding today 

can be caused by ice jams, but differences in peak flows are 

caused primarily by dam releases. Periodic flooding 

probably limits the distribution of American elm and green 

ash to the higher tenraces of the floodplain. These higher 

terraces develop over many years of deposition around the 

established pioneer species of willow and cottonwd. The 

variability in historic meandering rates along the Missouri 

may help explain the varied age and composition of these 

forests (Johnson et al. 1976). 

A study done in North Dakota along the Little lllissouri 

River found that young cottonwood forests oecupied more 

area than old-growth forests. This apparently was due to 

destruction of older forests by river channel migration, 

which constantly precluded formation of new suitable sites 

for s~dling establishment (Everitt 1968). Today, with 

increased flood control and a subsequent decrease in 

meandering and channei migration, the situation probably 

would be reversed, with less area occupitsd by younger 

forests. A study done in southern Alberta above a series of 

dams along the Milk River and below the dams in northern 

Montana found that cottonwood recruitment was very low 

below the dams due to reduced peak flows, frequency of 

floods, rates of sedimentation, and meandering (Bradley 

and Smith 1986). Areas above the dams had higher 

densities of cottonwood along meandering areas. 

Cottonwoods produce viable seeds yearly in the spring, but 

successful establishment is sporadic and associated with a 

5-year flooding cycle. Disruption of these flooding events 

has implications for the maintenance of this forest type 

(Bradley and Smith 1986). 

Although historic accounts of wildlife present in gallery 

forests are limited, an expedition traveling in 1820 along 

the Platte River in northastern Colorado observed bison, 

prairie wolves, antelope, and wild horses. The bottom-land 

habitat along rivers, such as the Platte, Missouri, and 

kkansas, was probably poor for species requiring 

year-round water since these rivers would be periodically 

dry, usually in the fall and winter (Crouch 1979, 1984). 

Today these areas may provide better habitat for some 

wildlife because of increased year-round flow due to 

flooding control. However, the steady loss of large, old 

cottonwoods, coupled with poor regeneration, will affect 

cavity-nesting birds (Sedgwick and Knopf 1990) and other 

wildlife in these gallery forests (Rothenberger 1985). 

Future Ra&ficatiorrs 

The decrease in flooding and a corresponding decrease in 

the meandering rate caused by flood-management practices 

have changed the western hardwood gallery forest in terms 

of both its extent and its composition. Gallery forests are 

now limited to areas where trees were established before 

flood control, and species dominance in old forests is 

changing korn cottonwood and willow to green ash. On a 

local scale, cultivation and increased grazing in these areas 

have also restricted fmest distribution and changed overalf 

composition (Johnson et al. f 976, Rothenkrger 1985). 

Additionally, the presence of reservoirs and increased 

irrigation seems to have decreased the growth rate of the 

residual old trees as evidenced by significantly narrower 

growth rings in cottonwoods after reservoir installation 

along the Missouri (Johnson et al. 1976). In some western 

areas, loss of water to irrigation has killed some trees. 

Overall, Rood control has decreased gallery forest area and 
landscape diversity along Great Plains rivers. This has 

jeopardized kldlife dependent on gallery forests fbr 

habitat, urinter cover, and relief from summer heat. In 

general, swvival of cottonwood on prairie rivers t&y is far 

from certain (Bradley and Smith 1986). 

Literature Cited 

Bradley, C., and D.G. Smith. 1986. Plains cottonwood recruitmnt and 

survival on a prairie wandering river floodplain, Milk River, southern 

and northern Montana. Can. J. Bot. 64:1433-1442. 

Bmmwell, Malcolm J. 195 1. An ecological survey of the Fort Leavenworth 

Military Reservation, Am Midl. Nat. 45: 187-23 1. 

Crouch, G.L. 1979. Changes in the vegetation complex of a cottonwood 

ecosystem on the South Platte River. P. 27-30 in Riparian and wetland 

habitats of the Great Plains, Proc. 3 1" ann. meet., For. comm, Great Plains 

Agric. Counc., Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, CO. 

Crouch, C.L. 1984. Wildlife habitat on the lower South Platte River in 

Colorado. P. 1-4. in Wooded draws: characteristics and values fur the 

northern Great Plains, Symp. proc., South Dakota Sch. of Mines and 

Technol., Rapid City, SD. Great Plains A@c. Counc. Publ. 1 1 1. 

Eckenwalder, 9.E. 1977. North American cottonwoods (Populus, saikaceae) 

of sections Abaso and Aigeiros. J. Arnold Arbor. 58: 193-207. 

Eckenwalder, J.E. 1984. Natural intersectional hybridization between North 

Arneri~an species of Populus (Salicaceae) in sections Aigeiros and 

Tacamahaca. 11. Taxonomy. Can. J. Bot. 62:325-335. 

Everitt, B.L. 1968. Use of the cottonwood in an investigation of the recent 

history of a floodplain. Am. J. Sci. 266:4 17-439. 

Eyre, F.H. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Soc. 

Am. For., Washington, DC: 62- 1 13. 

Gesink, R.W., J.W. Tomanek, and J.K. Hulett. 1970. A descriptive survey of 

woody meatophytes along the Arkansas River in Kansas. Trans. Kansas 

Acad. Sci. 7355-69. 

Girard, M., H. Goetz, and A. Bjugstad. 1987. Factors influencing woodlands 

of southwestmn North Dakota. Prairie Nat. 1 9: 1 89- 1 98. 

Cirard, M.M., H. Goetz, and A.J. Bjugstad. 1989. Native wdand habitat 

types of swthwestern North Dakota. U.S. Dep. Agric. For. Serv. Res. Pap. 

RM-28 I. 36 p. 

Great Plains FIma Itssociation. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Ijniv. Press 

of Gnsas, Lawrence. 

Wtggins, Kennah F. 1986. Interpretation and cowndium of bisrmcal fire 

accounts in the northern Great Plains. U.S. Dep. Inter. Fish and Wild. 

Serv., Resour. Publ. 16 1, 39 p. 

Johnson, D.F 1950. Plant successron on the Mtsiiourl R~ver Rdplatn near 

Vermlllon. SD. M A, thes~s. lintv of South Dakota, Dep. of Bctt. 44 p. 

Johnson, W .C., R.L. Burgess, and W. R. Kea . 1976. Forest overstory 

vegelation and environmnt on the Misswlri River floodplain in Nd 

Dakota. Ecol. Monagt. 46:49-84. 

, Warren R., W. Carter Johnson, and R 

Noristics analysis of the Missouri River btomland forests in North 

Dakota. Can. Field Nar. 895- 19. 

Norland, J.E., and C.B. Marlow. 1984. Use of woody draws by free roa~ng 

bison. P. 4043 in Wded draws: characteristics and values for the 

northern Great Plains, Symg. proc., South Dakota Sch. of Mines and 

Technol., Rapid City, SD. Great Plains Agric. Cwnc. Publ. 1 1 1. 

Penfound W.T. 1953. Plant communities of Oklahoma lakes. Ecology 

34:56 1-82. 

Rice, E.L. 1965. Bottomland forests of north central Oklahoma, Ecology 

46~708-7 14. 

Rice, E.L., and W.T. Penfound. 1956. Cowsition of a green ash forest near 

Norman, OK. Southwest. Nat. 1 : 145- 147. 

Rothenkger, S.J, 1985. Cornunity analysis of the forest vegetation in the 

lower Platte River valley, eastern Nebraska. Prairie Nat. 17: 1 - 14. 

Sedgwick, J.A., and F.L. Knopf. 1986. Cavity nesting birds and the cavity 

tree resource in plains cottonwood bottomlands. J. Wild. Manage. 

50247-252. 

Sedgwick, J.A., and F.L. Knopf. 1990. Habitat relationships and nest site 

characteristics of cavity-nesting birds in emonwood floodplains. 

J. Wild. Manage. 54(1): 1 12-1 24. 

Towlleri, J.R. 1984. Dynamics of the woody vegetation along the Arkansas 

River in western Kansas, 1870-1983. F'h.D. diss., Univ. of Kansas, 

Lawrence. 

Van Bmggen, T. 195 1. An ecologic and taxonomic study of a sand dune and 

floodplain area adjacent to the Missouri River. Roc. South Dakota Acad. 

Sci. 60:132-141. 

Ware, G.H., and W.T. Penfound. 1949. The vegetation of the lower levels of 

the floodplain of the south Canadian River in central Oklahoma. Rology 

30:478484. 

Weaver, J.E. 1960. Floodplain vegetation of the central Missouri valley and 

contacts of woodland with prairie. Eel. Monogr. 30:37-64. 

Wells, P.V. 1968. Historical factors controlling vegetation patterns and 

noristics distributions in the central plains region of North A 

P. 2 1 1-221 in DM, Wakefield, (ed.). Pleistocene and recent environments 

of the central Great Plains. Lawrence, KS. Regents Press. 

Wilson, R.E. H90. Succession in stands of Populus deltoides along the 

Missouri River in southeastern South Dakota. Am Mid, Nat. 83:330-342. 

Johnson, W.C. f 994. Wcxxfland expansion in the PIatre River, Nebaska: 

patterns and causes. Ec01. Monogr. 6445-84. 
enny. 1998. An old-growth definition for western hardwood gallery 

forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-22. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Southern Research Station. 12 p. 

Western hardwood gallery forests are found across an extremely large, diverse geographical 

area that encompasses the Great Plains in the United States and Canada. Remnant forests of 

this type still exist in the "Prairie Peninsula," which historically projected an eastern finger 

into Ohio. The forests are restricted to floodplains of major rivers and are in sharp contrast to 

the surrounding prairie. The name "gallery" forest refers only to forests that form a corridor of 

trees along river systems in the region. Disturbances associated with flooding, such as water 

and ice scouring as well as soil deposition, are required for the establishment of cottonwood 

and willow stands, pioneer species of this type. Today, the historic hydrology of all Great 

Plains rivers has drastically changed with the creation of dams and other flood-control 

measures. The western hardwood gallery forest has changed as well, with composition 

shifting from shade-intolerant species, such as cottonwood and willow, to shade-tolerant 

species, such as peen ash. Consequently, there is little regeneration of this forest type. 
The mest Service, Unit4 Stares Department of 

Agriculture (USDA), is ddieatd to the principle of 

multiple use management of the Nation" forest 

resources b'or sustained lields of wd, water, Eorage, wildlife, and 

r~rr;rarictn. nrough foresl~y resarch, coopration with the Sates 

and private forest owers, and management of the National 

Forests and National Grasslands, it strives-as dir~td by

Congress-to provide increasingly grater sivice ts a growing 

Nation. 

The USDA prohibits d?i~ier~minarion in all its programs and 

activities sin the bifsis of race, color, naitimad origin, gender, 

religion, age, disability- plitical bliefs, zxuat orientatim, and 

marital or family status, (Not a11 prohibit& bses apply to all 

programs,) Persons with disabilities who require alternative 

mans for csmmurricaaion of program information (Braille, large 

print, audiotap, ete.) should eontach USDA's TARGET Center at 

202- 720-2m (voice and TDD), 

To file a complaint of discrimination, wite USCPA, Director, 

Ofice of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Mitten Building, 14" and 

Independence Atienue, SW, Washingbun, DC 20250-94 10 or call 

202-720-59M (voice or TDD), USDA is an equal opprtunity 

provider and employer,