United States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Forest Service 

e 

Southern 

Research Station 

Photos for Estimating Fuel Loadings 

Before and After Prescribed Burning in 

the Upper Coastal Plain of the Southeast 

Eric R. Scholl and Thomas A. Waldrop 
The Authors: 

Eric R. Scholl, Forestry Technician, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Savannah River Natural 

Resource Management and Research Institute, New 

Ellenton, SC 29809; and Thomas A. Waldrop, 

Research Forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Clemson, SC 

29634. 

April1999 

Southern Research Station 

P.O. Box 2680 

Asheville, NC 28802 
Photos for Estimating Fuel Loadings Before and 

After Prescribed Burning in the Upper Coastal 

Plain of the Southeast 

Eric R. Scholl and Thomas A. Waldrop 

Abstract 

Although prescribed burning is common in the Southeastern United States, most fuel models apply to only western forests. This paper 

documents a fuel classification system that was developed for plantations of loblolly and longleaf pines for the Upper Coastal Plain 

region. Multivariate analysis of variance and discriminant function analysis were used to confirm eight discrete fuel groups. A photo 

series describing these unique fuel complexes is presented to display preburn loading and postbum reductions. This photo series will 

improve the accuracy of rue!-loading estimates and will provide a measure of the effectiveness of prescribed fires for rough reduction. 

Keywords: Discriminant function analysis, fuel classification. fuel loading, photo series, planar intersect. 

Introduction 

Southeastern foresters and frre managers are facing 

increasing demands for improved fuel assessments in firerelated operations to ensure the accuracy of prescribed frres 

and satisfy smoke management guidelines. Prescribed bums 

in loblolly (Pinus taeda L.) and longleaf pine (P. pallustris 

Mill.) plantations are common in the Upper Coastal Plain. 

These operations have traditionaUy been 50 to 100 acres in 

size but bums of several thousand acres are becoming more 

common. 

A detailed fuel classification system that would aid in 

assessing fuel loading and its influence on fire behavior is 

lacking. Most fuel appraisals in the region are based on a set 

of 20 fuel models that was developed for the National Fire 

Danger Rating System (NFDRS) by Deeming and others 

( 1977) or a revised set of those models developed by Burgan 
( 1988). Within either set of models, only one (Fire Behavior 

Fuel Model 9) is applicable to pine plantations of the Upper 

Coastal Plain. This model is designed to represent all 

southeastern long-needled pines in the NFDRS. BEHAVE. a 

computer-based fire prediction application. estimates spread 

rates and fire intensity for this timber type based on the 

limited inputs of Fuel Model 9. At best, this idealized 

representation of the entire Southeast is a broad 

generalization (Anderson 1982) because Fuel Model 9 is too 

limited and cannot match all fuels of the South (Shepard 

1984). In BEHAVE, computer modules allow for 

customized models, based on Rothennel's ( 1972) 

mathematical model, that more accurately approximate local 

fuel conditions. Further customizing of a fuel model can help 

match observed fire behavior with predicted (forecasted) fire 

behavior. However, data for customized fuel models are 

limited. 

A study was conducted in the Upper Coastal Plain of South 

Carolina (Scholl 1996) to develop a detailed fuel 

classification system. Specific objectives were (I) to identify 

and describe (classify) unique fuel complexes within the fire 

behavior Fuel Model 9 and (2) to express the classification 

system with a photo series that allows fire managers to 

estimate prebum and postbum fuel loads for use in the 

BEHAVE system. 

2 

Photo Series 

A photo series is a set of photographs showing a range of 

fuel loads generated from similar timber types and 

silvicultural practices or other large disturbances (Wade and 

others 1993). Photo series serve as references for fuel 

management plans and as training aids for prescribed 

burning and wildfire suppression. They also provide 

estimates of available fuel for smoke management plans 

(Sanders and Van Lear 1988). The photographs help 

evaluate the effect of prescribed frre by allowing visual 

comparison of prebum and postbum perspectives in the 

same area (Ryan and Johnson 1979). Photographs and 

detailed fuel-loading infonnation provide useful field 

estimators of fuel loading and reduction that can be shared 

among frre management personnel. 

Photo series are often developed by photographing areas that 

depict typical loading levels and then applying the planar 

intersect method (Brown 1974) to measure slash and live 

fuel quantities. Less time-consuming and expensive than 

gathering and weighing all material from small sample plots, 

the planar intersect method is an improvement of the line 

intersect technique (Canfield 1941, Van Wagner 1968), 

providing applicability to more fuel conditions by allowing 

for more varied particle sizes, shapes, and orientations. The 

planar intersect method is also more accurate because 
random placement of sampling planes eliminates particle tilt 

as a source of sampling error. Using quadratic-mean 

diameters and nonhorizontal particle angles corrects any 

calculated volume biases (Brown and Roussopoulos 1974). 

Photo series are available for fuel complexes throughout the 

United States such as the Sierra Nevada (Maxwell and Ward 

1979), mid-Atlantic (Lynch and Horton 1983), and Lake 

States (Blank 1982). In the South, fuel models are scarce, 

except for those discussed in the Southern Forestry Smoke 

Management Guidebook (Southern Forest Fire Laboratory 

Staff 1976), or in photo series for the Southern Appalachians 

(Sanders and Van Lear 1988) and South Carol ina Lowlands 

(Wade and others 1993). Western photo series cannot 

describe in detail all significant combinations of fuels, 

silvicultural treatments, degrees of rough, local weather 

conditions, and topography in a large and varied region like 

the Southeast. The most accurate fuel infonnation available 

is taken from local conditions; however, this infonnation is 

difficult and expensive to collect. 

Photo series often show weight of NFDRS woody particlesize classes because loading of these fuels is a primary factor 

of fire behavior prediction. However, forest-floor and livefuel weights can be more important when the management 

goal of burning is hazard reduction and understory control. 

3 

Larger particle-size classes (>3 inches [in.l) are less 

important from a reduction standpoint because they are 

usually not consumed. Values for these fuels assessments 

must be derived from independent sampling or observations. 

Methods 

The study took place on the U.S. Department of Energy, 

Savannah River Site, which overlaps three Upper Coastal 

Plain counties of South Carolina: Barnwell, Allendale, and 

Aiken. The study sites were in four forested compartments, 

each nearly 1,000 acres, that were slated for winter 

prescribed fire. These compartments contained stands of 

lobloiJy pine, longleaf pine, and hardwood cover types. All 

four compartments are in red-cockaded woodpecker habitat 

management zones and are set on a 4-year rotation for 

prescribed burning. Fire management objectives include 

hardwood control and wildfire hazard reduction. 

Fuels in each compartment were visually assessed along 4 to 

6 transects, crossing the entire compartment, noting the 

absence or presence of characteristics that would define 

discrete fuel complexes including: quantity of various fuel 

size classes; condition, type, and arrangement of dead fuels; 

quantity and type of live fuels; horizontal and vertical 
arrangement; stand density and condition classes; canopy 

closure; and composition and depth of forest litter. 

Afterwards, prevalent compositions of significant fuel 

characteristics were noted and evaluated, and eight 

preliminary fuel complexes were selected for statistical 

testing. 

For each complex, 10 plots were established over the 4 

compartments. Photo points were located 10 feet (ft) from 

the beginning of each sample plot at a height of 

approximately 6ft. An 8-ft range pole was centered 60ft 

from the camera to show perspective. The camera was a 

programmable Canon AE-1 with a shutter release and a 75-

millimeter lens. 

Each plot consisted of a 50-ft sampling plane. Quantity of 

dead and downed woody material was estimated using 

Brown's (1974) planar intersect technique. This technique 

was revised using the methods of Sanders ( 1987) to better 

estimate southern fuels. Revisions included using quadraticmean diameters of woody slash fuels for size classes of 

species on study areas (under 0.25 in., 0.25 to 1.00 in., 1.00 

to 3.00 in., and over 3.00 in.) and substituting specific 

gravities for southern and southeastern forest types 

(Anderson 1978) for those of western species. No correction 

factor was used to adjust weight estimates for nonhorizontal 

4 

particle angles because these data are not available for 

southern conifers (Sanders 1987). 

For each plot, percent cover and average total height were 

recorded for grasses, herbaceous plants, shrubs, woody 

regeneration, and vines. These data were used to estimate 

preburn and postburn fuel loading with biomass equations 

developed by Scholl ( 1996). Other measurements included 

prebum litter, postburn litter, and duff depths to estimate 

forest floor consumption. 

Prescribed burning of the compartments took place on 7 

days from January through March 1995. Weather conditions 

varied slightly throughout the period. All burns were 

considered winter rough reduction burns. Ignition was by a 

helicopter equipped with a Premo Mark Ill delayed aerial 

ignition device and following a strip headfire firing pattern. 

Multivariate analysis of variance determined that the eight 

preliminary fuel complexes were significantly different from 

each other, and that distinct fuel groupings could be 

classified by discriminate function analysis (DFA). Eight 

discriminate functions were developed, one to describe each 

fuel category. Variables from each sample plot were used as 

input to cross validate the classification scheme and 

incorrectly classified plots were reclassified. Preburn and 
postbum fuel loadings were averaged and described in the 

photo series by the categories described by DFA. A more 

complete description of measurements, burning procedures, 

and statistical analyses was given by SchoU ( 1996). 

Results and Discussion 

Mter surveying the study compartments, eight fuel 

complexes were selected as preliminary categories. Each 

complex was selected for distinctive qualities as perceived to 

affect fire behavior. Classification of study plots by DFA 

indicated that the preliminary fuel groups were different 

enough to be considered unique fuel categories so the 

descriptions of fuel complexes remained unchanged. Of the 

80 plots sampled, only 10 were reclassified and most of 

those were reclassified to fuel complexes that were visually 

similar. For example, one plot was changed from Fuel 

Complex I to Fuel Complex 2. The only distinguishing 

feature between these two complexes is needle cast 

suspended by vines. A brief description of each fuel 

complex is given in the table accompanying each preburn 

photo. 

Observation of fire behavior at each photo plot was 

impossible due to the large study area, the number of plots in 

5 

each compartment, and the number of bum days involved. 

Of the operations that could be observed, most frres had 

low-to-moderate intensity with flame heights of 2 to 6ft. For 

the eight fuel complexes combined, burning decreased forest 

floor litter depth from 3.05 in. to 1.46 in., resulting in a 

postbum load of 1.8 tons per acre. Weight of woody fuels 

decreased by 28 percent for 1-hour fuels, 15 percent for 100-

hour fuels, and 3 percent for I ,000-hour fuels. An 

unexpected result was an increase of I 0-hour fuels by 22 

percent over prebum levels. This increase may have been 

caused by the pruning effect of prescribed fire on low limbs 

or by measurement error. Total live fuel loading for the eight 

fuel complexes exhibited an average overall reduction of 43 

percent of the pre bum loading. The most significant 

reduction in live fuel biomass was that of woody 

regeneration which was reduced by 61 percent. 

Preburn photographs presented in the following pages 

document the typical range of fuel loading for longleaf and 

loblolly pine plantations in the Upper Coastal Plain. 

Postbum photographs indicate the effectiveness of fire in 

consuming debris under typical burning conditions in winter. 

The order of the photographs is based on dominant species 

(pine versus hardwoods), presence of slash, and stand 

density. Fuel Complex 2 is identical to Fuel Complex I but 

with the addition of fuel ladders. Fuel Complexes 3, 4, and 5 
have similar pine stand characteristics, but with different 

understory combinations. Fuel Complex 6 is an earlysuccessional staged understory dominated by grass and pine 

regeneration, whereas Fuel Complex 7 is the only complex 

consisting of heavy accumulations of slash. Fuel Complex 8 

is the only hardwood fuel category. 

Fire managers can estimate these characteristics on an area 

being inventoried by foUowing these steps: 

I. Observe each characteristic of the residue by walking 

through the fuel complex or viewing the residue from an 

elevated position to observe continuity and distribution. 

2. Select a photo that nearly matches, or photos that bracket, 

the observed characteristic. 

3. Obtain the quantitative value for the characteristic being 

estimated from the table accompanying the selected photo 

(or interpolate a value between photos). 

The photo series characterizes a range of prebum woody 

slash and live fuel weights ranging from 6 to 16 tons per 

acre. Total fuel loading for the eight fuel complexes was 

reduced by an average of 32 percent by prescribed burning. 

6 

It is important to emphasize that these finalized loadings are 

averages of several plots and may not be identical to the 

fuels in the plot pictured. Also, burning operations took 

place over the course of 3 months and under a range of 

burning conditions. Fuel reduction will vary by prebum fuel 

loading and weather conditions at the time of burning. 

Conclusion 

The photo series developed in this study, as has been found 

in other regions of the United States, can provide estimates 

of prebum and postbum fuel loadings that are fast, easy, 

inexpensive, and adequate for many management needs. In 

this study, discriminate function analysis identified eight 

discrete fuel complexes that are presented in the photo 

series. Additional research is needed to develop fue 

behavior models and match observed fire behavior to 

predicted behavior for each fuel complex. These results 

would be a meaningful addition to the BEHAVE fire 

prediction and modeling system. Other uses of this fuel 

information would be its implementation into smoke 

dispersion models. 
Literature Cited 

Anderson, H.E. 1982. Aids in determining fuel models fa estimating fiTe 

behavior. Gen. Tech. Rep. lnt-122. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range 

Experiment Station. 22 p. 

Blank, R. W. 1982. Stereo photos for evaluating jack pine slash fuels. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. NC-77. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Fa-est Service, North Cen!ral Fa-est Experiment Station: 23. 

Brown, J.C.; Roussopoulos, PJ. 1974. Eliminating biases in the planar 

intersect method for estimating volumes of small fuels. Fa-est Science. 

20: 350-356. 

Brown, J.K. 1974. Handbook fa inventorying downed woody material. 

Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-16. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Fa-est Service. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 

Burgan, Robert E. 1988. 1988 revisions to the national f!Te danger rating 

system. Res. Pap. SE-273. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 

39 p. 

Canfield, R.H. 1941. Application of the line intersect method in sampling 

range vegetation. Journal of Faestry. 39: 388-394. 

Deeming, John E.; Burgan, Robert E.; Cohen, Jack D. 1977. The 

national fire danger rating system-1978. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-39. 

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Intermountain Fa-est and Range Experiment Station. 63 p. 

7 

Lynch, C.M.; Horton, L.J. 1983. Photo series for quantifying forest 

residues in: loblolly pine, eastern white pine, pitch pine, Virginia pine. 

NA-FR-25. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 

Northeastern Area State and Private Faestry. 69 p. 

Maxwell. W.G.; Ward, F.R. 1979. Photo series for quantifying forest 

residues in the: Sierra mixed conifer type. Sierra true fir type. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. PNW-95. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Fa-est Service, Pacific Northwest Fa-est and Range Ellperiment Station. 

79 p. 

Rothermel, R.C. 1972. A mathematical model for fire spread predictions 

in wildland fuels. Res. Pap. INT-115. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range 

Ellperiment Station. 40 p. 

Ryan. D.C.; Johnson, R.E. 1979. Stereo photographs aid residue 

management. Fire Management Notes. 40: 7-9. 

Sanden, B.M. 1987. Photo series for quantifying pine-hardwood logging 

slash following clearcuning in the Southern Appalachians. Clemson. 

SC: Clemson University. 61 p. M.S. thesis. 

S1111den, B.M.; Van Lear, D.H. 1988. Photos fa estimating residue 

loadings before and after burning in Southern Appalachian mixed pinehardwood clearcuts. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-49. Asheville. NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest 

Ellperiment Station. 21 p. 

Sdloll, Eric. 1996. Fuel classification for prescribed burning of longleaf 

and loblolly pine plantations in the Upper Coastal Plain. Clemson. SC: 

Clemson University. 62 p. M.S. thesis. 
Shepard. J.G. 1984. Weather, fire danger rating systems and frre behavior 

use in prescribed burning and smoke management in the South. In: 

Wade, Dale D., comp. Prescribed fire and smoke management in the 

South: Conference proceedings; 1984 September 12-14; Atlanta. 

Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 51-56. 

Southern Forest Fire Laboratory Staff. 1976. Southern forestry smoke 

management guidebook. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-10. Asheville, NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest 

Experiment Station. 140 p. 

8 

Van Wagner, C.E. 1968. The line intersect method of in forest fuel 

sampling. Forest Science. 14: 2(}.26. 

Wade, D.O.; Forbus, J.K.; Saveland, J.M. 1993. Photo series for 

estimating post-hurricane residues and fire behavior in southern pine. 

Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-82. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 19 p. 

0 
Fuel Complex 1: Prebum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.240 

0.25-1.00 .813 

1.00--3.00 .524 

>3.00 .....JlQQ 

Subtotal 1.576 

Live fuels 

Grasses .154 

Herbs .000 

Shrubs .000 

Woody .002 

Vines ~ 

Subtotal .157 

Litter 4.778 

Total 6.512 

Depth 

Inches 

1.000 

2.27 

Fully stocked immature loblolly pine plantation with no understory 

development. Thee heights of 30 feet in an 8-foot by 8-foot spacing. 

Average diameter at breast height: 6.5 inches 

Canopy closure: 90 percent 

Age of rough: 4 years 

ll 

Fuel Complex 1: Postbum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.163 

0.25-1.00 1.067 

1.00--3.00 .229 

>3.00 _.OOQ 

Subtotal 1.459 

Live fuels 

Grasses .128 

Herbs .006 

Shrubs .000 

Woody .000 

Vines .....006 

Subtotal .140 

Litter 1.815 

Total 3.412 

Date of bum: 02/03/95 

Days since rain: S (0.25 inch) 

Depth 

Inches 

0.685 

.806 

Ignition technique: Delayed Aerial Ignition Device (Bell 2068) 

Period of ignition: 1320 to 1345 

Relative humidity: 51 percent 

Temperature: 65 op 

Windspeed: 0 to 5 miles per hour 

Fuel Complex 2: Prebum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tonstacre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.232 

0.25-1.00 .699 

1.00-3.00 .182 

>3.00 ....JlW 

Subtotal 1.115 

Live fuels 

Grasses .027 

Herbs .000 

Shrubs .098 

Woody .070 

Vines .....J.i1. 

Subtotal .537 

--

Litter 5.103 

Total 6.755 

Depth 

Inches 

8.796 

3.900 

Similar in structure to Fuel Complex I but with fuel ladders as high as 

12 feet. Composed of excessive needle cast and heavy vines. 

Average diameter at breast height 5.8 inches 

Canopy closure: 100 percent 

Age of rough: 4 years 

13 

Fuel Complex 2: Postbum Conditio .. 

Fuels Weight 

- Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.090 

0.25-1.00 .883 

1.00-3.00 .137 

>3.00 ....JlW 

Subtotal 1.110 

Live fuels 

Grasses .047 

Herbs .023 

Shrubs .000 

Woody .002 

Vines .....J.J6 

Subtotal .208 

-

Litter 1.015 

Total 2.333 

Date of burn: 01/10/95 

Days since rain: 3 (4.27 inches) 

Depth 

Inches 

1.015 

3.639 

Ignition technique: Delayed Aerial Ignition Device (Be11206B) 

Period of ignition: 1420 to 1605 

Relative humidity: 43 percent 

Temperature: 61 °F 

Windspeed: 0 to 5 miles per hour 

Fuel Complex 3: Prebum Conditi0111 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.183 

0.25-1.00 1.325 

1.00-3.00 1.830 

>3.00 _l.ill 

Subtotal 4.853 

Live fuels 

Grasses .091 

Herbs .022 

Shrubs .015 

Woody .000 

Vines ____.OOl 

Subtotal .132 

Litter 5.485 

Total 10.470 

Depth 

Inches 

5.484 

3.611 

Loblolly pine sawtimber with heavy concentration of pole staged 

loblolly and longleaf regeneration. 

Average diameter at breast height: 13.7 inches 

Canopy closure: 80 percent 

Age of rough: 4 years 

15 

Fuel Complex 3: Postbum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

-

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.166 

0.25-1.00 2.281 

1.00-3.00 1.418 

>3.00 Ull 

Subtotal 5.380 

Live fuels 

Grasses .203 

Herbs .014 

Shrubs .000 

Woody .011 

Vines ....J!QZ 

Subtotal .235 

Litter 2.893 

Total 8.508 

Date of burn: 01126195 

Days since rain: 3 (0.44 inch) 

Depth 

Inches 

2.893 

2.407 

Ignition technique: Delayed Aerial Ignition Device (Bell 206B) 

and Drip Torch 

Period of ignition: 1215 to 5200 

Relative humidity: 34 percent 

Temperature: 55 op 

Windspeed: 2 to 4 miles per hour 

Fuel Complex 4: Prebum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.105 

0.25-1.00 1.206 

1.00-3.00 1.847 

>3.00 ~ 

Subtotal 5.308 

Live fuels 

Grasses .060 

Herbs .013 

Shrubs .038 

Woody .017 

Vines __.QQQ 

Subtotal .129 

Litter 5.908 

Total 11.346 

Depth 

Inches 

1.958 

2.773 

Closely resembles Fire Behavior Fuel Model9 in the National Fire 

Danger Ratir.~ System. Loblolly pine sawtimber with a relatively clear 

understory and light loading of 1-bour, !()..hour, and 100-hour timelag 

fuels representing long-needled conifer fuel models of the Western 

United States. 

Average diameter at breast height: 11 .59 inches 

Canopy closure: 70 percent 

Age of rough: 4 years 

17 

Fuel Complex 4: Postbum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

-

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.060 

0.25-1.00 2.047 

1.00-3.00 2.096 

>3.00 2.li2 

Subtotal 6.621 

Live fuels 

Grasses .222 

Herbs .006 

Shrubs .017 

Woody .006 

Vines ~ 

Subtotal .259 

Litter 3.024 

Total 9.904 

Date of burn: 0 II I 0/95 

Days since rain: 3 (4.27 inches) 

Depth 

Inches 

2.030 

1.314 

Ignition technique: Delayed Aerial Ignition Device (Bell2068) 

Period of ignition: 1420 to 1605 

Relative humidity: 43 percent 

Temperature: 61 °F 

Windspeed: 0 to 5 miles per hour 
00 
Fuel Complex S: Prebum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.170 

0.25-1.00 1.214 

1.00--3.00 1.544 

>3.00 __.QW 

Subtotal 2.928 

Live fuels 

Grasses .234 

Herbs .063 

Shrubs .378 

Woody .344 

Vines ~ 

Subtotal 1.084 

Litter 4.491 

Total 8.503 

Similar to Fuel Complex 4, but with developed discontinuous 

understory. 

Average diameter at breast height: 14.0 inches 

Canopy closure: 60 percent 

Age of rough: 4 ye.ars 

Depth 

Inches 

1.694 

2.735 

19 

Fuel Complex S: Postbum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.152 

0.25-1.00 1.722 

1.00--3.00 1.894 

>3.00 .....QOO 

Subtotal 3.768 

Live fuels 

Grasses .288 

Herbs .055 

Shrubs .069 

Woody .092 

Vines __.!l1l 

Subtotal .578 

Litter 1.718 

Total 6.065 

Date of burn: 01126195 

Days since rain: 3 (0.44 inch) 

Depth 

Inches 

0.967 

.895 

Ignition Lechnique: Delayed Aerial Ignition Device (Bell 206B) and 

Drip Torch 

Period of ignition: 1215 to 5200 

Relative humidity: 34 percent 

Temperature: 55 °F 

Windspeed: 2 to 4 miles per hour 

Fuel Complex 6: Prebum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

-

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.096 

0.25-1.00 .993 

1.00-3.00 2.882 

>3.00 __!_..SQ2 

Subtotal 5.780 

Live fuels 

Grasses 1.308 

Herbs .476 

Shrubs .105 

Woody .353 

Vines ~ 

Subtotal 2.031 

Litter 2.728 

Total 10.809 

Depth 

Inches 

2.317 

2.720 

Longleaf sawtimber after commercial thinning in open canopies. forest 

floor covered in longleaf and loblolly natural regeneration, grasses, and 

herbaceous material. 

Average diameter at breast height: 13.54 inches 

Canopy closure: 40 percent 

Age of rough: 4 years 

21 

Fuel Complex 6: Postbum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

- Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.097 

0.25-1.00 1.283 

1.00-3.00 2.316 

>3.00 .l...8Q.2 

Subtotal 5.506 

Live fuels 

Grasses 1.013 

Herbs .208 

Shrubs .014 

Woody .161 

Vines ___.OM 

Subtotal .148 

Litter 1.040 

Total 6.694 

Date of bum: 02/03/95 

Days since rain: 5 (0.22 inch) 

Depth 

Inches 

2.208 

.406 

Ignition technique: Delayed Aerial Ignition Device (Bell 206B) 

Period of ignition: 1320 to 1345 

Relative humidity: 51 percent 

Temperature: 65 °F 

Windspeed: 0 to 5 miles per hour 

Fuel Complex 7: Prebum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.753 

0.25-1.00 2.511 

1.~3.00 4.272 

>3.00 ....2.100 

Subtotal 10.236 

Live fuels 

Grasses .669 

Herbs .040 

Shrubs .099 

Woody .023 

Vines __Jll.J. 

Subtotal .845 

Litter 4.975 

Total 16.056 

Depth 

Inches 

34.200 

3.502 

Red-cockaded woodpecker management areas in mature longleaf 

stands after removal of midstory hardwoods. 

Abundance of 1-hour, 10-hour, and 100-hour timelag fuels. 

Average diameter at breast height: 13.5 inches 

Canopy closure: 50 percent 

Age of rough: 4 years 

23 

Fuel Complex 7: Postbum Conditions 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.445 

0.25-1.00 2.690 

1.~3.00 2.724 

>3.00 ~ 

Subtotal 8.323 

Live fuels 

Grasses .500 

Herbs .144 

Shrubs .025 

Woody .041 

Vines __.QQ6 

Subtotal .716 

Litter 1.975 

Total 11.014 

Date of burn: 01126195 

Days since rain: 3 (0.44 inch) 

Ignition technique: Delayed Aerial Ignition and Drip Torch 

Period of ignition: 1215 to 2200 

Relative humidity: 34 percent 

Temperature: 55 op 

Windspeed: 2 to 4 miles per hour 

Depth 

Inches 

17.000 

1.019 

Fuel Comples 8: Prebum Condltl0111 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.293 

0.25-1.00 1.129 

1.00-3.00 1.153 

>3.00 .....QOO 

Subtotal 2.575 

Live fuels 

Grasses .236 

Herbs .008 

Shrubs .130 

Woody .087 

Vines ~ 

Subtotal .503 

Litter 3.105 

Total 6.183 

Depth 

Inches 

1.200 

2.880 

Uneven-aged predominately hardwood stands comprised of oakhickory cover types. 

Average diameter at breast height: 11.3 inches 

Canopy closure: 95 percent 

Age of rough: unknown 

25 

Fuel Complex 8: Postbum Condldo111 

Fuels Weight 

--

Tons/acre 

Slash 

Branches 

<0.25 0.314 

0.25-1.00 .662 

1.00-3.00 1.441 

>3.00 .....QOO 

Subtotal 2.417 

Live fuels 

Grasses .306 

Herbs .000 

Shrubs .290 

Woody .005 

Vines ~ 

Subtotal .801 

Litter 1.167 

Total 4.385 

Date of burn: 00./03/95 

Days since rain: 5 (0.22 inch) 

Depth 

Inches 

0.750 

1. 188 

Ignition technique: Delayed Aerial Ignition Device (Bell206b) 

Period of ignition: 1320 to 1345 

Relative humidity: 51 percent 

Temperature: 65 °F 

Windspeed: 0 to 5 miles per hour 
SchoU, Eric R.; Waldrop, Thomas A. 1999. Photos for estimating fuel loadings 

before and after prescribed burning in the upper coastal plain of the southeast. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. SRS-26. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Southern Research Station. 25 p. 

Although prescribed burning is common in the Southeastern United States, most fuel 

models apply to only western forests. This paper documents a fuel classification 

system that was developed for plantations of loblolly and longleaf pines for the 

Upper Coastal Plain region. Multivariate analysis of variance and discriminant 

function analysis were used to confinn eight discrete fuel groups. A photo series 

describing these unique fuel complexes is presented to display preburn loading and 

post burn reductions. This photo series will improve the accuracy of fuel-loading 

estimates and will provide a measure of the effectiveness of prescribed f1res for rough 

reduction. 

Keywords: Discriminant function analysis, fuel classification, fuel loading, photo 

series, planar intersect. 
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resources for sustained yields of wood. water, forage, wildlife, and 

recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the States and private forest 

owners, and management of the National Fore~ts and National Grasslands, it strivesas directed by Congress-to provide increasingly greater service to a growing Nation. 

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