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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |                                                          
|**Chapter 3: Health and Sanitary 
            Elements of A Housing Inspection****Table of 
            Contents**I.  Background 
            FactorsII.  Major Health and 
            Sanitary FactorsIII.  Inspection 
            Procedures**I.   Background Factors**
            Benjamin Franklin 
            said "Sir I respectfully submit that we can give advice but we 
            cannot give conduct."In dealing with 
            public we must give to our fullest capacity. Sometimes what we 
            believe are frustrations peculiar to inspectors of housing are 
            actually the same frustrations experienced by inspectors in many 
            other fields. In fielding with the public, it is our duty to perform 
            officially, teach where possible, and use the big stick only when 
            necessary. Our manner must be forth-right and that of a tutored 
            professional. A housing inspector is the key person in a local 
            housing hygiene program since he is the local representative dealing 
            with the grass roots problems. Unless the inspector is a sanitarian, 
            he is not prepared or expected to function as a sanitarian. There 
            must, however, be a rapport between the housing inspector and the 
            sanitarian to achieve the united action that will result in the 
            achievement of greater health, safety, and welfare of the community. 
            This is brought about by joint and supporting actions of the housing 
            inspector brings him into contact with health problems more ofter 
            than the work of the average sanitarian does. If both parties wish 
            to do their respective jobs well, then they should develop an 
            arrangement of mutual support and assistance.**II.   Major Health and Sanitary 
            Factors**
            A comprehensive 
            housing ordinance or code includes minimum requirements for adequate 
            heat, light, ventilation, sanitation, space, and occupancy. Various 
            studies have provided evidence of the relaitionship between 
            unsanitary conditions, overcrowding, inadequate heat, light, and 
            ventilation and health problems such as the tranmission of various 
            diseases and infections. Studies to evaluate the effects of 
            conditions within man's living environment upon his mental health 
            and emotional stability are being undertaken by the U.S. Public 
            Health Service. Within all comprehensive housing ordinances, there 
            are appropriate standards for the important health and sanitation 
            factors.A  
            HeatMinumum inside 
            heating temperatures vary little throughout the country except for 
            the marked difference between the localities with very mild or very 
            cold climates. Some state and local housing codes have set 70?F as 
            the minimum standard. They vary, however, on the outside temperature 
            that must prevail before the inside statdard of 70?F must be met. 
            The 1975 "APHA-CDC Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy 
            Ordinance," for example, required it to be maintained under 
            ordianry minimum winter conditions. Of necessity, therefore, 
            you must be guided by your local code for quantitative standards. If 
            there are no quantitative standards in your local code, Table No. 1 
            in Chapter 26 of the "American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, 
            and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Handbook of Fundamentals", 
            gives minimum design temperatures for different areas of the country 
            under winter conditions. The publication is readily available from 
            most public libraries.The "APHA-CDC 
            Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance" states that 
            a temperature of at least 68?F at a distance of 36 inches above the 
            floor level should exist. ASHRAE states that the temperature should 
            be measured at the breathing line 5 feet above the floor or at the 
            seating level 30 inches above the floor in a location where the 
            temperature-sensing device is not exposed to a condition of abnormal 
            heat gain or heat loss. Local code requirements should, however, 
            prevail. If the local code does not give a specific statement, any 
            of the previously mentioned methods may be used, but every housing 
            inspector in the community should measure the temperature the same 
            way.B  Thermal 
            EnvironmentOne of the basic 
            requirements in healthful housing is maintenence of a thermal 
            environment that will avoid undue heat loss from the human body. 
            Heat loss results in lowered resistance, particularly to respitory 
            tract infections, and to some extent all other infections.Room temperatures 
            vary considerably from floor to ceiling. Since hot air rises, the 
            coolest temperature will be found near the floor and the warmest 
            near the ceiling. The temperature of 70?F maintained near the 
            ceiling might be far from adequate for protection required. 
            Therefore, as mentioned earlier, the 1975 APHA-CDC Recommended 
            Ordinance specifies that temperature measurements for the 
            determination of compliance with requirements be made at a level 
            approximately 36 inches from the floor. This ensures that children, 
            even the younger children who are most active, are in an area where 
            the temperature is sufficiently warm to give them the protection 
            they need. It also assures the less active adults a location in an 
            area where the temperatures are at a desirable level.C  Natural 
            LightMost municipalities 
            require at least one window or skylight facing directly to the 
            outdoors for every habitable room. They are also in general 
            agreement that this window area or skylight area be 10% of the total 
            floor area of the room. Note here that a window located less than 3 
            feet from an outside wall or other structure that extends above the 
            ceiling level of the room is not deemed to face directly to the 
            outdoors. A window that faces directly into a completely enclosed 
            court is counted as facing directly to the outdoors as long as the 
            court is greater than 3 feet in its least dimensions.Daylight should be 
            used as fully as possible in all buildings no matter how adequate 
            other forms of light may be. Satisfactory natural illumination 
            depends upon the intensity of daylight or sky brightness and the 
            amount, distribution, and quality of this light in a room. Natural 
            light is particularly important in low-income housing where 
            artificial lighting will be held to a minimum. Light is important in 
            showing up dirt and thus leads to more cleanliness within the home. 
            The bactericidal effect of light transmitted through glass is 
            questionable. The bright, naturally lit room is, however, certainly 
            more conductive to healthy mental attitudes than a dim. dark room 
            lit only by artificial sources.In different parts 
            of the country different standards of window size are possible. For 
            instance in a sunny climate, such as that found in the southwestern 
            desert. a smaller window area would supply adequate illumination and 
            may be desirable to prevent excessive glare in a room. In a climate 
            in the northern part of the country. however 10% of the floor area 
            should be a minimum for window area in consideration of the reduced 
            amount of sunlight present. especially in the winter time.The lighting 
            requirements shall be deemed satisfactory if every habitable room 
            has one window facing directly to the outdoors and the total window 
            area in each habitable room is at least 10% of the floor area of 
            that room. In computing window areas no deduction is made for sashes 
            and trim used to hold the glass panes in place. If a skylight type 
            of window on the ceiling of the habitable room serves as the only 
            window in the room, the area of the horizontal projection of the 
            skylight should also be at least 10% of the total floor area of the 
            room. In a room with both a window and a skylight the total area of 
            both should be at least 10% of the floor area.D  
            Artificial LightIt is a common 
            requirement that every habitable room have two separate floor- or 
            wall-type convenience outlets or else one such convenience outlet 
            and one supplied ceiling-type electrical light fixture. It is also 
            required that public halls and stairways be sufficiently lighted at 
            all times in such a manner as to allow safe travel back and forth. 
            The 1975 APHA-CDC Recommended Ordinance states that every habitable 
            room and nonhabitable room used for food preparation shall have two 
            wall-type duplex electric convenience outlets or one such duplex 
            convenience outlet and one supplied wall or ceiling-type electric 
            light fixture. No duplex outlet shall serve more than two fixtures 
            or appliances.Every water closet 
            compartment, bathroom, kitchen or kitchenette, laundry room, furnace 
            room, and public hall shall contain at least one supplied ceiling or 
            wall-type electric light fixture. Convenient switches or equivalent 
            devices for turning on one light for each room or passageway shall 
            be located so as to permit the area ahead to be lighted.Every public hall 
            and stairway in a multiple dwelling shall be adequately lighted by 
            natural or electric light or both at all times so as to provide in 
            all parts at least 10 foot candles of light at the tread or floor 
            level. If the structure contains not more than two dwelling units 
            this light may be controlled by a switch and be turned on when 
            needed instead of being turned on full time.Electricity is as 
            essential to the modern home as heating or ventilation. It has long 
            replaced gas kerosene. and other utilities for lighting because it 
            is more economical and, when properly used, safer. It has, probably 
            more than any other single item, made practical the use of 
            labor-saving devices for household tasks and thereby promoted the 
            cleanliness of both the dwelling and the person.Since the 
            mid-1930's, electricity has been provided even to the most remote 
            areas. Individual electrical generating units are available for use 
            in places where industry or government has not provided electricity 
            to the homeowner. Only the most backward and most primitive areas of 
            this country are today without service of this utility. Certainly, 
            all metropolitan areas have electricity, and there is no reason why 
            this servant of mankind should not be available in the home.The 1975 "APHA-CDC 
            Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance" allows a 
            dwelling that is located more than 300 feet from the nearest 
            electrical source to be without this service; however, there are 
            very few dwellings left in the populated areas of this country that 
            do not have, within 300 feet, the lines of the local electric 
            utility.Although 
            electricity is a valuable servant, it can also be a severe safety 
            hazard. Among the most common faults in providing electrical service 
            is the furnishing of inadequate outlets. This results in overloading 
            of the lines, causing possible overheating of wires and fixtures and 
            subsequent fire hazards. Improperly installed facilities and outlets 
            furnish a fire hazard, as well as a safety hazard, particularly to 
            small children.When inadequate 
            outlets are provided there is a tendency, particularly among the 
            poorly educated, to connect many high-wattage items such as 
            toasters, irons, televisions, and other similar items to a single 
            outlet.Kitchen, living 
            rooms, and rooming units are most likely to contain several 
            electrical appliances in addition to the lighting fixtures. This is 
            not necessarily true in toilet rooms, laundry rooms, furnace rooms, 
            and public hallways. It is very important therefore, that rooms most 
            likely to have a large number of appliances be required to have an 
            adequate number of outlets in order to prevent overloading of 
            circuits and installation of amateurish and possibly hazardous 
            extension wiring.E  
            VentilationThe ordinance 
            requirement for the total openable window area in every habitable 
            room is 45 percent of the minimum window area except where an 
            approved mechanical means of ventilation is installed.Adequate 
            ventilation is essential in meeting many of the fundamental needs in 
            housing. Among these are the maintenance of a thermal environment 
            that will permit adequate heat loss from the human body, provision 
            of an atmosphere of reasonable chemical purity, and provision of 
            possibilities for esthetic satisfaction in the home and its 
            surroundings.The factors 
            controlling heat loss in the body are air temperature, mean radiant 
            temperature of surrounding surfaces, relative humidity, and air 
            movement. It is particularly important that cool, moving air be made 
            available in sleeping rooms since the impact of cool air is of great 
            value in promoting healthful sleep. Moreover, odors given off by the 
            body exert a definitely harmful influence on appetite and therefore 
            upon health. There can be no doubt that the well-ventilated home, 
            like the well illuminated home, is more conducive to healthful 
            mental attitudes than a poorly ventilated or poorly illuminated 
            home.Every bathroom and 
            toilet room should comply with the housing ordinance's light and 
            ventilation requirements for habitable rooms except that windows or 
            skylights should not be required if the ventilation system is 
            adequate. Many codes state that mechanical means must provide at 
            least two to six changes of air per hour.As has been 
            previously mentioned, light promotes cleanliness. This is 
            particularly important in bathrooms and toilet rooms, where 
            cleanliness is essential to sanitation and proper attitudes are 
            essential to cleanliness. Ventilation is also necessary in these 
            rooms because they are subject to a high concentration of body odors 
            and humidity. Since these rooms are frequently located, for 
            economical construction reasons, within the inner part of the 
            structure and away from the exterior walls, windows and skylights 
            are not always practical. The provision of artificial light sources 
            and mechanical ventilation will, therefore, accomplish the basic 
            purposes of light and ventilation requirements and at the same time 
            meet practical standards of construction .F  Space 
            and OccupancyThe maximum density 
            of occupancy for any dwelling unit has been set by the APHA-CDC 
            Ordinance at 150 square feet of total habitable room area for the 
            first occupant and 100 square feet of floor space for every 
            additional occupant, with the floor space calculated on the basis of 
            total habitable room area. The ordinance further requires that the 
            total number of persons allowed may not be more than twice the 
            number of habitable rooms in the dwelling unit.If more than one 
            family plus two occupants unrelated to the families, not including 
            guests or domestic employees, are to occupy a dwelling unit, a 
            permit for a rooming house must be granted by the appropriate local 
            authority.The ceiling height 
            of any habitable room is set at a minimum of 7 feet except in rooms 
            under a sloping ceiling. In those instances at least one half of the 
            floor area must have a minimum ceiling height of 7 feet. The floor 
            area located under the portion of the room where the ceiling height 
            is less than 5 feet may not be used in computing total floor area of 
            the room when the maximum permissible ccupancy is being 
            determined.Space located up to 
            4 feet below the grade of the ground may not be used as a habitable 
            room unless approved by the appropriate authority in writing.In dwelling units 
            of two or more rooms, each sleeping room must contain at least 70 
            square feet of floor space for the first occupant, and at least 50 
            square feet of floor space for each additional occupant .Dwellings or 
            dwelling units containing two or more sleeping rooms must have a 
            room arrangement that permits access to the bathroom or water closet 
            without passage through another sleeping room.Other space 
            requirements state that each dwelling unit shall have at least 4 
            square feet of floor-to-ceiling-height closet space for the personal 
            effects of each permissible occupant. If this space is lacking, in 
            whole or in part, an amount of square footage equal to the space 
            deficiency shall be subtracted from the computed area of habitable 
            room space used in determining permissible occupancy.Overcrowding in 
            housing is one of the greatest contributing factors in the 
            transmission of diseases, particularly those of the respiratory 
            tract. In addition, crowding violates one of the basic maxims of 
            healthful housing-the need for privacy of the individual. Privacy in 
            the home and privacy in the use of sleeping bath, and toilet rooms 
            dictate that the user must be able to use these facilities without 
            violating the privacy of another person or without having his 
            privacy violated by another. Crowding makes proper cleansing and 
            maintenance difficult and less likely to be done.Rooms, to be 
            considered habitable, must be of a size sufficient for use by 
            normal-size people. Any room in which half the total floor area is 
            usable only with difficulty, in which the ceiling is too low, or in 
            which a person has problems moving around can hardly be considered 
            habitable.The use of 
            below-grade space as habitable rooms in dwelling units is allowed 
            basically to permit use of the so-called English Basement and Garden 
            Apartment, which would otherwise meet the code requirements, since 
            it conforms to the other provisions of the code for habitable rooms. 
            Obviously, any room that is extremely damp, dark, and poorly 
            ventilated would not be conducive to healthful occupancy by any 
            human being.G  
            Sanitation in the Control of Arthropods and RodentsThe presence of 
            vectors such as arthropods (flies, mosquitoes, fleas, cockroaches, 
            lice, mites, ticks, and bedbugs) and rodents (rats and mice) in a 
            house and its premises result from neglect of basic responsibilities 
            for cleanliness. Rodents and arthropods are vectors of disease and 
            cause injury to humans. In many cases, rats and mice, or insects and 
            other arthropods may not necessarily pose an immediate disease 
            threat. They are often present in such numbers or in such places as 
            to limit the enjoyment and utilization of our environment. In this 
            sense, they are pests disturbing the well-being of man and 
            inspection and control programs are justified on this basis alone. 
            Food, harborage, and water, which are life essentials for arthropods 
            and rodents, occur frequently in and around all types of buildings 
            whenever these vectors prevail. Their numbers increase rapidly as 
            standards of cleanliness and maintenance decline. Substandard 
            residential housing and commercial establishments produce and 
            maintain greater and more widespread vector populations than well 
            kept, clean residential and commercial areas. Lack of knowledge, 
            carelessness, and indifference are usually the basic reasons for 
            such conditions.Although pesticides 
            (insecticides and rodenticides) may produce temporary pest 
            reduction, only permanent techniques such as sanitation and pest 
            proofing bring about long-term control. Sanitation includes storage, 
            collection, and disposal of refuse, together with premises 
            maintenance and the proper storage of products and materials. It is 
            important that all building, housing, and other related codes and 
            ordinances include adequate provisions for control of pests and 
            correction of conditions conducive to their proliferation. When a 
            building, structure, or dwelling becomes infested, inspection and 
            control measures are required. Inspection reports should list 
            violations found and call for initial extermination and continued 
            control. The causative conditions for the presence of pests must 
            also be corrected by the responsible Persons.The housing 
            inspector should be able to identify correctly the various 
            arthropods and rodents that infest a house and its premises. It is 
            important to know the habits and characteristics of common household 
            pests and be able to inform the public about the importance of their 
            elimination and control .Domestic Rats 
              and Mice
              Rodent problems 
              are common to most urban areas in the United States and most 
              severe in areas of substandard housing and urban blight.Rats and mice are 
              responsible for spread of a number of diseases, either directly, 
              as by contamination of human food with their urine or feces, or 
              indirectly by way of fleas and mites. The more common rodent-borne 
              diseases are rat-bite fever, leptrospirosis, salmonellosis, 
              trichinosis, murine typhus fever, and plague. Rickettsialpox is 
              transmitted from the house mouse to man by the bite of the mouse 
              mite. Rat bite, a public health problem, is associated with heavy 
              urbanization, occurring primarily in lower economic areas 
              exhibiting substandard housing, crowding, and poor sanitation. 
              Rats consume or contaminate large quantities of food and feed, and 
              destroy other property, as when they cause fires by gnawing the 
              insulation from electric wires.The Norway rat is 
              the most common rat found in the United States and is closely 
              associated with man and buildings and is most dependent on him. 
              This rat weighs 16 or more ounces, is heavy-set with blunt muzzle 
              has small close set ears, and its tail is shorter than body and 
              head combined. Its fur is coarse, generally reddish brown to 
              grayish brown.The house mouse 
              is the smallest of domestic rodents, weighing one half to three 
              fourths in ounces, with small slender body, moderately large 
              prominent ears, and semi-naked tail about as long as the body and 
              head combined. Its fur is dusty gray.Control of rats 
              and mice requires (a) sanitation to eliminate their 
              food and harborage, (b) effective rodent proofing, 
              and (c) efficient supplemental killing 
              programs.Information about 
              habits and characteristics of rodents and inspection and control 
              techniques may be found in the following publications of the U.S. 
              Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health 
              Service, Center for Disease Control: "Control of Domestic Rats and 
              Mice," "Biological Factors in Domestic Rodent Control," 
              "Rodent-borne Disease Control Through Rodent Stoppage," "Urban Rat 
              Surveys," and the "APHA-CDC Recommended Housing Maintenance and 
              Occupancy Ordinance ."
              Arthropods
              The housing 
              inspector should be able to identify correctly arthropods that are 
              common household pests. It is also important for him to recognize 
              these pests so that he can give the owner or occupant accurate 
              instructions on appropriate control measures. Such household pests 
              include:a   
              Fleas-Unlike most blood-sucking insects, fleas feed at 
              frequent intervals. They do not remain on one host, but feed 
              temporarily, and transfer to several other hosts which may be of 
              entirely different species. The dog flea will feed on man as well 
              as on dogs and cats. For this reason, and the fact that fleas 
              insert their mouth parts to suck blood, they are particularly 
              prone to transmit pathogenic organisms. The frequent biting is due 
              to the fact that fleas are very easily disturbed while feeding and 
              seldom complete a meal at one time. Some species of fleas are 
              involved in the transmission of plague, endemic typhyus, 
              salmonella typhimurium, and undulant fever. In addition, fleas are 
              intermediate hosts of helminths such as dog tapeworm and dwarf 
              tapeworm.
              b   
              Fly - The house fly and many of its relatives are common 
              agents in the mechanical transmission of certain infections which 
              are often grouped under the term, "fly-borne diseases." The mouth 
              parts, the numerous body spines, and the sticky pads on the feet 
              have been found to carry a large number of different pathogens 
              causing human disease. Some of these pathogens may pass unaltered 
              through the digestive tract and may remain viable in the feces 
              Among the pathogens carried mechanically by the house fly are 
              those causing typhoid fever, cholera, bacillary and amebic 
              dysentery, tuberculosis, tetanus, and anthrax.From the disease 
              viewpoint, it should be emphasized that from feeding on excrement, 
              sputum, open sores, or putrefying matter, the flies may quickly 
              pass to food and milk, to mucous membranes or to uncontaminated 
              wounds. It is these habits that make this fly and related forms 
              such efficient mechanical vectors of disease.When feeding, the 
              fly frequently moistens substances with a "vomit drop" which is 
              regurgitated from the crop. This vomit drop may be teeming with 
              typhoid and cholera bacilli, or with organisms causing amebic or 
              bacillary dysentery which are thus transferred to food and 
              milk.
              c   
              Bedbugs-A heavily infested house has a distinctive odor. 
              Some people are very sensitive to bedbug bites, while others are 
              hardly aware of them. This insect has not been incriminated in the 
              transmission of any communicable disease. Bedbugs may cause 
              nervous disorders in sensitive people, and may contribute to the 
              ill health of both children and adults. Although bedbugs will feed 
              readily on poultry, mice, rats, and other animals, the preferred 
              host is man. 
              d   
              Cockroach - Cockroaches have become well adjusted to living 
              with man. They harbor in the cracks and crevices provided by human 
              building methods. They subsist on the bits of food man scatters 
              where he lives or travels. Cockroaches have been reported nibbling 
              on the eyelashes, fingernails, and toenails of sleeping children. 
              They impart an unsavory odor and taste into food they infest. They 
              carry the organisms causing enteric diseases (diarrhea, dysentery, 
              typhoid, food poisoning) from sewers and garbage cans to the food 
              of man and have been found naturally infected with many other 
              pathogens. 
              (1)American Cockroach - This roach is capable of flights of a 
              gliding nature. It is found in alleyways, yards, sewerage systems, 
              and trees. It frequently enters buildings under doorways. It 
              prefers warm resting places such as steam tunnels and basements 
              during the winter months, and causes damage to book bindings, 
              manuscripts, clothing, glossy paper with starch sizing, and labels 
              from bottles. It is often trapped in vessels containing beer, 
              syrup, or sweetened drinks. It is reddish to dark brown in color. 
              The adults are about 1? to 2 inches long. 
              
              (2)Australian Cockroach - is reddish to dark brown with yellow 
              markings and streaks. The adult is about 1 inch long. They are 
              usually found in warm damp places in or out of doors. 
              
              (3)Brown-Banded Cockroach - is yellowish or reddish brown in 
              color and the fertile eggs often show greenish through the walls. 
              It is difficult to control because it does not confine its 
              activities to the kitchen, bathroom, and pantry, but is found 
              throughout the house. 
              
              (4) 
               German Cockroach - is probably the most common 
              cockroach found in restaurants. It is sometimes called the "croton 
              bug." This pest enters the home with bottled drinks, potatoes, 
              onions, other foods, and furniture.e  Ticks-All 
            ticks are parasitic during some period of their lives. They are 
            annoying pests, and in addition, they are transmitters of the 
            causative agents of many diseases. Their bites are irritating, and 
            often when they are removed forcibly, the mouth parts remain in the 
            skin, resulting in infection causing ulceration or septicemia. Ticks 
            are responsible for transmitting Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever 

            f 
             Mites - As a group these arachnids are free living, but 
            many are parasitic. The parasitic forms produce a mild to severe 
            dermatitis, often followed by allergic reactions. Some mites are the 
            etiological agents of mange and scabies of man and animals.g  Lice 
            - Lice do not leave the host or host's clothing voluntarily but only 
            when they are accidentally dislodged. They are mainly disseminated 
            by physical contact with infested persons or their clothing. The 
            bite of the head and body louse provokes rosy swellings and, coupled 
            with the ensuing scratching, produces the characteristic scarring 
            and bronzing of the skin referred to as "vagabond's disease."Murine typhus can 
            be transmitted from man to man by the body louse.h 
             Mosquito - Mosquitoes are known transmitters of 
            encephalitis, malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and other 
            diseases. Of all the insects that jeopardize the health of man, 
            mosquitoes rank first. Not only do they transmit disease, but they 
            occur in such numbers that they cause great annoyance. Pest 
            mosquitoes affect the comfort and efficiency of man through severe 
            annoyance, itching bites, loss of sleep, and nervousness.i  
            Termites - Termites are a key factor in the deterioration of 
            housing in many parts of the United States as well as elsewhere in 
            the world. Housing quality, one of the basic factors in public 
            health, is often used as a general index of community health. For 
            these reasons, public health workers should have a general knowledge 
            of these pests.Termites may be 
            grouped into three types based upon the type of damage they 
            do:(1) wet wood 
            termites damage living trees and are of relatively minor 
            importance in most areas;(2)dry wood 
            termites establish colonies in cured wood and, while rare, may 
            be a problem in museums and storage warehouses;(3)subterranean 
            termites attack wood from colonies established in the soil and 
            are the ones of the greatest economic importance. These are very 
            sensitive to moisture conditions; and, although they may feed on 
            wood. they must leave it and return to the soil every few hours for 
            moisture. Ordinarily they attack only wood that is in contact with 
            the soil, but they can build cellulose tunnels through which they 
            can climb to attack wood above ground level.It is often 
            difficult to assess the extent of termite damage or to ascertain 
            that complete control has been achieved.Information about 
            these pests and inspection and control techniques may be found in 
            the following U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 
            Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control publications: 
            "Introduction to Arthropods of Public Health Importance," 
            "Sanitation in the Control of Insects and Rodents of Public Health 
            Importance," "Household and Stored-food Insects of Public Health 
            Importance and Their Control."H. 
             Childhood Lead Poisoning and Housing InspectionChildhood lead 
            poisoning is a disease of the environment-including the housing 
            environment. The major lead source for children is lead contained in 
            paint. In the past, paint containing significant amounts of lead was 
            used extensively on interiors of dwelling units. Lead is still used 
            in exterior paint in many sections of the country. As these dwelling 
            units deteriorate and fall into disrepair, the leaded paint peels, 
            flakes, and chips off of many painted surfaces. The paint is then 
            accessible to small children who will chew and mouth non-food items 
            such as window sills, door facings, and paint chips.If a child is 
            identified with undue lead absorption, the housing inspector's role 
            in the prevention of lead poisoning is identifying the most probable 
            lead hazard in that child's environment. This hazard is often leaded 
            paint. The housing inspector must educate the occupants to this 
            danger and ensure that appropriate hazard reduction occurs.Childhood lead 
            poisoning from ingestion of leaded paint is a disease whose 
            eradication could be accomplished by removing its cause - leaded 
            paint. There are, however, over 30 million dwelling units in the 
            United States containing lead-based paint.1Determination of Lead in the Housing Environment
            The method of 
            choice for identification of lead paint hazards in the field is the 
            portable x-ray fluorescence analyzer. These instruments have: gained 
            wide acceptance for making quantitative measurements quickly and 
            reliably on painted surfaces for lead content down to a level of 0.5 
            mg/cm2. While this level may be hazardous if ingested 
            repeatedly, a lower level lead in paint is difficult to identify 
            because of limits on instrument technology applicable to field use. 
            Developmental work is being carried out which will allow 
            quantitative measurement of levels below 0.5 
            mg/cm2.As a supplement to 
            x-ray fluorescent determinations, paint scrapings and loose chips 
            may be collected for chemical analysis in the laboratory. In sample 
            collection, it is important to obtain only paint for an accurate 
            analysis.Interpreting values 
            obtained by x-ray fluorescence and wet chemistry on the same sample 
            is difficult since the two methods are not directly comparable. The 
            x-ray fluorescence instruments measure the total amount of lead 
            present per unit area while the chemical test measures the amount of 
            lead by weight of the sample tested. If even a small amount of 
            underlying substrate is present in the sample, the chemical test 
            will give false low values.2  
            Initiating ActionDecisions concerning actions to be taken to control 
            the sources of lead available to children must be in accordance with 
            appropriate ordinances and codes. Highest priority should be given 
            to eliminating paint hazards where children with undue lead 
            absorption **[Footnote 
            #1]** reside or frequently visit. The availability 
            and condition of the painted surfaces, and the amount of lead 
            contained in the paint are also primary reasons for action.3  Hazard 
            Abatement TechniquesHazard abatement 
            activities may vary with the condition of the dwelling. Sometimes 
            complete renovation is necessary while in other circumstances the 
            occupant may be able to minimize the hazard with simple methods. 
            Wire brushing loose paints from the walls and sweeping up paint 
            chips from the floor may be all that is necessary to prevent further 
            accumulation of lead in a child with a low level of lead 
            absorption.If the lead hazard 
            requires major action, two alternative approaches are available. The 
            leaded paint can be removed or a protective barrier can be placed 
            over the leaded paint.a Paint 
            RemovalThere are several 
            methods of paint removal in current use:These 
            include:(1)  Chemical paint removers(2)  Sanding 
            and scraping(3)  Heating to soften(4)  Combination 
            of aboveWhen using any of 
            the above-procedures, care must be exercised to ensure that workmen 
            use approved protective equipment and/or adequate ventilation to 
            prevent inhaling lead dust or vapors. Children and other household 
            members must also be protected or removed from exposure. Toxic lead 
            fumes occurring when paint is overheated are especially dangerous. 
            Proper attention must be given to disposal of leaded paint removed 
            from the dwelling.b Principles of Shielding
            The basic principle 
            of shielding is to isolate leaded surfaces so that a child cannot 
            get to those surfaces. There are seven characteristics of an ideal 
            shielding material:
            Scrape-proof and 
              puncture-proof by a child.vermin-proof.relatively fire 
              resistant or have a high ignition temperature.not release 
              toxic or noxious gases or vapors at high temperatures or upon 
              ignition.not place any 
              appreciable additional load or stress on the existing structure of 
              the building.easy to install 
              with reasonable installation costs (materials and 
              labor).have a low 
              maintenance cost.Flat Surface Covering 
            Materials
            Five different flat 
            surface covering materials have been used in shielding leaded 
            surfaces. These materials include the following:gypsum 
              board-this material creates a new wall in front of the old; the 
              installation is relatively expensive and requires the use of 
              skilled labor.fiberglas wall 
              covering materials - this material requires removal of all loose 
              paint and plaster before application; some patching of wall 
              surface may be necessary; material comes in thin sheets of 
              approximately 40 inches in width; an adhesive compound is 
              needed.paper wall 
              covering materials - usually made of heavy kraft paper which is 
              easy to paint over.vinyl coat 
              sheeting - must be applied with a special adhesive; is the least 
              combustible of the plastic materials which may be used for this 
              purpose, but upon ignition emits hydrochloric acid fumes and 
              vapors.plywood and 
              hardwood-this material is nailed directly to the wall studs; is 
              relatively easy to install.Liquid Covering 
            Materials 
            Some of the above 
            listed materials can be applied only to flat surfaces. In order to 
            find a material which will provide a shield over both flat and 
            curved surfaces, several liquid covering materials have been used, 
            but to date only a limited degree of success has been obtained. The 
            two liquid covering materials which have some use as a shield of 
            leaded surfaces are as follows:(1)  
              urethane-based paint - this material requires the removal of all 
              loose paint and plaster before application; repeated applications 
              may be needed; new surface may peel if old base paint is not 
              removed; should be considered only as a temporary or short-term 
              method, e.g., may be ideal in building scheduled for demolition 
              within a few years.
              (2)  
              pigmented masonry conditioner-this material requires the prior 
              removal of all flaking, peeling, and scaling paint: material has a 
              tung oil base which permits penetration into the base wall 
              material and provides effective shielding; several coats are 
              needed to obtain sufficient bonding of the surface 
              material.I  Sanitation: Water 
            Supply and Temperature
            Some housing codes 
            specify only that dwelling units have hot and cold water supply at 
            all times. Other codes, however, specify a minimum rate of flow for 
            hot and cold water of 1 gallon per minute from each fixture. The 
            temperature generally requested and accepted for hot water is a 
            minimum of 120?F at the outlet.J  
            Sanitation: Septic TanksThere are 17 
            million people in the United States who use septic tanks as a means 
            of sewage disposal. It is important, therefore, for an inspector of 
            housing to have a basic understanding of their construction and 
            use.Before a septic 
            tank can be installed it must be determined that there is a correct 
            location for a disposal field. The best guide to future performance 
            is carefully prepared soil maps together with the experience with 
            each soil in a region. In the absence of such maps percolation tests 
            provide some guidance.The conventional 
            septic tank sewage and disposal system consists of two main parts-a 
            septic tank and an absorption field or seepage pit. The tank 
            settles, stores, and digests the solids (sludge and scum). As sewage 
            enters the tank, the heavier solids settle to the bottom and become 
            sludge, and the lighter particles, including grease, rise to the top 
            of the liquid and remain as scum. The organic matter contained in 
            both sludge and scum is decomposed by action of anaerobic bacteria 
            (the type of bacteria that thrive in absence of air). These bacteria 
            gain their life-processing oxygen by reducing complex organic 
            substances. Gases are vented to atmosphere, and liquids are 
            discharged to the disposal field.Digestive action by 
            the bacteria takes time, and so the tank must be of sufficient 
            capacity to store solids for the required time. As raw sewage enters 
            the tank, an equal amount of liquid effluent is discharged so that 
            the liquid level remains fairly constant. The tank inlet has a 
            baffle to divert the incoming sewage downward. An outlet baffle or 
            pipe fitting retains solids but allows discharge of liquid to the 
            absorption or disposal field. Recommended retention period of the 
            liquid ranges from 8 to 48 hours. In normal operation, scum and 
            sludge must be removed from the tank by mechanical means.Public Health 
            Service research has shown that two or more solids retention 
            compartment tanks are more efficient than one. Rectangular 
            compartment tanks are as good as any, and change in tank shapes to 
            oval, or others offers no special advantages. The flow from the 
            septic tank goes into the absorption field to allow liquid to be 
            dissipated in the soil.K  
            Sanitation: DrainageThe dangers of 
            puddles and pools of stagnant water can be great depending on the 
            location, the depth, and amount of the stagnant water. Stagnant 
            water, whether it be on the ground or in receptacles such as cans, 
            bottles, or rubber tires, can be a major health hazard in any area 
            of the country. Mosquitoes use these pools as breeding grounds. 
            Female mosquitoes lay their eggs in water, and the eggs hatch into a 
            larval stage. The larvae later change to a pupal stage and remain in 
            the water-filled container until they change into adult mosquitoes 
            and begin the fourth stage of their life cycle. It is in this fourth 
            or adult stage that mosquitoes can carry diseases to man. The 
            elimination of ponds, puddles, and other sources of stagnant water 
            is the best way of eliminating mosquito hazards. If the pond or pool 
            is large enough, it can also be a safety hazard for small children 
            who may stumble into the water and drown.Poor drainage may 
            create another hazard if electricity is nearby. The obvious danger 
            of being electrocuted exists when water and electricity are both 
            present. The inspector should always look for evidence of water near 
            the main fuse box in the house and for broken or frayed electrical 
            wires in the kitchen, bathroom, water closet compartment, or laundry 
            room.Excessive dampness 
            caused by puddles and other small bodies of stagnant water or 
            leaking plumbing fixtures can cause structural damage to a house. 
            The water itself can cause rotting of main structural members or can 
            offer the campground needed by subterranean termites for their 
            attack on wooden structures.L  
            Sanitation: Rubbish and Garbage StorageEvery occupant of a 
            dwelling must maintain the part of the dwelling unit that he 
            occupies and controls. The storage and disposal of rubbish and 
            garbage in a safe and sanitary manner is considered the 
            responsibility of the occupant insofar as the garbage and trash 
            is generated in his portion of the structure.It is the owner's 
            responsibility to see that arrangements are made by the tenant for 
            the adequate removal of this refuse.In a structure 
            containing three or more dwelling units it is also the owner's 
            responsibility to supply containers for the storage of refuse and to 
            make provisions for its safe and sanitary removal as often as is 
            necessary to maintain a sanitary structure.In the case of a 
            single- or two-family dwelling, it shall be the responsibility of 
            the occupant to furnish facilities or containers. This does not 
            preclude any agreement, whether written or oral, between owner and 
            occupant for other types of disposal practices; however, any other 
            type of disposal practice must be safe and sanitary. As previously 
            stated, avoiding the attraction of insects and rodents is essential 
            to the public health. Refuse furnishes food and harboring places for 
            rodents and tends to attract them to areas where they have not 
            previously been present. The same is true of insects. The 
            requirement that the proper facilities for the storage of rubbish be 
            provided is to fix responsibility for maintenance and use of these 
            facilities with a particular party whether it be the owner or the 
            occupant of the dwelling. In the case of single-family or two-family 
            dwellings, it is possible for the appropriate department to fix the 
            responsibility for improper use and maintenance of rubbish storage 
            facilities. Such is not the case, however, for multiple-family 
            dwellings, and the responsibility for this use is therefore placed 
            on the owner or operator.M  
            Sanitation: Kitchen FacilitiesAll kitchens or 
            kitchenettes should contain a kitchen sink, cabinets or shelves (or 
            both), a stove, and a refrigerator. Without these items the unit is 
            not a dwelling unit but a rooming unit. If one of these items is 
            missing, the health of the occupants is in jeopardy because of poor 
            food sanitation. The kitchen sink should be an approved type and not 
            a hand-washing sink. It should be large enough to hold a reasonably 
            sized dish or pot. The sink should be connected to the hot- and 
            cold-water systems. It is preferable, but not mandatory, to have a 
            mixing faucet for safety reasons. The drain should be connected to 
            the waste line and should include a trap. If the local plumbing code 
            calls for a grease trap, it should be installed.The purpose of a 
            kitchen sink is the correct washing of dishes used in preparing-and 
            consuming meals. The diseases that can be caused by improperly 
            washed dishes include food poisoning by salmonellae, shigellae, and 
            staphylococci.All kitchens should 
            be supplied with adequate cabinets or shelves for the storage of 
            eating, drinking, and cooking equipment. These may also be used to 
            store foodstuffs that do not require refrigeration. It is important 
            that newly cleaned eating and cooking equipment be stored on a clean 
            surface so that contamination does not occur.A stove or similar 
            device for cooking food is necessary for maintaining adequate 
            nutrition of-the inhabitants. A diet of only cold food soon becomes 
            boring and of doubtful nutritional value. Additionally, some foods 
            need to be cooked to provide safety from parasites and pathogens. A 
            refrigerator or similar device for storing food is also required in 
            all kitchens. The refrigerator should be capable of storing food at 
            temperatures between 32?F and 45?F under ordinary maximum summer 
            conditions. An ice box would not meet the requirements, because it 
            cannot keep the temperature below 45?F at all times during the 
            summer. A freezer compartment is not necessary in this refrigerator, 
            but it is always desirable because of the large amount of frozen 
            foods now on the market. The purpose of a refrigerator is to protect 
            the occupants of a dwelling unit from illness caused by improperly 
            stored food. An economic factor is also involved since it is more 
            expensive to buy food for one meal at a time.III.  Inspection Procedures
            A Although 
            inspection procedures vary from city to city, there are several 
            common items that the inspector can and should check. These 
            include:Rodents - Rats 
              and mice are habitually nocturnal and secretive and are rarely 
              seen during the day except when infestations are heavy. Therefore, 
              it is necessary to interpret signs of their activities properly in 
              order to plan control work. These signs are found in secluded 
              places, such as along walls, under piles of rubbish, and behind or 
              under boxes, boards, and thick vegetation. From the rodent signs, 
              one can tell the species present, and whether a rodent infestation 
              is current or old, heavy or light. The following are the most 
              common rat signs: droppings, runways, rubmarks, burrows, gnawing, 
              and tracks.Roaches- An 
              experienced inspector can frequently detect roaches by their oily 
              odor and by the obvious smell of commercial repellants used by 
              home-owners. Roaches are more commonly found in the kitchen and in 
              the bathroom. Check drawers and cabinets and, also, check trash 
              cans and open garbage bags; usually they are very active in and 
              near the food sources.Bedbugs-In 
              touring a house, notice bed linens and blankets and be alert to 
              urine odor. Blood spots on the linen are typical signs of bedbug 
              activity. Bedbugs have a distinctive odor. If children are at home 
              when you call, casually observe the younger ones for bites on face 
              and arms.In general, look 
              for rubbish, garbage, and food leavings in or on sinks or strewn 
              on floors. Observe any domestic animal beds or 
              droppings.Lifting, 
              peeling, or flaking paint should be ordered removed, and the place 
              should be repainted with lead-free paint to prevent possible lead 
              poisoning to children.Cracked and 
              broken floor covering provides a nest for household pests. It 
              should be ordered removed, the floor should be cleaned, and new 
              covering put down. Kitchen and bathroom floor coverings should be 
              impervious to water.Cracks around 
              bathtubs, in toilets, or in sinks are also 
              unsanitary.Back siphonage 
              possibilities should be checked thoroughly. Make sure there is a 
              proper air gap between the spill rim of basin, sink, or tub and 
              the lowest point of the faucet.Make sure 
              kitchens are equipped with approved garbage containers with 
              tight-fitting lids.Refuse storage 
              facilities should include enough containers to hold all garbage 
              and rubbish that normally accumulates between collection days. A 
              good refuse container should be rust resistant, water-tight, 
              tightly covered, easy to clean, easily handled by one man, of 
              rat-anddamage-resistant construction (heavy duty), and constructed 
              with a recessed bottom.Keep alert for 
              evidence of coal gas, sewer gas, and escaping cooking 
              gas.Order all 
              unvented home space heaters removed in your 
              presence.Check legality 
              of any community kitchens you may find, since they are often a 
              source of disease.Check all 
              windows for proper screening, where required, during the period 
              called for in your code.B  The 
            inspector will also find that there are other items he should check, 
            and that, when these conditions are found, they should be referred 
            to the appropriate local authority. These include:
            Reports by 
              occupant of bites by rodents, roaches, or 
              bedbugs.Broken sewage 
              disposal lines, also referred to as sanitary waste-water 
              lines.Stopped-up 
              toilets.Accumulation of 
              weeds, garbage, or trash on premises.Any obvious 
              rashes or sores on occupants.Although he is empowered to 
            and should order corrective action on most, if not all, of these 
            problems, he should also refer these sources or evidences of disease 
            to the health agency.
            C  
            Appropriate ToolsThe inspector 
            should always carry a flashlight, thermometer, and a measuring tape. 
            Moreover, when infestation is present, it would also be well for him 
            to carry repellant so that he does not transport pests. Other 
            equipment will be carried according to local department 
            requirements.D  
            ReminderIn carrying out the 
            health and sanitary aspects of housing inspections, the inspectors 
            must keep in mind that responsibility is there for them to assume. 
            They cannot do "just their jobs." They must do the "extra" that puts 
            them above an automaton and raises them to the class of dedicated, 
            trained guardians of public health, safety, and 
            welfare.[1]Additional information on undue lead absorption, see CDC 
            Statement. Increased Lead Absorption and Lead Poisoning in Young 
            Children." March 1975.Return 
            to Paragraph****Table 
            of Contents | Acknowledgements 
            | Foreword 
            | Chapter1 
            | Chapter 
            2Chapter 
            3 | Chapter 
            4 | Chapter 
            5 | Chapter 
            6 | Chapter 
            7Chapter 
            8 | Chapter 
            9 | Chapter 
            10 | Chapter 
            11 |                                                           | **Chapter 3: Health and Sanitary 
            Elements of A Housing Inspection** |                                                                                             | **Table of 
            Contents** |            |         | I.  Background 
            Factors |                          |              | II.  Major Health and 
            Sanitary Factors |                                   |                 | III.  Inspection 
            Procedures |                                                           | **I.   Background Factors**
            Benjamin Franklin 
            said "Sir I respectfully submit that we can give advice but we 
            cannot give conduct."In dealing with 
            public we must give to our fullest capacity. Sometimes what we 
            believe are frustrations peculiar to inspectors of housing are 
            actually the same frustrations experienced by inspectors in many 
            other fields. In fielding with the public, it is our duty to perform 
            officially, teach where possible, and use the big stick only when 
            necessary. Our manner must be forth-right and that of a tutored 
            professional. A housing inspector is the key person in a local 
            housing hygiene program since he is the local representative dealing 
            with the grass roots problems. Unless the inspector is a sanitarian, 
            he is not prepared or expected to function as a sanitarian. There 
            must, however, be a rapport between the housing inspector and the 
            sanitarian to achieve the united action that will result in the 
            achievement of greater health, safety, and welfare of the community. 
            This is brought about by joint and supporting actions of the housing 
            inspector brings him into contact with health problems more ofter 
            than the work of the average sanitarian does. If both parties wish 
            to do their respective jobs well, then they should develop an 
            arrangement of mutual support and assistance.**II.   Major Health and Sanitary 
            Factors**
            A comprehensive 
            housing ordinance or code includes minimum requirements for adequate 
            heat, light, ventilation, sanitation, space, and occupancy. Various 
            studies have provided evidence of the relaitionship between 
            unsanitary conditions, overcrowding, inadequate heat, light, and 
            ventilation and health problems such as the tranmission of various 
            diseases and infections. Studies to evaluate the effects of 
            conditions within man's living environment upon his mental health 
            and emotional stability are being undertaken by the U.S. Public 
            Health Service. Within all comprehensive housing ordinances, there 
            are appropriate standards for the important health and sanitation 
            factors.A  
            HeatMinumum inside 
            heating temperatures vary little throughout the country except for 
            the marked difference between the localities with very mild or very 
            cold climates. Some state and local housing codes have set 70?F as 
            the minimum standard. They vary, however, on the outside temperature 
            that must prevail before the inside statdard of 70?F must be met. 
            The 1975 "APHA-CDC Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy 
            Ordinance," for example, required it to be maintained under 
            ordianry minimum winter conditions. Of necessity, therefore, 
            you must be guided by your local code for quantitative standards. If 
            there are no quantitative standards in your local code, Table No. 1 
            in Chapter 26 of the "American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, 
            and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Handbook of Fundamentals", 
            gives minimum design temperatures for different areas of the country 
            under winter conditions. The publication is readily available from 
            most public libraries.The "APHA-CDC 
            Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance" states that 
            a temperature of at least 68?F at a distance of 36 inches above the 
            floor level should exist. ASHRAE states that the temperature should 
            be measured at the breathing line 5 feet above the floor or at the 
            seating level 30 inches above the floor in a location where the 
            temperature-sensing device is not exposed to a condition of abnormal 
            heat gain or heat loss. Local code requirements should, however, 
            prevail. If the local code does not give a specific statement, any 
            of the previously mentioned methods may be used, but every housing 
            inspector in the community should measure the temperature the same 
            way.B  Thermal 
            EnvironmentOne of the basic 
            requirements in healthful housing is maintenence of a thermal 
            environment that will avoid undue heat loss from the human body. 
            Heat loss results in lowered resistance, particularly to respitory 
            tract infections, and to some extent all other infections.Room temperatures 
            vary considerably from floor to ceiling. Since hot air rises, the 
            coolest temperature will be found near the floor and the warmest 
            near the ceiling. The temperature of 70?F maintained near the 
            ceiling might be far from adequate for protection required. 
            Therefore, as mentioned earlier, the 1975 APHA-CDC Recommended 
            Ordinance specifies that temperature measurements for the 
            determination of compliance with requirements be made at a level 
            approximately 36 inches from the floor. This ensures that children, 
            even the younger children who are most active, are in an area where 
            the temperature is sufficiently warm to give them the protection 
            they need. It also assures the less active adults a location in an 
            area where the temperatures are at a desirable level.C  Natural 
            LightMost municipalities 
            require at least one window or skylight facing directly to the 
            outdoors for every habitable room. They are also in general 
            agreement that this window area or skylight area be 10% of the total 
            floor area of the room. Note here that a window located less than 3 
            feet from an outside wall or other structure that extends above the 
            ceiling level of the room is not deemed to face directly to the 
            outdoors. A window that faces directly into a completely enclosed 
            court is counted as facing directly to the outdoors as long as the 
            court is greater than 3 feet in its least dimensions.Daylight should be 
            used as fully as possible in all buildings no matter how adequate 
            other forms of light may be. Satisfactory natural illumination 
            depends upon the intensity of daylight or sky brightness and the 
            amount, distribution, and quality of this light in a room. Natural 
            light is particularly important in low-income housing where 
            artificial lighting will be held to a minimum. Light is important in 
            showing up dirt and thus leads to more cleanliness within the home. 
            The bactericidal effect of light transmitted through glass is 
            questionable. The bright, naturally lit room is, however, certainly 
            more conductive to healthy mental attitudes than a dim. dark room 
            lit only by artificial sources.In different parts 
            of the country different standards of window size are possible. For 
            instance in a sunny climate, such as that found in the southwestern 
            desert. a smaller window area would supply adequate illumination and 
            may be desirable to prevent excessive glare in a room. In a climate 
            in the northern part of the country. however 10% of the floor area 
            should be a minimum for window area in consideration of the reduced 
            amount of sunlight present. especially in the winter time.The lighting 
            requirements shall be deemed satisfactory if every habitable room 
            has one window facing directly to the outdoors and the total window 
            area in each habitable room is at least 10% of the floor area of 
            that room. In computing window areas no deduction is made for sashes 
            and trim used to hold the glass panes in place. If a skylight type 
            of window on the ceiling of the habitable room serves as the only 
            window in the room, the area of the horizontal projection of the 
            skylight should also be at least 10% of the total floor area of the 
            room. In a room with both a window and a skylight the total area of 
            both should be at least 10% of the floor area.D  
            Artificial LightIt is a common 
            requirement that every habitable room have two separate floor- or 
            wall-type convenience outlets or else one such convenience outlet 
            and one supplied ceiling-type electrical light fixture. It is also 
            required that public halls and stairways be sufficiently lighted at 
            all times in such a manner as to allow safe travel back and forth. 
            The 1975 APHA-CDC Recommended Ordinance states that every habitable 
            room and nonhabitable room used for food preparation shall have two 
            wall-type duplex electric convenience outlets or one such duplex 
            convenience outlet and one supplied wall or ceiling-type electric 
            light fixture. No duplex outlet shall serve more than two fixtures 
            or appliances.Every water closet 
            compartment, bathroom, kitchen or kitchenette, laundry room, furnace 
            room, and public hall shall contain at least one supplied ceiling or 
            wall-type electric light fixture. Convenient switches or equivalent 
            devices for turning on one light for each room or passageway shall 
            be located so as to permit the area ahead to be lighted.Every public hall 
            and stairway in a multiple dwelling shall be adequately lighted by 
            natural or electric light or both at all times so as to provide in 
            all parts at least 10 foot candles of light at the tread or floor 
            level. If the structure contains not more than two dwelling units 
            this light may be controlled by a switch and be turned on when 
            needed instead of being turned on full time.Electricity is as 
            essential to the modern home as heating or ventilation. It has long 
            replaced gas kerosene. and other utilities for lighting because it 
            is more economical and, when properly used, safer. It has, probably 
            more than any other single item, made practical the use of 
            labor-saving devices for household tasks and thereby promoted the 
            cleanliness of both the dwelling and the person.Since the 
            mid-1930's, electricity has been provided even to the most remote 
            areas. Individual electrical generating units are available for use 
            in places where industry or government has not provided electricity 
            to the homeowner. Only the most backward and most primitive areas of 
            this country are today without service of this utility. Certainly, 
            all metropolitan areas have electricity, and there is no reason why 
            this servant of mankind should not be available in the home.The 1975 "APHA-CDC 
            Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance" allows a 
            dwelling that is located more than 300 feet from the nearest 
            electrical source to be without this service; however, there are 
            very few dwellings left in the populated areas of this country that 
            do not have, within 300 feet, the lines of the local electric 
            utility.Although 
            electricity is a valuable servant, it can also be a severe safety 
            hazard. Among the most common faults in providing electrical service 
            is the furnishing of inadequate outlets. This results in overloading 
            of the lines, causing possible overheating of wires and fixtures and 
            subsequent fire hazards. Improperly installed facilities and outlets 
            furnish a fire hazard, as well as a safety hazard, particularly to 
            small children.When inadequate 
            outlets are provided there is a tendency, particularly among the 
            poorly educated, to connect many high-wattage items such as 
            toasters, irons, televisions, and other similar items to a single 
            outlet.Kitchen, living 
            rooms, and rooming units are most likely to contain several 
            electrical appliances in addition to the lighting fixtures. This is 
            not necessarily true in toilet rooms, laundry rooms, furnace rooms, 
            and public hallways. It is very important therefore, that rooms most 
            likely to have a large number of appliances be required to have an 
            adequate number of outlets in order to prevent overloading of 
            circuits and installation of amateurish and possibly hazardous 
            extension wiring.E  
            VentilationThe ordinance 
            requirement for the total openable window area in every habitable 
            room is 45 percent of the minimum window area except where an 
            approved mechanical means of ventilation is installed.Adequate 
            ventilation is essential in meeting many of the fundamental needs in 
            housing. Among these are the maintenance of a thermal environment 
            that will permit adequate heat loss from the human body, provision 
            of an atmosphere of reasonable chemical purity, and provision of 
            possibilities for esthetic satisfaction in the home and its 
            surroundings.The factors 
            controlling heat loss in the body are air temperature, mean radiant 
            temperature of surrounding surfaces, relative humidity, and air 
            movement. It is particularly important that cool, moving air be made 
            available in sleeping rooms since the impact of cool air is of great 
            value in promoting healthful sleep. Moreover, odors given off by the 
            body exert a definitely harmful influence on appetite and therefore 
            upon health. There can be no doubt that the well-ventilated home, 
            like the well illuminated home, is more conducive to healthful 
            mental attitudes than a poorly ventilated or poorly illuminated 
            home.Every bathroom and 
            toilet room should comply with the housing ordinance's light and 
            ventilation requirements for habitable rooms except that windows or 
            skylights should not be required if the ventilation system is 
            adequate. Many codes state that mechanical means must provide at 
            least two to six changes of air per hour.As has been 
            previously mentioned, light promotes cleanliness. This is 
            particularly important in bathrooms and toilet rooms, where 
            cleanliness is essential to sanitation and proper attitudes are 
            essential to cleanliness. Ventilation is also necessary in these 
            rooms because they are subject to a high concentration of body odors 
            and humidity. Since these rooms are frequently located, for 
            economical construction reasons, within the inner part of the 
            structure and away from the exterior walls, windows and skylights 
            are not always practical. The provision of artificial light sources 
            and mechanical ventilation will, therefore, accomplish the basic 
            purposes of light and ventilation requirements and at the same time 
            meet practical standards of construction .F  Space 
            and OccupancyThe maximum density 
            of occupancy for any dwelling unit has been set by the APHA-CDC 
            Ordinance at 150 square feet of total habitable room area for the 
            first occupant and 100 square feet of floor space for every 
            additional occupant, with the floor space calculated on the basis of 
            total habitable room area. The ordinance further requires that the 
            total number of persons allowed may not be more than twice the 
            number of habitable rooms in the dwelling unit.If more than one 
            family plus two occupants unrelated to the families, not including 
            guests or domestic employees, are to occupy a dwelling unit, a 
            permit for a rooming house must be granted by the appropriate local 
            authority.The ceiling height 
            of any habitable room is set at a minimum of 7 feet except in rooms 
            under a sloping ceiling. In those instances at least one half of the 
            floor area must have a minimum ceiling height of 7 feet. The floor 
            area located under the portion of the room where the ceiling height 
            is less than 5 feet may not be used in computing total floor area of 
            the room when the maximum permissible ccupancy is being 
            determined.Space located up to 
            4 feet below the grade of the ground may not be used as a habitable 
            room unless approved by the appropriate authority in writing.In dwelling units 
            of two or more rooms, each sleeping room must contain at least 70 
            square feet of floor space for the first occupant, and at least 50 
            square feet of floor space for each additional occupant .Dwellings or 
            dwelling units containing two or more sleeping rooms must have a 
            room arrangement that permits access to the bathroom or water closet 
            without passage through another sleeping room.Other space 
            requirements state that each dwelling unit shall have at least 4 
            square feet of floor-to-ceiling-height closet space for the personal 
            effects of each permissible occupant. If this space is lacking, in 
            whole or in part, an amount of square footage equal to the space 
            deficiency shall be subtracted from the computed area of habitable 
            room space used in determining permissible occupancy.Overcrowding in 
            housing is one of the greatest contributing factors in the 
            transmission of diseases, particularly those of the respiratory 
            tract. In addition, crowding violates one of the basic maxims of 
            healthful housing-the need for privacy of the individual. Privacy in 
            the home and privacy in the use of sleeping bath, and toilet rooms 
            dictate that the user must be able to use these facilities without 
            violating the privacy of another person or without having his 
            privacy violated by another. Crowding makes proper cleansing and 
            maintenance difficult and less likely to be done.Rooms, to be 
            considered habitable, must be of a size sufficient for use by 
            normal-size people. Any room in which half the total floor area is 
            usable only with difficulty, in which the ceiling is too low, or in 
            which a person has problems moving around can hardly be considered 
            habitable.The use of 
            below-grade space as habitable rooms in dwelling units is allowed 
            basically to permit use of the so-called English Basement and Garden 
            Apartment, which would otherwise meet the code requirements, since 
            it conforms to the other provisions of the code for habitable rooms. 
            Obviously, any room that is extremely damp, dark, and poorly 
            ventilated would not be conducive to healthful occupancy by any 
            human being.G  
            Sanitation in the Control of Arthropods and RodentsThe presence of 
            vectors such as arthropods (flies, mosquitoes, fleas, cockroaches, 
            lice, mites, ticks, and bedbugs) and rodents (rats and mice) in a 
            house and its premises result from neglect of basic responsibilities 
            for cleanliness. Rodents and arthropods are vectors of disease and 
            cause injury to humans. In many cases, rats and mice, or insects and 
            other arthropods may not necessarily pose an immediate disease 
            threat. They are often present in such numbers or in such places as 
            to limit the enjoyment and utilization of our environment. In this 
            sense, they are pests disturbing the well-being of man and 
            inspection and control programs are justified on this basis alone. 
            Food, harborage, and water, which are life essentials for arthropods 
            and rodents, occur frequently in and around all types of buildings 
            whenever these vectors prevail. Their numbers increase rapidly as 
            standards of cleanliness and maintenance decline. Substandard 
            residential housing and commercial establishments produce and 
            maintain greater and more widespread vector populations than well 
            kept, clean residential and commercial areas. Lack of knowledge, 
            carelessness, and indifference are usually the basic reasons for 
            such conditions.Although pesticides 
            (insecticides and rodenticides) may produce temporary pest 
            reduction, only permanent techniques such as sanitation and pest 
            proofing bring about long-term control. Sanitation includes storage, 
            collection, and disposal of refuse, together with premises 
            maintenance and the proper storage of products and materials. It is 
            important that all building, housing, and other related codes and 
            ordinances include adequate provisions for control of pests and 
            correction of conditions conducive to their proliferation. When a 
            building, structure, or dwelling becomes infested, inspection and 
            control measures are required. Inspection reports should list 
            violations found and call for initial extermination and continued 
            control. The causative conditions for the presence of pests must 
            also be corrected by the responsible Persons.The housing 
            inspector should be able to identify correctly the various 
            arthropods and rodents that infest a house and its premises. It is 
            important to know the habits and characteristics of common household 
            pests and be able to inform the public about the importance of their 
            elimination and control .Domestic Rats 
              and Mice
              Rodent problems 
              are common to most urban areas in the United States and most 
              severe in areas of substandard housing and urban blight.Rats and mice are 
              responsible for spread of a number of diseases, either directly, 
              as by contamination of human food with their urine or feces, or 
              indirectly by way of fleas and mites. The more common rodent-borne 
              diseases are rat-bite fever, leptrospirosis, salmonellosis, 
              trichinosis, murine typhus fever, and plague. Rickettsialpox is 
              transmitted from the house mouse to man by the bite of the mouse 
              mite. Rat bite, a public health problem, is associated with heavy 
              urbanization, occurring primarily in lower economic areas 
              exhibiting substandard housing, crowding, and poor sanitation. 
              Rats consume or contaminate large quantities of food and feed, and 
              destroy other property, as when they cause fires by gnawing the 
              insulation from electric wires.The Norway rat is 
              the most common rat found in the United States and is closely 
              associated with man and buildings and is most dependent on him. 
              This rat weighs 16 or more ounces, is heavy-set with blunt muzzle 
              has small close set ears, and its tail is shorter than body and 
              head combined. Its fur is coarse, generally reddish brown to 
              grayish brown.The house mouse 
              is the smallest of domestic rodents, weighing one half to three 
              fourths in ounces, with small slender body, moderately large 
              prominent ears, and semi-naked tail about as long as the body and 
              head combined. Its fur is dusty gray.Control of rats 
              and mice requires (a) sanitation to eliminate their 
              food and harborage, (b) effective rodent proofing, 
              and (c) efficient supplemental killing 
              programs.Information about 
              habits and characteristics of rodents and inspection and control 
              techniques may be found in the following publications of the U.S. 
              Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health 
              Service, Center for Disease Control: "Control of Domestic Rats and 
              Mice," "Biological Factors in Domestic Rodent Control," 
              "Rodent-borne Disease Control Through Rodent Stoppage," "Urban Rat 
              Surveys," and the "APHA-CDC Recommended Housing Maintenance and 
              Occupancy Ordinance ."
              Arthropods
              The housing 
              inspector should be able to identify correctly arthropods that are 
              common household pests. It is also important for him to recognize 
              these pests so that he can give the owner or occupant accurate 
              instructions on appropriate control measures. Such household pests 
              include:a   
              Fleas-Unlike most blood-sucking insects, fleas feed at 
              frequent intervals. They do not remain on one host, but feed 
              temporarily, and transfer to several other hosts which may be of 
              entirely different species. The dog flea will feed on man as well 
              as on dogs and cats. For this reason, and the fact that fleas 
              insert their mouth parts to suck blood, they are particularly 
              prone to transmit pathogenic organisms. The frequent biting is due 
              to the fact that fleas are very easily disturbed while feeding and 
              seldom complete a meal at one time. Some species of fleas are 
              involved in the transmission of plague, endemic typhyus, 
              salmonella typhimurium, and undulant fever. In addition, fleas are 
              intermediate hosts of helminths such as dog tapeworm and dwarf 
              tapeworm.
              b   
              Fly - The house fly and many of its relatives are common 
              agents in the mechanical transmission of certain infections which 
              are often grouped under the term, "fly-borne diseases." The mouth 
              parts, the numerous body spines, and the sticky pads on the feet 
              have been found to carry a large number of different pathogens 
              causing human disease. Some of these pathogens may pass unaltered 
              through the digestive tract and may remain viable in the feces 
              Among the pathogens carried mechanically by the house fly are 
              those causing typhoid fever, cholera, bacillary and amebic 
              dysentery, tuberculosis, tetanus, and anthrax.From the disease 
              viewpoint, it should be emphasized that from feeding on excrement, 
              sputum, open sores, or putrefying matter, the flies may quickly 
              pass to food and milk, to mucous membranes or to uncontaminated 
              wounds. It is these habits that make this fly and related forms 
              such efficient mechanical vectors of disease.When feeding, the 
              fly frequently moistens substances with a "vomit drop" which is 
              regurgitated from the crop. This vomit drop may be teeming with 
              typhoid and cholera bacilli, or with organisms causing amebic or 
              bacillary dysentery which are thus transferred to food and 
              milk.
              c   
              Bedbugs-A heavily infested house has a distinctive odor. 
              Some people are very sensitive to bedbug bites, while others are 
              hardly aware of them. This insect has not been incriminated in the 
              transmission of any communicable disease. Bedbugs may cause 
              nervous disorders in sensitive people, and may contribute to the 
              ill health of both children and adults. Although bedbugs will feed 
              readily on poultry, mice, rats, and other animals, the preferred 
              host is man. 
              d   
              Cockroach - Cockroaches have become well adjusted to living 
              with man. They harbor in the cracks and crevices provided by human 
              building methods. They subsist on the bits of food man scatters 
              where he lives or travels. Cockroaches have been reported nibbling 
              on the eyelashes, fingernails, and toenails of sleeping children. 
              They impart an unsavory odor and taste into food they infest. They 
              carry the organisms causing enteric diseases (diarrhea, dysentery, 
              typhoid, food poisoning) from sewers and garbage cans to the food 
              of man and have been found naturally infected with many other 
              pathogens. 
              (1)American Cockroach - This roach is capable of flights of a 
              gliding nature. It is found in alleyways, yards, sewerage systems, 
              and trees. It frequently enters buildings under doorways. It 
              prefers warm resting places such as steam tunnels and basements 
              during the winter months, and causes damage to book bindings, 
              manuscripts, clothing, glossy paper with starch sizing, and labels 
              from bottles. It is often trapped in vessels containing beer, 
              syrup, or sweetened drinks. It is reddish to dark brown in color. 
              The adults are about 1? to 2 inches long. 
              
              (2)Australian Cockroach - is reddish to dark brown with yellow 
              markings and streaks. The adult is about 1 inch long. They are 
              usually found in warm damp places in or out of doors. 
              
              (3)Brown-Banded Cockroach - is yellowish or reddish brown in 
              color and the fertile eggs often show greenish through the walls. 
              It is difficult to control because it does not confine its 
              activities to the kitchen, bathroom, and pantry, but is found 
              throughout the house. 
              
              (4) 
               German Cockroach - is probably the most common 
              cockroach found in restaurants. It is sometimes called the "croton 
              bug." This pest enters the home with bottled drinks, potatoes, 
              onions, other foods, and furniture.e  Ticks-All 
            ticks are parasitic during some period of their lives. They are 
            annoying pests, and in addition, they are transmitters of the 
            causative agents of many diseases. Their bites are irritating, and 
            often when they are removed forcibly, the mouth parts remain in the 
            skin, resulting in infection causing ulceration or septicemia. Ticks 
            are responsible for transmitting Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever 

            f 
             Mites - As a group these arachnids are free living, but 
            many are parasitic. The parasitic forms produce a mild to severe 
            dermatitis, often followed by allergic reactions. Some mites are the 
            etiological agents of mange and scabies of man and animals.g  Lice 
            - Lice do not leave the host or host's clothing voluntarily but only 
            when they are accidentally dislodged. They are mainly disseminated 
            by physical contact with infested persons or their clothing. The 
            bite of the head and body louse provokes rosy swellings and, coupled 
            with the ensuing scratching, produces the characteristic scarring 
            and bronzing of the skin referred to as "vagabond's disease."Murine typhus can 
            be transmitted from man to man by the body louse.h 
             Mosquito - Mosquitoes are known transmitters of 
            encephalitis, malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and other 
            diseases. Of all the insects that jeopardize the health of man, 
            mosquitoes rank first. Not only do they transmit disease, but they 
            occur in such numbers that they cause great annoyance. Pest 
            mosquitoes affect the comfort and efficiency of man through severe 
            annoyance, itching bites, loss of sleep, and nervousness.i  
            Termites - Termites are a key factor in the deterioration of 
            housing in many parts of the United States as well as elsewhere in 
            the world. Housing quality, one of the basic factors in public 
            health, is often used as a general index of community health. For 
            these reasons, public health workers should have a general knowledge 
            of these pests.Termites may be 
            grouped into three types based upon the type of damage they 
            do:(1) wet wood 
            termites damage living trees and are of relatively minor 
            importance in most areas;(2)dry wood 
            termites establish colonies in cured wood and, while rare, may 
            be a problem in museums and storage warehouses;(3)subterranean 
            termites attack wood from colonies established in the soil and 
            are the ones of the greatest economic importance. These are very 
            sensitive to moisture conditions; and, although they may feed on 
            wood. they must leave it and return to the soil every few hours for 
            moisture. Ordinarily they attack only wood that is in contact with 
            the soil, but they can build cellulose tunnels through which they 
            can climb to attack wood above ground level.It is often 
            difficult to assess the extent of termite damage or to ascertain 
            that complete control has been achieved.Information about 
            these pests and inspection and control techniques may be found in 
            the following U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 
            Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control publications: 
            "Introduction to Arthropods of Public Health Importance," 
            "Sanitation in the Control of Insects and Rodents of Public Health 
            Importance," "Household and Stored-food Insects of Public Health 
            Importance and Their Control."H. 
             Childhood Lead Poisoning and Housing InspectionChildhood lead 
            poisoning is a disease of the environment-including the housing 
            environment. The major lead source for children is lead contained in 
            paint. In the past, paint containing significant amounts of lead was 
            used extensively on interiors of dwelling units. Lead is still used 
            in exterior paint in many sections of the country. As these dwelling 
            units deteriorate and fall into disrepair, the leaded paint peels, 
            flakes, and chips off of many painted surfaces. The paint is then 
            accessible to small children who will chew and mouth non-food items 
            such as window sills, door facings, and paint chips.If a child is 
            identified with undue lead absorption, the housing inspector's role 
            in the prevention of lead poisoning is identifying the most probable 
            lead hazard in that child's environment. This hazard is often leaded 
            paint. The housing inspector must educate the occupants to this 
            danger and ensure that appropriate hazard reduction occurs.Childhood lead 
            poisoning from ingestion of leaded paint is a disease whose 
            eradication could be accomplished by removing its cause - leaded 
            paint. There are, however, over 30 million dwelling units in the 
            United States containing lead-based paint.1Determination of Lead in the Housing Environment
            The method of 
            choice for identification of lead paint hazards in the field is the 
            portable x-ray fluorescence analyzer. These instruments have: gained 
            wide acceptance for making quantitative measurements quickly and 
            reliably on painted surfaces for lead content down to a level of 0.5 
            mg/cm2. While this level may be hazardous if ingested 
            repeatedly, a lower level lead in paint is difficult to identify 
            because of limits on instrument technology applicable to field use. 
            Developmental work is being carried out which will allow 
            quantitative measurement of levels below 0.5 
            mg/cm2.As a supplement to 
            x-ray fluorescent determinations, paint scrapings and loose chips 
            may be collected for chemical analysis in the laboratory. In sample 
            collection, it is important to obtain only paint for an accurate 
            analysis.Interpreting values 
            obtained by x-ray fluorescence and wet chemistry on the same sample 
            is difficult since the two methods are not directly comparable. The 
            x-ray fluorescence instruments measure the total amount of lead 
            present per unit area while the chemical test measures the amount of 
            lead by weight of the sample tested. If even a small amount of 
            underlying substrate is present in the sample, the chemical test 
            will give false low values.2  
            Initiating ActionDecisions concerning actions to be taken to control 
            the sources of lead available to children must be in accordance with 
            appropriate ordinances and codes. Highest priority should be given 
            to eliminating paint hazards where children with undue lead 
            absorption **[Footnote 
            #1]** reside or frequently visit. The availability 
            and condition of the painted surfaces, and the amount of lead 
            contained in the paint are also primary reasons for action.3  Hazard 
            Abatement TechniquesHazard abatement 
            activities may vary with the condition of the dwelling. Sometimes 
            complete renovation is necessary while in other circumstances the 
            occupant may be able to minimize the hazard with simple methods. 
            Wire brushing loose paints from the walls and sweeping up paint 
            chips from the floor may be all that is necessary to prevent further 
            accumulation of lead in a child with a low level of lead 
            absorption.If the lead hazard 
            requires major action, two alternative approaches are available. The 
            leaded paint can be removed or a protective barrier can be placed 
            over the leaded paint.a Paint 
            RemovalThere are several 
            methods of paint removal in current use:These 
            include:(1)  Chemical paint removers(2)  Sanding 
            and scraping(3)  Heating to soften(4)  Combination 
            of aboveWhen using any of 
            the above-procedures, care must be exercised to ensure that workmen 
            use approved protective equipment and/or adequate ventilation to 
            prevent inhaling lead dust or vapors. Children and other household 
            members must also be protected or removed from exposure. Toxic lead 
            fumes occurring when paint is overheated are especially dangerous. 
            Proper attention must be given to disposal of leaded paint removed 
            from the dwelling.b Principles of Shielding
            The basic principle 
            of shielding is to isolate leaded surfaces so that a child cannot 
            get to those surfaces. There are seven characteristics of an ideal 
            shielding material:
            Scrape-proof and 
              puncture-proof by a child.vermin-proof.relatively fire 
              resistant or have a high ignition temperature.not release 
              toxic or noxious gases or vapors at high temperatures or upon 
              ignition.not place any 
              appreciable additional load or stress on the existing structure of 
              the building.easy to install 
              with reasonable installation costs (materials and 
              labor).have a low 
              maintenance cost.Flat Surface Covering 
            Materials
            Five different flat 
            surface covering materials have been used in shielding leaded 
            surfaces. These materials include the following:gypsum 
              board-this material creates a new wall in front of the old; the 
              installation is relatively expensive and requires the use of 
              skilled labor.fiberglas wall 
              covering materials - this material requires removal of all loose 
              paint and plaster before application; some patching of wall 
              surface may be necessary; material comes in thin sheets of 
              approximately 40 inches in width; an adhesive compound is 
              needed.paper wall 
              covering materials - usually made of heavy kraft paper which is 
              easy to paint over.vinyl coat 
              sheeting - must be applied with a special adhesive; is the least 
              combustible of the plastic materials which may be used for this 
              purpose, but upon ignition emits hydrochloric acid fumes and 
              vapors.plywood and 
              hardwood-this material is nailed directly to the wall studs; is 
              relatively easy to install.Liquid Covering 
            Materials 
            Some of the above 
            listed materials can be applied only to flat surfaces. In order to 
            find a material which will provide a shield over both flat and 
            curved surfaces, several liquid covering materials have been used, 
            but to date only a limited degree of success has been obtained. The 
            two liquid covering materials which have some use as a shield of 
            leaded surfaces are as follows:(1)  
              urethane-based paint - this material requires the removal of all 
              loose paint and plaster before application; repeated applications 
              may be needed; new surface may peel if old base paint is not 
              removed; should be considered only as a temporary or short-term 
              method, e.g., may be ideal in building scheduled for demolition 
              within a few years.
              (2)  
              pigmented masonry conditioner-this material requires the prior 
              removal of all flaking, peeling, and scaling paint: material has a 
              tung oil base which permits penetration into the base wall 
              material and provides effective shielding; several coats are 
              needed to obtain sufficient bonding of the surface 
              material.I  Sanitation: Water 
            Supply and Temperature
            Some housing codes 
            specify only that dwelling units have hot and cold water supply at 
            all times. Other codes, however, specify a minimum rate of flow for 
            hot and cold water of 1 gallon per minute from each fixture. The 
            temperature generally requested and accepted for hot water is a 
            minimum of 120?F at the outlet.J  
            Sanitation: Septic TanksThere are 17 
            million people in the United States who use septic tanks as a means 
            of sewage disposal. It is important, therefore, for an inspector of 
            housing to have a basic understanding of their construction and 
            use.Before a septic 
            tank can be installed it must be determined that there is a correct 
            location for a disposal field. The best guide to future performance 
            is carefully prepared soil maps together with the experience with 
            each soil in a region. In the absence of such maps percolation tests 
            provide some guidance.The conventional 
            septic tank sewage and disposal system consists of two main parts-a 
            septic tank and an absorption field or seepage pit. The tank 
            settles, stores, and digests the solids (sludge and scum). As sewage 
            enters the tank, the heavier solids settle to the bottom and become 
            sludge, and the lighter particles, including grease, rise to the top 
            of the liquid and remain as scum. The organic matter contained in 
            both sludge and scum is decomposed by action of anaerobic bacteria 
            (the type of bacteria that thrive in absence of air). These bacteria 
            gain their life-processing oxygen by reducing complex organic 
            substances. Gases are vented to atmosphere, and liquids are 
            discharged to the disposal field.Digestive action by 
            the bacteria takes time, and so the tank must be of sufficient 
            capacity to store solids for the required time. As raw sewage enters 
            the tank, an equal amount of liquid effluent is discharged so that 
            the liquid level remains fairly constant. The tank inlet has a 
            baffle to divert the incoming sewage downward. An outlet baffle or 
            pipe fitting retains solids but allows discharge of liquid to the 
            absorption or disposal field. Recommended retention period of the 
            liquid ranges from 8 to 48 hours. In normal operation, scum and 
            sludge must be removed from the tank by mechanical means.Public Health 
            Service research has shown that two or more solids retention 
            compartment tanks are more efficient than one. Rectangular 
            compartment tanks are as good as any, and change in tank shapes to 
            oval, or others offers no special advantages. The flow from the 
            septic tank goes into the absorption field to allow liquid to be 
            dissipated in the soil.K  
            Sanitation: DrainageThe dangers of 
            puddles and pools of stagnant water can be great depending on the 
            location, the depth, and amount of the stagnant water. Stagnant 
            water, whether it be on the ground or in receptacles such as cans, 
            bottles, or rubber tires, can be a major health hazard in any area 
            of the country. Mosquitoes use these pools as breeding grounds. 
            Female mosquitoes lay their eggs in water, and the eggs hatch into a 
            larval stage. The larvae later change to a pupal stage and remain in 
            the water-filled container until they change into adult mosquitoes 
            and begin the fourth stage of their life cycle. It is in this fourth 
            or adult stage that mosquitoes can carry diseases to man. The 
            elimination of ponds, puddles, and other sources of stagnant water 
            is the best way of eliminating mosquito hazards. If the pond or pool 
            is large enough, it can also be a safety hazard for small children 
            who may stumble into the water and drown.Poor drainage may 
            create another hazard if electricity is nearby. The obvious danger 
            of being electrocuted exists when water and electricity are both 
            present. The inspector should always look for evidence of water near 
            the main fuse box in the house and for broken or frayed electrical 
            wires in the kitchen, bathroom, water closet compartment, or laundry 
            room.Excessive dampness 
            caused by puddles and other small bodies of stagnant water or 
            leaking plumbing fixtures can cause structural damage to a house. 
            The water itself can cause rotting of main structural members or can 
            offer the campground needed by subterranean termites for their 
            attack on wooden structures.L  
            Sanitation: Rubbish and Garbage StorageEvery occupant of a 
            dwelling must maintain the part of the dwelling unit that he 
            occupies and controls. The storage and disposal of rubbish and 
            garbage in a safe and sanitary manner is considered the 
            responsibility of the occupant insofar as the garbage and trash 
            is generated in his portion of the structure.It is the owner's 
            responsibility to see that arrangements are made by the tenant for 
            the adequate removal of this refuse.In a structure 
            containing three or more dwelling units it is also the owner's 
            responsibility to supply containers for the storage of refuse and to 
            make provisions for its safe and sanitary removal as often as is 
            necessary to maintain a sanitary structure.In the case of a 
            single- or two-family dwelling, it shall be the responsibility of 
            the occupant to furnish facilities or containers. This does not 
            preclude any agreement, whether written or oral, between owner and 
            occupant for other types of disposal practices; however, any other 
            type of disposal practice must be safe and sanitary. As previously 
            stated, avoiding the attraction of insects and rodents is essential 
            to the public health. Refuse furnishes food and harboring places for 
            rodents and tends to attract them to areas where they have not 
            previously been present. The same is true of insects. The 
            requirement that the proper facilities for the storage of rubbish be 
            provided is to fix responsibility for maintenance and use of these 
            facilities with a particular party whether it be the owner or the 
            occupant of the dwelling. In the case of single-family or two-family 
            dwellings, it is possible for the appropriate department to fix the 
            responsibility for improper use and maintenance of rubbish storage 
            facilities. Such is not the case, however, for multiple-family 
            dwellings, and the responsibility for this use is therefore placed 
            on the owner or operator.M  
            Sanitation: Kitchen FacilitiesAll kitchens or 
            kitchenettes should contain a kitchen sink, cabinets or shelves (or 
            both), a stove, and a refrigerator. Without these items the unit is 
            not a dwelling unit but a rooming unit. If one of these items is 
            missing, the health of the occupants is in jeopardy because of poor 
            food sanitation. The kitchen sink should be an approved type and not 
            a hand-washing sink. It should be large enough to hold a reasonably 
            sized dish or pot. The sink should be connected to the hot- and 
            cold-water systems. It is preferable, but not mandatory, to have a 
            mixing faucet for safety reasons. The drain should be connected to 
            the waste line and should include a trap. If the local plumbing code 
            calls for a grease trap, it should be installed.The purpose of a 
            kitchen sink is the correct washing of dishes used in preparing-and 
            consuming meals. The diseases that can be caused by improperly 
            washed dishes include food poisoning by salmonellae, shigellae, and 
            staphylococci.All kitchens should 
            be supplied with adequate cabinets or shelves for the storage of 
            eating, drinking, and cooking equipment. These may also be used to 
            store foodstuffs that do not require refrigeration. It is important 
            that newly cleaned eating and cooking equipment be stored on a clean 
            surface so that contamination does not occur.A stove or similar 
            device for cooking food is necessary for maintaining adequate 
            nutrition of-the inhabitants. A diet of only cold food soon becomes 
            boring and of doubtful nutritional value. Additionally, some foods 
            need to be cooked to provide safety from parasites and pathogens. A 
            refrigerator or similar device for storing food is also required in 
            all kitchens. The refrigerator should be capable of storing food at 
            temperatures between 32?F and 45?F under ordinary maximum summer 
            conditions. An ice box would not meet the requirements, because it 
            cannot keep the temperature below 45?F at all times during the 
            summer. A freezer compartment is not necessary in this refrigerator, 
            but it is always desirable because of the large amount of frozen 
            foods now on the market. The purpose of a refrigerator is to protect 
            the occupants of a dwelling unit from illness caused by improperly 
            stored food. An economic factor is also involved since it is more 
            expensive to buy food for one meal at a time.III.  Inspection Procedures
            A Although 
            inspection procedures vary from city to city, there are several 
            common items that the inspector can and should check. These 
            include:Rodents - Rats 
              and mice are habitually nocturnal and secretive and are rarely 
              seen during the day except when infestations are heavy. Therefore, 
              it is necessary to interpret signs of their activities properly in 
              order to plan control work. These signs are found in secluded 
              places, such as along walls, under piles of rubbish, and behind or 
              under boxes, boards, and thick vegetation. From the rodent signs, 
              one can tell the species present, and whether a rodent infestation 
              is current or old, heavy or light. The following are the most 
              common rat signs: droppings, runways, rubmarks, burrows, gnawing, 
              and tracks.Roaches- An 
              experienced inspector can frequently detect roaches by their oily 
              odor and by the obvious smell of commercial repellants used by 
              home-owners. Roaches are more commonly found in the kitchen and in 
              the bathroom. Check drawers and cabinets and, also, check trash 
              cans and open garbage bags; usually they are very active in and 
              near the food sources.Bedbugs-In 
              touring a house, notice bed linens and blankets and be alert to 
              urine odor. Blood spots on the linen are typical signs of bedbug 
              activity. Bedbugs have a distinctive odor. If children are at home 
              when you call, casually observe the younger ones for bites on face 
              and arms.In general, look 
              for rubbish, garbage, and food leavings in or on sinks or strewn 
              on floors. Observe any domestic animal beds or 
              droppings.Lifting, 
              peeling, or flaking paint should be ordered removed, and the place 
              should be repainted with lead-free paint to prevent possible lead 
              poisoning to children.Cracked and 
              broken floor covering provides a nest for household pests. It 
              should be ordered removed, the floor should be cleaned, and new 
              covering put down. Kitchen and bathroom floor coverings should be 
              impervious to water.Cracks around 
              bathtubs, in toilets, or in sinks are also 
              unsanitary.Back siphonage 
              possibilities should be checked thoroughly. Make sure there is a 
              proper air gap between the spill rim of basin, sink, or tub and 
              the lowest point of the faucet.Make sure 
              kitchens are equipped with approved garbage containers with 
              tight-fitting lids.Refuse storage 
              facilities should include enough containers to hold all garbage 
              and rubbish that normally accumulates between collection days. A 
              good refuse container should be rust resistant, water-tight, 
              tightly covered, easy to clean, easily handled by one man, of 
              rat-anddamage-resistant construction (heavy duty), and constructed 
              with a recessed bottom.Keep alert for 
              evidence of coal gas, sewer gas, and escaping cooking 
              gas.Order all 
              unvented home space heaters removed in your 
              presence.Check legality 
              of any community kitchens you may find, since they are often a 
              source of disease.Check all 
              windows for proper screening, where required, during the period 
              called for in your code.B  The 
            inspector will also find that there are other items he should check, 
            and that, when these conditions are found, they should be referred 
            to the appropriate local authority. These include:
            Reports by 
              occupant of bites by rodents, roaches, or 
              bedbugs.Broken sewage 
              disposal lines, also referred to as sanitary waste-water 
              lines.Stopped-up 
              toilets.Accumulation of 
              weeds, garbage, or trash on premises.Any obvious 
              rashes or sores on occupants.Although he is empowered to 
            and should order corrective action on most, if not all, of these 
            problems, he should also refer these sources or evidences of disease 
            to the health agency.
            C  
            Appropriate ToolsThe inspector 
            should always carry a flashlight, thermometer, and a measuring tape. 
            Moreover, when infestation is present, it would also be well for him 
            to carry repellant so that he does not transport pests. Other 
            equipment will be carried according to local department 
            requirements.D  
            ReminderIn carrying out the 
            health and sanitary aspects of housing inspections, the inspectors 
            must keep in mind that responsibility is there for them to assume. 
            They cannot do "just their jobs." They must do the "extra" that puts 
            them above an automaton and raises them to the class of dedicated, 
            trained guardians of public health, safety, and 
            welfare.[1]Additional information on undue lead absorption, see CDC 
            Statement. Increased Lead Absorption and Lead Poisoning in Young 
            Children." March 1975.Return 
            to Paragraph**** |                                                           | Table 
            of Contents | Acknowledgements 
            | Foreword 
            | Chapter1 
            | Chapter 
            2Chapter 
            3 | Chapter 
            4 | Chapter 
            5 | Chapter 
            6 | Chapter 
            7Chapter 
            8 | Chapter 
            9 | Chapter 
            10 | Chapter 
            11 |                                                        |  |                                                                                            
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             
|**Chapter 3: Health and Sanitary 
            Elements of A Housing Inspection**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    
|**I.   Background Factors**
            Benjamin Franklin 
            said "Sir I respectfully submit that we can give advice but we 
            cannot give conduct."In dealing with 
            public we must give to our fullest capacity. Sometimes what we 
            believe are frustrations peculiar to inspectors of housing are 
            actually the same frustrations experienced by inspectors in many 
            other fields. In fielding with the public, it is our duty to perform 
            officially, teach where possible, and use the big stick only when 
            necessary. Our manner must be forth-right and that of a tutored 
            professional. A housing inspector is the key person in a local 
            housing hygiene program since he is the local representative dealing 
            with the grass roots problems. Unless the inspector is a sanitarian, 
            he is not prepared or expected to function as a sanitarian. There 
            must, however, be a rapport between the housing inspector and the 
            sanitarian to achieve the united action that will result in the 
            achievement of greater health, safety, and welfare of the community. 
            This is brought about by joint and supporting actions of the housing 
            inspector brings him into contact with health problems more ofter 
            than the work of the average sanitarian does. If both parties wish 
            to do their respective jobs well, then they should develop an 
            arrangement of mutual support and assistance.**II.   Major Health and Sanitary 
            Factors**
            A comprehensive 
            housing ordinance or code includes minimum requirements for adequate 
            heat, light, ventilation, sanitation, space, and occupancy. Various 
            studies have provided evidence of the relaitionship between 
            unsanitary conditions, overcrowding, inadequate heat, light, and 
            ventilation and health problems such as the tranmission of various 
            diseases and infections. Studies to evaluate the effects of 
            conditions within man's living environment upon his mental health 
            and emotional stability are being undertaken by the U.S. Public 
            Health Service. Within all comprehensive housing ordinances, there 
            are appropriate standards for the important health and sanitation 
            factors.A  
            HeatMinumum inside 
            heating temperatures vary little throughout the country except for 
            the marked difference between the localities with very mild or very 
            cold climates. Some state and local housing codes have set 70?F as 
            the minimum standard. They vary, however, on the outside temperature 
            that must prevail before the inside statdard of 70?F must be met. 
            The 1975 "APHA-CDC Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy 
            Ordinance," for example, required it to be maintained under 
            ordianry minimum winter conditions. Of necessity, therefore, 
            you must be guided by your local code for quantitative standards. If 
            there are no quantitative standards in your local code, Table No. 1 
            in Chapter 26 of the "American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, 
            and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Handbook of Fundamentals", 
            gives minimum design temperatures for different areas of the country 
            under winter conditions. The publication is readily available from 
            most public libraries.The "APHA-CDC 
            Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance" states that 
            a temperature of at least 68?F at a distance of 36 inches above the 
            floor level should exist. ASHRAE states that the temperature should 
            be measured at the breathing line 5 feet above the floor or at the 
            seating level 30 inches above the floor in a location where the 
            temperature-sensing device is not exposed to a condition of abnormal 
            heat gain or heat loss. Local code requirements should, however, 
            prevail. If the local code does not give a specific statement, any 
            of the previously mentioned methods may be used, but every housing 
            inspector in the community should measure the temperature the same 
            way.B  Thermal 
            EnvironmentOne of the basic 
            requirements in healthful housing is maintenence of a thermal 
            environment that will avoid undue heat loss from the human body. 
            Heat loss results in lowered resistance, particularly to respitory 
            tract infections, and to some extent all other infections.Room temperatures 
            vary considerably from floor to ceiling. Since hot air rises, the 
            coolest temperature will be found near the floor and the warmest 
            near the ceiling. The temperature of 70?F maintained near the 
            ceiling might be far from adequate for protection required. 
            Therefore, as mentioned earlier, the 1975 APHA-CDC Recommended 
            Ordinance specifies that temperature measurements for the 
            determination of compliance with requirements be made at a level 
            approximately 36 inches from the floor. This ensures that children, 
            even the younger children who are most active, are in an area where 
            the temperature is sufficiently warm to give them the protection 
            they need. It also assures the less active adults a location in an 
            area where the temperatures are at a desirable level.C  Natural 
            LightMost municipalities 
            require at least one window or skylight facing directly to the 
            outdoors for every habitable room. They are also in general 
            agreement that this window area or skylight area be 10% of the total 
            floor area of the room. Note here that a window located less than 3 
            feet from an outside wall or other structure that extends above the 
            ceiling level of the room is not deemed to face directly to the 
            outdoors. A window that faces directly into a completely enclosed 
            court is counted as facing directly to the outdoors as long as the 
            court is greater than 3 feet in its least dimensions.Daylight should be 
            used as fully as possible in all buildings no matter how adequate 
            other forms of light may be. Satisfactory natural illumination 
            depends upon the intensity of daylight or sky brightness and the 
            amount, distribution, and quality of this light in a room. Natural 
            light is particularly important in low-income housing where 
            artificial lighting will be held to a minimum. Light is important in 
            showing up dirt and thus leads to more cleanliness within the home. 
            The bactericidal effect of light transmitted through glass is 
            questionable. The bright, naturally lit room is, however, certainly 
            more conductive to healthy mental attitudes than a dim. dark room 
            lit only by artificial sources.In different parts 
            of the country different standards of window size are possible. For 
            instance in a sunny climate, such as that found in the southwestern 
            desert. a smaller window area would supply adequate illumination and 
            may be desirable to prevent excessive glare in a room. In a climate 
            in the northern part of the country. however 10% of the floor area 
            should be a minimum for window area in consideration of the reduced 
            amount of sunlight present. especially in the winter time.The lighting 
            requirements shall be deemed satisfactory if every habitable room 
            has one window facing directly to the outdoors and the total window 
            area in each habitable room is at least 10% of the floor area of 
            that room. In computing window areas no deduction is made for sashes 
            and trim used to hold the glass panes in place. If a skylight type 
            of window on the ceiling of the habitable room serves as the only 
            window in the room, the area of the horizontal projection of the 
            skylight should also be at least 10% of the total floor area of the 
            room. In a room with both a window and a skylight the total area of 
            both should be at least 10% of the floor area.D  
            Artificial LightIt is a common 
            requirement that every habitable room have two separate floor- or 
            wall-type convenience outlets or else one such convenience outlet 
            and one supplied ceiling-type electrical light fixture. It is also 
            required that public halls and stairways be sufficiently lighted at 
            all times in such a manner as to allow safe travel back and forth. 
            The 1975 APHA-CDC Recommended Ordinance states that every habitable 
            room and nonhabitable room used for food preparation shall have two 
            wall-type duplex electric convenience outlets or one such duplex 
            convenience outlet and one supplied wall or ceiling-type electric 
            light fixture. No duplex outlet shall serve more than two fixtures 
            or appliances.Every water closet 
            compartment, bathroom, kitchen or kitchenette, laundry room, furnace 
            room, and public hall shall contain at least one supplied ceiling or 
            wall-type electric light fixture. Convenient switches or equivalent 
            devices for turning on one light for each room or passageway shall 
            be located so as to permit the area ahead to be lighted.Every public hall 
            and stairway in a multiple dwelling shall be adequately lighted by 
            natural or electric light or both at all times so as to provide in 
            all parts at least 10 foot candles of light at the tread or floor 
            level. If the structure contains not more than two dwelling units 
            this light may be controlled by a switch and be turned on when 
            needed instead of being turned on full time.Electricity is as 
            essential to the modern home as heating or ventilation. It has long 
            replaced gas kerosene. and other utilities for lighting because it 
            is more economical and, when properly used, safer. It has, probably 
            more than any other single item, made practical the use of 
            labor-saving devices for household tasks and thereby promoted the 
            cleanliness of both the dwelling and the person.Since the 
            mid-1930's, electricity has been provided even to the most remote 
            areas. Individual electrical generating units are available for use 
            in places where industry or government has not provided electricity 
            to the homeowner. Only the most backward and most primitive areas of 
            this country are today without service of this utility. Certainly, 
            all metropolitan areas have electricity, and there is no reason why 
            this servant of mankind should not be available in the home.The 1975 "APHA-CDC 
            Recommended Housing Maintenance and Occupancy Ordinance" allows a 
            dwelling that is located more than 300 feet from the nearest 
            electrical source to be without this service; however, there are 
            very few dwellings left in the populated areas of this country that 
            do not have, within 300 feet, the lines of the local electric 
            utility.Although 
            electricity is a valuable servant, it can also be a severe safety 
            hazard. Among the most common faults in providing electrical service 
            is the furnishing of inadequate outlets. This results in overloading 
            of the lines, causing possible overheating of wires and fixtures and 
            subsequent fire hazards. Improperly installed facilities and outlets 
            furnish a fire hazard, as well as a safety hazard, particularly to 
            small children.When inadequate 
            outlets are provided there is a tendency, particularly among the 
            poorly educated, to connect many high-wattage items such as 
            toasters, irons, televisions, and other similar items to a single 
            outlet.Kitchen, living 
            rooms, and rooming units are most likely to contain several 
            electrical appliances in addition to the lighting fixtures. This is 
            not necessarily true in toilet rooms, laundry rooms, furnace rooms, 
            and public hallways. It is very important therefore, that rooms most 
            likely to have a large number of appliances be required to have an 
            adequate number of outlets in order to prevent overloading of 
            circuits and installation of amateurish and possibly hazardous 
            extension wiring.E  
            VentilationThe ordinance 
            requirement for the total openable window area in every habitable 
            room is 45 percent of the minimum window area except where an 
            approved mechanical means of ventilation is installed.Adequate 
            ventilation is essential in meeting many of the fundamental needs in 
            housing. Among these are the maintenance of a thermal environment 
            that will permit adequate heat loss from the human body, provision 
            of an atmosphere of reasonable chemical purity, and provision of 
            possibilities for esthetic satisfaction in the home and its 
            surroundings.The factors 
            controlling heat loss in the body are air temperature, mean radiant 
            temperature of surrounding surfaces, relative humidity, and air 
            movement. It is particularly important that cool, moving air be made 
            available in sleeping rooms since the impact of cool air is of great 
            value in promoting healthful sleep. Moreover, odors given off by the 
            body exert a definitely harmful influence on appetite and therefore 
            upon health. There can be no doubt that the well-ventilated home, 
            like the well illuminated home, is more conducive to healthful 
            mental attitudes than a poorly ventilated or poorly illuminated 
            home.Every bathroom and 
            toilet room should comply with the housing ordinance's light and 
            ventilation requirements for habitable rooms except that windows or 
            skylights should not be required if the ventilation system is 
            adequate. Many codes state that mechanical means must provide at 
            least two to six changes of air per hour.As has been 
            previously mentioned, light promotes cleanliness. This is 
            particularly important in bathrooms and toilet rooms, where 
            cleanliness is essential to sanitation and proper attitudes are 
            essential to cleanliness. Ventilation is also necessary in these 
            rooms because they are subject to a high concentration of body odors 
            and humidity. Since these rooms are frequently located, for 
            economical construction reasons, within the inner part of the 
            structure and away from the exterior walls, windows and skylights 
            are not always practical. The provision of artificial light sources 
            and mechanical ventilation will, therefore, accomplish the basic 
            purposes of light and ventilation requirements and at the same time 
            meet practical standards of construction .F  Space 
            and OccupancyThe maximum density 
            of occupancy for any dwelling unit has been set by the APHA-CDC 
            Ordinance at 150 square feet of total habitable room area for the 
            first occupant and 100 square feet of floor space for every 
            additional occupant, with the floor space calculated on the basis of 
            total habitable room area. The ordinance further requires that the 
            total number of persons allowed may not be more than twice the 
            number of habitable rooms in the dwelling unit.If more than one 
            family plus two occupants unrelated to the families, not including 
            guests or domestic employees, are to occupy a dwelling unit, a 
            permit for a rooming house must be granted by the appropriate local 
            authority.The ceiling height 
            of any habitable room is set at a minimum of 7 feet except in rooms 
            under a sloping ceiling. In those instances at least one half of the 
            floor area must have a minimum ceiling height of 7 feet. The floor 
            area located under the portion of the room where the ceiling height 
            is less than 5 feet may not be used in computing total floor area of 
            the room when the maximum permissible ccupancy is being 
            determined.Space located up to 
            4 feet below the grade of the ground may not be used as a habitable 
            room unless approved by the appropriate authority in writing.In dwelling units 
            of two or more rooms, each sleeping room must contain at least 70 
            square feet of floor space for the first occupant, and at least 50 
            square feet of floor space for each additional occupant .Dwellings or 
            dwelling units containing two or more sleeping rooms must have a 
            room arrangement that permits access to the bathroom or water closet 
            without passage through another sleeping room.Other space 
            requirements state that each dwelling unit shall have at least 4 
            square feet of floor-to-ceiling-height closet space for the personal 
            effects of each permissible occupant. If this space is lacking, in 
            whole or in part, an amount of square footage equal to the space 
            deficiency shall be subtracted from the computed area of habitable 
            room space used in determining permissible occupancy.Overcrowding in 
            housing is one of the greatest contributing factors in the 
            transmission of diseases, particularly those of the respiratory 
            tract. In addition, crowding violates one of the basic maxims of 
            healthful housing-the need for privacy of the individual. Privacy in 
            the home and privacy in the use of sleeping bath, and toilet rooms 
            dictate that the user must be able to use these facilities without 
            violating the privacy of another person or without having his 
            privacy violated by another. Crowding makes proper cleansing and 
            maintenance difficult and less likely to be done.Rooms, to be 
            considered habitable, must be of a size sufficient for use by 
            normal-size people. Any room in which half the total floor area is 
            usable only with difficulty, in which the ceiling is too low, or in 
            which a person has problems moving around can hardly be considered 
            habitable.The use of 
            below-grade space as habitable rooms in dwelling units is allowed 
            basically to permit use of the so-called English Basement and Garden 
            Apartment, which would otherwise meet the code requirements, since 
            it conforms to the other provisions of the code for habitable rooms. 
            Obviously, any room that is extremely damp, dark, and poorly 
            ventilated would not be conducive to healthful occupancy by any 
            human being.G  
            Sanitation in the Control of Arthropods and RodentsThe presence of 
            vectors such as arthropods (flies, mosquitoes, fleas, cockroaches, 
            lice, mites, ticks, and bedbugs) and rodents (rats and mice) in a 
            house and its premises result from neglect of basic responsibilities 
            for cleanliness. Rodents and arthropods are vectors of disease and 
            cause injury to humans. In many cases, rats and mice, or insects and 
            other arthropods may not necessarily pose an immediate disease 
            threat. They are often present in such numbers or in such places as 
            to limit the enjoyment and utilization of our environment. In this 
            sense, they are pests disturbing the well-being of man and 
            inspection and control programs are justified on this basis alone. 
            Food, harborage, and water, which are life essentials for arthropods 
            and rodents, occur frequently in and around all types of buildings 
            whenever these vectors prevail. Their numbers increase rapidly as 
            standards of cleanliness and maintenance decline. Substandard 
            residential housing and commercial establishments produce and 
            maintain greater and more widespread vector populations than well 
            kept, clean residential and commercial areas. Lack of knowledge, 
            carelessness, and indifference are usually the basic reasons for 
            such conditions.Although pesticides 
            (insecticides and rodenticides) may produce temporary pest 
            reduction, only permanent techniques such as sanitation and pest 
            proofing bring about long-term control. Sanitation includes storage, 
            collection, and disposal of refuse, together with premises 
            maintenance and the proper storage of products and materials. It is 
            important that all building, housing, and other related codes and 
            ordinances include adequate provisions for control of pests and 
            correction of conditions conducive to their proliferation. When a 
            building, structure, or dwelling becomes infested, inspection and 
            control measures are required. Inspection reports should list 
            violations found and call for initial extermination and continued 
            control. The causative conditions for the presence of pests must 
            also be corrected by the responsible Persons.The housing 
            inspector should be able to identify correctly the various 
            arthropods and rodents that infest a house and its premises. It is 
            important to know the habits and characteristics of common household 
            pests and be able to inform the public about the importance of their 
            elimination and control .Domestic Rats 
              and Mice
              Rodent problems 
              are common to most urban areas in the United States and most 
              severe in areas of substandard housing and urban blight.Rats and mice are 
              responsible for spread of a number of diseases, either directly, 
              as by contamination of human food with their urine or feces, or 
              indirectly by way of fleas and mites. The more common rodent-borne 
              diseases are rat-bite fever, leptrospirosis, salmonellosis, 
              trichinosis, murine typhus fever, and plague. Rickettsialpox is 
              transmitted from the house mouse to man by the bite of the mouse 
              mite. Rat bite, a public health problem, is associated with heavy 
              urbanization, occurring primarily in lower economic areas 
              exhibiting substandard housing, crowding, and poor sanitation. 
              Rats consume or contaminate large quantities of food and feed, and 
              destroy other property, as when they cause fires by gnawing the 
              insulation from electric wires.The Norway rat is 
              the most common rat found in the United States and is closely 
              associated with man and buildings and is most dependent on him. 
              This rat weighs 16 or more ounces, is heavy-set with blunt muzzle 
              has small close set ears, and its tail is shorter than body and 
              head combined. Its fur is coarse, generally reddish brown to 
              grayish brown.The house mouse 
              is the smallest of domestic rodents, weighing one half to three 
              fourths in ounces, with small slender body, moderately large 
              prominent ears, and semi-naked tail about as long as the body and 
              head combined. Its fur is dusty gray.Control of rats 
              and mice requires (a) sanitation to eliminate their 
              food and harborage, (b) effective rodent proofing, 
              and (c) efficient supplemental killing 
              programs.Information about 
              habits and characteristics of rodents and inspection and control 
              techniques may be found in the following publications of the U.S. 
              Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health 
              Service, Center for Disease Control: "Control of Domestic Rats and 
              Mice," "Biological Factors in Domestic Rodent Control," 
              "Rodent-borne Disease Control Through Rodent Stoppage," "Urban Rat 
              Surveys," and the "APHA-CDC Recommended Housing Maintenance and 
              Occupancy Ordinance ."
              Arthropods
              The housing 
              inspector should be able to identify correctly arthropods that are 
              common household pests. It is also important for him to recognize 
              these pests so that he can give the owner or occupant accurate 
              instructions on appropriate control measures. Such household pests 
              include:a   
              Fleas-Unlike most blood-sucking insects, fleas feed at 
              frequent intervals. They do not remain on one host, but feed 
              temporarily, and transfer to several other hosts which may be of 
              entirely different species. The dog flea will feed on man as well 
              as on dogs and cats. For this reason, and the fact that fleas 
              insert their mouth parts to suck blood, they are particularly 
              prone to transmit pathogenic organisms. The frequent biting is due 
              to the fact that fleas are very easily disturbed while feeding and 
              seldom complete a meal at one time. Some species of fleas are 
              involved in the transmission of plague, endemic typhyus, 
              salmonella typhimurium, and undulant fever. In addition, fleas are 
              intermediate hosts of helminths such as dog tapeworm and dwarf 
              tapeworm.
              b   
              Fly - The house fly and many of its relatives are common 
              agents in the mechanical transmission of certain infections which 
              are often grouped under the term, "fly-borne diseases." The mouth 
              parts, the numerous body spines, and the sticky pads on the feet 
              have been found to carry a large number of different pathogens 
              causing human disease. Some of these pathogens may pass unaltered 
              through the digestive tract and may remain viable in the feces 
              Among the pathogens carried mechanically by the house fly are 
              those causing typhoid fever, cholera, bacillary and amebic 
              dysentery, tuberculosis, tetanus, and anthrax.From the disease 
              viewpoint, it should be emphasized that from feeding on excrement, 
              sputum, open sores, or putrefying matter, the flies may quickly 
              pass to food and milk, to mucous membranes or to uncontaminated 
              wounds. It is these habits that make this fly and related forms 
              such efficient mechanical vectors of disease.When feeding, the 
              fly frequently moistens substances with a "vomit drop" which is 
              regurgitated from the crop. This vomit drop may be teeming with 
              typhoid and cholera bacilli, or with organisms causing amebic or 
              bacillary dysentery which are thus transferred to food and 
              milk.
              c   
              Bedbugs-A heavily infested house has a distinctive odor. 
              Some people are very sensitive to bedbug bites, while others are 
              hardly aware of them. This insect has not been incriminated in the 
              transmission of any communicable disease. Bedbugs may cause 
              nervous disorders in sensitive people, and may contribute to the 
              ill health of both children and adults. Although bedbugs will feed 
              readily on poultry, mice, rats, and other animals, the preferred 
              host is man. 
              d   
              Cockroach - Cockroaches have become well adjusted to living 
              with man. They harbor in the cracks and crevices provided by human 
              building methods. They subsist on the bits of food man scatters 
              where he lives or travels. Cockroaches have been reported nibbling 
              on the eyelashes, fingernails, and toenails of sleeping children. 
              They impart an unsavory odor and taste into food they infest. They 
              carry the organisms causing enteric diseases (diarrhea, dysentery, 
              typhoid, food poisoning) from sewers and garbage cans to the food 
              of man and have been found naturally infected with many other 
              pathogens. 
              (1)American Cockroach - This roach is capable of flights of a 
              gliding nature. It is found in alleyways, yards, sewerage systems, 
              and trees. It frequently enters buildings under doorways. It 
              prefers warm resting places such as steam tunnels and basements 
              during the winter months, and causes damage to book bindings, 
              manuscripts, clothing, glossy paper with starch sizing, and labels 
              from bottles. It is often trapped in vessels containing beer, 
              syrup, or sweetened drinks. It is reddish to dark brown in color. 
              The adults are about 1? to 2 inches long. 
              
              (2)Australian Cockroach - is reddish to dark brown with yellow 
              markings and streaks. The adult is about 1 inch long. They are 
              usually found in warm damp places in or out of doors. 
              
              (3)Brown-Banded Cockroach - is yellowish or reddish brown in 
              color and the fertile eggs often show greenish through the walls. 
              It is difficult to control because it does not confine its 
              activities to the kitchen, bathroom, and pantry, but is found 
              throughout the house. 
              
              (4) 
               German Cockroach - is probably the most common 
              cockroach found in restaurants. It is sometimes called the "croton 
              bug." This pest enters the home with bottled drinks, potatoes, 
              onions, other foods, and furniture.e  Ticks-All 
            ticks are parasitic during some period of their lives. They are 
            annoying pests, and in addition, they are transmitters of the 
            causative agents of many diseases. Their bites are irritating, and 
            often when they are removed forcibly, the mouth parts remain in the 
            skin, resulting in infection causing ulceration or septicemia. Ticks 
            are responsible for transmitting Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever 

            f 
             Mites - As a group these arachnids are free living, but 
            many are parasitic. The parasitic forms produce a mild to severe 
            dermatitis, often followed by allergic reactions. Some mites are the 
            etiological agents of mange and scabies of man and animals.g  Lice 
            - Lice do not leave the host or host's clothing voluntarily but only 
            when they are accidentally dislodged. They are mainly disseminated 
            by physical contact with infested persons or their clothing. The 
            bite of the head and body louse provokes rosy swellings and, coupled 
            with the ensuing scratching, produces the characteristic scarring 
            and bronzing of the skin referred to as "vagabond's disease."Murine typhus can 
            be transmitted from man to man by the body louse.h 
             Mosquito - Mosquitoes are known transmitters of 
            encephalitis, malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and other 
            diseases. Of all the insects that jeopardize the health of man, 
            mosquitoes rank first. Not only do they transmit disease, but they 
            occur in such numbers that they cause great annoyance. Pest 
            mosquitoes affect the comfort and efficiency of man through severe 
            annoyance, itching bites, loss of sleep, and nervousness.i  
            Termites - Termites are a key factor in the deterioration of 
            housing in many parts of the United States as well as elsewhere in 
            the world. Housing quality, one of the basic factors in public 
            health, is often used as a general index of community health. For 
            these reasons, public health workers should have a general knowledge 
            of these pests.Termites may be 
            grouped into three types based upon the type of damage they 
            do:(1) wet wood 
            termites damage living trees and are of relatively minor 
            importance in most areas;(2)dry wood 
            termites establish colonies in cured wood and, while rare, may 
            be a problem in museums and storage warehouses;(3)subterranean 
            termites attack wood from colonies established in the soil and 
            are the ones of the greatest economic importance. These are very 
            sensitive to moisture conditions; and, although they may feed on 
            wood. they must leave it and return to the soil every few hours for 
            moisture. Ordinarily they attack only wood that is in contact with 
            the soil, but they can build cellulose tunnels through which they 
            can climb to attack wood above ground level.It is often 
            difficult to assess the extent of termite damage or to ascertain 
            that complete control has been achieved.Information about 
            these pests and inspection and control techniques may be found in 
            the following U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 
            Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control publications: 
            "Introduction to Arthropods of Public Health Importance," 
            "Sanitation in the Control of Insects and Rodents of Public Health 
            Importance," "Household and Stored-food Insects of Public Health 
            Importance and Their Control."H. 
             Childhood Lead Poisoning and Housing InspectionChildhood lead 
            poisoning is a disease of the environment-including the housing 
            environment. The major lead source for children is lead contained in 
            paint. In the past, paint containing significant amounts of lead was 
            used extensively on interiors of dwelling units. Lead is still used 
            in exterior paint in many sections of the country. As these dwelling 
            units deteriorate and fall into disrepair, the leaded paint peels, 
            flakes, and chips off of many painted surfaces. The paint is then 
            accessible to small children who will chew and mouth non-food items 
            such as window sills, door facings, and paint chips.If a child is 
            identified with undue lead absorption, the housing inspector's role 
            in the prevention of lead poisoning is identifying the most probable 
            lead hazard in that child's environment. This hazard is often leaded 
            paint. The housing inspector must educate the occupants to this 
            danger and ensure that appropriate hazard reduction occurs.Childhood lead 
            poisoning from ingestion of leaded paint is a disease whose 
            eradication could be accomplished by removing its cause - leaded 
            paint. There are, however, over 30 million dwelling units in the 
            United States containing lead-based paint.1Determination of Lead in the Housing Environment
            The method of 
            choice for identification of lead paint hazards in the field is the 
            portable x-ray fluorescence analyzer. These instruments have: gained 
            wide acceptance for making quantitative measurements quickly and 
            reliably on painted surfaces for lead content down to a level of 0.5 
            mg/cm2. While this level may be hazardous if ingested 
            repeatedly, a lower level lead in paint is difficult to identify 
            because of limits on instrument technology applicable to field use. 
            Developmental work is being carried out which will allow 
            quantitative measurement of levels below 0.5 
            mg/cm2.As a supplement to 
            x-ray fluorescent determinations, paint scrapings and loose chips 
            may be collected for chemical analysis in the laboratory. In sample 
            collection, it is important to obtain only paint for an accurate 
            analysis.Interpreting values 
            obtained by x-ray fluorescence and wet chemistry on the same sample 
            is difficult since the two methods are not directly comparable. The 
            x-ray fluorescence instruments measure the total amount of lead 
            present per unit area while the chemical test measures the amount of 
            lead by weight of the sample tested. If even a small amount of 
            underlying substrate is present in the sample, the chemical test 
            will give false low values.2  
            Initiating ActionDecisions concerning actions to be taken to control 
            the sources of lead available to children must be in accordance with 
            appropriate ordinances and codes. Highest priority should be given 
            to eliminating paint hazards where children with undue lead 
            absorption **[Footnote 
            #1]** reside or frequently visit. The availability 
            and condition of the painted surfaces, and the amount of lead 
            contained in the paint are also primary reasons for action.3  Hazard 
            Abatement TechniquesHazard abatement 
            activities may vary with the condition of the dwelling. Sometimes 
            complete renovation is necessary while in other circumstances the 
            occupant may be able to minimize the hazard with simple methods. 
            Wire brushing loose paints from the walls and sweeping up paint 
            chips from the floor may be all that is necessary to prevent further 
            accumulation of lead in a child with a low level of lead 
            absorption.If the lead hazard 
            requires major action, two alternative approaches are available. The 
            leaded paint can be removed or a protective barrier can be placed 
            over the leaded paint.a Paint 
            RemovalThere are several 
            methods of paint removal in current use:These 
            include:(1)  Chemical paint removers(2)  Sanding 
            and scraping(3)  Heating to soften(4)  Combination 
            of aboveWhen using any of 
            the above-procedures, care must be exercised to ensure that workmen 
            use approved protective equipment and/or adequate ventilation to 
            prevent inhaling lead dust or vapors. Children and other household 
            members must also be protected or removed from exposure. Toxic lead 
            fumes occurring when paint is overheated are especially dangerous. 
            Proper attention must be given to disposal of leaded paint removed 
            from the dwelling.b Principles of Shielding
            The basic principle 
            of shielding is to isolate leaded surfaces so that a child cannot 
            get to those surfaces. There are seven characteristics of an ideal 
            shielding material:
            Scrape-proof and 
              puncture-proof by a child.vermin-proof.relatively fire 
              resistant or have a high ignition temperature.not release 
              toxic or noxious gases or vapors at high temperatures or upon 
              ignition.not place any 
              appreciable additional load or stress on the existing structure of 
              the building.easy to install 
              with reasonable installation costs (materials and 
              labor).have a low 
              maintenance cost.Flat Surface Covering 
            Materials
            Five different flat 
            surface covering materials have been used in shielding leaded 
            surfaces. These materials include the following:gypsum 
              board-this material creates a new wall in front of the old; the 
              installation is relatively expensive and requires the use of 
              skilled labor.fiberglas wall 
              covering materials - this material requires removal of all loose 
              paint and plaster before application; some patching of wall 
              surface may be necessary; material comes in thin sheets of 
              approximately 40 inches in width; an adhesive compound is 
              needed.paper wall 
              covering materials - usually made of heavy kraft paper which is 
              easy to paint over.vinyl coat 
              sheeting - must be applied with a special adhesive; is the least 
              combustible of the plastic materials which may be used for this 
              purpose, but upon ignition emits hydrochloric acid fumes and 
              vapors.plywood and 
              hardwood-this material is nailed directly to the wall studs; is 
              relatively easy to install.Liquid Covering 
            Materials 
            Some of the above 
            listed materials can be applied only to flat surfaces. In order to 
            find a material which will provide a shield over both flat and 
            curved surfaces, several liquid covering materials have been used, 
            but to date only a limited degree of success has been obtained. The 
            two liquid covering materials which have some use as a shield of 
            leaded surfaces are as follows:(1)  
              urethane-based paint - this material requires the removal of all 
              loose paint and plaster before application; repeated applications 
              may be needed; new surface may peel if old base paint is not 
              removed; should be considered only as a temporary or short-term 
              method, e.g., may be ideal in building scheduled for demolition 
              within a few years.
              (2)  
              pigmented masonry conditioner-this material requires the prior 
              removal of all flaking, peeling, and scaling paint: material has a 
              tung oil base which permits penetration into the base wall 
              material and provides effective shielding; several coats are 
              needed to obtain sufficient bonding of the surface 
              material.I  Sanitation: Water 
            Supply and Temperature
            Some housing codes 
            specify only that dwelling units have hot and cold water supply at 
            all times. Other codes, however, specify a minimum rate of flow for 
            hot and cold water of 1 gallon per minute from each fixture. The 
            temperature generally requested and accepted for hot water is a 
            minimum of 120?F at the outlet.J  
            Sanitation: Septic TanksThere are 17 
            million people in the United States who use septic tanks as a means 
            of sewage disposal. It is important, therefore, for an inspector of 
            housing to have a basic understanding of their construction and 
            use.Before a septic 
            tank can be installed it must be determined that there is a correct 
            location for a disposal field. The best guide to future performance 
            is carefully prepared soil maps together with the experience with 
            each soil in a region. In the absence of such maps percolation tests 
            provide some guidance.The conventional 
            septic tank sewage and disposal system consists of two main parts-a 
            septic tank and an absorption field or seepage pit. The tank 
            settles, stores, and digests the solids (sludge and scum). As sewage 
            enters the tank, the heavier solids settle to the bottom and become 
            sludge, and the lighter particles, including grease, rise to the top 
            of the liquid and remain as scum. The organic matter contained in 
            both sludge and scum is decomposed by action of anaerobic bacteria 
            (the type of bacteria that thrive in absence of air). These bacteria 
            gain their life-processing oxygen by reducing complex organic 
            substances. Gases are vented to atmosphere, and liquids are 
            discharged to the disposal field.Digestive action by 
            the bacteria takes time, and so the tank must be of sufficient 
            capacity to store solids for the required time. As raw sewage enters 
            the tank, an equal amount of liquid effluent is discharged so that 
            the liquid level remains fairly constant. The tank inlet has a 
            baffle to divert the incoming sewage downward. An outlet baffle or 
            pipe fitting retains solids but allows discharge of liquid to the 
            absorption or disposal field. Recommended retention period of the 
            liquid ranges from 8 to 48 hours. In normal operation, scum and 
            sludge must be removed from the tank by mechanical means.Public Health 
            Service research has shown that two or more solids retention 
            compartment tanks are more efficient than one. Rectangular 
            compartment tanks are as good as any, and change in tank shapes to 
            oval, or others offers no special advantages. The flow from the 
            septic tank goes into the absorption field to allow liquid to be 
            dissipated in the soil.K  
            Sanitation: DrainageThe dangers of 
            puddles and pools of stagnant water can be great depending on the 
            location, the depth, and amount of the stagnant water. Stagnant 
            water, whether it be on the ground or in receptacles such as cans, 
            bottles, or rubber tires, can be a major health hazard in any area 
            of the country. Mosquitoes use these pools as breeding grounds. 
            Female mosquitoes lay their eggs in water, and the eggs hatch into a 
            larval stage. The larvae later change to a pupal stage and remain in 
            the water-filled container until they change into adult mosquitoes 
            and begin the fourth stage of their life cycle. It is in this fourth 
            or adult stage that mosquitoes can carry diseases to man. The 
            elimination of ponds, puddles, and other sources of stagnant water 
            is the best way of eliminating mosquito hazards. If the pond or pool 
            is large enough, it can also be a safety hazard for small children 
            who may stumble into the water and drown.Poor drainage may 
            create another hazard if electricity is nearby. The obvious danger 
            of being electrocuted exists when water and electricity are both 
            present. The inspector should always look for evidence of water near 
            the main fuse box in the house and for broken or frayed electrical 
            wires in the kitchen, bathroom, water closet compartment, or laundry 
            room.Excessive dampness 
            caused by puddles and other small bodies of stagnant water or 
            leaking plumbing fixtures can cause structural damage to a house. 
            The water itself can cause rotting of main structural members or can 
            offer the campground needed by subterranean termites for their 
            attack on wooden structures.L  
            Sanitation: Rubbish and Garbage StorageEvery occupant of a 
            dwelling must maintain the part of the dwelling unit that he 
            occupies and controls. The storage and disposal of rubbish and 
            garbage in a safe and sanitary manner is considered the 
            responsibility of the occupant insofar as the garbage and trash 
            is generated in his portion of the structure.It is the owner's 
            responsibility to see that arrangements are made by the tenant for 
            the adequate removal of this refuse.In a structure 
            containing three or more dwelling units it is also the owner's 
            responsibility to supply containers for the storage of refuse and to 
            make provisions for its safe and sanitary removal as often as is 
            necessary to maintain a sanitary structure.In the case of a 
            single- or two-family dwelling, it shall be the responsibility of 
            the occupant to furnish facilities or containers. This does not 
            preclude any agreement, whether written or oral, between owner and 
            occupant for other types of disposal practices; however, any other 
            type of disposal practice must be safe and sanitary. As previously 
            stated, avoiding the attraction of insects and rodents is essential 
            to the public health. Refuse furnishes food and harboring places for 
            rodents and tends to attract them to areas where they have not 
            previously been present. The same is true of insects. The 
            requirement that the proper facilities for the storage of rubbish be 
            provided is to fix responsibility for maintenance and use of these 
            facilities with a particular party whether it be the owner or the 
            occupant of the dwelling. In the case of single-family or two-family 
            dwellings, it is possible for the appropriate department to fix the 
            responsibility for improper use and maintenance of rubbish storage 
            facilities. Such is not the case, however, for multiple-family 
            dwellings, and the responsibility for this use is therefore placed 
            on the owner or operator.M  
            Sanitation: Kitchen FacilitiesAll kitchens or 
            kitchenettes should contain a kitchen sink, cabinets or shelves (or 
            both), a stove, and a refrigerator. Without these items the unit is 
            not a dwelling unit but a rooming unit. If one of these items is 
            missing, the health of the occupants is in jeopardy because of poor 
            food sanitation. The kitchen sink should be an approved type and not 
            a hand-washing sink. It should be large enough to hold a reasonably 
            sized dish or pot. The sink should be connected to the hot- and 
            cold-water systems. It is preferable, but not mandatory, to have a 
            mixing faucet for safety reasons. The drain should be connected to 
            the waste line and should include a trap. If the local plumbing code 
            calls for a grease trap, it should be installed.The purpose of a 
            kitchen sink is the correct washing of dishes used in preparing-and 
            consuming meals. The diseases that can be caused by improperly 
            washed dishes include food poisoning by salmonellae, shigellae, and 
            staphylococci.All kitchens should 
            be supplied with adequate cabinets or shelves for the storage of 
            eating, drinking, and cooking equipment. These may also be used to 
            store foodstuffs that do not require refrigeration. It is important 
            that newly cleaned eating and cooking equipment be stored on a clean 
            surface so that contamination does not occur.A stove or similar 
            device for cooking food is necessary for maintaining adequate 
            nutrition of-the inhabitants. A diet of only cold food soon becomes 
            boring and of doubtful nutritional value. Additionally, some foods 
            need to be cooked to provide safety from parasites and pathogens. A 
            refrigerator or similar device for storing food is also required in 
            all kitchens. The refrigerator should be capable of storing food at 
            temperatures between 32?F and 45?F under ordinary maximum summer 
            conditions. An ice box would not meet the requirements, because it 
            cannot keep the temperature below 45?F at all times during the 
            summer. A freezer compartment is not necessary in this refrigerator, 
            but it is always desirable because of the large amount of frozen 
            foods now on the market. The purpose of a refrigerator is to protect 
            the occupants of a dwelling unit from illness caused by improperly 
            stored food. An economic factor is also involved since it is more 
            expensive to buy food for one meal at a time.III.  Inspection Procedures
            A Although 
            inspection procedures vary from city to city, there are several 
            common items that the inspector can and should check. These 
            include:Rodents - Rats 
              and mice are habitually nocturnal and secretive and are rarely 
              seen during the day except when infestations are heavy. Therefore, 
              it is necessary to interpret signs of their activities properly in 
              order to plan control work. These signs are found in secluded 
              places, such as along walls, under piles of rubbish, and behind or 
              under boxes, boards, and thick vegetation. From the rodent signs, 
              one can tell the species present, and whether a rodent infestation 
              is current or old, heavy or light. The following are the most 
              common rat signs: droppings, runways, rubmarks, burrows, gnawing, 
              and tracks.Roaches- An 
              experienced inspector can frequently detect roaches by their oily 
              odor and by the obvious smell of commercial repellants used by 
              home-owners. Roaches are more commonly found in the kitchen and in 
              the bathroom. Check drawers and cabinets and, also, check trash 
              cans and open garbage bags; usually they are very active in and 
              near the food sources.Bedbugs-In 
              touring a house, notice bed linens and blankets and be alert to 
              urine odor. Blood spots on the linen are typical signs of bedbug 
              activity. Bedbugs have a distinctive odor. If children are at home 
              when you call, casually observe the younger ones for bites on face 
              and arms.In general, look 
              for rubbish, garbage, and food leavings in or on sinks or strewn 
              on floors. Observe any domestic animal beds or 
              droppings.Lifting, 
              peeling, or flaking paint should be ordered removed, and the place 
              should be repainted with lead-free paint to prevent possible lead 
              poisoning to children.Cracked and 
              broken floor covering provides a nest for household pests. It 
              should be ordered removed, the floor should be cleaned, and new 
              covering put down. Kitchen and bathroom floor coverings should be 
              impervious to water.Cracks around 
              bathtubs, in toilets, or in sinks are also 
              unsanitary.Back siphonage 
              possibilities should be checked thoroughly. Make sure there is a 
              proper air gap between the spill rim of basin, sink, or tub and 
              the lowest point of the faucet.Make sure 
              kitchens are equipped with approved garbage containers with 
              tight-fitting lids.Refuse storage 
              facilities should include enough containers to hold all garbage 
              and rubbish that normally accumulates between collection days. A 
              good refuse container should be rust resistant, water-tight, 
              tightly covered, easy to clean, easily handled by one man, of 
              rat-anddamage-resistant construction (heavy duty), and constructed 
              with a recessed bottom.Keep alert for 
              evidence of coal gas, sewer gas, and escaping cooking 
              gas.Order all 
              unvented home space heaters removed in your 
              presence.Check legality 
              of any community kitchens you may find, since they are often a 
              source of disease.Check all 
              windows for proper screening, where required, during the period 
              called for in your code.B  The 
            inspector will also find that there are other items he should check, 
            and that, when these conditions are found, they should be referred 
            to the appropriate local authority. These include:
            Reports by 
              occupant of bites by rodents, roaches, or 
              bedbugs.Broken sewage 
              disposal lines, also referred to as sanitary waste-water 
              lines.Stopped-up 
              toilets.Accumulation of 
              weeds, garbage, or trash on premises.Any obvious 
              rashes or sores on occupants.Although he is empowered to 
            and should order corrective action on most, if not all, of these 
            problems, he should also refer these sources or evidences of disease 
            to the health agency.
            C  
            Appropriate ToolsThe inspector 
            should always carry a flashlight, thermometer, and a measuring tape. 
            Moreover, when infestation is present, it would also be well for him 
            to carry repellant so that he does not transport pests. Other 
            equipment will be carried according to local department 
            requirements.D  
            ReminderIn carrying out the 
            health and sanitary aspects of housing inspections, the inspectors 
            must keep in mind that responsibility is there for them to assume. 
            They cannot do "just their jobs." They must do the "extra" that puts 
            them above an automaton and raises them to the class of dedicated, 
            trained guardians of public health, safety, and 
            welfare.[1]Additional information on undue lead absorption, see CDC 
            Statement. Increased Lead Absorption and Lead Poisoning in Young 
            Children." March 1975.Return 
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             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