15.404-1 Proposal analysis techniques.       (a)                   *General.* The objective of proposal analysis is to ensure that the final agreed-to price is fair and reasonable.                                                         (1) The contracting officer is responsible for evaluating the reasonableness of the offered prices. The analytical techniques and procedures described in this subsection may be used, singly or in combination with others, to ensure that the final price is fair and reasonable. The complexity and circumstances of each acquisition should determine the level of detail of the analysis required.                                                            (2) Price analysis shall be used when certified cost or pricing data are not required (see paragraph (b) of this subsection and 15.404-3).                                                            (3) Cost analysis shall be used to evaluate the reasonableness of individual cost elements when certified cost or pricing data are required. Price analysis should be used to verify that the overall price offered is fair and reasonable.                                                            (4) Cost analysis may also be used to evaluate data other than certified cost or pricing data to determine cost reasonableness or cost realism when a fair and reasonable price cannot be determined through price analysis alone.                                                            (5) The contracting officer may request the advice and assistance of other experts to ensure that an appropriate analysis is performed.                                                            (6) Recommendations or conclusions regarding the Government’s review or analysis of an offeror’s or contractor’s proposal shall not be disclosed to the offeror or contractor without the concurrence of the contracting officer. Any discrepancy or mistake of fact (such as duplications, omissions, and errors in computation) contained in the certified cost or pricing data or data other than certified cost or pricing data submitted in support of a proposal shall be brought to the contracting officer’s attention for appropriate action.                                                            (7) The Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) and the Federal Acquisition Institute (FAI) jointly prepared a five-volume set of Contract Pricing Reference Guides to guide pricing and negotiation personnel. The five guides are: I Price Analysis, II Quantitative Techniques for Contract Pricing, III Cost Analysis, IV Advanced Issues in Contract Pricing, and V Federal Contract Negotiation Techniques. These references provide detailed discussion and examples applying pricing policies to pricing problems. They are to be used for instruction and professional guidance. However, they are not directive and should be considered informational only. They are available via the internet at http://www.acq.osd.mil/dpap/cpic/cp/contract_pricing_reference_guides.html.                                                                             (b)                   *Price analysis.*                                                         (1) Price analysis is the process of examining and evaluating a proposed price without evaluating its separate cost elements and proposed profit. Unless an exception from the requirement to obtain certified cost or pricing data applies under 15.403-1(b)(1) or (b)(2), at a minimum, the contracting officer shall obtain appropriate data, without certification, on the prices at which the same or similar items have previously been sold and determine if the data is adequate for evaluating the reasonableness of the price. Price analysis may include evaluating data other than certified cost or pricing data obtained from the offeror or contractor when there is no other means for determining a fair and reasonable price. Contracting officers shall obtain data other than certified cost or pricing data from the offeror or contractor for all acquisitions (including commercial acquisitions), if that is the contracting officer’s only means to determine the price to be fair and reasonable.                                                            (2) The Government may use various price analysis techniques and procedures to ensure a fair and reasonable price. Examples of such techniques include, but are not limited to, the following:                                                                           (i) Comparison of proposed prices received in response to the solicitation. Normally, adequate price competition establishes a fair and reasonable price (see 15.403-1(c)(1)).                                                                              (ii) Comparison of the proposed prices to historical prices paid, whether by the Government or other than the Government, for the same or similar items. This method may be used for commercial products or commercial services including those “of a type” or when requiring minor modifications for commercial products.                                                                                             (A) The prior price must be a valid basis for comparison. If there has been a significant time lapse between the last acquisition and the present one, if the terms and conditions of the acquisition are significantly different, or if the reasonableness of the prior price is uncertain, then the prior price may not be a valid basis for comparison.                                                                                                (B) The prior price must be adjusted to account for materially differing terms and conditions, quantities and market and economic factors. For similar items, the contracting officer must also adjust the prior price to account for material differences between the similar item and the item being procured.                                                                                                (C) Expert technical advice should be obtained when analyzing similar items, or commercial products or commercial services that are “of a type”, or requiring minor modifications for commercial products, to ascertain the magnitude of changes required and to assist in pricing the required changes                                                                                                                                         (iii) Use of parametric estimating methods/application of rough yardsticks (such as dollars per pound or per horsepower, or other units) to highlight significant inconsistencies that warrant additional pricing inquiry.                                                                              (iv) Comparison with competitive published price lists, published market prices of commodities, similar indexes, and discount or rebate arrangements.                                                                              (v) Comparison of proposed prices with independent Government cost estimates.                                                                              (vi) Comparison of proposed prices with prices obtained through market research for the same or similar items.                                                                              (vii) Analysis of data other than certified cost or pricing data (as defined at 2.101) provided by the offeror.                                                                                                           (3) The first two techniques at 15.404-1(b)(2) are the preferred techniques. However, if the contracting officer determines that information on competitive proposed prices or previous contract prices is not available or is insufficient to determine that the price is fair and reasonable, the contracting officer may use any of the remaining techniques as appropriate to the circumstances applicable to the acquisition.                                                            (4) Value analysis can give insight into the relative worth of a product and the Government may use it in conjunction with the price analysis techniques listed in paragraph (b)(2) of this section.                                                                             (c) Cost analysis.                                                         (1) Cost analysis is the review and evaluation of any separate cost elements and profit or fee in an offeror’s or contractor’s proposal, as needed to determine a fair and reasonable price or to determine cost realism, and the application of judgment to determine how well the proposed costs represent what the cost of the contract should be, assuming reasonable economy and efficiency.                                                            (2) The Government may use various cost analysis techniques and procedures to ensure a fair and reasonable price, given the circumstances of the acquisition. Such techniques and procedures include the following:                                                                           (i) Verification of cost data or pricing data and evaluation of cost elements, including-                                                                                             (A) The necessity for, and reasonableness of, proposed costs, including allowances for contingencies;                                                                                                (B) Projection of the offeror’s cost trends, on the basis of current and historical cost or pricing data;                                                                                                (C) Reasonableness of estimates generated by appropriately calibrated and validated parametric models or cost-estimating relationships; and                                                                                                (D) The application of audited or negotiated indirect cost rates, labor rates, and cost of money or other factors.                                                                                                                                         (ii) Evaluating the effect of the offeror’s current practices on future costs. In conducting this evaluation, the contracting officer shall ensure that the effects of inefficient or uneconomical past practices are not projected into the future. In pricing production of recently developed complex equipment, the contracting officer should perform a trend analysis of basic labor and materials, even in periods of relative price stability.                                                                              (iii) Comparison of costs proposed by the offeror for individual cost elements with-                                                                                             (A) Actual costs previously incurred by the same offeror;                                                                                                (B) Previous cost estimates from the offeror or from other offerors for the same or similar items;                                                                                                (C) Other cost estimates received in response to the Government’s request;                                                                                                (D) Independent Government cost estimates by technical personnel; and                                                                                                (E) Forecasts of planned expenditures.                                                                                                                                         (iv) Verification that the offeror's cost submissions are in accordance with the contract cost principles and procedures in part  31 and, when applicable, the requirements and procedures in 48 CFR chapter 99, Cost Accounting Standards.                                                                              (v) Review to determine whether any cost data or pricing data, necessary to make the offeror’s proposal suitable for negotiation, have not been either submitted or identified in writing by the offeror. If there are such data, the contracting officer shall attempt to obtain and use them in the negotiations or make satisfactory allowance for the incomplete data.                                                                              (vi) Analysis of the results of any make-or-buy program reviews, in evaluating subcontract costs (see 15.407-2).                                                                                                                            (d) Cost realism analysis.                                                         (1) Cost realism analysis is the process of independently reviewing and evaluating specific elements of each offeror’s proposed cost estimate to determine whether the estimated proposed cost elements are realistic for the work to be performed; reflect a clear understanding of the requirements; and are consistent with the unique methods of performance and materials described in the offeror’s technical proposal.                                                            (2) Cost realism analyses shall be performed on cost-reimbursement contracts to determine the probable cost of performance for each offeror.                                                                           (i) The probable cost may differ from the proposed cost and should reflect the Government’s best estimate of the cost of any contract that is most likely to result from the offeror’s proposal. The probable cost shall be used for purposes of evaluation to determine the best value.                                                                              (ii) The probable cost is determined by adjusting each offeror’s proposed cost, and fee when appropriate, to reflect any additions or reductions in cost elements to realistic levels based on the results of the cost realism analysis.                                                                                                           (3) Cost realism analyses may also be used on competitive fixed-price incentive contracts or, in exceptional cases, on other competitive fixed-price-type contracts when new requirements may not be fully understood by competing offerors, there are quality concerns, or past experience indicates that contractors’ proposed costs have resulted in quality or service shortfalls. Results of the analysis may be used in performance risk assessments and responsibility determinations. However, proposals shall be evaluated using the criteria in the solicitation, and the offered prices shall not be adjusted as a result of the analysis.                                                                             (e) Technical analysis.                                                         (1) The contracting officer should request that personnel having specialized knowledge, skills, experience, or capability in engineering, science, or management perform a technical analysis of the proposed types and quantities of materials, labor, processes, special tooling, equipment or real property, the reasonableness of scrap and spoilage, and other associated factors set forth in the proposal(s) in order to determine the need for and reasonableness of the proposed resources, assuming reasonable economy and efficiency.                                                            (2) At a minimum, the technical analysis should examine the types and quantities of material proposed and the need for the types and quantities of labor hours and the labor mix. Any other data that may be pertinent to an assessment of the offeror’s ability to accomplish the technical requirements or to the cost or price analysis of the service or product being proposed should also be included in the analysis.                                                            (3) The contracting officer should request technical assistance in evaluating pricing related to items that are "similar to" items being purchased, or commercial products or commercial services that are “of a type”, or requiring minor modifications for commercial products, to ascertain the magnitude of changes required and to assist in pricing the required changes.                                                                             (f) Unit prices.                                                         (1) Except when pricing an item on the basis of adequate price competition or catalog or market price, unit prices shall reflect the intrinsic value of an item or service and shall be in proportion to an item’s base cost (*e.g.,* manufacturing or acquisition costs). Any method of distributing costs to line items that distorts the unit prices shall not be used. For example, distributing costs equally among line items is not acceptable except when there is little or no variation in base cost.                                                            (2) Except for the acquisition of commercial products, contracting officers shall require that offerors identify in their proposals those items of supply that they will not manufacture or to which they will not contribute significant value, unless adequate price competition is expected (10 U.S.C. 3703(a)(1)(A)                                                      and 41 U.S.C.3503(a)(1)(A)). Such information shall be used to determine whether the intrinsic value of an item has been distorted through application of overhead and whether such items should be considered for breakout. The contracting officer should require such information in all other negotiated contracts when appropriate.                                                                             (g) Unbalanced pricing.                                                         (1) Unbalanced pricing may increase performance risk and could result in payment of unreasonably high prices. Unbalanced pricing exists when, despite an acceptable total evaluated price, the price of one or more line items is significantly over or understated as indicated by the application of cost or price analysis techniques. The greatest risks associated with unbalanced pricing occur when-                                                                           (i) Startup work, mobilization, first articles, or first article testing are separate line items;                                                                              (ii) Base quantities and option quantities are separate line items; or                                                                              (iii) The evaluated price is the aggregate of estimated quantities to be ordered under separate line items of an indefinite-delivery contract.                                                                                                           (2) All offers with separately priced line items or subline items shall be analyzed to determine if the prices are unbalanced. If cost or price analysis techniques indicate that an offer is unbalanced, the contracting officer shall-                                                                           (i) Consider the risks to the Government associated with the unbalanced pricing in determining the competitive range and in making the source selection decision; and                                                                              (ii) Consider whether award of the contract will result in paying unreasonably high prices for contract performance.                                                                                                           (3) An offer may be rejected if the contracting officer determines that the lack of balance poses an unacceptable risk to the Government.                                                                             (h) Review and justification of pass-through contracts.                                                         (1) The requirements of this paragraph (h) are applicable to all agencies. The requirements apply by law to the Department of Defense, the Department of State, and the United States Agency for International Development, per section 802 of the National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) for Fiscal Year 2013. The requirements apply as a matter of policy to other Federal agencies.                                                            (2) Except as provided in paragraph (h)(3) of this section, when an offeror for a contract or a task or delivery order informs the contracting officer pursuant to 52.215-22 that it intends to award subcontracts for more than 70 percent of the total cost of work to be performed under the contract, task or delivery order, the contracting officer shall–                                                                           (i) Consider the availability of alternative contract vehicles and the feasibility of contracting directly with a subcontractor or subcontractors that will perform the bulk of the work. If such alternative approaches are selected, any resulting solicitations shall be issued in accordance with the competition requirements under FAR part  6;                                                                              (ii) Make a written determination that the contracting approach selected is in the best interest of the Government; and                                                                              (iii) Document the basis for such determination.                                                                                                           (3) Contract actions awarded pursuant to subparts  19.5, 19.8, 19.13, 19.14, or 19.15 are exempt from the requirements of this paragraph (h) (see section 1615 of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2014 (Pub. L. 113-66)).    **Parent topic:** 15.404 Proposal analysis.