4-1

INTRODUCTION

The maintenance of lift and control of an airplane in

flight requires a certain minimum airspeed. This

critical airspeed depends on certain factors, such as

gross weight, load factors, and existing density altitude.

The minimum speed below which further controlled

flight is impossible is called the stalling speed. An

important feature of pilot training is the development

of the ability to estimate the margin of safety above the

stalling speed. Also, the ability to determine the

characteristic responses of any airplane at different

airspeeds is of great importance to the pilot. The

student pilot, therefore, must develop this awareness in

order to safely avoid stalls and to operate an airplane

correctly and safely at slow airspeeds.

SLOW FLIGHT

Slow flight could be thought of, by some, as a speed

that is less than cruise. In pilot training and testing,

however, slow flight is broken down into two distinct

elements: (1) the establishment, maintenance of, and

maneuvering of the airplane at airspeeds and in

configurations appropriate to takeoffs, climbs,

descents, landing approaches and go-arounds, and, (2)

maneuvering at the slowest airspeed at which the

airplane is capable of maintaining controlled flight

without indications of a stall—usually 3 to 5 knots

above stalling speed.

FLIGHT AT LESS THAN CRUISE AIRSPEEDS

Maneuvering during slow flight demonstrates the flight

characteristics and degree of controllability of an

airplane at less than cruise speeds. The ability to

determine the characteristic control responses at the

lower airspeeds appropriate to takeoffs, departures,

and landing approaches is a critical factor in

stall awareness.

As airspeed decreases, control effectiveness decreases

disproportionately. For instance, there may be a certain

loss of effectiveness when the airspeed is reduced from

30 to 20 m.p.h. above the stalling speed, but there will

normally be a much greater loss as the airspeed is

further reduced to 10 m.p.h. above stalling. The

objective of maneuvering during slow flight is to

develop the pilot’s sense of feel and ability to use the

controls correctly, and to improve proficiency in

performing maneuvers that require slow airspeeds.

Maneuvering during slow flight should be performed

using both instrument indications and outside visual

reference. Slow flight should be practiced from straight

glides, straight-and-level flight, and from medium

banked gliding and level flight turns. Slow flight at

approach speeds should include slowing the airplane

smoothly and promptly from cruising to approach

speeds without changes in altitude or heading, and

determining and using appropriate power and trim

settings. Slow flight at approach speed should also

include configuration changes, such as landing gear

and flaps, while maintaining heading and altitude.

FLIGHT AT MINIMUM CONTROLLABLE

AIRSPEED

This maneuver demonstrates the flight characteristics

and degree of controllability of the airplane at its

minimum flying speed. By definition, the term “flight

at minimum controllable airspeed” means a speed at

which any further increase in angle of attack or load

factor, or reduction in power will cause an immediate

stall. Instruction in flight at minimum controllable

airspeed should be introduced at reduced power

settings, with the airspeed sufficiently above the stall to

permit maneuvering, but close enough to the stall to

sense the characteristics of flight at very low

airspeed—which are sloppy controls, ragged response

to control inputs, and difficulty maintaining altitude.

Maneuvering at minimum controllable airspeed should

be performed using both instrument indications and

outside visual reference. It is important that pilots form

the habit of frequent reference to the flight instruments,

especially the airspeed indicator, while flying at very

low airspeeds. However, a “feel” for the airplane at

very low airspeeds must be developed to avoid

inadvertent stalls and to operate the airplane

with precision.

To begin the maneuver, the throttle is gradually

reduced from cruising position. While the airspeed is

decreasing, the position of the nose in relation to the

horizon should be noted and should be raised as

necessary to maintain altitude.

When the airspeed reaches the maximum allowable for

landing gear operation, the landing gear (if equipped

with retractable gear) should be extended and all gear

down checks performed. As the airspeed reaches the

maximum allowable for flap operation, full flaps

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should be lowered and the pitch attitude adjusted to

maintain altitude. [Figure 4-1] Additional power will

be required as the speed further decreases to maintain

the airspeed just above a stall. As the speed decreases

further, the pilot should note the feel of the flight

controls, especially the elevator. The pilot should also

note the sound of the airflow as it falls off in tone level.

As airspeed is reduced, the flight controls become less

effective and the normal nosedown tendency is

reduced. The elevators become less responsive and

coarse control movements become necessary to retain

control of the airplane. The slipstream effect produces

a strong yaw so the application of rudder is required to

maintain coordinated flight. The secondary effect of

applied rudder is to induce a roll, so aileron is required

to keep the wings level. This can result in flying with

crossed controls. 

During these changing flight conditions, it is important

to retrim the airplane as often as necessary to

compensate for changes in control pressures. If the

airplane has been trimmed for cruising speed, heavy

aft control pressure will be needed on the elevators,

making precise control impossible. If too much speed

is lost, or too little power is used, further back pressure

on the elevator control may result in a loss of altitude

or a stall. When the desired pitch attitude and

minimum control airspeed have been established, it is

important to continually cross-check the attitude

indicator, altimeter, and airspeed indicator, as well as

outside references to ensure that accurate control is

being maintained. 

The pilot should understand that when flying more

slowly than minimum drag speed (LD/MAX) the

airplane will exhibit a characteristic known as “speed

instability.” If the airplane is disturbed by even the

slightest turbulence, the airspeed will decrease. As

airspeed decreases, the total drag also increases

resulting in a further loss in airspeed. The total drag

continues to rise and the speed continues to fall. Unless

more power is applied and/or the nose is lowered,

the speed will continue to decay right down to the

stall. This is an extremely important factor in the

performance of slow flight. The pilot must understand

that, at speed less than minimum drag speed, the

airspeed is unstable and will continue to decay if

allowed to do so.

When the attitude, airspeed, and power have been

stabilized in straight flight, turns should be practiced

to determine the airplane’s controllability characteristics at this minimum speed. During the turns, power

and pitch attitude may need to be increased to

maintain the airspeed and altitude. The objective is to

acquaint the pilot with the lack of maneuverability at

minimum speeds, the danger of incipient stalls, and

the tendency of the airplane to stall as the bank is

increased. A stall may also occur as a result of abrupt

or rough control movements when flying at this

critical airspeed.

Abruptly raising the flaps while at minimum

controllable airspeed will result in lift suddenly

being lost, causing the airplane to lose altitude or

perhaps stall.

Once flight at minimum controllable airspeed is set up

properly for level flight, a descent or climb at

minimum controllable airspeed can be established by

adjusting the power as necessary to establish the

desired rate of descent or climb. The beginning pilot

should note the increased yawing tendency at minimum control airspeed at high power settings with flaps

fully extended. In some airplanes, an attempt to climb

at such a slow airspeed may result in a loss of altitude,

even with maximum power applied.

Common errors in the performance of slow flight are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Inadequate back-elevator pressure as power is

reduced, resulting in altitude loss.

• Excessive back-elevator pressure as power is

reduced, resulting in a climb, followed by a rapid

reduction in airspeed and “mushing.”

• Inadequate compensation for adverse yaw during

turns.

• Fixation on the airspeed indicator.

• Failure to anticipate changes in lift as flaps are

extended or retracted.

• Inadequate power management.

• Inability to adequately divide attention between

airplane control and orientation.

SLOW FLIGHT

Low airspeed

High angle of attack

High power setting

Maintain altitude

Figure 4-1. Slow flight—Low airspeed, high angle of attack,

high power, and constant altitude.

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STALLS

A stall occurs when the smooth airflow over the

airplane’s wing is disrupted, and the lift degenerates

rapidly. This is caused when the wing exceeds its

critical angle of attack. This can occur at any airspeed,

in any attitude, with any power setting. [Figure 4-2]

The practice of stall recovery and the development of

awareness of stalls are of primary importance in pilot

training. The objectives in performing intentional stalls

are to familiarize the pilot with the conditions that

produce stalls, to assist in recognizing an approaching

stall, and to develop the habit of taking prompt

preventive or corrective action.

Intentional stalls should be performed at an altitude

that will provide adequate height above the ground for

recovery and return to normal level flight. Though it

depends on the degree to which a stall has progressed,

most stalls require some loss of altitude during

recovery. The longer it takes to recognize the

approaching stall, the more complete the stall is likely

to become, and the greater the loss of altitude to

be expected.

RECOGNITION OF STALLS

Pilots must recognize the flight conditions that are

conducive to stalls and know how to apply the

necessary corrective action. They should learn to

recognize an approaching stall by sight, sound, and

feel. The following cues may be useful in recognizing

the approaching stall.

• Vision is useful in detecting a stall condition by

noting the attitude of the airplane. This sense can

only be relied on when the stall is the result of an

unusual attitude of the airplane. Since the airplane

can also be stalled from a normal attitude, vision

in this instance would be of little help in detecting

the approaching stall.

• Hearing is also helpful in sensing a stall condition.

In the case of fixed-pitch propeller airplanes in a

power-on condition, a change in sound due to loss

of revolutions per minute (r.p.m.) is particularly

noticeable. The lessening of the noise made by the

air flowing along the airplane structure as airspeed

decreases is also quite noticeable, and when the

stall is almost complete, vibration and incident

noises often increase greatly.

• Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction

or speed of motion, is probably the most important

and the best indicator to the trained and

experienced pilot. If this sensitivity is properly

developed, it will warn of a decrease in speed

or the beginning of a settling or mushing of

the airplane.

• Feel is an important sense in recognizing the onset

of a stall. The feeling of control pressures is very

important. As speed is reduced, the resistance to

pressures on the controls becomes progressively

less. Pressures exerted on the controls tend to

become movements of the control surfaces. The

 -4 0 5 10 15 20

Angle of Attack in Degrees

Coefficient of Lift (CL) 2.0

1.5

1.0

.5

Figure 4-2. Critical angle of attack and stall.

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lag between these movements and the response of

the airplane becomes greater, until in a complete

stall all controls can be moved with almost no

resistance, and with little immediate effect on the

airplane. Just before the stall occurs, buffeting,

uncontrollable pitching, or vibrations may begin.

Several types of stall warning indicators have been

developed to warn pilots of an approaching stall. The

use of such indicators is valuable and desirable, but the

reason for practicing stalls is to learn to recognize stalls

without the benefit of warning devices.

FUNDAMENTALS OF STALL RECOVERY

During the practice of intentional stalls, the real

objective is not to learn how to stall an airplane, but to

learn how to recognize an approaching stall and take

prompt corrective action. [Figure 4-3] Though the

recovery actions must be taken in a coordinated

manner, they are broken down into three actions here

for explanation purposes.

First, at the indication of a stall, the pitch attitude and

angle of attack must be decreased positively and

immediately. Since the basic cause of a stall is always

an excessive angle of attack, the cause must first be

eliminated by releasing the back-elevator pressure that

was necessary to attain that angle of attack or by

moving the elevator control forward. This lowers the

nose and returns the wing to an effective angle of

attack. The amount of elevator control pressure or

movement used depends on the design of the airplane,

the severity of the stall, and the proximity of the

ground. In some airplanes, a moderate movement of

the elevator control—perhaps slightly forward of

neutral—is enough, while in others a forcible push to

the full forward position may be required. An

excessive negative load on the wings caused by

excessive forward movement of the elevator may

impede, rather than hasten, the stall recovery. The

object is to reduce the angle of attack but only enough

to allow the wing to regain lift.

Second, the maximum allowable power should be

applied to increase the airplane’s airspeed and assist in

reducing the wing’s angle of attack. The throttle

should be promptly, but smoothly, advanced to the

maximum allowable power. The flight instructor

Stall Recognition

• High angle of attack

• Airframe buffeting or shaking

• Warning horn or light

• Loss of lift

Stall Recovery

• Reduce angle of attack

• Add power

Figure 4-3. Stall recognition and recovery.

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should emphasize, however, that power is not essential

for a safe stall recovery if sufficient altitude is

available. Reducing the angle of attack is the only way

of recovering from a stall regardless of the amount of

power used.

Although stall recoveries should be practiced without,

as well as with the use of power, in most actual stalls

the application of more power, if available, is an

integral part of the stall recovery. Usually, the greater

the power applied, the less the loss of altitude.

Maximum allowable power applied at the instant of a

stall will usually not cause overspeeding of an engine

equipped with a fixed-pitch propeller, due to the heavy

air load imposed on the propeller at slow airspeeds.

However, it will be necessary to reduce the power as

airspeed is gained after the stall recovery so the

airspeed will not become excessive. When performing

intentional stalls, the tachometer indication should

never be allowed to exceed the red line (maximum

allowable r.p.m.) marked on the instrument.

Third, straight-and-level flight should be regained with

coordinated use of all controls.

Practice in both power-on and power-off stalls is

important because it simulates stall conditions that

could occur during normal flight maneuvers. For

example, the power-on stalls are practiced to show

what could happen if the airplane were climbing at an

excessively nose-high attitude immediately after

takeoff or during a climbing turn. The power-off

turning stalls are practiced to show what could happen

if the controls are improperly used during a turn from

the base leg to the final approach. The power-off

straight-ahead stall simulates the attitude and flight

characteristics of a particular airplane during the final

approach and landing.

Usually, the first few practices should include only

approaches to stalls, with recovery initiated as soon as

the first buffeting or partial loss of control is noted. In

this way, the pilot can become familiar with the

indications of an approaching stall without actually

stalling the airplane. Once the pilot becomes

comfortable with this procedure, the airplane should

be slowed in such a manner that it stalls in as near a

level pitch attitude as is possible. The student pilot

must not be allowed to form the impression that in all

circumstances, a high pitch attitude is necessary to

exceed the critical angle of attack, or that in all

circumstances, a level or near level pitch attitude is

indicative of a low angle of attack. Recovery should be

practiced first without the addition of power, by merely

relieving enough back-elevator pressure that the stall

is broken and the airplane assumes a normal glide

attitude. The instructor should also introduce the

student to a secondary stall at this point. Stall

recoveries should then be practiced with the addition

of power to determine how effective power will be in

executing a safe recovery and minimizing altitude loss.

Stall accidents usually result from an inadvertent stall

at a low altitude in which a recovery was not

accomplished prior to contact with the surface. As a

preventive measure, stalls should be practiced at an

altitude which will allow recovery no lower than 1,500

feet AGL. To recover with a minimum loss of altitude

requires a reduction in the angle of attack (lowering

the airplane’s pitch attitude), application of power, and

termination of the descent without entering another

(secondary) stall.

USE OF AILERONS/RUDDER IN STALL

RECOVERY

Different types of airplanes have different stall

characteristics. Most airplanes are designed so that the

wings will stall progressively outward from the wing

roots (where the wing attaches to the fuselage) to the

wingtips. This is the result of designing the wings in a

manner that the wingtips have less angle of incidence

than the wing roots. [Figure 4-4] Such a design feature

causes the wingtips to have a smaller angle of attack

than the wing roots during flight.

Figure 4-4. Wingtip washout.

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Exceeding the critical angle of attack causes a stall; the

wing roots of an airplane will exceed the critical angle

before the wingtips, and the wing roots will stall first.

The wings are designed in this manner so that aileron

control will be available at high angles of attack (slow

airspeed) and give the airplane more stable stalling

characteristics.

When the airplane is in a stalled condition, the

wingtips continue to provide some degree of lift, and

the ailerons still have some control effect. During

recovery from a stall, the return of lift begins at the tips

and progresses toward the roots. Thus, the ailerons can

be used to level the wings.

Using the ailerons requires finesse to avoid an

aggravated stall condition. For example, if the right

wing dropped during the stall and excessive aileron

control were applied to the left to raise the wing, the

aileron deflected downward (right wing) would

produce a greater angle of attack (and drag), and

possibly a more complete stall at the tip as the critical

angle of attack is exceeded. The increase in drag

created by the high angle of attack on that wing might

cause the airplane to yaw in that direction. This adverse

yaw could result in a spin unless directional control

was maintained by rudder, and/or the aileron control

sufficiently reduced.

Even though excessive aileron pressure may have been

applied, a spin will not occur if directional (yaw)

control is maintained by timely application of

coordinated rudder pressure. Therefore, it is important

that the rudder be used properly during both the entry

and the recovery from a stall. The primary use of the

rudder in stall recoveries is to counteract any tendency

of the airplane to yaw or slip. The correct recovery

technique would be to decrease the pitch attitude by

applying forward-elevator pressure to break the stall,

advancing the throttle to increase airspeed, and

simultaneously maintaining directional control with

coordinated use of the aileron and rudder.

STALL CHARACTERISTICS

Because of engineering design variations, the stall

characteristics for all airplanes cannot be specifically

described; however, the similarities found in small

general aviation training-type airplanes are noteworthy

enough to be considered. It will be noted that the

power-on and power-off stall warning indications will

be different. The power-off stall will have less

noticeable clues (buffeting, shaking) than the

power-on stall. In the power-off stall, the predominant

clue can be the elevator control position (full upelevator against the stops) and a high descent rate.

When performing the power-on stall, the buffeting will

likely be the predominant clue that provides a positive

indication of the stall. For the purpose of airplane

certification, the stall warning may be furnished either

through the inherent aerodynamic qualities of the

airplane, or by a stall warning device that will give a

clear distinguishable indication of the stall. Most

airplanes are equipped with a stall warning device.

The factors that affect the stalling characteristics of the

airplane are balance, bank, pitch attitude, coordination,

drag, and power. The pilot should learn the effect of the

stall characteristics of the airplane being flown and the

proper correction. It should be reemphasized that a stall

can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, or at any

power setting, depending on the total number of factors

affecting the particular airplane.

A number of factors may be induced as the result of

other factors. For example, when the airplane is in a

nose-high turning attitude, the angle of bank has a

tendency to increase. This occurs because with the

airspeed decreasing, the airplane begins flying in a

smaller and smaller arc. Since the outer wing is

moving in a larger radius and traveling faster than the

inner wing, it has more lift and causes an overbanking

tendency. At the same time, because of the decreasing

airspeed and lift on both wings, the pitch attitude tends

to lower. In addition, since the airspeed is decreasing

while the power setting remains constant, the effect of

torque becomes more prominent, causing the airplane

to yaw.

During the practice of power-on turning stalls, to

compensate for these factors and to maintain a

constant flight attitude until the stall occurs, aileron

pressure must be continually adjusted to keep the bank

attitude constant. At the same time, back-elevator

pressure must be continually increased to maintain the

pitch attitude, as well as right rudder pressure

increased to keep the ball centered and to prevent

adverse yaw from changing the turn rate. If the bank is

allowed to become too steep, the vertical component

of lift decreases and makes it even more difficult to

maintain a constant pitch attitude.

Whenever practicing turning stalls, a constant pitch

and bank attitude should be maintained until the stall

occurs. Whatever control pressures are necessary

should be applied even though the controls appear to

be crossed (aileron pressure in one direction, rudder

pressure in the opposite direction). During the entry to

a power-on turning stall to the right, in particular, the

controls will be crossed to some extent. This is due to

right rudder pressure being used to overcome torque

and left aileron pressure being used to prevent the

bank from increasing.

APPROACHES TO STALLS (IMMINENT

STALLS)—POWER-ON OR POWER-OFF

An imminent stall is one in which the airplane is

approaching a stall but is not allowed to completely

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stall. This stall maneuver is primarily for practice in

retaining (or regaining) full control of the airplane

immediately upon recognizing that it is almost in a stall

or that a stall is likely to occur if timely preventive

action is not taken.

The practice of these stalls is of particular value in

developing the pilot’s sense of feel for executing

maneuvers in which maximum airplane performance

is required. These maneuvers require flight with the

airplane approaching a stall, and recovery initiated

before a stall occurs. As in all maneuvers that involve

significant changes in altitude or direction, the pilot

must ensure that the area is clear of other air traffic

before executing the maneuver.

These stalls may be entered and performed in the

attitudes and with the same configuration of the basic

full stalls or other maneuvers described in this chapter.

However, instead of allowing a complete stall, when

the first buffeting or decay of control effectiveness is

noted, the angle of attack must be reduced immediately

by releasing the back-elevator pressure and applying

whatever additional power is necessary. Since the

airplane will not be completely stalled, the pitch

attitude needs to be decreased only to a point where

minimum controllable airspeed is attained or until

adequate control effectiveness is regained.

The pilot must promptly recognize the indication of a

stall and take timely, positive control action to prevent

a full stall. Performance is unsatisfactory if a full stall

occurs, if an excessively low pitch attitude is attained,

or if the pilot fails to take timely action to avoid

excessive airspeed, excessive loss of altitude, or a spin.

FULL STALLS POWER-OFF

The practice of power-off stalls is usually performed

with normal landing approach conditions in simulation

of an accidental stall occurring during landing

approaches. Airplanes equipped with flaps and/or

retractable landing gear should be in the landing

configuration. Airspeed in excess of the normal

approach speed should not be carried into a stall entry

since it could result in an abnormally nose-high

attitude. Before executing these practice stalls, the

pilot must be sure the area is clear of other air traffic.

After extending the landing gear, applying carburetor

heat (if applicable), and retarding the throttle to idle

(or normal approach power), the airplane should be

held at a constant altitude in level flight until the

airspeed decelerates to that of a normal approach. The

airplane should then be smoothly nosed down into the

normal approach attitude to maintain that airspeed.

Wing flaps should be extended and pitch attitude

adjusted to maintain the airspeed.

When the approach attitude and airspeed have

stabilized, the airplane’s nose should be smoothly

raised to an attitude that will induce a stall. Directional

control should be maintained with the rudder, the

wings held level by use of the ailerons, and a constantpitch attitude maintained with the elevator until the

stall occurs. The stall will be recognized by clues, such

as full up-elevator, high descent rate, uncontrollable

nosedown pitching, and possible buffeting.

Recovering from the stall should be accomplished by

reducing the angle of attack, releasing back-elevator

pressure, and advancing the throttle to maximum

allowable power. Right rudder pressure is necessary to

overcome the engine torque effects as power is

advanced and the nose is being lowered. [Figure 4-5]

The nose should be lowered as necessary to regain

flying speed and returned to straight-and-level flight

Establish normal 

approach

Raise nose, 

maintain heading

When stall occurs, 

reduce angle of attack 

and add full power.

Raise flaps as 

recommended

As flying speed 

returns, stop descent 

and establish a climb

Climb at V , raise 

landing gear and 

remaining flaps, trim

Y

Level off at desired altitude,

set power and trim

Figure 4-5. Power-off stall and recovery.

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attitude. After establishing a positive rate of climb, the

flaps and landing gear are retracted, as necessary, and

when in level flight, the throttle should be returned to

cruise power setting. After recovery is complete, a climb

or go-around procedure should be initiated, as the situation dictates, to assure a minimum loss of altitude.

Recovery from power-off stalls should also be

practiced from shallow banked turns to simulate an

inadvertent stall during a turn from base leg to final

approach. During the practice of these stalls, care

should be taken that the turn continues at a uniform

rate until the complete stall occurs. If the power-off

turn is not properly coordinated while approaching the

stall, wallowing may result when the stall occurs. If the

airplane is in a slip, the outer wing may stall first and

whip downward abruptly. This does not affect the

recovery procedure in any way; the angle of attack

must be reduced, the heading maintained, and the

wings leveled by coordinated use of the controls. In

the practice of turning stalls, no attempt should be

made to stall the airplane on a predetermined heading.

However, to simulate a turn from base to final

approach, the stall normally should be made to occur

within a heading change of approximately 90°.

After the stall occurs, the recovery should be made

straight ahead with minimum loss of altitude, and

accomplished in accordance with the recovery

procedure discussed earlier.

Recoveries from power-off stalls should be

accomplished both with, and without, the addition of

power, and may be initiated either just after the stall

occurs, or after the nose has pitched down through the

level flight attitude.

FULL STALLS POWER-ON

Power-on stall recoveries are practiced from straight

climbs, and climbing turns with 15 to 20° banks, to

simulate an accidental stall occurring during takeoffs

and climbs. Airplanes equipped with flaps and/or

retractable landing gear should normally be in the

takeoff configuration; however, power-on stalls should

also be practiced with the airplane in a clean

configuration (flaps and/or gear retracted) as in

departure and normal climbs.

After establishing the takeoff or climb configuration,

the airplane should be slowed to the normal lift-off

speed while clearing the area for other air traffic.

When the desired speed is attained, the power should

be set at takeoff power for the takeoff stall or the

recommended climb power for the departure stall

while establishing a climb attitude. The purpose of

reducing the airspeed to lift-off airspeed before the

throttle is advanced to the recommended setting is to

avoid an excessively steep nose-up attitude for a long

period before the airplane stalls.

After the climb attitude is established, the nose is then

brought smoothly upward to an attitude obviously

impossible for the airplane to maintain and is held at

that attitude until the full stall occurs. In most

airplanes, after attaining the stalling attitude, the

elevator control must be moved progressively further

back as the airspeed decreases until, at the full stall, it

will have reached its limit and cannot be moved back

any farther.

Recovery from the stall should be accomplished by

immediately reducing the angle of attack by positively

As flying speed

returns, stop

descent and

establish 

a climb

Climb at V , raise 

landing gear and 

remaining flaps, trim

Y

Level off at desired

altitude, set power

 and trim

Slow to

lift-off speed,

maintain altitude

Set takeoff power,

raise nose

When stall occurs,

reduce angle of

attack and add

full power

Figure 4-6. Power-on stall.

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releasing back-elevator pressure and, in the case of a

departure stall, smoothly advancing the throttle to

maximum allowable power. In this case, since the

throttle is already at the climb power setting, the addition of power will be relatively slight. [Figure 4-6]

The nose should be lowered as necessary to regain

flying speed with the minimum loss of altitude and

then raised to climb attitude. Then, the airplane should

be returned to the normal straight-and-level flight attitude, and when in normal level flight, the throttle

should be returned to cruise power setting. The pilot

must recognize instantly when the stall has occurred

and take prompt action to prevent a prolonged stalled

condition.

SECONDARY STALL

This stall is called a secondary stall since it may occur

after a recovery from a preceding stall. It is caused by

attempting to hasten the completion of a stall recovery

before the airplane has regained sufficient flying

speed. [Figure 4-7] When this stall occurs, the

back-elevator pressure should again be released just as

in a normal stall recovery. When sufficient airspeed

has been regained, the airplane can then be returned to

straight-and-level flight.

This stall usually occurs when the pilot uses abrupt

control input to return to straight-and-level flight after

a stall or spin recovery. It also occurs when the pilot

fails to reduce the angle of attack sufficiently during

stall recovery by not lowering pitch attitude

sufficiently, or by attempting to break the stall by using

power only.

ACCELERATED STALLS

Though the stalls just discussed normally occur at a

specific airspeed, the pilot must thoroughly understand

that all stalls result solely from attempts to fly at

excessively high angles of attack. During flight, the

angle of attack of an airplane wing is determined by a

number of factors, the most important of which are the

airspeed, the gross weight of the airplane, and the load

factors imposed by maneuvering.

At the same gross weight, airplane configuration, and

power setting, a given airplane will consistently stall at

the same indicated airspeed if no acceleration is

involved. The airplane will, however, stall at a higher

indicated airspeed when excessive maneuvering loads

are imposed by steep turns, pull-ups, or other abrupt

changes in its flightpath. Stalls entered from such flight

situations are called “accelerated maneuver stalls,” a

term, which has no reference to the airspeeds involved.

Stalls which result from abrupt maneuvers tend to be

more rapid, or severe, than the unaccelerated stalls, and

because they occur at higher-than-normal airspeeds,

and/or may occur at lower than anticipated pitch

attitudes, they may be unexpected by an inexperienced

pilot. Failure to take immediate steps toward recovery

when an accelerated stall occurs may result

in a complete loss of flight control, notably,

power-on spins.

This stall should never be practiced with wing flaps in

the extended position due to the lower “G” load

limitations in that configuration.

Accelerated maneuver stalls should not be performed

in any airplane, which is prohibited from such

maneuvers by its type certification restrictions or

Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) and/or Pilot’s

Operating Handbook (POH). If they are permitted,

they should be performed with a bank of

approximately 45°, and in no case at a speed greater

Initial stall

Incomplete or improper

recovery

Secondary stall

Figure 4-7. Secondary stall.

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4-10

than the airplane manufacturer’s recommended

airspeeds or the design maneuvering speed specified

for the airplane. The design maneuvering speed is the

maximum speed at which the airplane can be stalled or

full available aerodynamic control will not exceed the

airplane’s limit load factor. At or below this speed, the

airplane will usually stall before the limit load factor

can be exceeded. Those speeds must not be exceeded

because of the extremely high structural loads that are

imposed on the airplane, especially if there is

turbulence. In most cases, these stalls should be

performed at no more than 1.2 times the normal

stall speed.

The objective of demonstrating accelerated stalls is not

to develop competency in setting up the stall, but rather

to learn how they may occur and to develop the ability

to recognize such stalls immediately, and to take

prompt, effective recovery action. It is important that

recoveries are made at the first indication of a stall, or

immediately after the stall has fully developed; a

prolonged stall condition should never be allowed.

An airplane will stall during a coordinated steep turn

exactly as it does from straight flight, except that the

pitching and rolling actions tend to be more sudden. If

the airplane is slipping toward the inside of the turn at

the time the stall occurs, it tends to roll rapidly toward

the outside of the turn as the nose pitches down

because the outside wing stalls before the inside wing.

If the airplane is skidding toward the outside of the

turn, it will have a tendency to roll to the inside of the

turn because the inside wing stalls first. If the

coordination of the turn at the time of the stall is

accurate, the airplane’s nose will pitch away from the

pilot just as it does in a straight flight stall, since both

wings stall simultaneously.

An accelerated stall demonstration is entered by

establishing the desired flight attitude, then smoothly,

firmly, and progressively increasing the angle of attack

until a stall occurs. Because of the rapidly changing

flight attitude, sudden stall entry, and possible loss of

altitude, it is extremely vital that the area be clear of

other aircraft and the entry altitude be adequate for safe

recovery.

This demonstration stall, as in all stalls, is

accomplished by exerting excessive back-elevator

pressure. Most frequently it would occur during

improperly executed steep turns, stall and spin

recoveries, and pullouts from steep dives. The

objectives are to determine the stall characteristics of

the airplane and develop the ability to instinctively

recover at the onset of a stall at other-than-normal stall

speed or flight attitudes. An accelerated stall, although

usually demonstrated in steep turns, may actually be

encountered any time excessive back-elevator pressure

is applied and/or the angle of attack is increased

too rapidly.

From straight-and-level flight at maneuvering speed

or less, the airplane should be rolled into a steep level

flight turn and back-elevator pressure gradually

applied. After the turn and bank are established,

back-elevator pressure should be smoothly and

steadily increased. The resulting apparent centrifugal

force will push the pilot’s body down in the seat,

increase the wing loading, and decrease the airspeed.

After the airspeed reaches the design maneuvering

speed or within 20 knots above the unaccelerated stall

speed, back-elevator pressure should be firmly

increased until a definite stall occurs. These speed

restrictions must be observed to prevent exceeding the

load limit of the airplane.

When the airplane stalls, recovery should be made

promptly, by releasing sufficient back-elevator

pressure and increasing power to reduce the angle of

attack. If an uncoordinated turn is made, one wing may

tend to drop suddenly, causing the airplane to roll in

that direction. If this occurs, the excessive backelevator pressure must be released, power added, and

the airplane returned to straight-and-level flight with

coordinated control pressure.

The pilot should recognize when the stall is imminent

and take prompt action to prevent a completely stalled

condition. It is imperative that a prolonged stall,

excessive airspeed, excessive loss of altitude, or spin

be avoided.

CROSS-CONTROL STALL

The objective of a cross-control stall demonstration

maneuver is to show the effect of improper control

technique and to emphasize the importance of using

coordinated control pressures whenever making turns.

This type of stall occurs with the controls crossed—

aileron pressure applied in one direction and rudder

pressure in the opposite direction.

In addition, when excessive back-elevator pressure is

applied, a cross-control stall may result. This is a stall

that is most apt to occur during a poorly planned and

executed base-to-final approach turn, and often is the

result of overshooting the centerline of the runway

during that turn. Normally, the proper action to correct

for overshooting the runway is to increase the rate of

turn by using coordinated aileron and rudder. At the

relatively low altitude of a base-to-final approach turn,

improperly trained pilots may be apprehensive of

steepening the bank to increase the rate of turn, and

rather than steepening the bank, they hold the bank

constant and attempt to increase the rate of turn by

adding more rudder pressure in an effort to align it

with the runway.

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4-11

The addition of inside rudder pressure will cause the

speed of the outer wing to increase, therefore, creating

greater lift on that wing. To keep that wing from rising

and to maintain a constant angle of bank, opposite

aileron pressure needs to be applied. The added inside

rudder pressure will also cause the nose to lower in

relation to the horizon. Consequently, additional

back-elevator pressure would be required to maintain a

constant-pitch attitude. The resulting condition is a

turn with rudder applied in one direction, aileron in the

opposite direction, and excessive back-elevator

pressure—a pronounced cross-control condition.

Since the airplane is in a skidding turn during the

cross-control condition, the wing on the outside of the

turn speeds up and produces more lift than the inside

wing; thus, the airplane starts to increase its bank. The

down aileron on the inside of the turn helps drag that

wing back, slowing it up and decreasing its lift, which

requires more aileron application. This further causes

the airplane to roll. The roll may be so fast that it is

possible the bank will be vertical or past vertical before

it can be stopped.

For the demonstration of the maneuver, it is important

that it be entered at a safe altitude because of the

possible extreme nosedown attitude and loss of

altitude that may result.

Before demonstrating this stall, the pilot should clear

the area for other air traffic while slowly retarding the

throttle. Then the landing gear (if retractable gear)

should be lowered, the throttle closed, and the altitude

maintained until the airspeed approaches the normal

glide speed. Because of the possibility of exceeding

the airplane’s limitations, flaps should not be extended.

While the gliding attitude and airspeed are being

established, the airplane should be retrimmed. When

the glide is stabilized, the airplane should be rolled into

a medium-banked turn to simulate a final approach

turn that would overshoot the centerline of the runway.

During the turn, excessive rudder pressure should be

applied in the direction of the turn but the bank held

constant by applying opposite aileron pressure. At the

same time, increased back-elevator pressure is

required to keep the nose from lowering.

All of these control pressures should be increased until

the airplane stalls. When the stall occurs, recovery is

made by releasing the control pressures and increasing

power as necessary to recover.

In a cross-control stall, the airplane often stalls with

little warning. The nose may pitch down, the inside

wing may suddenly drop, and the airplane may

continue to roll to an inverted position. This is usually

the beginning of a spin. It is obvious that close to the

ground is no place to allow this to happen.

Recovery must be made before the airplane enters an

abnormal attitude (vertical spiral or spin); it is a simple

matter to return to straight-and-level flight by

coordinated use of the controls. The pilot must be able

to recognize when this stall is imminent and must take

immediate action to prevent a completely stalled

condition. It is imperative that this type of stall not

occur during an actual approach to a landing, since

recovery may be impossible prior to ground contact

due to the low altitude.

The flight instructor should be aware that during traffic

pattern operations, any conditions that result in

overshooting the turn from base leg to final approach,

dramatically increases the possibility of an

unintentional accelerated stall while the airplane is in a

cross-control condition. 

ELEVATOR TRIM STALL

The elevator trim stall maneuver shows what can happen when full power is applied for a go-around and

positive control of the airplane is not maintained.

[Figure 4-8] Such a situation may occur during a

go-around procedure from a normal landing approach

Set up and trim for

final approach glide Apply full power to

simulate go-around.

Allow nose to rise

As stall approaches,

apply forward pressure

and establish normal

climb speed.

Trim to maintain

normal climb

Figure 4-8. Elevator trim stall.

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4-12

or a simulated forced landing approach, or

immediately after a takeoff. The objective of the

demonstration is to show the importance of making

smooth power applications, overcoming strong trim

forces and maintaining positive control of the airplane

to hold safe flight attitudes, and using proper and

timely trim techniques.

At a safe altitude and after ensuring that the area is

clear of other air traffic, the pilot should slowly retard

the throttle and extend the landing gear (if retractable

gear). One-half to full flaps should be lowered, the

throttle closed, and altitude maintained until the

airspeed approaches the normal glide speed. When the

normal glide is established, the airplane should be

trimmed for the glide just as would be done during a

landing approach (nose-up trim).

During this simulated final approach glide, the throttle

is then advanced smoothly to maximum allowable

power as would be done in a go-around procedure. The

combined forces of thrust, torque, and back-elevator

trim will tend to make the nose rise sharply and turn to

the left.

When the throttle is fully advanced and the pitch

attitude increases above the normal climbing attitude

and it is apparent that a stall is approaching, adequate

forward pressure must be applied to return the airplane

to the normal climbing attitude. While holding the

airplane in this attitude, the trim should then be

adjusted to relieve the heavy control pressures and the

normal go-around and level-off procedures completed.

The pilot should recognize when a stall is approaching,

and take prompt action to prevent a completely stalled

condition. It is imperative that a stall not occur during

an actual go-around from a landing approach.

Common errors in the performance of intentional stalls

are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Inability to recognize an approaching stall

condition through feel for the airplane.

• Premature recovery.

• Over-reliance on the airspeed indicator while

excluding other cues.

• Inadequate scanning resulting in an unintentional

wing-low condition during entry.

• Excessive back-elevator pressure resulting in an

exaggerated nose-up attitude during entry.

• Inadequate rudder control.

• Inadvertent secondary stall during recovery.

• Failure to maintain a constant bank angle during

turning stalls.

• Excessive forward-elevator pressure during

recovery resulting in negative load on the wings.

• Excessive airspeed buildup during recovery.

• Failure to take timely action to prevent a full stall

during the conduct of imminent stalls.

SPINS

A spin may be defined as an aggravated stall that

results in what is termed “autorotation” wherein the

airplane follows a downward corkscrew path. As the

airplane rotates around a vertical axis, the rising wing

is less stalled than the descending wing creating a

rolling, yawing, and pitching motion. The airplane is

basically being forced downward by gravity, rolling,

yawing, and pitching in a spiral path. [Figure 4-9]

The autorotation results from an unequal angle of

attack on the airplane’s wings. The rising wing has a

decreasing angle of attack, where the relative lift

increases and the drag decreases. In effect, this wing is

less stalled. Meanwhile, the descending wing has an

Figure 4-9. Spin—an aggravated stall and autorotation.

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-12
4-13

increasing angle of attack, past the wing’s critical angle

of attack (stall) where the relative lift decreases and

drag increases.

A spin is caused when the airplane’s wing exceeds its

critical angle of attack (stall) with a sideslip or yaw

acting on the airplane at, or beyond, the actual stall.

During this uncoordinated maneuver, a pilot may not

be aware that a critical angle of attack has been

exceeded until the airplane yaws out of control toward

the lowering wing. If stall recovery is not initiated

immediately, the airplane may enter a spin.

If this stall occurs while the airplane is in a slipping or

skidding turn, this can result in a spin entry and

rotation in the direction that the rudder is being

applied, regardless of which wingtip is raised.

Many airplanes have to be forced to spin and require

considerable judgment and technique to get the spin

started. These same airplanes that have to be forced to

spin, may be accidentally put into a spin by

mishandling the controls in turns, stalls, and flight at

minimum controllable airspeeds. This fact is additional

evidence of the necessity for the practice of stalls until

the ability to recognize and recover from them

is developed.

Often a wing will drop at the beginning of a stall.

When this happens, the nose will attempt to move

(yaw) in the direction of the low wing. This is where

use of the rudder is important during a stall. The

correct amount of opposite rudder must be applied to

keep the nose from yawing toward the low wing. By

maintaining directional control and not allowing the

nose to yaw toward the low wing, before stall recovery

is initiated, a spin will be averted. If the nose is allowed

to yaw during the stall, the airplane will begin to slip in

the direction of the lowered wing, and will enter a spin.

An airplane must be stalled in order to enter a spin;

therefore, continued practice in stalls will help the pilot

develop a more instinctive and prompt reaction in

recognizing an approaching spin. It is essential to learn

to apply immediate corrective action any time it is

apparent that the airplane is nearing spin conditions. If

it is impossible to avoid a spin, the pilot should

immediately execute spin recovery procedures.

SPIN PROCEDURES

The flight instructor should demonstrate spins in those

airplanes that are approved for spins. Special spin

procedures or techniques required for a particular

airplane are not presented here. Before beginning any

spin operations, the following items should be

reviewed.

• The airplane’s AFM/POH limitations section,

placards, or type certification data, to determine if

the airplane is approved for spins.

• Weight and balance limitations.

• Recommended entry and recovery procedures.

• The requirements for parachutes. It would be

appropriate to review a current Title 14 of the

Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 for

the latest parachute requirements.

A thorough airplane preflight should be accomplished

with special emphasis on excess or loose items that

may affect the weight, center of gravity, and controllability of the airplane. Slack or loose control cables

(particularly rudder and elevator) could prevent full

anti-spin control deflections and delay or preclude

recovery in some airplanes.

Prior to beginning spin training, the flight area, above

and below the airplane, must be clear of other air

traffic. This may be accomplished while slowing the

airplane for the spin entry. All spin training should be

initiated at an altitude high enough for a completed

recovery at or above 1,500 feet AGL.

It may be appropriate to introduce spin training by first

practicing both power-on and power-off stalls, in a

clean configuration. This practice would be used to

familiarize the student with the airplane’s specific stall

and recovery characteristics. Care should be taken with

the handling of the power (throttle) in entries and

during spins. Carburetor heat should be applied

according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.

There are four phases of a spin: entry, incipient,

developed, and recovery. [Figure 4-10 on next page]

ENTRY PHASE

The entry phase is where the pilot provides the

necessary elements for the spin, either accidentally or

intentionally. The entry procedure for demonstrating a

spin is similar to a power-off stall. During the entry,

the power should be reduced slowly to idle, while

simultaneously raising the nose to a pitch attitude that

will ensure a stall. As the airplane approaches a stall,

smoothly apply full rudder in the direction of the

desired spin rotation while applying full back (up)

elevator to the limit of travel. Always maintain the

ailerons in the neutral position during the spin

procedure unless AFM/POH specifies otherwise.

INCIPIENT PHASE

The incipient phase is from the time the airplane stalls

and rotation starts until the spin has fully developed.

This change may take up to two turns for most airplanes.

Incipient spins that are not allowed to develop into a

steady-state spin are the most commonly used in the

introduction to spin training and recovery techniques. In

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-13
4-14

this phase, the aerodynamic and inertial forces have not

achieved a balance. As the incipient spin develops, the

indicated airspeed should be near or below stall airspeed, and the turn-and-slip indicator should indicate

the direction of the spin.

The incipient spin recovery procedure should be

commenced prior to the completion of 360° of

rotation. The pilot should apply full rudder opposite

the direction of rotation. If the pilot is not sure of the

direction of the spin, check the turn-and-slip indicator;

it will show a deflection in the direction of rotation.

DEVELOPED PHASE

The developed phase occurs when the airplane’s

angular rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are

stabilized while in a flightpath that is nearly vertical.

This is where airplane aerodynamic forces and inertial

forces are in balance, and the attitude, angles, and selfsustaining motions about the vertical axis are constant

or repetitive. The spin is in equilibrium.

RECOVERY PHASE

The recovery phase occurs when the angle of attack of

the wings decreases below the critical angle of attack

and autorotation slows. Then the nose steepens and

rotation stops. This phase may last for a quarter turn to

several turns.

To recover, control inputs are initiated to disrupt the

spin equilibrium by stopping the rotation and stall. To

accomplish spin recovery, the manufacturer’s

Less Stalled

Stall

More Drag

Relative Wind Greater

Angle of

Attack

Chord Line

Relative Wind

Less

Angle of

Attack

Chord Line

INCIPIENT SPIN

• Lasts about 4 to 6 

seconds in light 

aircraft.

• Approximately 2 

turns.

FULLY 

DEVELOPED SPIN

• Airspeed, vertical 

speed, and rate of 

rotation are 

stabilized.

• Small, training 

aircraft lose 

approximately 500 

feet per each 3 

second turn.

RECOVERY

• Wings regain lift.

• Training aircraft 

usually recover in 

about 1/4 to 1/2 of 

a turn after antispin inputs are 

applied.

More Stalled

Figure 4-10. Spin entry and recovery.

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-14
4-15

recommended procedures should be followed. In the

absence of the manufacturer’s recommended spin

recovery procedures and techniques, the following

spin recovery procedures are recommended.

Step 1—REDUCE THE POWER (THROTTLE)

TO IDLE. Power aggravates the spin

characteristics. It usually results in a flatter spin

attitude and increased rotation rates.

Step 2—POSITION THE AILERONS TO

NEUTRAL. Ailerons may have an adverse effect

on spin recovery. Aileron control in the direction

of the spin may speed up the rate of rotation and

delay the recovery. Aileron control opposite the

direction of the spin may cause the down aileron

to move the wing deeper into the stall and

aggravate the situation. The best procedure is to

ensure that the ailerons are neutral.

Step 3—APPLY FULL OPPOSITE RUDDER

AGAINST THE ROTATION. Make sure that full

(against the stop) opposite rudder has been

applied.

Step 4—APPLY A POSITIVE AND BRISK,

STRAIGHT FORWARD MOVEMENT OF THE

ELEVATOR CONTROL FORWARD OF THE

NEUTRAL TO BREAK THE STALL. This

should be done immediately after full rudder

application. The forceful movement of the

elevator will decrease the excessive angle of attack

and break the stall. The controls should be held

firmly in this position. When the stall is “broken,”

the spinning will stop.

Step 5—AFTER SPIN ROTATION STOPS,

NEUTRALIZE THE RUDDER. If the rudder is

not neutralized at this time, the ensuing increased

airspeed acting upon a deflected rudder will cause

a yawing or skidding effect.

Slow and overly cautious control movements

during spin recovery must be avoided. In certain

cases it has been found that such movements result

in the airplane continuing to spin indefinitely, even

with anti-spin inputs. A brisk and positive

technique, on the other hand, results in a more

positive spin recovery.

Step 6—BEGIN APPLYING BACK-ELEVATOR

PRESSURE TO RAISE THE NOSE TO LEVEL

FLIGHT. Caution must be used not to apply

excessive back-elevator pressure after the rotation

stops. Excessive back-elevator pressure can cause

a secondary stall and result in another spin. Care

should be taken not to exceed the “G” load limits

and airspeed limitations during recovery. If the

flaps and/or retractable landing gear are extended

prior to the spin, they should be retracted as soon

as possible after spin entry.

It is important to remember that the above spin

recovery procedures and techniques are recommended

for use only in the absence of the manufacturer’s

procedures. Before any pilot attempts to begin spin

training, that pilot must be familiar with the procedures

provided by the manufacturer for spin recovery.

The most common problems in spin recovery include

pilot confusion as to the direction of spin rotation and

whether the maneuver is a spin versus spiral. If the

airspeed is increasing, the airplane is no longer in a

spin but in a spiral. In a spin, the airplane is stalled.

The indicated airspeed, therefore, should reflect

stall speed.

INTENTIONAL SPINS

The intentional spinning of an airplane, for which the

spin maneuver is not specifically approved, is NOT

authorized by this handbook or by the Code of Federal

Regulations. The official sources for determining if the

spin maneuver IS APPROVED or NOT APPROVED

for a specific airplane are:

• Type Certificate Data Sheets or the Aircraft

Specifications.

• The limitation section of the FAA-approved

AFM/POH. The limitation sections may provide

additional specific requirements for spin

authorization, such as limiting gross weight, CG

range, and amount of fuel.

• On a placard located in clear view of the pilot in

the airplane, NO ACROBATIC MANEUVERS

INCLUDING SPINS APPROVED. In airplanes

placarded against spins, there is no assurance that

recovery from a fully developed spin is possible.

There are occurrences involving airplanes wherein

spin restrictions are intentionally ignored by some

pilots. Despite the installation of placards prohibiting

intentional spins in these airplanes, a number of pilots,

and some flight instructors, attempt to justify the

maneuver, rationalizing that the spin restriction results

merely because of a “technicality” in the airworthiness

standards.

Some pilots reason that the airplane was spin tested

during its certification process and, therefore, no

problem should result from demonstrating or

practicing spins. However, those pilots overlook the

fact that a normal category airplane certification only

requires the airplane recover from a one-turn spin in

not more than one additional turn or 3 seconds,

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-15
4-16

whichever takes longer. This same test of controllability can also be used in certificating an airplane in the

Utility category (14 CFR section 23.221 (b)).

The point is that 360° of rotation (one-turn spin) does

not provide a stabilized spin. If the airplane’s

controllability has not been explored by the

engineering test pilot beyond the certification

requirements, prolonged spins (inadvertent or

intentional) in that airplane place an operating pilot in

an unexplored flight situation. Recovery may be

difficult or impossible.

In 14 CFR part 23, “Airworthiness Standards: Normal,

Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category

Airplanes,” there are no requirements for investigation

of controllability in a true spinning condition for the

Normal category airplanes. The one-turn “margin of

safety” is essentially a check of the airplane’s controllability in a delayed recovery from a stall. Therefore,

in airplanes placarded against spins there is absolutely

no assurance whatever that recovery from a fully

developed spin is possible under any circumstances.

The pilot of an airplane placarded against intentional

spins should assume that the airplane may well become

uncontrollable in a spin.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE REQUIREMENTS

With each airplane that is approved for spinning, the

weight and balance requirements are important for

safe performance and recovery from the spin maneuver. Pilots must be aware that just minor weight or

balance changes can affect the airplane’s spin

recovery characteristics. Such changes can either

alter or enhance the spin maneuver and/or recovery

characteristics. For example, the addition of weight

in the aft baggage compartment, or additional fuel,

may still permit the airplane to be operated within

CG, but could seriously affect the spin and recovery

characteristics.

An airplane that may be difficult to spin intentionally

in the Utility Category (restricted aft CG and reduced

weight) could have less resistance to spin entry in the

Normal Category (less restricted aft CG and increased

weight). This situation is due to the airplane being able

to generate a higher angle of attack and load factor.

Furthermore, an airplane that is approved for spins in

the Utility Category, but loaded in the Normal

Category, may not recover from a spin that is allowed

to progress beyond the incipient phase.

Common errors in the performance of intentional

spins are:

• Failure to apply full rudder pressure in the desired

spin direction during spin entry.

• Failure to apply and maintain full up-elevator

pressure during spin entry, resulting in a spiral.

• Failure to achieve a fully stalled condition prior to

spin entry.

• Failure to apply full rudder against the spin during

recovery.

• Failure to apply sufficient forward-elevator

pressure during recovery.

• Failure to neutralize the rudder during recovery

after rotation stops, resulting in a possible

secondary spin.

• Slow and overly cautious control movements

during recovery.

• Excessive back-elevator pressure after rotation

stops, resulting in possible secondary stall.

• Insufficient back-elevator pressure during

recovery resulting in excessive airspeed.

Ch 04.qxd 5/7/04 6:47 AM Page 4-16
GENERAL

This chapter discusses takeoffs and departure climbs in

tricycle landing gear (nosewheel-type) airplanes under

normal conditions, and under conditions which require

maximum performance. A thorough knowledge of

takeoff principles, both in theory and practice, will

often prove of extreme value throughout a pilot’s

career. It will often prevent an attempted takeoff that

would result in an accident, or during an emergency,

make possible a takeoff under critical conditions when

a pilot with a less well rounded knowledge and technique would fail.

The takeoff, though relatively simple, often presents

the most hazards of any part of a flight. The importance

of thorough knowledge and faultless technique and

judgment cannot be overemphasized.

It must be remembered that the manufacturer’s recommended procedures, including airplane configuration and

airspeeds, and other information relevant to takeoffs and

departure climbs in a specific make and model airplane are

contained in the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual

and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) for that

airplane. If any of the information in this chapter differs

from the airplane manufacturer’s recommendations as

contained in the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’s

recommendations take precedence.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Although the takeoff and climb is one continuous

maneuver, it will be divided into three separate steps

for purposes of explanation: (1) the takeoff roll, (2) the

lift-off, and (3) the initial climb after becoming airborne. [Figure 5-1]

• Takeoff Roll (ground roll)—the portion of the

takeoff procedure during which the airplane is

accelerated from a standstill to an airspeed that

provides sufficient lift for it to become airborne.

• Lift-off (rotation)—the act of becoming airborne as a result of the wings lifting the airplane

off the ground or the pilot rotating the nose up,

increasing the angle of attack to start a climb.

• Initial Climb—begins when the airplane leaves

the ground and a pitch attitude has been established to climb away from the takeoff area.

Normally, it is considered complete when the

airplane has reached a safe maneuvering altitude,

or an en route climb has been established.

5-1

Figure 5-1.Takeoff and climb.

Takeoff

power

Takeoff pitch

attitude

Best climb speed

Safe maneuvering altitude

climb power

En Route

climb

Climb

(3)

Lift-off

(2)

Takeoff

roll

(1)

Ch 05.qxd 5/7/04 7:02 AM Page 5-1
5-2

PRIOR TO TAKEOFF

Before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area, the

pilot should ensure that the engine is operating properly and that all controls, including flaps and trim tabs,

are set in accordance with the before takeoff checklist.

In addition, the pilot must make certain that the

approach and takeoff paths are clear of other aircraft.

At uncontrolled airports, pilots should announce their

intentions on the common traffic advisory frequency

(CTAF) assigned to that airport. When operating from

an airport with an operating control tower, pilots must

contact the tower operator and receive a takeoff clearance before taxiing onto the active runway.

It is not recommended to take off immediately behind

another aircraft, particularly large, heavily loaded

transport airplanes, because of the wake turbulence

that is generated.

While taxiing onto the runway, the pilot can select

ground reference points that are aligned with the

runway direction as aids to maintaining directional

control during the takeoff. These may be runway

centerline markings, runway lighting, distant trees,

towers, buildings, or mountain peaks.

NORMAL TAKEOFF

A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed

into the wind, or the wind is very light. Also, the takeoff surface is firm and of sufficient length to permit the

airplane to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off and

climb-out speed, and there are no obstructions along

the takeoff path.

There are two reasons for making a takeoff as nearly

into the wind as possible. First, the airplane’s speed

while on the ground is much less than if the takeoff

were made downwind, thus reducing wear and stress

on the landing gear. Second, a shorter ground roll and

therefore much less runway length is required to

develop the minimum lift necessary for takeoff and

climb. Since the airplane depends on airspeed in order

to fly, a headwind provides some of that airspeed, even

with the airplane motionless, from the wind flowing

over the wings.

TAKEOFF ROLL

After taxiing onto the runway, the airplane should be

carefully aligned with the intended takeoff direction,

and the nosewheel positioned straight, or centered.

After releasing the brakes, the throttle should be

advanced smoothly and continuously to takeoff power.

An abrupt application of power may cause the airplane

to yaw sharply to the left because of the torque effects

of the engine and propeller. This will be most apparent

in high horsepower engines. As the airplane starts to

roll forward, the pilot should assure both feet are on

the rudder pedals so that the toes or balls of the feet are

on the rudder portions, not on the brake portions.

Engine instruments should be monitored during the

takeoff roll for any malfunctions.

In nosewheel-type airplanes, pressures on the elevator

control are not necessary beyond those needed to

steady it. Applying unnecessary pressure will only

aggravate the takeoff and prevent the pilot from recognizing when elevator control pressure is actually

needed to establish the takeoff attitude.

As speed is gained, the elevator control will tend to

assume a neutral position if the airplane is correctly

trimmed. At the same time, directional control should

be maintained with smooth, prompt, positive rudder

corrections throughout the takeoff roll. The effects of

engine torque and P-factor at the initial speeds tend to

pull the nose to the left. The pilot must use whatever

rudder pressure and aileron needed to correct for these

effects or for existing wind conditions to keep the nose

of the airplane headed straight down the runway. The

use of brakes for steering purposes should be avoided,

since this will cause slower acceleration of the airplane’s speed, lengthen the takeoff distance, and

possibly result in severe swerving.

While the speed of the takeoff roll increases, more

and more pressure will be felt on the flight controls,

particularly the elevators and rudder. If the tail surfaces are affected by the propeller slipstream, they

become effective first. As the speed continues to

increase, all of the flight controls will gradually

become effective enough to maneuver the airplane

about its three axes. It is at this point, in the taxi to

flight transition, that the airplane is being flown more

than taxied. As this occurs, progressively smaller

rudder deflections are needed to maintain direction.

The feel of resistance to the movement of the controls and the airplane’s reaction to such movements

are the only real indicators of the degree of control

attained. This feel of resistance is not a measure of

the airplane’s speed, but rather of its controllability.

To determine the degree of controllability, the pilot

must be conscious of the reaction of the airplane to

the control pressures and immediately adjust the

pressures as needed to control the airplane. The pilot

must wait for the reaction of the airplane to the

applied control pressures and attempt to sense the

control resistance to pressure rather than attempt to

control the airplane by movement of the controls.

Balanced control surfaces increase the importance

of this point, because they materially reduce the

intensity of the resistance offered to pressures

exerted by the pilot.

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5-3

At this stage of training, beginning takeoff practice, a

student pilot will normally not have a full appreciation

of the variations of control pressures with the speed of

the airplane. The student, therefore, may tend to move

the controls through wide ranges seeking the pressures

that are familiar and expected, and as a consequence

over-control the airplane. The situation may be aggravated by the sluggish reaction of the airplane to these

movements. The flight instructor should take measures

to check these tendencies and stress the importance of

the development of feel. The student pilot should be

required to feel lightly for resistance and accomplish

the desired results by applying pressure against it. This

practice will enable the student pilot, as experience is

gained, to achieve a sense of the point when sufficient

speed has been acquired for the takeoff, instead of

merely guessing, fixating on the airspeed indicator, or

trying to force performance from the airplane.

LIFT-OFF

Since a good takeoff depends on the proper takeoff

attitude, it is important to know how this attitude

appears and how it is attained. The ideal takeoff attitude requires only minimum pitch adjustments

shortly after the airplane lifts off to attain the speed

for the best rate of climb (VY). [Figure 5-2] The pitch

attitude necessary for the airplane to accelerate to VY

speed should be demonstrated by the instructor and

memorized by the student. Initially, the student pilot

may have a tendency to hold excessive back-elevator

pressure just after lift-off, resulting in an abrupt pitchup. The flight instructor should be prepared for this.

Each type of airplane has a best pitch attitude for

normal lift-off; however, varying conditions may

make a difference in the required takeoff technique.

A rough field, a smooth field, a hard surface runway,

or a short or soft, muddy field, all call for a slightly

different technique, as will smooth air in contrast to

a strong, gusty wind. The different techniques for

those other-than-normal conditions are discussed

later in this chapter.

When all the flight controls become effective during

the takeoff roll in a nosewheel-type airplane, backelevator pressure should be gradually applied to

raise the nosewheel slightly off the runway, thus

establishing the takeoff or lift-off attitude. This is

often referred to as “rotating.” At this point, the

position of the nose in relation to the horizon should

be noted, then back-elevator pressure applied as

necessary to hold this attitude. The wings must be

kept level by applying aileron pressure as necessary.

The airplane is allowed to fly off the ground while in

the normal takeoff attitude. Forcing it into the air by

applying excessive back-elevator pressure would only

result in an excessively high pitch attitude and may

delay the takeoff. As discussed earlier, excessive and

rapid changes in pitch attitude result in proportionate

changes in the effects of torque, thus making the airplane more difficult to control.

Although the airplane can be forced into the air, this is

considered an unsafe practice and should be avoided

under normal circumstances. If the airplane is forced

to leave the ground by using too much back-elevator

pressure before adequate flying speed is attained, the

wing’s angle of attack may be excessive, causing the

airplane to settle back to the runway or even to stall.

On the other hand, if sufficient back-elevator pressure

is not held to maintain the correct takeoff attitude after

becoming airborne, or the nose is allowed to lower

excessively, the airplane may also settle back to the

runway. This would occur because the angle of attack

is decreased and lift diminished to the degree where it

will not support the airplane. It is important, then, to

hold the correct attitude constant after rotation or liftoff.

As the airplane leaves the ground, the pilot must

continue to be concerned with maintaining the

wings in a level attitude, as well as holding the

proper pitch attitude. Outside visual scan to

attain/maintain proper airplane pitch and bank attitude must be intensified at this critical point. The

flight controls have not yet become fully effective,

and the beginning pilot will often have a tendency

to fixate on the airplane’s pitch attitude and/or the

airspeed indicator and neglect the natural tendency

of the airplane to roll just after breaking ground.

During takeoffs in a strong, gusty wind, it is advisable

that an extra margin of speed be obtained before the

airplane is allowed to leave the ground. A takeoff at the

Figure 5-2. Initial roll and takeoff attitude. normal takeoff speed may result in a lack of positive

A. Initial roll

B. Takeoff attitude

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5-4

control, or a stall, when the airplane encounters a

sudden lull in strong, gusty wind, or other turbulent

air currents. In this case, the pilot should allow the

airplane to stay on the ground longer to attain more

speed; then make a smooth, positive rotation to leave

the ground.

INITIAL CLIMB

Upon lift-off, the airplane should be flying at approximately the pitch attitude that will allow it to accelerate

to VY. This is the speed at which the airplane will gain

the most altitude in the shortest period of time.

If the airplane has been properly trimmed, some backelevator pressure may be required to hold this attitude

until the proper climb speed is established. On the

other hand, relaxation of any back-elevator pressure

before this time may result in the airplane settling,

even to the extent that it contacts the runway.

The airplane will pick up speed rapidly after it

becomes airborne. Once a positive rate of climb is

established, the flaps and landing gear can be retracted

(if equipped).

It is recommended that takeoff power be maintained

until reaching an altitude of at least 500 feet above the

surrounding terrain or obstacles. The combination of

VY and takeoff power assures the maximum altitude

gained in a minimum amount of time. This gives the

pilot more altitude from which the airplane can be

safely maneuvered in case of an engine failure or other

emergency.

Since the power on the initial climb is fixed at the takeoff

power setting, the airspeed must be controlled by making

slight pitch adjustments using the elevators. However,

the pilot should not fixate on the airspeed indicator when

making these pitch changes, but should, instead, continue

to scan outside to adjust the airplane’s attitude in relation

to the horizon. In accordance with the principles of attitude flying, the pilot should first make the necessary

pitch change with reference to the natural horizon and

hold the new attitude momentarily, and then glance at the

airspeed indicator as a check to see if the new attitude is

correct. Due to inertia, the airplane will not accelerate or

decelerate immediately as the pitch is changed. It takes a

little time for the airspeed to change. If the pitch attitude

has been over or under corrected, the airspeed indicator

will show a speed that is more or less than that desired.

When this occurs, the cross-checking and appropriate

pitch-changing process must be repeated until the desired

climbing attitude is established.

When the correct pitch attitude has been attained, it

should be held constant while cross-checking it against

the horizon and other outside visual references. The

airspeed indicator should be used only as a check to

determine if the attitude is correct.

After the recommended climb airspeed has been established, and a safe maneuvering altitude has been

reached, the power should be adjusted to the recommended climb setting and the airplane trimmed to

relieve the control pressures. This will make it easier

to hold a constant attitude and airspeed.

During initial climb, it is important that the takeoff

path remain aligned with the runway to avoid drifting

into obstructions, or the path of another aircraft that

may be taking off from a parallel runway. Proper scanning techniques are essential to a safe takeoff and

climb, not only for maintaining attitude and direction,

but also for collision avoidance in the airport area.

When the student pilot nears the solo stage of flight

training, it should be explained that the airplane’s

takeoff performance will be much different when the

instructor is out of the airplane. Due to decreased

load, the airplane will become airborne sooner and

will climb more rapidly. The pitch attitude that the

student has learned to associate with initial climb

may also differ due to decreased weight, and the

flight controls may seem more sensitive. If the situation is unexpected, it may result in increased tension

that may remain until after the landing. Frequently,

the existence of this tension and the uncertainty that

develops due to the perception of an “abnormal”

takeoff results in poor performance on the subsequent landing.

Common errors in the performance of normal takeoffs

and departure climbs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing into position on the active runway.

• Abrupt use of the throttle.

• Failure to check engine instruments for signs of

malfunction after applying takeoff power.

• Failure to anticipate the airplane’s left turning

tendency on initial acceleration.

• Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.

• Relying solely on the airspeed indicator rather

than developed feel for indications of speed and

airplane controllability during acceleration and

lift-off.

• Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.

• Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor

during initial climb resulting in a sideslip. 

• Over-control of elevators during initial climbout.

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5-5

• Limiting scan to areas directly ahead of the airplane (pitch attitude and direction), resulting in

allowing a wing (usually the left) to drop

immediately after lift-off.

• Failure to attain/maintain best rate-of-climb airspeed (VY).

• Failure to employ the principles of attitude flying

during climb-out, resulting in “chasing” the airspeed indicator.

CROSSWIND TAKEOFF

While it is usually preferable to take off directly into

the wind whenever possible or practical, there will

be many instances when circumstances or judgment

will indicate otherwise. Therefore, the pilot must be

familiar with the principles and techniques involved

in crosswind takeoffs, as well as those for normal

takeoffs. A crosswind will affect the airplane during

takeoff much as it does in taxiing. With this in mind,

it can be seen that the technique for crosswind

correction during takeoffs closely parallels the

crosswind correction techniques used in taxiing.

TAKEOFF ROLL

The technique used during the initial takeoff roll in a

crosswind is generally the same as used in a normal

takeoff, except that aileron control must be held INTO

the crosswind. This raises the aileron on the upwind

wing to impose a downward force on the wing to counteract the lifting force of the crosswind and prevents

the wing from rising.

As the airplane is taxied into takeoff position, it is essential that the windsock and other wind direction indicators

be checked so that the presence of a crosswind may be

recognized and anticipated. If a crosswind is indicated,

FULL aileron should be held into the wind as the takeoff

roll is started. This control position should be maintained

while the airplane is accelerating and until the ailerons

start becoming sufficiently effective for maneuvering the

airplane about its longitudinal axis.

With the aileron held into the wind, the takeoff path

must be held straight with the rudder. [Figure 5-3]

Normally, this will require applying downwind rudder

pressure, since on the ground the airplane will tend to

weathervane into the wind. When takeoff power is

applied, torque or P-factor that yaws the airplane to the

left may be sufficient to counteract the weathervaning

tendency caused by a crosswind from the right. On the

other hand, it may also aggravate the tendency to

Figure 5-3. Crosswind takeoff roll and initial climb.

WIND

Apply full aileron into wind

Rudder as needed for direction

Hold aileron into wind

Roll on upwind wheel

Rudder as needed

Hold aileron into wind

Bank into wind

Rudder as needed

Start roll

Takeoff roll

Lift-off

Initial climb

Wings level

 with a wind correction

angle

Ch 05.qxd 5/7/04 7:02 AM Page 5-5
5-6

swerve left when the wind is from the left. In any case,

whatever rudder pressure is required to keep the airplane rolling straight down the runway should be

applied.

As the forward speed of the airplane increases and the

crosswind becomes more of a relative headwind, the

mechanical holding of full aileron into the wind should

be reduced. It is when increasing pressure is being felt

on the aileron control that the ailerons are becoming

more effective. As the aileron’s effectiveness increases

and the crosswind component of the relative wind

becomes less effective, it will be necessary to gradually

reduce the aileron pressure. The crosswind component

effect does not completely vanish, so some aileron pressure will have to be maintained throughout the takeoff

roll to keep the crosswind from raising the upwind wing.

If the upwind wing rises, thus exposing more surface to

the crosswind, a “skipping” action may result. [Figure

5-4]

This is usually indicated by a series of very small

bounces, caused by the airplane attempting to fly

and then settling back onto the runway. During these

bounces, the crosswind also tends to move the airplane sideways, and these bounces will develop into

side-skipping. This side-skipping imposes severe

side stresses on the landing gear and could result in

structural failure.

It is important, during a crosswind takeoff roll, to hold

sufficient aileron into the wind not only to keep the

upwind wing from rising but to hold that wing down so

that the airplane will, immediately after lift-off, be

sideslipping into the wind enough to counteract drift.

LIFT-OFF

As the nosewheel is being raised off the runway, the

holding of aileron control into the wind may result in

the downwind wing rising and the downwind main

wheel lifting off the runway first, with the remainder

of the takeoff roll being made on that one main wheel.

This is acceptable and is preferable to side-skipping.

If a significant crosswind exists, the main wheels

should be held on the ground slightly longer than in a

normal takeoff so that a smooth but very definite liftoff can be made. This procedure will allow the airplane to leave the ground under more positive control

so that it will definitely remain airborne while the

proper amount of wind correction is being established.

More importantly, this procedure will avoid imposing

excessive side-loads on the landing gear and prevent

possible damage that would result from the airplane

settling back to the runway while drifting.

As both main wheels leave the runway and ground

friction no longer resists drifting, the airplane will be

slowly carried sideways with the wind unless adequate

drift correction is maintained by the pilot. Therefore, it

is important to establish and maintain the proper

amount of crosswind correction prior to lift-off by

applying aileron pressure toward the wind to keep the

upwind wing from rising and applying rudder pressure

as needed to prevent weathervaning.

INITIAL CLIMB

If proper crosswind correction is being applied, as soon

as the airplane is airborne, it will be sideslipping into the

wind sufficiently to counteract the drifting effect of the

wind. [Figure 5-5] This sideslipping should be continued

until the airplane has a positive rate of climb. At that time,

the airplane should be turned into the wind to establish

just enough wind correction angle to counteract the wind

and then the wings rolled level. Firm and aggressive use

of the rudders will be required to keep the airplane headed

straight down the runway. The climb with a wind correction angle should be continued to follow a ground track

aligned with the runway direction. However, because the

force of a crosswind may vary markedly within a few

hundred feet of the ground, frequent checks of actual

ground track should be made, and the wind correction

adjusted as necessary. The remainder of the climb technique is the same used for normal takeoffs and climbs.

Common errors in the performance of crosswind takeoffs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing onto the active runway.

• Using less than full aileron pressure into the

wind initially on the takeoff roll.

• Mechanical use of aileron control rather than

sensing the need for varying aileron control

input through feel for the airplane.

No correction

WIND

WIND

Proper correction

Figure 5-4. Crosswind effect.

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5-7

• Premature lift-off resulting in side-skipping.

• Excessive aileron input in the latter stage of the

takeoff roll resulting in a steep bank into the wind

at lift-off.

• Inadequate drift correction after lift-off.

GROUND EFFECT ON TAKEOFF

Ground effect is a condition of improved performance encountered when the airplane is operating

very close to the ground. Ground effect can be

detected and measured up to an altitude equal to one

wingspan above the surface. [Figure 5-6] However,

ground effect is most significant when the airplane

(especially a low-wing airplane) is maintaining a

constant attitude at low airspeed at low altitude (for

example, during takeoff when the airplane lifts off

and accelerates to climb speed, and during the landing flare before touchdown).

When the wing is under the influence of ground effect,

there is a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtip

vortices. As a result of the reduced wingtip vortices,

induced drag is reduced. When the wing is at a height

equal to one-fourth the span, the reduction in induced

drag is about 25 percent, and when the wing is at a

height equal to one-tenth the span, the reduction in

induced drag is about 50 percent. At high speeds where

parasite drag dominates, induced drag is a small part of

the total drag. Consequently, the effects of ground effect

are of greater concern during takeoff and landing.

On takeoff, the takeoff roll, lift-off, and the beginning

of the initial climb are accomplished in the ground

effect area. The ground effect causes local increases in

static pressure, which cause the airspeed indicator and

altimeter to indicate slightly less than they should, and

usually results in the vertical speed indicator indicating a descent. As the airplane lifts off and climbs out of

the ground effect area, however, the following will

occur.

• The airplane will require an increase in angle of

attack to maintain the same lift coefficient.

• The airplane will experience an increase in

induced drag and thrust required.

• The airplane will experience a pitch-up tendency

and will require less elevator travel because of an

increase in downwash at the horizontal tail.

WIND

Figure 5-5. Crosswind climb flightpath.

Ground effect

decreases

induced drag

Airplane may

fly at lower 

indicated 

airspeed

Accelerate in

ground effect

to V or V X Y

Ground effect

decreases quickly

with height

Ground effect is

negligible when

height is equal

to wingspan

Ground

Effect

Area

Figure 5-6.Takeoff in ground effect area.

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5-8

• The airplane will experience a reduction in static

source pressure as it leaves the ground effect area

and a corresponding increase in indicated airspeed.

Due to the reduced drag in ground effect, the airplane

may seem to be able to take off below the recommended airspeed. However, as the airplane rises out of

ground effect with an insufficient airspeed, initial

climb performance may prove to be marginal because

of the increased drag. Under conditions of high-density altitude, high temperature, and/or maximum gross

weight, the airplane may be able to become airborne at

an insufficient airspeed, but unable to climb out of

ground effect. Consequently, the airplane may not be

able to clear obstructions, or may settle back on the

runway. The point to remember is that additional

power is required to compensate for increases in drag

that occur as an airplane leaves ground effect. But during an initial climb, the engine is already developing

maximum power. The only alternative is to lower pitch

attitude to gain additional airspeed, which will result in

inevitable altitude loss. Therefore, under marginal conditions, it is important that the airplane takes off at the

recommended speed that will provide adequate initial

climb performance.

Ground effect is important to normal flight operations.

If the runway is long enough, or if no obstacles exist,

ground effect can be used to an advantage by using the

reduced drag to improve initial acceleration.

Additionally, the procedure for takeoff from unsatisfactory surfaces is to take as much weight on the wings

as possible during the ground run, and to lift off with

the aid of ground effect before true flying speed is

attained. It is then necessary to reduce the angle of

attack to attain normal airspeed before attempting to

fly away from the ground effect area.

SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND 

MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE CLIMB

Takeoffs and climbs from fields where the takeoff area

is short or the available takeoff area is restricted by

obstructions require that the pilot operate the airplane

at the limit of its takeoff performance capabilities. To

depart from such an area safely, the pilot must exercise

positive and precise control of airplane attitude and

airspeed so that takeoff and climb performance results

in the shortest ground roll and the steepest angle of

climb. [Figure 5-7]

The achieved result should be consistent with the

performance section of the FAA-approved Airplane

Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook

(AFM/POH). In all cases, the power setting, flap

setting, airspeed, and procedures prescribed by the

airplane’s manufacturer should be followed.

In order to accomplish a maximum performance takeoff safely, the pilot must have adequate knowledge in

the use and effectiveness of the best angle-of-climb

speed (VX) and the best rate-of-climb speed (VY) for

the specific make and model of airplane being flown.

The speed for VX is that which will result in the

greatest gain in altitude for a given distance over the

ground. It is usually slightly less than VY which provides the greatest gain in altitude per unit of time.

The specific speeds to be used for a given airplane

are stated in the FAA-approved AFM/POH. It should

be emphasized that in some airplanes, a deviation of

5 knots from the recommended speed will result in a

significant reduction in climb performance.

Therefore, precise control of airspeed has an important bearing on the successful execution as well as

the safety of the maneuver. 

Climb

at VY

Retract gear

and flaps

Climb

at VX

Rotate at

approximately VX

Figure 5-7. Short-field takeoff.

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5-9

TAKEOFF ROLL

Taking off from a short field requires the takeoff to be

started from the very beginning of the takeoff area. At

this point, the airplane is aligned with the intended

takeoff path. If the airplane manufacturer recommends

the use of flaps, they should be extended the proper

amount before starting the takeoff roll. This permits

the pilot to give full attention to the proper technique

and the airplane’s performance throughout the takeoff.

Some authorities prefer to hold the brakes until the

maximum obtainable engine r.p.m. is achieved before

allowing the airplane to begin its takeoff run. However,

it has not been established that this procedure will

result in a shorter takeoff run in all light single-engine

airplanes. Takeoff power should be applied smoothly

and continuously—without hesitation—to accelerate

the airplane as rapidly as possible. The airplane should

be allowed to roll with its full weight on the main

wheels and accelerated to the lift-off speed. As the

takeoff roll progresses, the airplane’s pitch attitude and

angle of attack should be adjusted to that which results

in the minimum amount of drag and the quickest acceleration. In nosewheel-type airplanes, this will involve

little use of the elevator control, since the airplane is

already in a low drag attitude.

LIFT-OFF

Approaching best angle-of-climb speed (VX), the airplane

should be smoothly and firmly lifted off, or rotated, by

applying back-elevator pressure to an attitude that will

result in the best angle-of-climb airspeed (VX). Since the

airplane will accelerate more rapidly after lift-off, additional back-elevator pressure becomes necessary to hold a

constant airspeed. After becoming airborne, a wings level

climb should be maintained at VX until obstacles have

been cleared or, if no obstacles are involved, until an altitude of at least 50 feet above the takeoff surface is attained.

Thereafter, the pitch attitude may be lowered slightly, and

the climb continued at best rate-of-climb speed (VY) until

reaching a safe maneuvering altitude. Remember that an

attempt to pull the airplane off the ground prematurely, or

to climb too steeply, may cause the airplane to settle back

to the runway or into the obstacles. Even if the airplane

remains airborne, the initial climb will remain flat and

climb performance/obstacle clearance ability seriously

degraded until best angle-of-climb airspeed (VX) is

achieved. [Figure 5-8]

The objective is to rotate to the appropriate pitch attitude at (or near) best angle-of-climb airspeed. It should

be remembered, however, that some airplanes will

have a natural tendency to lift off well before reaching

VX. In these airplanes, it may be necessary to allow the

airplane to lift off in ground effect and then reduce

pitch attitude to level until the airplane accelerates to

best angle-of-climb airspeed with the wheels just clear

of the runway surface. This method is preferable to

forcing the airplane to remain on the ground with forward-elevator pressure until best angle-of-climb speed

is attained. Holding the airplane on the ground unnecessarily puts excessive pressure on the nosewheel, may

result in “wheelbarrowing,” and will hinder both

acceleration and overall airplane performance.

INITIAL CLIMB

On short-field takeoffs, the landing gear and flaps

should remain in takeoff position until clear of obstacles (or as recommended by the manufacturer) and VY

has been established. It is generally unwise for the pilot

to be looking in the cockpit or reaching for landing

gear and flap controls until obstacle clearance is

assured. When the airplane is stabilized at VY, the gear

(if equipped) and then the flaps should be retracted. It

is usually advisable to raise the flaps in increments to

avoid sudden loss of lift and settling of the airplane.

Next, reduce the power to the normal climb setting or

as recommended by the airplane manufacturer.

Common errors in the performance of short-field takeoffs and maximum performance climbs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to utilize all available runway/takeoff

area.

• Failure to have the airplane properly trimmed

prior to takeoff.

• Premature lift-off resulting in high drag.

• Holding the airplane on the ground unnecessarily

with excessive forward-elevator pressure.

• Inadequate rotation resulting in excessive speed

after lift-off.

• Inability to attain/maintain best angle-of-climb

airspeed.

Premature rotation Airplane may lift off

at low airspeed

Airplane may settle

back to the ground

Flight below V

results in shallow

climb

X

Figure 5-8. Effect of premature lift-off.

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5-10

• Fixation on the airspeed indicator during initial

climb.

• Premature retraction of landing gear and/or wing

flaps.

SOFT/ROUGH-FIELD TAKEOFF 

AND CLIMB

Takeoffs and climbs from soft fields require the use of

operational techniques for getting the airplane airborne

as quickly as possible to eliminate the drag caused by

tall grass, soft sand, mud, and snow, and may or may

not require climbing over an obstacle. The technique

makes judicious use of ground effect and requires a

feel for the airplane and fine control touch. These same

techniques are also useful on a rough field where it is

advisable to get the airplane off the ground as soon as

possible to avoid damaging the landing gear.

Soft surfaces or long, wet grass usually reduces the airplane’s acceleration during the takeoff roll so much

that adequate takeoff speed might not be attained if

normal takeoff techniques were employed.

It should be emphasized that the correct takeoff

procedure for soft fields is quite different from

that appropriate for short fields with firm, smooth

surfaces. To minimize the hazards associated with

takeoffs from soft or rough fields, support of the

airplane’s weight must be transferred as rapidly

as possible from the wheels to the wings as the

takeoff roll proceeds. Establishing and maintaining a relatively high angle of attack or nose-high

pitch attitude as early as possible does this. Wing

flaps may be lowered prior to starting the takeoff

(if recommended by the manufacturer) to provide

additional lift and to transfer the airplane’s weight

from the wheels to the wings as early as possible.

Stopping on a soft surface, such as mud or snow, might

bog the airplane down; therefore, it should be kept in

continuous motion with sufficient power while lining

up for the takeoff roll.

TAKEOFF ROLL

As the airplane is aligned with the takeoff path, takeoff

power is applied smoothly and as rapidly as the powerplant will accept it without faltering. As the airplane

accelerates, enough back-elevator pressure should be

applied to establish a positive angle of attack and to

reduce the weight supported by the nosewheel.

When the airplane is held at a nose-high attitude

throughout the takeoff run, the wings will, as speed

increases and lift develops, progressively relieve the

wheels of more and more of the airplane’s weight,

thereby minimizing the drag caused by surface irregularities or adhesion. If this attitude is accurately maintained,

the airplane will virtually fly itself off the ground,

becoming airborne at airspeed slower than a safe climb

speed because of ground effect. [Figure 5-9]

LIFT-OFF

After becoming airborne, the nose should be lowered

very gently with the wheels clear of the surface to

allow the airplane to accelerate to VY, or VX if obstacles must be cleared. Extreme care must be exercised

immediately after the airplane becomes airborne and

while it accelerates, to avoid settling back onto the surface. An attempt to climb prematurely or too steeply

may cause the airplane to settle back to the surface as

a result of losing the benefit of ground effect. An

attempt to climb out of ground effect before sufficient

climb airspeed is attained may result in the airplane

being unable to climb further as the ground effect area

is transited, even with full power. Therefore, it is

essential that the airplane remain in ground effect until

at least VX is reached. This requires feel for the airplane, and a very fine control touch, in order to avoid

over-controlling the elevator as required control pressures change with airplane acceleration.

INITIAL CLIMB

After a positive rate of climb is established, and the airplane has accelerated to VY, retract the landing gear and

flaps, if equipped. If departing from an airstrip with wet

snow or slush on the takeoff surface, the gear should not

be retracted immediately. This allows for any wet snow

or slush to be air-dried. In the event an obstacle must be

cleared after a soft-field takeoff, the climb-out is performed at VX until the obstacle has been cleared. After

reaching this point, the pitch attitude is adjusted to VY

and the gear and flaps are retracted. The power may

then be reduced to the normal climb setting.

Accelerate Raise nosewheel Lift off

Level off in

ground effect

Accelerate

in ground effect

to VX or VY

Figure 5-9. Soft-field takeoff.

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Common errors in the performance of soft/rough field

takeoff and climbs are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Insufficient back-elevator pressure during initial

takeoff roll resulting in inadequate angle of

attack.

• Failure to cross-check engine instruments for

indications of proper operation after applying

power.

• Poor directional control.

• Climbing too steeply after lift-off.

• Abrupt and/or excessive elevator control while

attempting to level off and accelerate after liftoff.

• Allowing the airplane to “mush” or settle resulting in an inadvertent touchdown after lift-off.

• Attempting to climb out of ground effect area

before attaining sufficient climb speed.

• Failure to anticipate an increase in pitch attitude

as the airplane climbs out of ground effect.

REJECTED TAKEOFF/ENGINE FAILURE

Emergency or abnormal situations can occur during a

takeoff that will require a pilot to reject the takeoff

while still on the runway. Circumstances such as a

malfunctioning powerplant, inadequate acceleration,

runway incursion, or air traffic conflict may be reasons for a rejected takeoff.

Prior to takeoff, the pilot should have in mind a

point along the runway at which the airplane

should be airborne. If that point is reached and the

airplane is not airborne, immediate action should

be taken to discontinue the takeoff. Properly

planned and executed, chances are excellent the

airplane can be stopped on the remaining runway

without using extraordinary measures, such as

excessive braking that may result in loss of directional control, airplane damage, and/or personal

injury.

In the event a takeoff is rejected, the power should be

reduced to idle and maximum braking applied while

maintaining directional control. If it is necessary to

shut down the engine due to a fire, the mixture control

should be brought to the idle cutoff position and the

magnetos turned off. In all cases, the manufacturer’s

emergency procedure should be followed.

What characterizes all power loss or engine failure

occurrences after lift-off is urgency. In most instances,

the pilot has only a few seconds after an engine failure

to decide what course of action to take and to execute

it. Unless prepared in advance to make the proper decision, there is an excellent chance the pilot will make a

poor decision, or make no decision at all and allow

events to rule.

In the event of an engine failure on initial climb-out,

the pilot’s first responsibility is to maintain aircraft

control. At a climb pitch attitude without power, the

airplane will be at or near a stalling angle of attack.

At the same time, the pilot may still be holding right

rudder. It is essential the pilot immediately lower the

pitch attitude to prevent a stall and possible spin.

The pilot should establish a controlled glide toward

a plausible landing area (preferably straight ahead

on the remaining runway).

NOISE ABATEMENT

Aircraft noise problems have become a major concern at

many airports throughout the country. Many local communities have pressured airports into developing specific

operational procedures that will help limit aircraft noise

while operating over nearby areas. For years now, the

FAA, airport managers, aircraft operators, pilots, and special interest groups have been working together to minimize aircraft noise for nearby sensitive areas. As a result,

noise abatement procedures have been developed for

many of these airports that include standardized profiles

and procedures to achieve these lower noise goals.

Airports that have noise abatement procedures provide

information to pilots, operators, air carriers, air traffic

facilities, and other special groups that are applicable

to their airport. These procedures are available to the

aviation community by various means. Most of this

information comes from the Airport/Facility Directory,

local and regional publications, printed handouts, operator bulletin boards, safety briefings, and local air traffic facilities.

At airports that use noise abatement procedures,

reminder signs may be installed at the taxiway hold

positions for applicable runways. These are to remind

pilots to use and comply with noise abatement procedures on departure. Pilots who are not familiar with

these procedures should ask the tower or air traffic

facility for the recommended procedures. In any case,

pilots should be considerate of the surrounding community while operating their airplane to and from such

an airport. This includes operating as quietly, yet safely

as possible.

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Ch 05.qxd 5/7/04 7:02 AM Page 5-12
PURPOSE AND SCOPE

Ground reference maneuvers and their related factors

are used in developing a high degree of pilot skill.

Although most of these maneuvers are not performed

as such in normal everyday flying, the elements and

principles involved in each are applicable to performance of the customary pilot operations. They aid the

pilot in analyzing the effect of wind and other forces

acting on the airplane and in developing a fine control touch, coordination, and the division of attention

necessary for accurate and safe maneuvering of the

airplane.

All of the early part of the pilot’s training has been conducted at relatively high altitudes, and for the purpose

of developing technique, knowledge of maneuvers,

coordination, feel, and the handling of the airplane in

general. This training will have required that most of

the pilot’s attention be given to the actual handling of

the airplane, and the results of control pressures on the

action and attitude of the airplane.

If permitted to continue beyond the appropriate training

stage, however, the student pilot’s concentration of

attention will become a fixed habit, one that will seriously detract from the student’s ease and safety as a

pilot, and will be very difficult to eliminate. Therefore,

it is necessary, as soon as the pilot shows proficiency in

the fundamental maneuvers, that the pilot be introduced

to maneuvers requiring outside attention on a practical

application of these maneuvers and the knowledge

gained.

It should be stressed that, during ground reference

maneuvers, it is equally important that basic flying

technique previously learned be maintained. The

flight instructor should not allow any relaxation of the

student’s previous standard of technique simply

because a new factor is added. This requirement

should be maintained throughout the student’s

progress from maneuver to maneuver. Each new

maneuver should embody some advance and include

the principles of the preceding one in order that continuity be maintained. Each new factor introduced

should be merely a step-up of one already learned so

that orderly, consistent progress can be made.

MANEUVERING BY REFERENCE

TO GROUND OBJECTS

Ground track or ground reference maneuvers are performed at a relatively low altitude while applying wind

drift correction as needed to follow a predetermined

track or path over the ground. They are designed to

develop the ability to control the airplane, and to recognize and correct for the effect of wind while dividing

attention among other matters. This requires planning

ahead of the airplane, maintaining orientation in relation

to ground objects, flying appropriate headings to follow

a desired ground track, and being cognizant of other air

traffic in the immediate vicinity.

Ground reference maneuvers should be flown at an altitude of approximately 600 to 1,000 feet AGL. The

actual altitude will depend on the speed and type of airplane to a large extent, and the following factors should

be considered.

• The speed with relation to the ground should not

be so apparent that events happen too rapidly.

• The radius of the turn and the path of the airplane

over the ground should be easily noted and

changes planned and effected as circumstances

require.

• Drift should be easily discernable, but not tax the

student too much in making corrections.

• Objects on the ground should appear in their proportion and size.

• The altitude should be low enough to render any

gain or loss apparent to the student, but in no case

lower than 500 feet above the highest obstruction.

During these maneuvers, both the instructor and the

student should be alert for available forced-landing

fields. The area chosen should be away from communities, livestock, or groups of people to prevent possible

annoyance or hazards to others. Due to the altitudes at

which these maneuvers are performed, there is little

time available to search for a suitable field for landing

in the event the need arises.

6-1

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6-2

DRIFT AND GROUND 

TRACK CONTROL

Whenever any object is free from the ground, it is

affected by the medium with which it is surrounded.

This means that a free object will move in whatever

direction and speed that the medium moves.

For example, if a powerboat is crossing a river and

the river is still, the boat could head directly to a point

on the opposite shore and travel on a straight course

to that point without drifting. However, if the river

were flowing swiftly, the water current would have to

be considered. That is, as the boat progresses forward

with its own power, it must also move upstream at the

same rate the river is moving it downstream. This is

accomplished by angling the boat upstream sufficiently to counteract the downstream flow. If this is

done, the boat will follow the desired track across

the river from the departure point directly to the

intended destination point. Should the boat not be

headed sufficiently upstream, it would drift with the

current and run aground at some point downstream

on the opposite bank. [Figure 6-1]

As soon as an airplane becomes airborne, it is free of

ground friction. Its path is then affected by the air mass

in which it is flying; therefore, the airplane (like the

boat) will not always track along the ground in the

exact direction that it is headed. When flying with the

longitudinal axis of the airplane aligned with a road, it

may be noted that the airplane gets closer to or farther

from the road without any turn having been made. This

would indicate that the air mass is moving sideward in

relation to the airplane. Since the airplane is flying

within this moving body of air (wind), it moves or

drifts with the air in the same direction and speed, just

like the boat moved with the river current. [Figure 6-1]

When flying straight and level and following a

selected ground track, the preferred method of correcting for wind drift is to head the airplane (wind

correction angle) sufficiently into the wind to cause

the airplane to move forward into the wind at the

same rate the wind is moving it sideways.

Depending on the wind velocity, this may require a

large wind correction angle or one of only a few

degrees. When the drift has been neutralized, the

airplane will follow the desired ground track.

To understand the need for drift correction during

flight, consider a flight with a wind velocity of 30

knots from the left and 90° to the direction the airplane

is headed. After 1 hour, the body of air in which the

airplane is flying will have moved 30 nautical miles

(NM) to the right. Since the airplane is moving with

this body of air, it too will have drifted 30 NM to the

right. In relation to the air, the airplane moved forward, but in relation to the ground, it moved forward

as well as 30 NM to the right.

There are times when the pilot needs to correct for drift

while in a turn. [Figure 6-2] Throughout the turn the

wind will be acting on the airplane from constantly

changing angles. The relative wind angle and speed

CURRENT CURRENT

No Current - No Drift With a current the boat drifts

downstream unless corrected.

With proper correction, boat

stays on intended course.

No Wind - No Drift With any wind, the airplane drifts

downwind unless corrected.

With proper correction, airplane

stays on intended course.

WIND WIND

Figure 6-1. Wind drift.

Ch 06.qxd 5/7/04 7:35 AM Page 6-2
6-3

govern the time it takes for the airplane to progress

through any part of a turn. This is due to the constantly

changing groundspeed. When the airplane is headed

into the wind, the groundspeed is decreased; when

headed downwind, the groundspeed is increased.

Through the crosswind portion of a turn, the airplane

must be turned sufficiently into the wind to counteract

drift.

To follow a desired circular ground track, the wind correction angle must be varied in a timely manner

because of the varying groundspeed as the turn progresses. The faster the groundspeed, the faster the wind

correction angle must be established; the slower the

groundspeed, the slower the wind correction angle may

be established. It can be seen then that the steepest

bank and fastest rate of turn should be made on the

downwind portion of the turn and the shallowest bank

and slowest rate of turn on the upwind portion.

The principles and techniques of varying the angle of

bank to change the rate of turn and wind correction

angle for controlling wind drift during a turn are the

same for all ground track maneuvers involving

changes in direction of flight.

When there is no wind, it should be simple to fly along

a ground track with an arc of exactly 180° and a constant radius because the flightpath and ground track

would be identical. This can be demonstrated by

approaching a road at a 90° angle and, when directly

over the road, rolling into a medium-banked turn, then

maintaining the same angle of bank throughout the

180° of turn. [Figure 6-2]

To complete the turn, the rollout should be started at a

point where the wings will become level as the airplane

again reaches the road at a 90° angle and will be

directly over the road just as the turn is completed. This

would be possible only if there were absolutely no

wind and if the angle of bank and the rate of turn

remained constant throughout the entire maneuver.

If the turn were made with a constant angle of bank

and a wind blowing directly across the road, it would

result in a constant radius turn through the air.

However, the wind effects would cause the ground

track to be distorted from a constant radius turn or

semicircular path. The greater the wind velocity, the

greater would be the difference between the desired

ground track and the flightpath. To counteract this

drift, the flightpath can be controlled by the pilot in

such a manner as to neutralize the effect of the wind,

and cause the ground track to be a constant radius

semicircle.

The effects of wind during turns can be demonstrated

after selecting a road, railroad, or other ground reference that forms a straight line parallel to the wind. Fly

into the wind directly over and along the line and then

make a turn with a constant medium angle of bank for

360° of turn. [Figure 6-3] The airplane will return to a

point directly over the line but slightly downwind from

the starting point, the amount depending on the wind

velocity and the time required to complete the turn.

The path over the ground will be an elongated circle,

although in reference to the air it is a perfect circle.

Straight flight during the upwind segment after completion of the turn is necessary to bring the airplane

back to the starting position.

20 Knot Wind

Intended ground path

Actual ground path

No Wind

Figure 6-2. Effect of wind during a turn.

Figure 6-3. Effect of wind during turns.

No Wind

Start & Finish

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6-4

A similar 360° turn may be started at a specific point

over the reference line, with the airplane headed

directly downwind. In this demonstration, the effect of

wind during the constant banked turn will drift the airplane to a point where the line is reintercepted, but the

360° turn will be completed at a point downwind from

the starting point.

Another reference line which lies directly crosswind

may be selected and the same procedure repeated,

showing that if wind drift is not corrected the airplane

will, at the completion of the 360° turn, be headed in

the original direction but will have drifted away from

the line a distance dependent on the amount of wind.

From these demonstrations, it can be seen where and

why it is necessary to increase or decrease the angle of

bank and the rate of turn to achieve a desired track over

the ground. The principles and techniques involved can

be practiced and evaluated by the performance of the

ground track maneuvers discussed in this chapter.

RECTANGULAR COURSE

Normally, the first ground reference maneuver the pilot

is introduced to is the rectangular course. [Figure 6-4]

The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which

the ground track of the airplane is equidistant from all

sides of a selected rectangular area on the ground. The

maneuver simulates the conditions encountered in an

airport traffic pattern. While performing the maneuver, the altitude and airspeed should be held constant.

The maneuver assists the student pilot in perfecting:

• Practical application of the turn.

• The division of attention between the flightpath,

ground objects, and the handling of the airplane.

• The timing of the start of a turn so that the turn

will be fully established at a definite point over

the ground.

• The timing of the recovery from a turn so that a

definite ground track will be maintained.

• The establishing of a ground track and the determination of the appropriate “crab” angle.

Like those of other ground track maneuvers, one of the

objectives is to develop division of attention between

the flightpath and ground references, while controlling

the airplane and watching for other aircraft in the

Turn More Than

90° Rollout

with Wind Correction

 Established

Complete Turn

at Boundary

Turn Into

Wind

Start Turn at

Boundary

Start Turn

at Boundary

Complete Turn

at Boundary

Turn

Less Than 90°

Complete Turn

at Boundary

Start Turn

at Boundary

No Wind Correction

Enter

45° to Downwind

Exit

No Wind Correction

Turn Into

Wind

Turn Less Than

90° Rollout

With WIind Correction

 Established

Turn More

Than 90°

Start Turn at

Boundary

Complete Turn

at Boundary

Track With No 

Wind Correction

Track

With No

Wind Correction

DOWNWIND

UPWIND 

CROSSWIND 

BASE 

Figure 6-4. Rectangular course.

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6-5

vicinity. Another objective is to develop recognition of

drift toward or away from a line parallel to the intended

ground track. This will be helpful in recognizing drift

toward or from an airport runway during the various

legs of the airport traffic pattern.

For this maneuver, a square or rectangular field, or an

area bounded on four sides by section lines or roads

(the sides of which are approximately a mile in length),

should be selected well away from other air traffic. The

airplane should be flown parallel to and at a uniform

distance about one-fourth to one-half mile away from

the field boundaries, not above the boundaries. For

best results, the flightpath should be positioned outside

the field boundaries just far enough that they may be

easily observed from either pilot seat by looking out

the side of the airplane. If an attempt is made to fly

directly above the edges of the field, the pilot will have

no usable reference points to start and complete the

turns. The closer the track of the airplane is to the field

boundaries, the steeper the bank necessary at the turning points. Also, the pilot should be able to see the

edges of the selected field while seated in a normal

position and looking out the side of the airplane during

either a left-hand or right-hand course. The distance of

the ground track from the edges of the field should be

the same regardless of whether the course is flown to

the left or right. All turns should be started when the

airplane is abeam the corner of the field boundaries,

and the bank normally should not exceed 45°. These

should be the determining factors in establishing the

distance from the boundaries for performing the

maneuver.

Although the rectangular course may be entered from

any direction, this discussion assumes entry on a

downwind.

On the downwind leg, the wind is a tailwind and results

in an increased groundspeed. Consequently, the turn

onto the next leg is entered with a fairly fast rate of

roll-in with relatively steep bank. As the turn progresses, the bank angle is reduced gradually because

the tailwind component is diminishing, resulting in a

decreasing groundspeed.

During and after the turn onto this leg (the equivalent

of the base leg in a traffic pattern), the wind will tend

to drift the airplane away from the field boundary. To

compensate for the drift, the amount of turn will be

more than 90°.

The rollout from this turn must be such that as the

wings become level, the airplane is turned slightly

toward the field and into the wind to correct for drift.

The airplane should again be the same distance from

the field boundary and at the same altitude, as on other

legs. The base leg should be continued until the upwind

leg boundary is being approached. Once more the pilot

should anticipate drift and turning radius. Since drift

correction was held on the base leg, it is necessary to

turn less than 90° to align the airplane parallel to the

upwind leg boundary. This turn should be started with

a medium bank angle with a gradual reduction to a

shallow bank as the turn progresses. The rollout should

be timed to assure paralleling the boundary of the field

as the wings become level.

While the airplane is on the upwind leg, the next field

boundary should be observed as it is being approached,

to plan the turn onto the crosswind leg. Since the wind

is a headwind on this leg, it is reducing the airplane’s

groundspeed and during the turn onto the crosswind

leg will try to drift the airplane toward the field. For

this reason, the roll-in to the turn must be slow and the

bank relatively shallow to counteract this effect. As the

turn progresses, the headwind component decreases,

allowing the groundspeed to increase. Consequently,

the bank angle and rate of turn are increased gradually

to assure that upon completion of the turn the crosswind ground track will continue the same distance

from the edge of the field. Completion of the turn with

the wings level should be accomplished at a point

aligned with the upwind corner of the field.

Simultaneously, as the wings are rolled level, the

proper drift correction is established with the airplane

turned into the wind. This requires that the turn be less

than a 90° change in heading. If the turn has been made

properly, the field boundary will again appear to be

one-fourth to one-half mile away. While on the crosswind leg, the wind correction angle should be adjusted

as necessary to maintain a uniform distance from the

field boundary.

As the next field boundary is being approached, the

pilot should plan the turn onto the downwind leg. Since

a wind correction angle is being held into the wind and

away from the field while on the crosswind leg, this

next turn will require a turn of more than 90°. Since

the crosswind will become a tailwind, causing the

groundspeed to increase during this turn, the bank initially should be medium and progressively increased

as the turn proceeds. To complete the turn, the rollout

must be timed so that the wings become level at a point

aligned with the crosswind corner of the field just as

the longitudinal axis of the airplane again becomes

parallel to the field boundary. The distance from the

field boundary should be the same as from the other

sides of the field.

Usually, drift should not be encountered on the upwind

or the downwind leg, but it may be difficult to find a

situation where the wind is blowing exactly parallel to

the field boundaries. This would make it necessary to

use a slight wind correction angle on all the legs. It is

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important to anticipate the turns to correct for groundspeed, drift, and turning radius. When the wind is

behind the airplane, the turn must be faster and steeper;

when it is ahead of the airplane, the turn must be

slower and shallower. These same techniques apply

while flying in airport traffic patterns.

Common errors in the performance of rectangular

courses are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to establish proper altitude prior to

entry. (Typically entering the maneuver while

descending.)

• Failure to establish appropriate wind correction

angle resulting in drift.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Poor coordination. (Typically skidding in turns

from a downwind heading and slipping in turns

from an upwind heading.)

• Abrupt control usage.

• Inability to adequately divide attention between

airplane control and maintaining ground track.

• Improper timing in beginning and recovering

from turns.

• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.

S-TURNS ACROSS A ROAD

An S-turn across a road is a practice maneuver in

which the airplane’s ground track describes semicircles of equal radii on each side of a selected straight

line on the ground. [Figure 6-5] The straight line may

be a road, fence, railroad, or section line that lies perpendicular to the wind, and should be of sufficient

length for making a series of turns. A constant altitude

should be maintained throughout the maneuver.

S-turns across a road present one of the most elementary problems in the practical application of the turn

and in the correction for wind drift in turns. While the

application of this maneuver is considerably less

advanced in some respects than the rectangular course,

it is taught after the student has been introduced to that

maneuver in order that the student may have a knowledge of the correction for wind drift in straight flight

along a reference line before the student attempt to

correct for drift by playing a turn.

The objectives of S-turns across a road are to develop

the ability to compensate for drift during turns, orient

the flightpath with ground references, follow an

assigned ground track, arrive at specified points on

assigned headings, and divide the pilot’s attention. The

Steep

Bank

Shallow Bank

Shallow Bank

Steep

Bank

Moderate Bank

Moderate Bank

Wings Level

Entry

Figure 6-5. S-Turns.

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6-7

maneuver consists of crossing the road at a 90° angle

and immediately beginning a series of 180° turns of

uniform radius in opposite directions, re-crossing the

road at a 90° angle just as each 180° turn is completed.

To accomplish a constant radius ground track requires

a changing roll rate and angle of bank to establish the

wind correction angle. Both will increase or decrease

as groundspeed increases or decreases.

The bank must be steepest when beginning the turn on

the downwind side of the road and must be shallowed

gradually as the turn progresses from a downwind

heading to an upwind heading. On the upwind side, the

turn should be started with a relatively shallow bank

and then gradually steepened as the airplane turns from

an upwind heading to a downwind heading.

In this maneuver, the airplane should be rolled from

one bank directly into the opposite just as the reference

line on the ground is crossed.

Before starting the maneuver, a straight ground reference line or road that lies 90° to the direction of the

wind should be selected, then the area checked to

ensure that no obstructions or other aircraft are in the

immediate vicinity. The road should be approached

from the upwind side, at the selected altitude on a

downwind heading. When directly over the road, the

first turn should be started immediately. With the airplane headed downwind, the groundspeed is greatest

and the rate of departure from the road will be rapid;

so the roll into the steep bank must be fairly rapid to

attain the proper wind correction angle. This prevents

the airplane from flying too far from the road and

from establishing a ground track of excessive radius.

During the latter portion of the first 90° of turn when

the airplane’s heading is changing from a downwind

heading to a crosswind heading, the groundspeed

becomes less and the rate of departure from the road

decreases. The wind correction angle will be at the

maximum when the airplane is headed directly crosswind.

After turning 90°, the airplane’s heading becomes

more and more an upwind heading, the groundspeed

will decrease, and the rate of closure with the road

will become slower. If a constant steep bank were

maintained, the airplane would turn too quickly for

the slower rate of closure, and would be headed perpendicular to the road prematurely. Because of the

decreasing groundspeed and rate of closure while

approaching the upwind heading, it will be necessary

to gradually shallow the bank during the remaining

90° of the semicircle, so that the wind correction

angle is removed completely and the wings become

level as the 180° turn is completed at the moment the

road is reached.

At the instant the road is being crossed again, a turn in

the opposite direction should be started. Since the airplane is still flying into the headwind, the groundspeed

is relatively slow. Therefore, the turn will have to be

started with a shallow bank so as to avoid an excessive

rate of turn that would establish the maximum wind

correction angle too soon. The degree of bank should

be that which is necessary to attain the proper wind

correction angle so the ground track describes an arc

the same size as the one established on the downwind

side.

Since the airplane is turning from an upwind to a

downwind heading, the groundspeed will increase

and after turning 90°, the rate of closure with the road

will increase rapidly. Consequently, the angle of bank

and rate of turn must be progressively increased so

that the airplane will have turned 180° at the time it

reaches the road. Again, the rollout must be timed so

the airplane is in straight-and-level flight directly

over and perpendicular to the road.

Throughout the maneuver a constant altitude should

be maintained, and the bank should be changing

constantly to effect a true semicircular ground track.

Often there is a tendency to increase the bank too

rapidly during the initial part of the turn on the

upwind side, which will prevent the completion of

the 180° turn before re-crossing the road. This is

apparent when the turn is not completed in time for

the airplane to cross the road at a perpendicular

angle. To avoid this error, the pilot must visualize the

desired half circle ground track, and increase the

bank during the early part of this turn. During the latter part of the turn, when approaching the road, the

pilot must judge the closure rate properly and

increase the bank accordingly, so as to cross the road

perpendicular to it just as the rollout is completed.

Common errors in the performance of S-turns across a

road are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Poor coordination.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Inability to visualize the half circle ground track.

• Poor timing in beginning and recovering from

turns.

• Faulty correction for drift.

• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.

TURNS AROUND A POINT

Turns around a point, as a training maneuver, is a

logical extension of the principles involved in the

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performance of S-turns across a road. Its purposes as

a training maneuver are:

• To further perfect turning technique.

• To perfect the ability to subconsciously control

the airplane while dividing attention between the

flightpath and ground references.

• To teach the student that the radius of a turn is a

distance which is affected by the degree of bank

used when turning with relation to a definite

object.

• To develop a keen perception of altitude.

• To perfect the ability to correct for wind drift

while in turns.

In turns around a point, the airplane is flown in two or

more complete circles of uniform radii or distance

from a prominent ground reference point using a maximum bank of approximately 45° while maintaining a

constant altitude.

The factors and principles of drift correction that are

involved in S-turns are also applicable in this maneuver. As in other ground track maneuvers, a constant

radius around a point will, if any wind exists, require a

constantly changing angle of bank and angles of wind

correction. The closer the airplane is to a direct downwind heading where the groundspeed is greatest, the

steeper the bank and the faster the rate of turn required

to establish the proper wind correction angle. The

more nearly it is to a direct upwind heading where the

groundspeed is least, the shallower the bank and the

slower the rate of turn required to establish the proper

wind correction angle. It follows, then, that throughout the maneuver the bank and rate of turn must be

gradually varied in proportion to the groundspeed.

The point selected for turns around a point should

be prominent, easily distinguished by the pilot, and

yet small enough to present precise reference.

[Figure 6-6] Isolated trees, crossroads, or other similar small landmarks are usually suitable.

To enter turns around a point, the airplane should be

flown on a downwind heading to one side of the

selected point at a distance equal to the desired radius

of turn. In a high-wing airplane, the distance from the

point must permit the pilot to see the point throughout

the maneuver even with the wing lowered in a bank. If

the radius is too large, the lowered wing will block the

pilot’s view of the point.

When any significant wind exists, it will be necessary to

roll into the initial bank at a rapid rate so that the steepSteepest

Bank

Shallowest

Bank

Steeper

Bank

Shallower

Bank

Upwind Half of Circle

Downwind Half of Circle

Figure 6-6.Turns around a point.

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est bank is attained abeam of the point when the airplane

is headed directly downwind. By entering the maneuver

while heading directly downwind, the steepest bank can

be attained immediately. Thus, if a maximum bank of

45° is desired, the initial bank will be 45° if the airplane

is at the correct distance from the point. Thereafter, the

bank is shallowed gradually until the point is reached

where the airplane is headed directly upwind. At this

point, the bank should be gradually steepened until the

steepest bank is again attained when heading downwind

at the initial point of entry.

Just as S-turns require that the airplane be turned into

the wind in addition to varying the bank, so do turns

around a point. During the downwind half of the circle,

the airplane’s nose is progressively turned toward the

inside of the circle; during the upwind half, the nose is

progressively turned toward the outside. The downwind

half of the turn around the point may be compared to the

downwind side of the S-turn across a road; the upwind

half of the turn around a point may be compared to the

upwind side of the S-turn across a road.

As the pilot becomes experienced in performing turns

around a point and has a good understanding of the

effects of wind drift and varying of the bank angle and

wind correction angle as required, entry into the

maneuver may be from any point. When entering the

maneuver at a point other than downwind, however,

the radius of the turn should be carefully selected, taking into account the wind velocity and groundspeed so

that an excessive bank is not required later on to maintain the proper ground track. The flight instructor

should place particular emphasis on the effect of an

incorrect initial bank. This emphasis should continue

in the performance of elementary eights.

Common errors in the performance of turns around a

point are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Failure to establish appropriate bank on entry.

• Failure to recognize wind drift.

• Excessive bank and/or inadequate wind correction angle on the downwind side of the circle

resulting in drift towards the reference point.

• Inadequate bank angle and/or excessive wind

correction angle on the upwind side of the circle

resulting in drift away from the reference point.

• Skidding turns when turning from downwind to

crosswind.

• Slipping turns when turning from upwind to

crosswind.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft. 

• Inability to direct attention outside the airplane

while maintaining precise airplane control.

ELEMENTARY EIGHTS

An “eight” is a maneuver in which the airplane

describes a path over the ground more or less in the

shape of a figure “8”. In all eights except “lazy eights”

the path is horizontal as though following a marked

path over the ground. There are various types of eights,

progressing from the elementary types to very difficult

types in the advanced maneuvers. Each has its special

use in teaching the student to solve a particular

problem of turning with relation to the Earth, or an

object on the Earth’s surface. Each type, as they

advance in difficulty of accomplishment, further

perfects the student’s coordination technique and

requires a higher degree of subconscious flying ability. Of all the training maneuvers available to the

instructor, only eights require the progressively

higher degree of conscious attention to outside

objects. However, the real importance of eights is in

the requirement for the perfection and display of

subconscious flying.

Elementary eights, specifically eights along a road,

eights across a road, and eights around pylons, are

variations of turns around a point, which use two

points about which the airplane circles in either

direction. Elementary eights are designed for the following purposes.

• To perfect turning technique.

• To develop the ability to divide attention between

the actual handling of controls and an outside

objective.

• To perfect the knowledge of the effect of angle of

bank on radius of turn.

• To demonstrate how wind affects the path of the

airplane over the ground.

• To gain experience in the visualization of the

results of planning before the execution of the

maneuver. 

• To train the student to think and plan ahead of the

airplane.

EIGHTS ALONG A ROAD

An eight along a road is a maneuver in which the

ground track consists of two complete adjacent circles

of equal radii on each side of a straight road or other

reference line on the ground. The ground track resembles a figure 8. [Figure 6-7 on next page]

Like the other ground reference maneuvers, its

objective is to develop division of attention while

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compensating for drift, maintaining orientation with

ground references, and maintaining a constant

altitude.

Although eights along a road may be performed with

the wind blowing parallel to the road or directly across

the road, for simplification purposes, only the latter situation is explained since the principles involved in

either case are common.

A reference line or road which is perpendicular to the

wind should be selected and the airplane flown parallel

to and directly above the road. Since the wind is blowing across the flightpath, the airplane will require some

wind correction angle to stay directly above the road

during the initial straight and level portion. Before

starting the maneuver, the area should be checked to

ensure clearance of obstructions and avoidance of

other aircraft.

Usually, the first turn should be made toward a downwind heading starting with a medium bank. Since the

airplane will be turning more and more directly downwind, the groundspeed will be gradually increasing and

the rate of departing the road will tend to become

faster. Thus, the bank and rate of turn is increased to

establish a wind correction angle to keep the airplane

from exceeding the desired distance from the road

when 180° of change in direction is completed. The

steepest bank is attained when the airplane is headed

directly downwind.

As the airplane completes 180° of change in direction,

it will be flying parallel to and using a wind correction

angle toward the road with the wind acting directly

perpendicular to the ground track. At this point, the

pilot should visualize the remaining 180° of ground

track required to return to the same place over the road

from which the maneuver started.

While the turn is continued toward an upwind heading,

the wind will tend to keep the airplane from reaching

the road, with a decrease in groundspeed and rate of

closure. The rate of turn and wind correction angle are

decreased proportionately so that the road will be

reached just as the 360° turn is completed. To accomplish this, the bank is decreased so that when headed

directly upwind, it will be at the shallowest angle. In

the last 90° of the turn, the bank may be varied to correct any previous errors in judging the returning rate

and closure rate. The rollout should be timed so that

the airplane will be straight and level over the starting

point, with enough drift correction to hold it over the

road.

After momentarily flying straight and level along the

road, the airplane is then rolled into a medium bank

turn in the opposite direction to begin the circle on the

upwind side of the road. The wind will still be decreasing the groundspeed and trying to drift the airplane

back toward the road; therefore, the bank must be

decreased slowly during the first 90° change in direction in order to reach the desired distance from the

road and attain the proper wind correction angle when

180° change in direction has been completed.

As the remaining 180° of turn continues, the wind

becomes more of a tailwind and increases the airplane’s groundspeed. This causes the rate of closure

to become faster; consequently, the angle of bank

and rate of turn must be increased further to attain

sufficient wind correction angle to keep the airplane

from approaching the road too rapidly. The bank will

be at its steepest angle when the airplane is headed

directly downwind.

In the last 90° of the turn, the rate of turn should be

reduced to bring the airplane over the starting point on

the road. The rollout must be timed so the airplane will

be straight and level, turned into the wind, and flying

parallel to and over the road.

The measure of a student’s progress in the performance

of eights along a road is the smoothness and accuracy of

the change in bank used to counteract drift. The sooner

the drift is detected and correction applied, the smaller

will be the required changes. The more quickly the

student can anticipate the corrections needed, the

less obvious the changes will be and the more attention

can be diverted to the maintenance of altitude and operation of the airplane.

Errors in coordination must be eliminated and a constant altitude maintained. Flying technique must not

be allowed to suffer from the fact that the student’s

attention is diverted. This technique should improve as

the student becomes able to divide attention between

the operation of the airplane controls and following a

designated flightpath.

Shallower

Bank

Shallowest

Bank Steep

Bank

Shallowest

Bank

Steeper

Bank

Steepest

Bank

Figure 6-7. Eights along a road.

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6-11

EIGHTS ACROSS A ROAD

This maneuver is a variation of eights along a road and

involves the same principles and techniques. The primary difference is that at the completion of each loop

of the figure eight, the airplane should cross an intersection of roads or a specific point on a straight road.

[Figure 6-8]

The loops should be across the road and the wind

should be perpendicular to the road. Each time the road

is crossed, the crossing angle should be the same and

the wings of the airplane should be level. The eights

also may be performed by rolling from one bank

immediately to the other, directly over the road.

EIGHTS AROUND PYLONS

This training maneuver is an application of the same

principles and techniques of correcting for wind drift

as used in turns around a point and the same objectives

as other ground track maneuvers. In this case, two

points or pylons on the ground are used as references,

and turns around each pylon are made in opposite

directions to follow a ground track in the form of a

figure 8. [Figure 6-9]

 Steeper

Bank

 Shallower

Bank

Shallowest

Bank

 Steeper

Bank

 Shallowest

Bank

 Shallower

Bank

Steepest

Bank

Steepest

Bank

Figure 6-8. Eights across a road.

 Steeper

Bank

 Shallower

Bank

Shallowest

Bank

 Steeper

Bank

 Shallowest

Bank

 Shallower

Bank

Steepest

Bank

Steepest

Bank

Figure 6-9. Eights around pylons.

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The pattern involves flying downwind between the

pylons and upwind outside of the pylons. It may

include a short period of straight-and-level flight while

proceeding diagonally from one pylon to the other.

The pylons selected should be on a line 90° to the

direction of the wind and should be in an area away

from communities, livestock, or groups of people, to

avoid possible annoyance or hazards to others. The

area selected should be clear of hazardous obstructions

and other air traffic. Throughout the maneuver a constant altitude of at least 500 feet above the ground

should be maintained.

The eight should be started with the airplane on a

downwind heading when passing between the pylons.

The distance between the pylons and the wind velocity

will determine the initial angle of bank required to

maintain a constant radius from the pylons during each

turn. The steepest banks will be necessary just after

each turn entry and just before the rollout from each

turn where the airplane is headed downwind and the

groundspeed is greatest; the shallowest banks will be

when the airplane is headed directly upwind and the

groundspeed is least.

The rate of bank change will depend on the wind

velocity, the same as it does in S-turns and turns

around a point, and the bank will be changing continuously during the turns. The adjustment of the bank

angle should be gradual from the steepest bank to the

shallowest bank as the airplane progressively heads

into the wind, followed by a gradual increase until the

steepest bank is again reached just prior to rollout. If

the airplane is to proceed diagonally from one turn to

the other, the rollout from each turn must be completed

on the proper heading with sufficient wind correction

angle to ensure that after brief straight-and-level flight,

the airplane will arrive at the point where a turn of the

same radius can be made around the other pylon. The

straight-and-level flight segments must be tangent to

both circular patterns.

Common errors in the performance of elementary

eights are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Poor choice of ground reference points.

• Improper maneuver entry considering wind

direction and ground reference points.

• Incorrect initial bank.

• Poor coordination during turns.

• Gaining or losing altitude.

• Loss of orientation.

• Abrupt rather than smooth changes in bank angle

to counteract wind drift in turns.

• Failure to anticipate needed drift correction.

• Failure to apply needed drift correction in a

timely manner.

• Failure to roll out of turns on proper heading.

• Inability to divide attention between reference

points on the ground, airplane control, and scanning for other aircraft.

EIGHTS-ON-PYLONS (PYLON EIGHTS)

The pylon eight is the most advanced and most difficult of the low altitude flight training maneuvers.

Because of the various techniques involved, the pylon

eight is unsurpassed for teaching, developing, and testing subconscious control of the airplane.

As the pylon eight is essentially an advanced

maneuver in which the pilot’s attention is directed

at maintaining a pivotal position on a selected pylon,

with a minimum of attention within the cockpit, it

should not be introduced until the instructor is assured

that the student has a complete grasp of the fundamentals.

Thus, the prerequisites are the ability to make a coordinated turn without gain or loss of altitude, excellent feel of

the airplane, stall recognition, relaxation with low altitude

maneuvering, and an absence of the error of over

concentration.

Like eights around pylons, this training maneuver also

involves flying the airplane in circular paths, alternately left and right, in the form of a figure 8 around

two selected points or pylons on the ground. Unlike

eights around pylons, however, no attempt is made to

maintain a uniform distance from the pylon. In eightson-pylons, the distance from the pylons varies if there

is any wind. Instead, the airplane is flown at such a

precise altitude and airspeed that a line parallel to the

airplane’s lateral axis, and extending from the pilot’s

eye, appears to pivot on each of the pylons. [Figure 6-

10] Also, unlike eights around pylons, in the performance of eights-on-pylons the degree of bank increases

as the distance from the pylon decreases.

The altitude that is appropriate for the airplane being

flown is called the pivotal altitude and is governed by

the groundspeed. While not truly a ground track

maneuver as were the preceding maneuvers, the objective is similar—to develop the ability to maneuver the

airplane accurately while dividing one’s attention

between the flightpath and the selected points on the

ground.

In explaining the performance of eights-on-pylons, the

term “wingtip” is frequently considered as being synonymous with the proper reference line, or pivot

point on the airplane. This interpretation is not

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always correct. High-wing, low-wing, sweptwing, and

tapered wing airplanes, as well as those with tandem or

side-by-side seating, will all present different angles from

the pilot’s eye to the wingtip. [Figure 6-11] Therefore, in

the correct performance of eights-on-pylons, as in other

maneuvers requiring a lateral reference, the pilot should

use a sighting reference line that, from eye level, parallels

the lateral axis of the airplane.

 Closest to

the Pylon

Lowest

Groundspeed

Lowest Pivotal

Altitude

 High Groundspeed

High Pivotal Altitude

Entry

Figure 6-10. Eights-on-pylons.

Figure 6-11. Line of sight.

Lateral Axis

Line of Sight

Lateral Axis

Line of Sight

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The sighting point or line, while not necessarily on the

wingtip itself, may be positioned in relation to the

wingtip (ahead, behind, above, or below), but even

then it will differ for each pilot, and from each seat in

the airplane. This is especially true in tandem (fore and

aft) seat airplanes. In side-by-side type airplanes, there

will be very little variation in the sighting lines for different persons if those persons are seated so that the

eyes of each are at approximately the same level.

An explanation of the pivotal altitude is also essential.

There is a specific altitude at which, when the airplane

turns at a given groundspeed, a projection of the sighting reference line to the selected point on the ground

will appear to pivot on that point. Since different airplanes fly at different airspeeds, the groundspeed will

be different. Therefore, each airplane will have its own

pivotal altitude. [Figure 6-12] The pivotal altitude does

not vary with the angle of bank being used unless the

bank is steep enough to affect the groundspeed. A rule

of thumb for estimating pivotal altitude in calm wind is

to square the true airspeed and divide by 15 for miles

per hour (m.p.h.) or 11.3 for knots.

Distance from the pylon affects the angle of bank.

At any altitude above that pivotal altitude, the projected reference line will appear to move rearward

in a circular path in relation to the pylon.

Conversely, when the airplane is below the pivotal

altitude, the projected reference line will appear to

move forward in a circular path. [Figure 6-13]

To demonstrate this, the airplane is flown at normal

cruising speed, and at an altitude estimated to be below

the proper pivotal altitude, and then placed in a

medium-banked turn. It will be seen that the projected

reference line of sight appears to move forward along

the ground (pylon moves back) as the airplane turns.

A climb is then made to an altitude well above the pivotal altitude, and when the airplane is again at normal

cruising speed, it is placed in a medium-banked turn.

At this higher altitude, the projected reference line of

sight now appears to move backward across the

ground (pylon moves forward) in a direction opposite

that of flight.

After the high altitude extreme has been demonstrated,

the power is reduced, and a descent at cruising speed

begun in a continuing medium bank around the pylon.

The apparent backward travel of the projected reference line with respect to the pylon will slow down as

altitude is lost, stop for an instant, then start to reverse

itself, and would move forward if the descent were

allowed to continue below the pivotal altitude.

The altitude at which the line of sight apparently

ceased to move across the ground was the pivotal

altitude. If the airplane descended below the pivotal

altitude, power should be added to maintain airspeed

while altitude is regained to the point at which the

projected reference line moves neither backward nor

forward but actually pivots on the pylon. In this way

the pilot can determine the pivotal altitude of the airplane.

The pivotal altitude is critical and will change with

variations in groundspeed. Since the headings

throughout the turns continually vary from directly

downwind to directly upwind, the groundspeed will

constantly change. This will result in the proper pivotal altitude varying slightly throughout the eight.

Therefore, adjustment is made for this by climbing or

descending, as necessary, to hold the reference line or

point on the pylons. This change in altitude will be

dependent on how much the wind affects the groundspeed.

The instructor should emphasize that the elevators are

the primary control for holding the pylons. Even a very

slight variation in altitude effects a double correction,

since in losing altitude, speed is gained, and even a

slight climb reduces the airspeed. This variation in altitude, although important in holding the pylon, in most

cases will be so slight as to be barely perceptible on a

sensitive altimeter.

Before beginning the maneuver, the pilot should select

two points on the ground along a line which lies 90° to

the direction of the wind. The area in which the

maneuver is to be performed should be checked for

obstructions and any other air traffic, and it should be

located where a disturbance to groups of people, livestock, or communities will not result.

The selection of proper pylons is of importance to

good eights-on-pylons. They should be sufficiently

prominent to be readily seen by the pilot when completing the turn around one pylon and heading for the

next, and should be adequately spaced to provide time

AIRSPEED

KNOTS MPH 

APPROXIMATE

PIVOTAL 

ALTITUDE

87

91

96

100

104

109

113

100

105

110

115

120

125

130

670

735

810

885

960

1050

1130

Figure 6-12. Speed vs. pivotal altitude.

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for planning the turns and yet not cause unnecessary

straight-and-level flight between the pylons. The

selected pylons should also be at the same elevation,

since differences of over a very few feet will necessitate climbing or descending between each turn.

For uniformity, the eight is usually begun by flying

diagonally crosswind between the pylons to a point

downwind from the first pylon so that the first turn

can be made into the wind. As the airplane

approaches a position where the pylon appears to be

just ahead of the wingtip, the turn should be started

by lowering the upwind wing to place the pilot’s line

of sight reference on the pylon. As the turn is continued, the line of sight reference can be held on the

pylon by gradually increasing the bank. The reference

line should appear to pivot on the pylon. As the airplane heads into the wind, the groundspeed

decreases; consequently, the pivotal altitude is lower

and the airplane must descend to hold the reference

line on the pylon. As the turn progresses on the

upwind side of the pylon, the wind becomes more of

a crosswind. Since a constant distance from the pylon

is not required on this maneuver, no correction to

counteract drifting should be applied during the turns.

If the reference line appears to move ahead of the

pylon, the pilot should increase altitude. If the reference line appears to move behind the pylon, the pilot

should decrease altitude. Varying rudder pressure to

yaw the airplane and force the wing and reference

line forward or backward to the pylon is a dangerous

technique and must not be attempted.

As the airplane turns toward a downwind heading,

the rollout from the turn should be started to allow

the airplane to proceed diagonally to a point on the

downwind side of the second pylon. The rollout

must be completed in the proper wind correction

angle to correct for wind drift, so that the airplane

will arrive at a point downwind from the second

pylon the same distance it was from the first pylon

at the beginning of the maneuver.

Upon reaching that point, a turn is started in the opposite

direction by lowering the upwind wing to again place

the pilot’s line of sight reference on the pylon. The turn

Too High

Pivotal Altitude

Too Low

Figure 6-13. Effect of different altitudes on pivotal altitude.

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is then continued just as in the turn around the first

pylon but in the opposite direction.

With prompt correction, and a very fine control

touch, it should be possible to hold the projection of

the reference line directly on the pylon even in a stiff

wind. Corrections for temporary variations, such as

those caused by gusts or inattention, may be made by

shallowing the bank to fly relatively straight to bring

forward a lagging wing, or by steepening the bank

temporarily to turn back a wing which has crept

ahead. With practice, these corrections will become

so slight as to be barely noticeable. These variations

are apparent from the movement of the wingtips long

before they are discernable on the altimeter.

Pylon eights are performed at bank angles ranging

from shallow to steep. [Figure 6-14] The student

should understand that the bank chosen will not alter

the pivotal altitude. As proficiency is gained, the

instructor should increase the complexity of the

maneuver by directing the student to enter at a distance

from the pylon that will result in a specific bank angle

at the steepest point in the pylon turn.

The most common error in attempting to hold a pylon

is incorrect use of the rudder. When the projection of

the reference line moves forward with respect to the

pylon, many pilots will tend to press the inside rudder

to yaw the wing backward. When the reference line

moves behind the pylon, they will press the outside

rudder to yaw the wing forward. The rudder is to be

used only as a coordination control.

Other common errors in the performance of eights-onpylons (pylon eights) are:

• Failure to adequately clear the area.

• Skidding or slipping in turns (whether trying to

hold the pylon with rudder or not).

• Excessive gain or loss of altitude.

• Over concentration on the pylon and failure to

observe traffic.

• Poor choice of pylons.

• Not entering the pylon turns into the wind.

• Failure to assume a heading when flying

between pylons that will compensate sufficiently

for drift.

• Failure to time the bank so that the turn entry is

completed with the pylon in position.

• Abrupt control usage.

• Inability to select pivotal altitude.

Pylon

Pivotal

Altitude

60 ̊  ̊  ̊

Figure 6-14. Bank angle vs. pivotal altitude.

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