Giardia and Giardiasis Edited by: Stanley Erlandsen and Ernest Meyer, 1985

Scanning electron micrograph of the pathogen Giardia lamblia in the trophozoite stage of its life

cycle. Giardia is a microbiological contaminant that can cause acute illness. About 84 percent of

current SDWA need is to protect against microbiological contaminants.
Findings

Community water systems

nationwide face significant

infrastructure needs to protect

public health and ensure the availability of safe drinking water. This section

of the report presents the estimated

capital costs for SDWA compliance and

the total 20-year infrastructure need. It

also describes the infrastructure need

by category and discusses how the

need impacts each system size. The

section discusses needs for American

Indian and Alaska Native water

systems. Appendix B contains a

detailed breakdown of the need.

Need for Compliance

Community water systems nationwide

need $12.1 billion now for compliance

with the SDWA. Eighty-four percent of

this need is to protect against microbiological contaminants that pose an

acute health risk.

The current need attributable to the

SDWA is overstated. SDWA projects

often include components that are not

required for compliance but are

undertaken at the same time to realize

efficiencies in operation as well as

savings in design and building costs.

For instance, a state-of-the-art

computerized system for monitoring

and control of operations in the entire

system may be included in a project for

a new filter plant. Only the filter plant—

and the component of the computer

system used for the filter plant—is a

SDWA need, but the Needs Survey is

likely to have recorded the need for

both as one SDWA project. Another

component of the need would exist

even in the absence of the

SDWA because of State and

local requirements and

communities' efforts to provide

a consistent level of water

quality.

In addition to the $12.1 billion

needed now for SDWA

compliance, $18.2 billion is a future

need to maintain compliance over the

next 20 years. Taken together, the

largest portion of the current and

future SDWA need is for installing or

upgrading filtration plants to treat for

microbiological contaminants. Projects

to install or upgrade storage tanks or

transmission lines for disinfectant

contact time are also included. Other

SDWA needs include projects to

address exceedances of EPA safety

standards for nitrate, which has an

acute health effect, or for contaminants

that cause chronic health effects.

Community water systems have an

additional current need of $22.3 billion

and a future need of $13.5 billion for

replacing deteriorated distribution

piping. These needs are categorized as

SDWA-related because the monitoring

required under the TCR helps to

identify problems in the distribution

system. However, these problems

would exist even in the absence of TCR

monitoring and would eventually

degrade water quality and service to

the extent that problems would be

detected without the TCR.

The Drinking Water Infrastructure

Needs Survey places the current

Safe Drinking Water Act need at

$12.1 billion.
8 Findings Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey

Total 20–Year Need

Drinking water infrastructure needs for

the nation's community water systems

total $138.4 billion. Of this total,

$76.8 billion is for current needs to

protect public health. Current needs

are projects to treat for contaminants

with acute and chronic health effects

and to prevent contamination of water

supplies. A portion of these needs are

for SDWA compliance.

Of the $138.4 billion total, $61.6 billion

is for future need. Projects for future

need are designed to provide safe

drinking water through the year 2014.

Future needs include projects for

replacing infrastructure and for the

Disinfectants and Disinfection

Byproducts Rule (D/DBPR), the

Enhanced Surface Water Treatment

Rule (ESWTR), and the Information

Collection Rule (ICR).

The needs in this report are conservative because many systems were not

able to identify all of their needs or

document them well enough to meet

the survey's criteria. In addition, needs

for non-community water systems are

not included. Needs associated solely

with future growth were not included

in this survey.

Exhibit 2 shows the total infrastructure

need by category and water system

size. Exhibit 3 shows need on a Stateby-State basis.

Exhibit 2: Total 20-Year Need

Note: Numbers may not total due to rounding.

System Size

Total Need (in billions of Jan. '95 dollars)

Transmission

and

Distribution

T e reatment S e torag S r ourc O l the Tota

Large Systems

(serving more than

50,000 people)

$ 2 30.5 $ 5 17. $ 6 3. $ 6 5. $ 5 1. $58.

Medium Systems

(serving 3,301 to

50,000 people)

$ 0 22.2 $ 2 12. $ 8 4. $ 3 2. $ 4 0. $41.

Small Systems

(serving 3,300 and

fewer people)

$ 7 23.8 $ 2 6. $ 5 4. $ 4 2. $ 2 0.0 $37.

American Indian and

Alaska Native

Systems

$ 3 0.6 $ 3 0. $ 1 0. $ 3 0. $ 3 0.0 $1.

T 2 otal $ 2 77. $ 1 36. $ 0 12. $ 9 11. $ 4 1. $138.
Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 9

Exhibit 3: Overview of Need by State†

Puerto Rico

20-year need in millions of

Jan. '95 dollars

- Less than $1,000

- $1,000 - $1,999

- $2,000 - $2,999

- $3,000 - $10,000

- More than $10,000

Virgin Islands *

District of

Columbia

American Samoa *

Guam *

Northern Mariana Is. *

Not to scale

† Needs for American Indian and Alaska Native water systems are not included in this exhibit.

* The need for American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the Virgin Islands is less than $1 billion each.
10 Findings Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey

Total Need by Category

There are four major categories of

need: transmission and distribution,

treatment, storage, and source.

Exhibit 2 (on page 8) shows the need

by category. A portion of each category

is attributable to the SDWA.

Transmission and Distribution.

Transmission and distribution needs

account for $77.2 billion, more than

half of the total need for community

water systems. Deteriorating distribution infrastructure threatens drinking

water quality and can cause violations

of the SDWA. Even in systems with

excellent treatment, leaking pipes can

lead to a loss of pressure and cause

back-siphonage of contaminated water.

Leaks also waste water and energy as

treated water escapes from the

distribution system. Deteriorating

transmission and distribution infrastructure is common throughout the

nation, particularly in older systems.

Tuberculation is a condition that affects the interior of pipes in many

water systems. Tuberculation can decrease water quality and leads to

loss of energy and capacity.

Montauk Services Inc.

Water mains are pressurized to deliver water to residents and to

keep contaminants from entering the water system. Systems can

lose pressure or even experience a partial vacuum during fire

flows, repairs, or line breaks. Loss of pressure is dangerous

because it can lead to back-siphonage, where contaminants are

drawn into the water system through leaks. The danger becomes

greater as the condition of the pipe becomes worse, allowing more

leaks and more opportunities for the water to be contaminated.

Back-Siphonage
Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 11

Niagara Falls, NY—During World

War II, the federal government

installed approximately 8 1/2 miles of

“victory pipe” as large diameter

transmission and distribution mains to

ensure a reliable water supply for

defense industries in the city. Because

of demand for metal during the war,

this pipe is thin-walled and prone to

frequent and costly line breaks. The

deteriorating victory pipe constitutes

only 3 percent of the total pipe in the

city, but claims one quarter of the city’s

expenditures for water main repair and

replacement. Breaks and leaks in the

victory pipe could lead to microbiological contamination of the water supply

and seriously threaten public health.

Transmission and Distribution Needs—Three Examples

Butte, MT—Butte was developed as a

mining community in the late 1800’s

and much of the infrastructure that was

installed then remains in place today.

The distribution system was constructed primarily of 6-inch diameter

thin-walled steel pipe. Some wooden

pipe was also used, but most of it has

been replaced. While 30,000 feet of the

steel pipe has been replaced, the water

system estimates that an additional

100,000 feet is still in service. A four

person “leak gang” works six days a

week in Butte, fixing up to 600 leaks

and breaks per year.

Huntington, IN—In December 1995,

city residents were forced to boil their

water for a week when a city water

main broke. The 7-foot crack in the

main caused businesses and schools in

the area to close temporarily.

Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 11 Dan Fraser

Three members of the Butte,

Montana leak gang.
12 Findings Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey

Treatment. Treatment is the second

largest category of need, representing

$36.2 billion (26 percent) of the total

infrastructure need for community

water systems.

About $20.0 billion is needed for

treatment of microbiological contaminants which can cause acute health

effects. These contaminants are usually

associated with gastrointestinal illness

and, in extreme cases, death. They can

strike in a matter of hours or days. To

minimize the risk of microbiological

contamination, 35 percent of systems

that use surface water sources need to

install, replace, or upgrade filtration

plants.

A smaller portion of the treatment

need, approximately $0.2 billion, is

associated with nitrate. Nitrate poses

an acute health threat. High levels can

interfere with the ability of an infant’s

blood to carry oxygen. This potentially

fatal condition is called “blue baby

syndrome.”

Almost $10.7 billion is needed for

treatment of contaminants with chronic

health effects. These effects include

cancer and birth defects. The largest

needs among contaminants with

chronic health effects are treatment for

byproducts of disinfection and for lead.

Some disinfection byproducts are toxic

and some are probable carcinogens.

Exposure to lead can impair the mental

development of children.

Another $5.3 billion is needed for

treatment of secondary contaminants.

Secondary contaminants affect the

taste, odor, and color of water.

Carrie Hancock, C.H. Diagnostics

Scanning electron micrograph of the pathogen Giardia lamblia in

the cyst stage of their life cycle. Giardia is one microbiological

contaminant found in surface waters throughout the country.
Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 13

The Costs of Failed Treatment—Three Examples

Washington, DC—In 1993, the DC

metropolitan area experienced a

decrease in source water quality that

coincided with operational problems.

Water not meeting federal standards

entered the distribution system. The

problem was

identified and

EPA and the

State of

Virginia

issued a boilwater notice

to area

residents,

preventing

any reported

cases of

illness. But

the lapse in

treatment did

carry a cost.

According to conservative estimates,

the four-day boil notice cost the city

and its residents approximately

$24 million and inconvenienced

residents and tourists who were forced

to find alternative sources of drinking

water.

Milwaukee, WI—In 1993, Milwaukee

experienced a decrease in treated

water quality similar to that in

Washington, DC. The consequences for

residents of Milwaukee, however, were

far more serious than for residents of

Washington. Contamination in the

Milwaukee water supply led to over

400,000 reported cases of illness and

some 100 deaths. Milwaukee has since

upgraded its filtration facilities.

Ethete, WY—This small American

Indian community uses direct pressure

filtration to treat a surface water source

which deteriorates in quality during

spring run-off. The existing plant,

though well-maintained and

well-operated, is unable to treat the

highly turbid water adequately, and the

community must issue boil-water

orders for extended periods of time

during the spring and summer. The

community has considered alternative

ground water sources, but this option

is not feasible because of quality and

quantity problems. Therefore, the

community needs to build a more

appropriate treatment plant for the

existing surface water source.

Boiling Tap Water

Purchase Bottled Water

Purchase Alternative Beverages

Purchase Safe Ice*

Costs to Hospitals

Costs to Restaurants

Total

* And other water-based products

 $7,000,000

 $8,000,000

 $3,340,000

 $4,000,000

 $126,500

 $1,484,800

$23,951,300

Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 13

Pressure filters at Ethete

Dan Fraser

Cost of the DC Boil Notice

(Estimated in '93 dollars)
14 Findings Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey

Storage. Projects to build new storage

or rehabilitate existing facilities

constitute $12.1 billion, or 9 percent of

the total need. Storage is critical

because it ensures the positive water

pressure necessary to prevent

contaminants from entering the

system. It also provides water for

periods when demand exceeds the

capacity of source and treatment

facilities. Two-thirds of water systems

reported a need for improvements to

storage facilities.

Storage needs usually include building

or repairing conventional tanks.

Another significant need is associated

with uncovered finished-water

reservoirs. These large reservoirs are

vulnerable to contamination. Covering

these reservoirs is a priority for most

cities that have them.

Source. Needs for source rehabilitation or development account for more

than $11.0 billion, or 8 percent of the

total need. Source development is a

small portion of the total need, but an

important step in the provision of safe

drinking water and compliance with

the SDWA. Poor-quality source water

can threaten public health and force a

system to use expensive treatment.

Adequate source quantity is also an

important consideration. A source

must meet demand on a hot summer

day or during fire flow to prevent backsiphonage of contaminated water.

Back-siphonage results from low

pressure in the distribution system.

Source needs range from huge new

surface water reservoirs for large

metropolitan areas, such as Los

Angeles, to new wells for very small

systems.

This rural midwestern well is poorly located. Grazing and farming

around the well house pose a threat through microbiological and

nitrate contamination.

Dan Fraser
Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 15

Metropolitan Boston, MA—Many

systems reported needs for covering

reservoirs used to store finished

water—water that is ready for human

consumption. Uncovered reservoirs

can be contaminated through surface

water run-off or through direct human

and animal contact. According to a

recent analysis completed by the

Massachusetts Water Resources

Authority (MWRA) Advisory Board,

water quality is lower in communities

that receive water from uncovered

reservoirs than in communities that

receive water from covered storage

reservoirs and tanks. The possibility of

contamination of water in MWRA's

Fells Reservoir threatens drinking

water quality for several cities north of

Boston. MWRA has plans to construct

a 20 million gallon covered storage

facility at the site of the current Fells

Reservoir.

San Juan, Puerto Rico—Due to the

high organic and inorganic content of

its source waters, sediment collects

quickly in San Juan's reservoirs.

Sedimentation has caused a severe

shortage of supply and degraded

aesthetic and biological water quality.

The two reservoirs serving this area,

Lago Loíza and Lago La Plata, have

experienced capacity reductions of

54 percent and 53 percent respectively.

To restore capacity, the reservoirs will

be dredged for a combined cost of

about $150 million. Shortages of safe

drinking water have led to mandatory

water rationing throughout the island.

Storage and Source Needs—Two Examples

Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 15 Terry Bickford, Massachusetts Water Resources Authority

MWRA's Fells Reservoir

is used for storage of

finished water.
16 Findings Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey

The total need for large systems is

significantly higher than the need for

medium or small systems—$58.5 billion. On a per-household basis,

however, this need is the smallest of

the three system sizes, as shown in

Exhibit 4.

Medium systems have the secondlargest total need—$41.4 billion. These

systems typically serve small metropolitan areas and suburban towns.

They serve about a third of the

population nationally and provide

water to over half of the residents in 10

States, including Alabama, Idaho,

Maine, Minnesota, Mississippi, North

Dakota, South Carolina, Vermont, West

Virginia, and Wyoming. The smallest of

the medium systems have operating

and financial characteristics similar to

small systems.

Unique Needs of Small Systems

The infrastructure need for small

systems totals $37.2 billion. Although

this is the smallest need of the three

system sizes, it represents the largest

per-household need, as shown in

Exhibit 4. Small systems are located

throughout the country. Most States

have hundreds of these systems. Some

are villages or small towns, others are

retirement communities and mobile

home parks. Although many small

systems are located in rural areas, a

significant number are found in

metropolitan areas.

Need by System Size

The need attributable to large,

medium, and small water systems is

different in each State. Exhibit 5 (on

pages 18 and 19) shows State-by-State

need for each system size.

Large drinking water systems constitute a small fraction of the community

water systems in the nation, but they

provide water to more than half of the

population served by community water

systems. Small systems, in contrast,

make up the vast majority of systems,

but serve only about 10 percent of the

population. In spite of their differences,

the survey found that all system sizes

had similar types of needs. For

example, the largest category of need

for all three system sizes was transmission and distribution. This category

accounted for over half of the needs for

each system size.

Exhibit 4: Average 20-Year Per-Household Need

(Total need in Jan. '95 dollars)

$970

$1,200

$3,300

Large Medium Small

Systems

Need
Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 17

Per-household costs are high for small

systems because they lack economies

of scale. The fixed costs of infrastructure must be spread over a small

customer base, resulting in a higher

cost for each gallon produced.

In many instances, water from small

systems poses public health risks

because system components were

improperly designed and constructed.

Many small systems were built without

review of plans and specifications and

were not required to adhere to

minimum design and construction

standards. In some cases, entire water

systems must be replaced.

Eighty-one percent of small systems

need to upgrade distribution systems.

Systems with poorly designed

distribution mains often suffer from

low pressure problems and the

associated risk of contamination.

Most small systems use ground water

sources. In this type of system, the

absence of disinfection can be a

pressing public health concern.

Disinfection minimizes the threat from

microbiological contaminants that can

cause severe gastrointestinal illness

and sometimes lead to death. Over

10 percent of small ground water

systems have a current need to install

or replace disinfection.

Two-thirds of small systems need to

improve their sources, which are

usually wells. Older wells often

become clogged with sediment or

encrusted with calcium carbonate or

iron bacteria.

Dan Fraser

This water system on the Mexican border serves a minority community of about

175 people. The system stores its water in a deteriorated hydropneumatic tank.

Small diameter galvanized steel mains make up the distribution system, and service

lines consist of ordinary garden hoses. The condition of this system currently

presents acute health risks to the residents of this community. The small diameter

mains pose a threat through back-siphonage. The hoses pose a threat through

accidental cross-connection or breakage. While one solution to the community's

water problems is to replace all system components, another is to replace the

distribution system and to connect to the city system, which has a main only 50 feet

away. Connecting to the larger system would be the best and most cost effective

solution.
18 Findings Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey

Total Need for All System Sizes

$137.1 billion in Jan. '95 dollars

Large System Need $58.5 billion in Jan. '95 dollars

District of

Columbia

American Samoa *

Guam *

Northern Mariana Is. *

American Samoa *

Guam *

Northern Mariana Is. *

Puerto Rico

Virgin Islands *

Virgin Islands *

Puerto Rico

District of

Columbia

Exhibit 5: Overview of Need by System Size†

Not to scale †Does not include the need for American Indian or Alaska Native water systems.

- Less than 1 percent

- 1 to 1.99 percent

- 2 to 2.99 percent

- 3 percent or more

State need as a percent of the total

20-year need for each system size.
Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 19

Not to scale

Small System Need $37.2 billion in Jan. '95 dollars

Medium System Need $41.4 billion in Jan. '95 dollars

District of

Columbia

District of

Columbia

American Samoa *

Guam *

Northern Mariana Is. *

American Samoa *

Guam *

Northern Mariana Is. *

Virgin Islands *

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico

Virgin Islands *

Exhibit 5: Overview of Need by System Size (cont.)

- Less than 1 percent

- 1 to 1.99 percent

- 2 to 2.99 percent

- 3 percent or more

State need as a percent of the total

20-year need for each system size.

* The need for American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the Virgin Islands is less than 1 percent each.
20 Findings Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey

Poorly constructed wells can also lead

to public health risks. Water drawn

from improperly constructed wells

faces an increased risk of microbiological contamination. Poor siting can also

lead to contamination. For example,

wells located near sources of contamination such as septic systems, feed

lots, fuel tanks, or pesticide storage are

at risk.

Small systems also have a substantial

need to treat for secondary contaminants such as iron and manganese.

Over 5,000 small systems have a need

to treat for these contaminants, at a

cost of $2.2 billion. Although these

contaminants do not pose a direct

health risk, they affect taste, odor, and

color. As a result, consumers may seek

alternative drinking water sources that

are aesthetically acceptable, but may

contain contaminants that pose serious

health risks.

For small systems located near larger

systems, the least costly way to resolve

infrastructure needs may be to connect

with a larger system. According to the

survey, this would be the most cost

effective way to protect public health

for over 13 percent of small systems.

Dan Fraser

This well in New York State supplies water to a small system.

The well is located in a pit, making it vulnerable to contamination through flooding. The pit is also an unventilated confined

space. In such spaces, the atmosphere can become poisonous

and dangerous for the operator. The chlorine bottles are

evidence that short-term ineffectual attempts have been made to

control microbiological contamination. This well should be

reconstructed so that it can provide safe water and not pose a

threat to the operator.
Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 21

Need by Safe Drinking Water

Act Regulation

Needs for maintaining compliance with

the SDWA constitute a portion of each

category of need. SDWA needs include

projects for treatment of contaminants

regulated under the Act. SDWA needs

also include projects to replace

contaminated sources and storage or

to improve transmission lines that

provide disinfectant contact time.

Current SDWA Need

Capital costs for projects needed now

to ensure compliance are defined as

current SDWA needs. Exhibit 6

summarizes the current SDWA and

SDWA-related need.

Existing Regulations. Approximately

$12.1 billion is needed now for

compliance with the SDWA. Treatment

for microbiological contaminants

regulated under the SWTR and the TCR

accounts for $10.2 billion—about

84 percent of the current SDWA need.

These contaminants can lead to

gastrointestinal illness and, in extreme

cases, death. Almost $0.2 billion is

needed to meet standards for nitrate,

which has acute health effects for

children, and $1.7 billion is needed for

contaminants that pose chronic health

risks.

The current SDWA need is overstated.

Many SDWA projects include components that are related but not attributable to the SDWA. Also, federal

regulations are one of many factors

that drive investment in drinking water

facilities. States had standards in place

prior to the SDWA that would have

eventually required systems to invest

in many of the projects included in the

survey. Regardless of regulations,

infrastructure approaching the end of

its useful life must be rehabilitated and

replaced to provide a consistent level

of water quality and service. The

enactment of the SDWA and the

promulgation of its regulations has,

however, placed more stringent

monitoring and treatment requirements on many systems. In many

cases, these requirements have

prompted systems to act sooner to

solve their public health problems than

they would have in the absence of the

SDWA. It is impossible to ascertain

how much of the need would exist in

the absence of the SDWA.

Exhibit 6: Current Safe Drinking Water Act Need

(in billions of Jan. '95 dollars)

Note: Numbers may not total due to rounding.

* Regulations for contaminants that cause acute health effects.

† Includes arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, fluoride, mercury, selenium,

combined radium -226, -228, and gross alpha particle activity.

E d xisting Regulations Nee

S 1 urface Water Treatment Rule* $10.

T 1 otal Coliform Rule* $0.

N 2 itrate Standard* $0.

L 9 ead & Copper Rule $0.

P 4 hase I, II, & V Rules (chemical contaminants) $0.

T 2 otal Trihalomethanes Standard $0.

Other Standards† $0.2

T 1 otal Existing Regulations $12.

S d DWA-Related Need Nee

D 3 istribution Improvements (TCR)* $22.

T 3 otal SDWA-Related Need $22.
22 Findings Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey

Existing regulations for microbiological contaminants. Regulations to

minimize microbiological contamination account for $10.2 billion of the

current SDWA need. Microbiological

contaminants regulated under the

SWTR and the TCR can pose a health

risk to consumers, especially to those

with weakened immune systems.

According to conservative estimates

from the Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention (CDC), waterborne

disease outbreaks between 1986 and

1992 led to illness in approximately

47,600 people.

Almost all of the need for projects to

minimize microbiological contamination is associated with the SWTR. This

regulation accounts for almost

$10.1 billion. The SWTR ensures that

water systems using surface water

sources treat to minimum standards to

control microbiological contaminants

such as Giardia lamblia, viruses, and

Legionella. The SWTR also applies to

ground water systems with sources

containing microbiological contaminants typically found in surface waters.

Almost 40 percent of water systems

covered by the SWTR reported a

treatment need to maintain compliance

with the rule. A portion of this need,

approximately $1.9 billion, is for

projects to install filtration plants for

water systems that are currently

unfiltered. These systems now use

disinfection as the sole treatment

barrier for microbiological contaminants. Also included in the SWTR need

are upgrades to plants where current

facilities cannot ensure continued

compliance with the rule. A few

examples of cities that need to install

or replace filtration plants are offered

in the accompanying sidebar.

Other existing regulations. Nationwide, an estimated $0.2 billion is

needed for treatment of nitrate. The

entire amount is needed now. Although the need for nitrate is a small

percentage of the total need, the nature

of the health threat makes the need

significant for systems that exceed

allowable limits. Exposure to high

levels of nitrate is dangerous to infants

and pregnant women because it

causes “blue baby syndrome.” In

addition, treating for nitrate or

developing alternative sources can be

expensive. Survey respondents with

high levels of nitrate reported needs

averaging $6.7 million per system to

treat existing sources or develop new

sources.

Need to Install, Replace, or Upgrade Filtration Plants

(in millions of Jan. '95 dollars)

New York City, NY*

Metropolitan Boston, MA

Metropolitan Los Angeles, CA

San Diego, CA

Detroit, MI

Sacramento, CA

Omaha, NE

Macon, GA

Seattle, WA

Tulsa, OK

Greenville, SC

Newport News, VA

Kansas City, KS

$533

$452

$276

$210

$180

$120

$109

$105

$97

$76

$59

$56

$55

*Covers only the Croton supply (approximately 10% of total NYC supply)
Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 23

2 William C. Levine, William T. Stephenson, and Gunther F. Craun, “Waterborne Disease Outbreaks,

1986-1988,” CDC Surveillance Summaries, March 1990. MMRW 39(No. SS-1):1; Barbara L. Herwaldt,

et al. “Waterborne Disease Outbreaks, 1989-1990,” CDC Surveillance Summaries, December 1991.

MMRW 40(No.SS-3):1; Anne C. Moore, et al. “Surveillance for Waterborne Disease Outbreaks—

United States, 1991-1992,” CDC Surveillance Summaries, November 1993. MMRW 42(No. SS-3):1-2

Current needs identified by water

systems to address contaminants with

chronic health risks total $1.7 billion.

Chronic health effects include cancer

and, in the case of lead, alterations in

the physical and emotional development of children. Some of the most

frequently reported treatment needs in

this category are associated with lead,

trihalomethanes, tetrachloroethylene,

trichloroethane, and atrazine.

SDWA-Related Need. An additional

$22.3 billion is needed now to replace

deteriorated distribution piping that

poses a threat of coliform contamination. Distribution piping replacement is

categorized as a SDWA-related need

because the monitoring required under

the TCR helps to identify problems in

the distribution system. However,

these problems would exist in the

absence of TCR monitoring and would

eventually degrade water quality and

service to the extent that problems

would be detected without the TCR.

Deteriorated piping can break or leak,

allowing fecal matter to enter drinking

water, carrying disease-causing

organisms. The TCR provides water

systems with a framework for monitoring the microbiological status of their

distribution systems. By early detection

of microbiological contamination,

systems can avoid outbreaks of illness.

Occasionally, microbiological contamination from pipe breaks or leaks can be

severe. One extreme case occurred in

the town of Cabool, Missouri, where in

1989 four people died when a pipe

break led to contamination of water in

the town’s distribution system.2

This pipe section was replaced because it had sprung numerous

leaks, posing a threat of microbiological contamination.

Dan Fraser
24 Findings Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey

Exhibit 7: Future Safe Drinking Water Act Need

(in billions of Jan. '95 dollars)

Future SDWA Need

Future SDWA needs are projects

needed for compliance over the next

20 years. Exhibit 7 summarizes the

future SDWA and SDWA-related need.

Existing Regulations. In addition to

the $12.1 billion needed now to comply

with the SDWA, $4.2 billion will be

needed over the next 20 years for

existing SDWA regulations. This need

is for replacing infrastructure that

assures compliance now, but, due to

aging and deterioration, will require

replacement in the next 20 years. Over

75 percent of this need, almost

$3.3 billion, is to protect against

microbiological contaminants. A

smaller portion of this need, $0.8 billion, is for lead service line replacement under the Lead and Copper Rule.

Proposed Regulations. An estimated

$14.0 billion will be needed to comply

with recently promulgated regulations

and proposed regulations that are

priorities for promulgation. These

regulations include the D/DBPR

($8.9 billion), the ESWTR ($5.1 billion)

and the recently promulgated ICR

($60 million).

The proposed D/DBPR will minimize

the undesirable reaction that occurs

between disinfectants and the organic

material and bromide that are present

naturally in water. The reaction forms

hundreds of disinfection byproducts.

Some of the disinfection byproducts

Fayer and Unger, 1987

Scanning electron

micrograph of sporozoites

of the parasitic protozoan

Cryptosporidium leaving

the protective shell of the

oocyst. Cryptosporidium in

this life-cycle stage

colonizes the small

intestine and can cause

severe illness. Cryptosporidium, a priority for

regulation, is much more

resistant to typical

disinfection practices than

microbiological pathogens

currently regulated under

the SDWA.

Note: Numbers may not total due to rounding.

* Includes Surface Water Treatment Rule, Total Coliform Rule, and the Nitrate Standard

† Includes lead and copper, Phase I, II, and V Rules, total trihalomethanes, arsenic,

barium, cadmium, chromium, fluoride, mercury, selenium, combined radium -226,

-228, and gross alpha particle activity.

E d xisting Regulations Nee

F 3 or contaminants with acute health effects* $3.

For contaminants with chronic health effects† $0.9

T 2 otal Existing Regulations $4.

P d roposed Regulations Nee

D 9 isinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule $8.

E 1 nhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule $5.

I 1 nformation Collection Rule (promulgated) <$0.

T 0 otal Proposed Regulations $14.

S d DWA-Related Need Nee

D 5 istribution Improvements (TCR) $13.

T 5 otal SDWA-Related Need $13.
Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey Findings 25

future regulations are not presented

elsewhere in this report because safety

standards, cost estimates, and

regulatory approaches have not been

finalized. New or revised standards for

these contaminants may result in

needs ranging between $1.7 billion and

$14.8 billion, depending on how they

are regulated. Exhibit 8 shows the

estimated range of cost by regulation.

Needs for the Ground Water Disinfection Rule, which is a priority for

regulation, are not included in this

report because cost estimates have not

been developed. More information on

regulations that may be promulgated

in the future is in Appendix C.

SDWA Need by Category

A portion of the total in each category

of need—transmission and distribution, treatment, storage, and source—is

for compliance with the SDWA. The

largest portion of the current and

future SDWA need is for treatment.

Also, there is a significant need for

distribution system repair, which is

considered a SDWA-related need.

are known to be toxic or are probable

human carcinogens. Under the ESWTR,

EPA plans to regulate Cryptosporidium, a parasitic protozoan that is

responsible for several waterborne

disease outbreaks and many other

cases of acute illness in the United

States. The ICR was designed to gather

data needed to design the D/DBPR and

the ESWTR.

Cost estimates for these regulations

were taken from the preambles of the

Federal Register notices proposing the

rules. These estimates are based on

EPA’s best knowledge of existing

infrastructure and on estimates of the

paths most likely to be taken by water

systems to reach compliance. They are

rough cost estimates, and should not

be considered as accurate as the cost

estimates for existing regulations

derived from the Needs Survey.

Estimates for these regulations include

needs for non-community water

systems, which are not included

elsewhere in this report. Needs for

non-community water systems,

however, are a very small portion of

the projected need for these regulations.

SDWA-Related Need. An additional

$13.5 billion is needed for future

replacement of distribution piping.

Deterioration of this piping will pose a

threat of coliform contamination if it is

not replaced on schedule.

Future Regulations Not Included

in the Total Need

EPA may promulgate additional SDWA

regulations. Future regulations being

considered under the SDWA are for

radon and other radionuclides, arsenic

(revision), and sulfate. Needs for these

Exhibit 8: Estimated Need for Future Regulations Not

Included in the Total Need (in billions of Jan. '95 dollars)

Note: Numbers may not total due to rounding.

Regulation/

Contaminant

Range of Need Estimate

L e ow Estimate High Estimat

R 0 adon $ 9 0.1 $2.5

Radionuclides other

than Radon $ 9 1.27 $4.5

A 8 rsenic $ 3 0.2 $7.1

S 3 ulfate $ 6 0.0 $0.4

T 8 otal $ 7 1.6 $14.7
26 Findings Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey

Treatment accounts for almost

90 percent of the current SDWA need

($10.7 billion of $12.1 billion) and over

95 percent of the future SDWA need

($17.3 billion of $18.2 billion). These

SDWA treatment needs are for

treatment of contaminants currently

regulated or proposed for regulation

under the Act. Non-SDWA treatment

needs include projects for ground

water disinfection, which minimizes

the threat from microbiological

contaminants. Non-SDWA treatment

needs also include treatment for

secondary contaminants and other

unregulated contaminants, installation

of fluoridation facilities, and projects to

upgrade process control measures at

treatment plants.

A significant portion of the transmission and distribution need is

SDWA-related. Current SDWA-related

needs total $22.3 billion and future

SDWA-related needs total $13.5 billion.

These needs are for replacement of

deteriorated distribution piping, which

can lead to microbiological contamination. Distribution piping replacement is

considered a SDWA-related need

because the monitoring required under

the TCR helps to identify problems in

the distribution system.

In addition to the SDWA-related need

for compliance with the TCR, a small

portion of the transmission and

distribution need is for compliance

with other SDWA rules. About

$0.8 billion of the transmission and

distribution need is for current SDWA

compliance, and $0.8 billion is for

future compliance. This need consists

mainly of transmission lines to

improve disinfectant contact time and

replacement of lead service lines. NonSDWA needs include transmission

mains to carry water from the source

to treatment or from treatment to the

distribution system. In addition,

distribution lines to extend service to

existing households not currently

connected to the water system are not

attributed to the SDWA. Although they

are not required for compliance with

the SDWA, these transmission and

distribution needs are essential for

ensuring a safe supply of water for

drinking and other uses.

Only a small portion of storage and

source needs—$0.6 billion of the

current need and $0.1 billion of the

future need—are attributable to the

SDWA. These needs are for projects to

replace contaminated sources or

improve disinfectant contact time.

Non-SDWA source and storage needs

are for new or rehabilitated wells,

surface supplies, or storage facilities.

Projects for these needs are to ensure

continued water service or to provide

an adequate supply of water during

periods of peak usage.

Dave Schultz

This pipe has just been replaced.

The steel bands are evidence of

past leaks and illustrate that the

pipe had exceeded its useful

service life.