Subject: PART 91 AND PART 135 

SINGLE-PILOT PROCEDURES 

DURING TAXI OPERATIONS

Date: 9/26/03 

Initiated by: AFS-800/200 

AC No: 91-73A 

Change: 

1. PURPOSE. This Advisory Circular (AC) provides guidelines for the development and 

implementation of standard operating procedures (SOP) for conducting safe aircraft operations 

during taxiing. It is intended for use by persons operating aircraft single pilot under parts 91 

and 135 of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). The Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) recommends that these guidelines become an integral part of all SOPs, 

flight operations manuals, and formal flight training programs. 

NOTE: Pilots operating aircraft with two or more pilots on the flight deck 

under 14 CFR parts 91, 121, 125, or 135, refer to the current version of

AC 120-74, Parts 91, 121, 125, and 135 Flightcrew Procedures During Taxi 

Operations. 

A vertical bar in the left margin identifies revised, added, or deleted text from AC 91-73.

2. CANCELLATION. AC 91-73, Part 91 Pilot and Flightcrew Procedures During Taxi 

Operations and Part 135 Single-Pilot Operations, dated June 18, 2001, is canceled. 

3. FOCUS. This guidance focuses on the activities occurring on the flight deck/cockpit 

(e.g., planning, communicating, coordinating), as opposed to the actual control of the aircraft 

(e.g., climbing, descending, maneuvering). Although there are many similarities, taxi operations 

for single-piloted aircraft – as opposed to taxi operations for aircraft that require more than one 

pilot – present distinct challenges and requirements. These distinct challenges are elaborated, 

when necessary, throughout the guidance. A section is provided concerning operations at 

airports without operating control towers. Finally, a section is devoted to the use of exterior 

aircraft lights in making an aircraft more conspicuous to all other persons directly involved in 

airport flight and ground operations. 

4. RELATED READING MATERIAL. The following documents and Web sites contain 

useful information regarding runway safety. FAA ACs can be found online by choosing 

“Advisory Circulars” on the menu at: http://www.airweb.faa.gov/rgl. 

a. Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). 
AC 91-73A 9/26/03 

b. AC 90-42, Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without Operating Control Towers, 

current version. 

c. AC 90-66, Recommended Standard Traffic Patterns and Practices for Aeronautical 

Operations at Airports Without Operating Control Towers, current version. 

d. FAA Runway Safety Program: http://www.faarsp.org/

e. NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS): http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov/

f. FAA Aviation News: http://www2.faa.gov/index.cfm/apa/

g. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA): http://www.aopa.org/asf/runway_safety/

5. BACKGROUND. The process of getting to and from a runway has become increasingly 

complex. This is mainly due to the increase in number of aircraft, takeoff times being held more 

closely to a set schedule, and all the varied combinations of weather, time of day, aircraft type, 

and language usage, to name a few. While pilot experience is gained during actual ground 

operations, a more defined and determined approach to training pilots is seen as beneficial to 

both the safety and efficiency regarding operations to and from the runway. Training procedures 

for airport surface operations should be seen as an integral part of an operator’s overall ground 

and flight training programs. This AC develops practical guidance toward the goal of increasing 

safety and efficiency of aircraft movement on the airport surface. 

a. Increased traffic and expansion at many airports create complex runway and taxiway 

layouts. This additional complexity makes airport surface operations more difficult and 

potentially more hazardous than in the past. To increase safety and efficiency, it is necessary to 

lessen the exposure to hazards and risks by holding the pilot’s workload to a minimum during 

taxi operations. This can be accomplished through SOPs that direct the attention of the pilot to 

essential tasks while the aircraft is in motion. The development and formalized training of safe 

operating procedures during taxi operations should be implemented by each operator. 

b. In developing these SOPs, it is important to consider pilot workload prior to takeoff and 

before landing. Considerations should be given to tasks that make up the normal workload of 

pilots, such as accomplishing checklists, configuring the aircraft for takeoff and landing, 

programming Flight Management Systems (FMS), and managing communications with Air 

Traffic Control (ATC). The more complex the activities within the flightdeck work 

environment, the greater the need for explicit, yet simple, and clear SOPs. The overall goal is for 

operators to develop standardized pilot procedures that will increase the pilot’s awareness but 

will not increase his/her workload while taxiing the aircraft. 

6. USE OF SOPs. The use of SOPs should be: 

a. Emphasized during the certification and proficiency training of all pilots; 

b. Emphasized and used during all phases of flight, including ground operations; and, 

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9/26/03 AC 91-73A 

c. Evaluated during the flight review of all certificated pilots (refer to part 61, § 61.56). 

7. APPENDICES TO THIS AC. Appendix 1 of this AC contains SOP items and Best 

Practices that are very similar to SOPs/Best Practices currently in use in the air carrier segment 

of the industry, and has been modified for single-pilot operations. Appendix 2 contains an SOP 

Template for Ground Operations and the Prevention of Runway Incursions, and Appendix 3 

contains “Sample Procedures for Taxi -- Departure and Arrival.” These appendices are not 

directive or prescriptive in nature and do not represent a rigid FAA view of best practices. SOPs 

may vary among aircraft and operators and may change over time. Operators and individuals 

may use the information contained in the appendices to integrate the basic tenets into their 

aircraft-specific, route-specific, and equipment-specific operations and checklists. They are 

shown to denote how the SOPs and best practices can be integrated into the context of specific 

flight operations. 

8. SINGLE-PILOT PROCEDURES. 

a. General. The potential for runway incidents and accidents can be reduced through 

adequate planning, coordination, and communication. The following guidelines are intended to 

help pilots cope more effectively with current airport conditions during taxi operations. All 

pilots will benefit from this guidance, which is grouped into five major categories: Planning, 

Situational Awareness, Use of Written Taxi Instructions, ATC/Pilot Communication, and 

Taxiing. 

b. Planning.

(1) Thorough planning for taxi operations is essential for a safe operation. Pilots should 

plan for the airport surface movement portion of the flight just as they plan for the other phases 

of flight. Planning for taxi operations should be an integral part of the pilot’s flight planning 

process and should be completed in two main phases: 

(a) First, pilots should anticipate airport surface movements by conducting pre-taxi 

or pre-landing planning based on information on the automatic terminal information service 

(ATIS), on previous experience at that airport, and review of the airport diagram.

(b) Second, once taxi instructions are received, the pre-taxi plans should be reviewed 

and updated as necessary.

CAUTION: A potential pitfall of pre-taxi and pre-landing planning is setting 

expectations and then receiving different instructions from ATC. Pilots need 

to follow the clearance or instructions that are actually received, and not the 

ones they expected to receive. 

(2) The following guidance should be used by pilots as a self-check:

(a) How familiar are you with the airport? Have you flown out of or into the airport 

recently? Have there been changes made at the airport recently? Remember to review the latest 

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AC 91-73A 9/26/03 

Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) for both the departure and arrival airports for information 

concerning construction and/or taxiway/runway closures. 

(b) Pilots should take some time and study the airport layout. An airport diagram

should be readily available for use by the pilot (see following NOTE on Use Of Airport 

Diagrams). Pre-taxi plans should focus on the departure airport, and pre-landing plans should 

focus on the arrival airport. The expected taxi route should be checked against the airport 

diagram or taxi chart, and special attention paid to any unique or complex intersections along the 

taxi route. Pilots should identify critical times and locations on the taxi route (e.g., transitioning 

through complex intersections, crossing intervening runways, entering and lining up on the 

runway for takeoff, and approaching and lining up on the runway for landing). 

NOTE: Use of Airport Diagrams 

Under parts 121, 125, and 135, there are explicit requirements for either the 

use or availability of “Aeronautical Charts.” A type of “Aeronautical Chart” 

as defined in the AIM is an “Airport Diagram.” Parts 125 and 135 [§§ 

125.215 and 135.83] require “pertinent aeronautical charts” to be accessible 

to the pilot at the pilot station, and to be used by the pilots. Part 121, 

§121.549 requires “Aeronautical Charts” to be available on the aircraft; 

however, many operators require “Airport Diagrams” to be available for use 

by pilots. 

While there may be many views regarding the use of “Airport Diagrams” 

during taxi operations, the FAA believes that following the aircraft’s

progress on the airport diagram to be sure that the instructions received 

from ATC are being followed is one of the key procedures in reducing 

runway incursions. This procedure is of particular importance at a time 

when it is easy to allow oneself to be distracted by outside events. Finally, 

from a safety argument, the use of “Airport Diagrams” during taxi 

operations makes perfect sense and should be the SOP for all pilots.

(c) Pilots should plan the timing and execution of aircraft checklists and company 

communications at the appropriate times. When planning these tasks, they should also consider 

the anticipated duration of the taxi operation, the locations of complex intersections and runway 

crossings, and the visibility along the taxi route. If possible during low visibility operations, 

pilots should conduct pre-departure checklists only when the aircraft is stopped or while taxiing 

straight ahead on a taxiway without complex intersections. 

c. Situational Awareness. 

(1) When conducting taxi operations, pilots need to be aware of their situation as it 

relates to other aircraft operations going on around them as well as to other vehicles moving on 

the airport. The pilot should know the aircraft’s precise location on the airport. Sometimes, this 

is a challenge, especially at an unfamiliar airport, if the airport layout and taxi routes are 

complex, or the visibility is poor. It is important for the pilot to: 

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9/26/03 AC 91-73A 

(a) Understand and follow ATC instructions and clearances; 

(b) Have an airport diagram available for use; and 

(c) Know and use all of the visual aids available at the airport, such as the signs, 

markings, and lighting. 

(2) Pilots should use a “continuous loop” process for actively monitoring and updating 

their progress and location during taxi. This includes knowing the aircraft’s present location and 

mentally calculating the next location on the route that will require increased attention (e.g., a 

turn onto another taxiway, an intersecting runway, or any other transition points). All available 

resources should be used (heading indicators, airport diagrams, airport signs, markings, 

lighting, and air traffic control – ground and/or tower) to keep the aircraft on its assigned 

taxi route. 

(a) Situational awareness is enhanced by monitoring ATC instructions/clearances 

issued to other aircraft. Pilots should be especially vigilant if another aircraft is on frequency 

that has a similar call sign. Care should be taken to not inadvertently execute a clearance/ 

instruction for another aircraft. 

(b) Prior to entering or crossing any runway, pilots should scan the full length of the 

runway and scan for aircraft on final approach or landing roll out. If there is any confusion about 

the scan results, the pilot should stop taxiing the aircraft. 

CAUTION: Do not stop on a runway. If possible, taxi off the runway and 

then initiate communications with ATC to regain orientation. 

(c) Pilots should be especially vigilant when instructed to taxi into “position and 

hold,” particularly at night or during periods of reduced visibility. They should scan the full 

length of the runway and scan for aircraft on final approach or landing roll out when taxiing onto 

a runway either at the end of the runway or at an intersection. ATC should be contacted 

anytime there is a concern about a potential conflict.

1 In instances where the pilot has been instructed to taxi into “position and hold” 

and has been advised of a reason/condition (wake turbulence, traffic on an intersecting runway, 

etc.) or the reason/condition is clearly visible (another aircraft that has landed on or is taking off 

on the same runway), and the reason/condition is satisfied, the pilot should expect an imminent 

takeoff clearance, unless advised of a delay. 

2 If landing traffic is a factor, the tower is required to inform pilots of the closest 

traffic that is cleared to land, touch-and-go, stop-and-go, or unrestricted low approach on the 

same runway when clearing them to taxi into “position and hold.” Pilots should take care to note 

the position of that traffic and be especially aware of the elapsed time from the “position and 

hold” clearance while waiting for the takeoff clearance. 

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AC 91-73A 9/26/03 

3 ATC should advise pilots of any delay in receiving their takeoff clearance 

(e.g., “expect delay for wake turbulence”) while holding in position. If a takeoff clearance is not 

received within a reasonable time after clearance to “position and hold,” ATC should be 

contacted. Suggested phraseology: (call sign) holding in position (runway designator or 

intersection). For example, “American 234 holding in position runway 24L,” or “American 

234 holding in position runway 24L at Bravo.”

NOTE: FAA analysis of accidents and incidents involving aircraft holding in 

position indicate that TWO MINUTES or more elapsed between the time the

instruction was issued to “position and hold” and the resulting event (e.g., 

landover or go-around). Pilots should consider the length of time that they 

have been holding in position whenever they HAVE NOT been advised of 

any expected delay to determine when it is appropriate to query the 

controller. 

(d) Pilots should use extra caution when directed to taxi on a runway during reduced 

visibility conditions. 

(e) Pilots should use the utmost caution after landing on a runway that intersects 

another runway or on a runway where the exit taxiway will shortly intersect another runway. 

Pilots must have a common understanding of ATC’s instructions and expectations regarding 

where the aircraft is to stop and must be able to identify the appropriate hold points. ATC should 

be advised immediately if there is any uncertainty about the ability to comply with any of their 

instructions.

CAUTIONS: 

1. After landing, when you are on a taxiway that is between parallel 

runways, taxi the aircraft clear of the landing runway unless constrained by

a hold-short line associated with the adjacent parallel runway. 

2. Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, taxi clear of the landing runway 

even if that requires you to cross or enter a taxiway/ramp area. 

3. At an airport with an operating air traffic control tower, never enter a 

runway without specific authorization. When in doubt, contact ATC. 

4. At a non-towered airport or at an airport where the control tower is

closed, listen on the appropriate frequency (Common Traffic Advisory 

Frequency (CTAF)) for inbound aircraft information and scan the full length

of the runway, including the final approach and departure paths, before 

entering or crossing the runway. Remember that not all aircraft are radioequipped. 

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9/26/03 AC 91-73A 

(f) After landing and exiting the runway, nonessential communications and 

nonessential pilot actions should not be initiated until clear (on the inbound [terminal] side) of all 

runways. 

d. Use of Written Taxi Instructions. At many airports, taxi instructions can be very 

complex, involving numerous turns and transitions, as well as runway crossing and hold short 

instructions. During complex airport surface operations, pilots are very busy with a variety of 

cockpit duties and responsibilities that compete for their attention. Misunderstanding or 

forgetting any part of the taxi instructions can lead to an embarrassing or unsafe situation. 

Writing down taxi instructions, especially complex instructions, can reduce a pilot’s 

vulnerability to forgetting part of a complex instruction and can be used to support airport 

surface operations: 

(1) For use as a reference for reading back the instructions to ATC; and 

(2) As a means of reconfirming the taxi route and any restrictions at any time during the 

airport surface operation. 

NOTE: While written taxi instructions are a good operating technique, 

common sense and flexibility should be used in determining the need for

them at a specific airport. For example, if the departure runway is very near 

the aircraft parking location, or if the taxi route has been used numerous 

times in the previous days, it may only be necessary to record the basic 

elements of the taxi clearance. However, when the taxi instructions are 

complex or the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport layout, a detailed

transcription of all instructions is desirable. Additionally, individual pilots 

may choose to develop a set of symbols and shorthand notations which allow 

them to clearly record and later recall key items in the taxi instructions. 

e. ATC/Pilot Communication. The primary way the pilot and ATC communicate is by 

voice. The safety and efficiency of taxi operations at airports with operating control towers 

depend on this “communication loop.” Controllers use standard phraseology and require 

readbacks and other responses from the pilot in order to verify that clearances and instructions are 

understood. In order to complete the “communication loop,” the controllers must also clearly 

understand the pilot’s readback and other responses. Pilots can help enhance the controller’s 

understanding by responding appropriately and using standard phraseology. Regulatory 

requirements, the AIM, approved flight training programs, and operational manuals provide 

information for pilots on standard ATC phraseology and communications requirements. Some of 

the most important guidelines that contribute to clear and accurate communications are included 

here. Pilots should: 

(1) Maintain a “sterile” cockpit. Pilots must be able to focus on their duties without 

being distracted by non-flight related matters unrelated to the safe and proper operation of the 

aircraft. When operating an aircraft that does not have a door between the flight deck and the 

passenger compartment, the pilot may need to ask passengers to refrain from unnecessary 

conversation from the time the pre-taxi preparations begin until the time the aircraft is clear of 

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AC 91-73A 9/26/03 

the terminal area and at cruising altitude. The same procedure should be followed on arrival, 

from the time landing preparations begin until the aircraft is safely stopped at the terminal. 

(2) State their position whenever making initial contact with any tower or ground 

controller, regardless of whether they have previously stated their position to a different 

controller. 

(3) Use standard ATC phraseology at all times in order to facilitate clear and concise 

ATC/pilot communications. 

(4) Focus on what ATC is instructing. Pilots should not perform any non-essential tasks 

while communicating with ATC. 

(5) Read back all clearances/instructions to enter a specific runway, hold short of a 

runway, and taxi into “position and hold,” including the runway designator. 

(a) Pilots should not merely acknowledge the ATC instructions or clearances 

to enter a specific runway, hold short of a runway, and taxi into “position and hold” by 

using their call sign and saying “Roger” or “Wilco.” Instead, they should read back the 

entire instruction or clearance including the runway designator. 

(b) Air traffic controllers are required to obtain from the pilot a readback of 

all runway hold short instructions. 

(6) Actively monitor the assigned tower frequency or the CTAF for potential conflicts 

involving their runway when holding in position for takeoff and when on final approach. 

(7) Readback all takeoff and landing clearances, including the runway designator. 

(8) Clarify any misunderstanding or confusion concerning ATC instructions or 

clearances. 

f. Taxiing. This paragraph will not discuss speed management, steering, or maneuvering the 

aircraft, but will suggest some good practices regarding other cockpit activities during taxi. 

(1) Prior to taxiing, a copy of the airport diagram should be available for use by the pilot. 

(2) The aircraft’s compass or heading display is an excellent tool, as a supplement to 

visual orientation, or for confirming correct taxiway or runway alignment. It should be referred 

to as frequently as necessary, but especially at complex intersections and where the departure 

ends of two runways are close to one another. 

(3) When approaching an entrance to an active runway, pilots should verify compliance 

with hold short or crossing clearance. 

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9/26/03 AC 91-73A 

(4) Low visibility conditions increase the challenge of safely moving the aircraft on the 

airport surface. Although visibility is technically designated as “low” when the runway visual 

range (RVR) falls below 1,200 feet, visibility along the taxi route may be considerably less than 

the runway visibility. All resources available should be used, including heading indicators, 

airport signs, markings and lighting, and airport diagrams to the fullest extent possible in order to 

keep the aircraft on its assigned taxi route. Pilots should perform heads down tasks (e.g., 

programming the FMS, calculating takeoff data) while the aircraft is stopped. 

(5) Anytime the pilot becomes uncertain as to the aircraft’s location on the airport 

movement area, stop the aircraft and immediately advise ATC. If necessary, he/she should 

request progressive taxi instructions. Pilots should give ATC any information available about 

their position, such as signs, markings, and landmarks. 

CAUTION: Do not stop on a runway. If possible, taxi off the runway and 

then initiate communications with ATC to regain orientation. 

(6) When cleared to takeoff, or to cross a runway, or when exiting a runway, the pilot 

should do so in a timely manner. ATC should be informed of any anticipated delay. 

(7) Some cockpit displays of traffic information (CDTI) (such as some implementations 

of the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)) have the capability and sufficient 

resolution to enable the display of traffic behind an aircraft. When pilots are holding in position,

they should consider displaying traffic landing behind them to increase their awareness of the 

traffic situation. 

(8) When holding in position at night, pilots should consider lining up slightly to the left

or right of centerline (approximately 3 feet) to better enable a landing aircraft to visually 

differentiate the holding aircraft from runway lights. 

(9) Last-minute turnoff instructions from the tower should not be accepted unless the 

pilot clearly understands the instructions and is certain that he/she can comply. 

(10) After landing, pilots should not exit onto another runway without ATC 

authorization.

9. AIRPORT SURFACE OPERATIONS AT NON-TOWERED AIRPORTS AND 

AIRPORTS WHEN THE TOWER IS CLOSED. 

NOTE: For more information about operations at non-towered airports,

refer to the current versions of AC 90-42 and AC 90-66. Also, reference 

Runway Incursion Prevention Best Practices presented in Appendix 1 of 

this AC. 

a. General. The absence of an operating ATC tower creates a need for increased vigilance 

on the part of pilots operating at those airports. There are also specific communications 

procedures that differ from those used at towered airports. As is the case at towered airports, 

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AC 91-73A 9/26/03 

planning, clear communications, and enhanced situational awareness during airport surface 

operations will reduce the potential for surface incidents at airports without an operating control 

tower. This section focuses on those aspects of airport surface operations that are unique to 

airports without an operating control tower and will not be repeated in such detail as the 

information covered in other sections of this AC. The guidance in the rest of the AC should be 

followed, but when operating at an airport without an operating control tower, also consider the 

following: 

b. Planning. Along with the guidance in paragraph 8 above, the following should be 

considered when operating at an airport without an operating control tower. Pilots should: 

(1) Familiarize themselves with the local traffic pattern. Pilots should remember that not 

all airports use a standard traffic pattern and that the pattern altitude should be checked. 

CAUTION: During calm or nearly calm wind conditions, be aware that 

flight operations may occur at more than one runway at the airport. Also, 

aircraft may be using an instrument approach procedure to runways other 

than the runway in use for visual flight rules (VFR) operations. The 

instrument approach runway may intersect the VFR runway. It is also 

possible that an instrument arrival may be made to the opposite end of the 

runway from which a takeoff is being made. 

(2) Be sure that the taxi plan is understood. 

c. Situational Awareness. While maintaining situational awareness is important in all 

circumstances, it is particularly important when operating at an airport without an operating 

control tower. To achieve situational awareness, pilots should be fully aware of their intended 

taxi route and be able to follow the planned route correctly. Without ATC to verbally tell pilots 

where they should taxi and where and when to stop, they must rely on visual cues to maintain 

situational awareness and maintain their planned taxi route. These visual cues include airport 

signs, markings, and lighting, together with the airport diagram. Other things to consider that 

can help pilots maintain situational awareness while operating at an airport without an operating 

control tower include: 

(1) Monitor the appropriate frequency. Pilots should listen to what the pilots of other

aircraft on the frequency are saying. 

(2) If possible, pilots should monitor the approach control frequency to alert them to 

instrumental flight rules (IFR) traffic inbound to the airport. 

(3) Prior to crossing the hold short line or entering or crossing any runway, pilots should 

scan the full length of the runway, including approach areas. Do not engage in any other 

flightdeck/cockpit duties while crossing a runway. Full attention must be given to crossing and 

clearing the runway. 

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9/26/03 AC 91-73A 

(4) Pilots should use exterior lighting to make their aircraft more conspicuous to other 

pilots. Use of exterior lighting is discussed further in paragraph 10 below. 

d. Communication and Aeronautical Data. Communication rules and guidelines and 

aeronautical data for operations at airports without an operating control tower differ from those 

applicable at towered airports. Various regulations, the AIM, approved pilot training programs, 

and operational procedure manuals provide information to the pilot on standard phraseology, 

communication, and data requirements. 

(1) Before Taxi. Pilots should verify that: 

(a) Current aeronautical data for the airport is obtained, including the operating hours 

and status of the control tower; and 

(b) Airport communication facilities or aids are monitored, i.e., CTAF, flight service 

station (FSS), or Unicom frequency. 

(2) Taxi for Departure. Pilots should: 

(a) Monitor the CTAF, FSS, or Unicom frequency. 

NOTE: Pilots of departing aircraft should monitor/communicate on the 

appropriate frequency from engine start, during taxi, and until 10 miles from 

the airport unless appropriate regulations, local procedures, or operations 

specifications require otherwise. 

(b) Announce all ground movement operations on the CTAF, FSS, or Unicom

frequency. 

(3) Taking the Runway. Pilots should: 

(a) Announce their intention to take the runway prior to taking the runway. 

(b) Announce their intention to takeoff on the CTAF, FSS, or Unicom frequency. 

(c) Not line up on the departure runway and hold any longer than absolutely 

necessary. 

(d) Always state the name of the airport at the beginning and end of the radio 

transmission. 

CAUTION: Some aircraft operating at airports without operating control 

towers may not be equipped with a radio. Pilots must remain alert for them. 

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AC 91-73A 9/26/03 

10. USE OF EXTERIOR AIRCRAFT LIGHTS TO MAKE AIRCRAFT MORE 

CONSPICUOUS.

a. General. 

(1) Exterior aircraft lights may be used to make an aircraft operating on the airport 

surface more conspicuous. Pilots may use various combinations of exterior lights to convey their 

location and intent to other pilots. Certain exterior lights may also be used in various 

combinations to signal whether the aircraft is on a taxiway or on a runway, in position on the 

runway but holding for takeoff clearance, crossing an active runway, or moving down the 

runway for takeoff. 

(2) Because adherence to the guidelines in this AC are voluntary and aircraft equipment 

varies, pilots are cautioned not to rely solely on the status of an aircraft’s lights to determine the 

intentions of the pilot(s) of the other aircraft. Additionally, pilots must remember to comply with 

operating limitations on the aircraft’s lighting systems. 

b. Exterior Lights. To the extent possible and consistent with aircraft equipage, operating 

limitations, and pilot procedures, pilots should illuminate exterior lights as follows: 

(1) Engines Running. Turn on the rotating beacon whenever an engine is running. 

(2) Taxiing. Prior to commencing taxi, turn on navigation, position, anti-collision, 

and logo lights, if available. To signal intent to other pilots, consider turning on the taxi light 

when the aircraft is moving or intending to move on the ground, and turning it off when stopped, 

yielding, or as a consideration to other pilots or ground personnel. Strobe lights should not be 

illuminated during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of other pilots or ground personnel.

(3) Crossing a Runway. All exterior lights should be illuminated when crossing a 

runway. 

CAUTION: Pilots should consider any adverse effects to safety that 

illuminating the forward facing lights will have on the vision of other pilots

or ground personnel during runway crossings. 

(4) Entering the Departure Runway for Takeoff. When entering a runway after 

being cleared for takeoff, or when taxiing into position and hold, pilots should make their 

aircraft more conspicuous to aircraft on final behind them and to ATC by turning on lights

(except landing lights) that highlight the aircraft’s silhouette. Strobe lights should not be 

illuminated if they will adversely affect the vision of other pilots. 

NOTE: The SOP of turning on landing lights when takeoff clearance is

received is a signal to other pilots, ATC, and ground personnel that the 

aircraft is moving down the runway for takeoff.

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9/26/03 AC 91-73A 

(5) Takeoff. Landing lights should be turned on when takeoff clearance is received, or 

when commencing takeoff roll at an airport without an operating control tower. 

11. SUMMARY. 

a. Taxi operations require constant vigilance on the part of pilots. Pilots need to be 

continually aware of the movement and location of other aircraft and ground vehicles. Taxi 

operations require the same planning, coordination, and proper execution as other phases of 

flight operations. Sterile cockpit discipline is always appropriate while taxiing, even under 

normal weather conditions. 

b. During low-visibility taxi operations, additional vigilance is absolutely essential. Pilots 

must pay particularly close attention to instructions from ATC and must insist on correct 

readback and hearback. Additionally, pilots should pay close attention to readback and hearback 

between ATC and other aircraft. Any ambiguity or uncertainty should be promptly resolved by 

clarification with ATC. When clear of an active runway, pilots should be prepared to stop in 

position to resolve any questions about position on the airport or clearance from ATC. 

c. Safe aircraft operations can be accomplished and incidents eliminated if pilots are 

properly trained and correctly accomplish standard taxi operating procedures and practices. 

/s/ John M. Allen, for 

James J. Ballough 

Director, Flight Standards Service

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9/26/03 AC 91-73A 

 Appendix 1 

APPENDIX 1 

Runway Incursion Prevention 

Introduction 

The Philosophy of Using Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for Runway 

Incursion Prevention 

SOPs provide a structure that helps to decrease the probability of human error and capture errors 

before they result in a runway incursion. By applying SOPs to surface operations, pilots can 

reduce the probability of a runway incursion by increasing and maintaining situational 

awareness. Situational awareness is a continuous process of attentiveness and surveillance. 

Situational awareness includes knowing: 

o The location of the aircraft 

o Weather 

o Traffic 

o The clearance from Air Traffic Control (ATC) 

o All other factors that affect the safety of the flight 

The SOPs contained in this document are designed to help pilots use all available resources to 

detect and correct errors – both their own, pilots of other aircraft, and air traffic controllers – 

before they result in a runway incursion. Implementation of these SOPs is a low-cost action with 

a potential for a high return in a reduction of incidents. 

Standard Operating Procedures 

1. Pilots should give themselves a pre-taxi/departure briefing that includes the expected taxi 

route and restrictions. 

2. After taxi clearance has been received, determine the runway assigned, any restrictions, and 

the taxi route. If in doubt, seek clarification from ATC. 

4. Observe “sterile cockpit,” especially while taxiing. 

5. Have the airport diagram out, available, and in use. 

6. Fixed navigation lights (red, green, and white) must be on whenever the airplane is in motion. 

7. Monitor the appropriate tower frequency when anticipating a clearance to cross or taxi onto 

an active runway. 

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8. When approaching an entrance to an active runway, verify compliance with hold short or 

crossing clearance. Discontinue other tasks (e.g., Flight Management System (FMS) 

programming, Airborne Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS), company 

radio calls, etc.). 

9. Prior to crossing or taxiing onto any runway visually scan the runway and approach area. 

10. Read back all clearances/instructions to enter a specific runway, hold short of a runway, and 

taxi into “position and hold,” including the runway designator. 

NOTE: Do not merely acknowledge the foregoing instructions/clearances by 

using your call sign and saying “Roger” or “Wilco.” Instead, read back the

entire instruction/clearance including the runway designator. 

11. When entering a runway after being cleared for takeoff, or when taxiing into position and 

hold, make your aircraft more conspicuous to aircraft on final behind you and to ATC by turning 

on lights (except landing lights) that highlight your aircraft’s silhouette. 

12. Be especially vigilant when instructed to taxi into “position and hold,” particularly at night 

or during periods of reduced visibility. Scan the full length of the runway and scan for aircraft 

on final approach when taxiing onto a runway either at the end of the runway or at an

intersection. Contact ATC anytime you have a concern about a potential conflict. 

a. In instances where you have been instructed to taxi into “position and hold” and have 

been advised of a reason/condition (wake turbulence, traffic on an intersecting runway, etc.) or 

the reason/condition is clearly visible (another aircraft that has landed on or is taking off on the 

same runway), and the reason/condition is satisfied, you should expect an imminent takeoff 

clearance, unless advised of a delay. 

b. If landing traffic is a factor, the tower is required to inform you of the closest traffic that 

is cleared to land, touch-and-go, stop-and-go, or unrestricted low approach on the same runway 

when clearing you to taxi into “position and hold.” Take care to note the position of that traffic 

and be especially aware of the elapsed time from the “position and hold” clearance while waiting 

for the takeoff clearance.

c. ATC should advise you of any delay in receiving your takeoff clearance (e.g., “expect 

delay for wake turbulence”) while holding in position. If a takeoff clearance is not received 

within a reasonable time after clearance to “position and hold,” contact ATC. Suggested 

phraseology: (call sign) holding in position (runway designator or intersection). For example, 

“American 234 holding in position runway 24L” or “American 234 holding in position 

runway 24L at Bravo.”

NOTE: FAA analysis of accidents and incidents involving aircraft holding in 

position indicate that TWO MINUTES or more elapsed between the time the

instruction was issued to “position and hold” and the resulting event (e.g., 

landover or go-around). Pilots should consider the length of time that they 

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9/26/03 AC 91-73A 

 Appendix 1 

have been holding in position whenever they HAVE NOT been advised of 

any expected delay to determine when it’s appropriate to query the 

controller. 

13. To signal intent to aircraft downfield, turn on landing lights when cleared for takeoff.

14. As part of your approach checklist, review the airport diagram and anticipated taxi route. 

CAUTION

A potential pitfall of pre-taxi and pre-landing planning is setting expectations

and then receiving different instructions from ATC. Pilots need to ensure that 

they follow the clearance or instructions that are actually received, and not the 

ones they expected to receive from ATC. 

Recommended Practices and Techniques 

1. State your position whenever making initial contact with any tower or ground controller, 

regardless of whether you have previously stated your position to a different controller. 

2. Write down non-standard or complex taxi instructions. 

3. To signal intent to other pilots, consider turning on the taxi light when the aircraft is moving 

or intending to move on the ground, and turning it off when stopped, yielding, or as a 

consideration to other pilots or ground personnel. 

4. At night, use edge lights to distinguish between taxiways (blue) and runways (white). 

5. Minimize “heads-down” activities, such as entering data into the FMS, while the aircraft is 

moving. 

6. When visually scanning the runway and approach area, mentally confirm scan results (e.g., 

“clear right,” “clear left”). 

7. When holding in position for takeoff, actively monitor the assigned tower frequency or the 

Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) for potential conflicts involving your runway. 

8. If unsure of position and on a runway, immediately clear the runway and notify ATC. 

Always notify ATC if you are unsure of your position; consider requesting “progressive taxi.” 

9. When taxi visibility is low, pilots should perform heads down tasks (e.g., programming the 

FMS, calculating takeoff data) while the aircraft is stopped. 

10. To confirm proper runway or taxiway selection, verify that the compass heading 

approximately matches the runway heading and taxiway orientation. 

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11. Some cockpit displays of traffic information (such as some implementations of Traffic Alert 

and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)) have the capability and sufficient resolution to enable 

the display of traffic behind you. When holding in position, consider displaying traffic landing 

behind you to increase your awareness of the traffic situation. 

12. When holding in position at night, consider lining up slightly to the left or right of centerline 

(approximately 3 feet) to better enable a landing aircraft to visually differentiate the holding 

aircraft from runway lights. 

13. When on final approach, actively monitor the assigned tower frequency (or CTAF) for 

potential conflicts involving your runway. 

14. Do not accept last minute turnoff instructions from the tower unless you clearly understand 

the instructions and are certain that you can comply.

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 Appendix 2 

APPENDIX 2 

Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) Template for Ground 

Operations and the Prevention of Runway Incursions

A manual or section of a manual that serves as the pilot’s guide to SOPs may double as a training 

guide. The contents should be clear and comprehensive. This template includes topics that 

industry and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) have selected as useful for developing 

effective SOPs for operations on the ground and on approach with an emphasis in the prevention 

of runway incursions. It does not include every topic that might apply, such as those that apply 

to special operating authority or new technology (such as Extended Range Operations with TwoEngine Airplanes (ETOPS), Precision Runway Monitor (PRM), Surface Movement Guidance 

System (SMGS), and required navigation performance (RNP)). 

• Captain’s authority 

• Use of automation 

o The operator’s automation philosophy 

o Specific guidance in selection of appropriate levels of automation 

o Autopilot/flight director mode control inputs 

o Flight Management System (FMS) inputs 

• Checklist philosophy 

o Policies and procedures (who calls for, who reads, who does) 

o Format and terminology 

o Type of checklist 

 Challenge-Do-Verify 

 Do-Verify 

o Walk-around 

• Checklists 

o Safety check – power on 

o Originating/receiving 

o Before start 

o After start 

o Before takeoff 

o Preliminary landing 

o Landing 

o After landing

o Parking and securing 

o Emergency procedures 

o Non-normal/abnormal procedures 

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• Communications 

o Who handles radios 

o Primary language used 

o Air Traffic Control (ATC) 

o On the flightdeck 

o Keeping both pilots in the loop 

o Company radio procedures 

o Flightdeck to cabin signals 

o Passenger briefing 

o Cabin to flightdeck signals 

o Procedure to review/crosscheck clearances 

 Cross or hold short of a runway 

 Taxi into position and hold 

 Takeoff 

 Land 

• Briefings 

o Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) risk consideration 

o Special airport qualifications 

o Special security considerations 

o Temperature considerations 

o Before taxi 

o Before takeoff 

o Descent/approach/missed approach 

• Flightdeck access 

o Onground/in-flight 

o Jumpseat 

o Access signals, keys 

• Flightdeck discipline 

o Sterile cockpit – in-flight and on the ground 

o Maintaining outside vigilance 

o Transfer of control 

o Additional duties 

o Flight kits 

o Special security equipment 

o Headsets/speakers 

o Boom mikes/handsets 

o Maps/approach charts 

o Meals 

• Boarding passengers/cargo 

o Special security considerations 

o Carry-on baggage 

o Exit row seating 

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 Appendix 2 

o Hazardous materials 

o Prisoners/escorted persons 

o Guns onboard 

o Count/load 

• Pushback/powerback 

• Taxiing 

o Single engine

o All engines 

o Contaminated Runways 

 Ice 

 Snow 

 Water

 Slush 

o Prevention of runway incursions 

 Use of airport diagram

 Crew confirmation of taxi clearance 

 Visually clear final approach path and the runway before crossing or taking any 

active runway 

 Complex intersections, airfield construction, and “hot spots” 

• Crew Resource Management (CRM) 

o Crew briefings 

 Flight attendants 

 Flightcrew 

• Weight and balance/cargo loading 

o Who is responsible for loading cargo, and securing cargo 

o Who prepares the weight and balance data form; who checks it 

 Copy to crew 

• Flightdeck/cabin crew coordination 

o Boarding 

o Ready to taxi 

o Cabin emergency 

o Prior to takeoff/landing 

• Approach philosophy 

o Precision approaches preferred 

o Stabilized approaches standard 

o Use of navigation aids 

o FMS/autopilot 

o Use, and when to discontinue use 

o Approach gates 

o Limits for stabilized approaches 

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Appendix 2 

o Use of radio altimeter 

o Briefing for expected runway prior to beginning approach 

o Go-arounds: 

 Plan to go around 

 Change plan to land when visual, if stabilized 

• Individual approach type 

o All types, including engine-out 

• For each approach 

o Profile 

o Flap/gear extension 

o Callouts 

o Procedures 

• Go-around/missed approach 

o When stabilized approach gates are missed 

o Procedure 

o Callouts 

o Clean-up profile 

• Landing 

o Actions and callouts 

o Configuration for conditions 

 Visual approach 

 Low visibility 

 Contaminated runway 

o Close-in turns 

o Crosswind 

o Rejected 

o Transfer of control after first officer landing 

o Anticipated landing runway and taxiway exit designation and direction of turn to the 

first hold short point

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 Appendix 3 

APPENDIX 3 

Sample Procedures for Taxi – Departure and Arrival 

*Readback all runway crossing, hold short, and taxi into position and hold instructions.

Before starting engines -

Airport Diagram........................................................Review and keep available 

Engine start - 

Rotating beacon .............................................................................................ON 

Engine start checklist...........................................................................Complete 

Before taxi - 

Taxi clearance .........................................................................Noted/Readback* 

Airport Diagram........................................................Review and keep available 

Navigation lights............................................................................................ON 

Taxi light (night operations) ..........................................................................ON 

Taxi - 

Ground Frequency ................................................................................. Monitor 

Taxiway intersections.................................................If in doubt, verify cleared 

Runway crossings.......................................................If in doubt, verify cleared 

Before crossing a runway - 

Runway surface.........................................................Scan for conflicting traffic 

Approach/departure ends........................................Scan for approaching traffic 

Crossing runway - 

Expedite ...........Until entire aircraft clear of runway holding position markings

Arrival at active runway - 

Hold short of runway holding position markings 

Ready for takeoff ...........................................................................Advise tower 

 

Entering active runway for takeoff - 

Takeoff clearance..........................................................Received and Readback

Runway surface.........................................................Scan for conflicting traffic 

Approach/departure ends........................................Scan for approaching traffic 

Strobes/logo lights ..........................................................................................On 

Takeoff..........................................................Light on -- Expedite when cleared 

Non-towered airports:

Announce taxi intentions on Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF)/Unicom 

Do a 360-degree scan for inbound and non-radio aircraft before entering runway 

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Appendix 3 

Page 2 

In range/descent (10 nautical miles (NM) out and at or below 10,000 for turboprop and jet 

aircraft) - 

Airport Diagram........................................................Review and keep available 

Landing/Strobe/logo lights..............................................................................On 

Exiting runway - 

Taxi instructions/hold shorts...................................................Noted/Readback* 

Expedite .........Until your aircraft is clear of runway holding position markings 

 

Taxi after landing - 

Taxi clearance .......................................................................................Received 

Taxiway intersections .................................................If in doubt, verify cleared 

Runway crossings .......................................................If in doubt, verify cleared 

Before crossing a runway - 

Runway surface.........................................................Scan for conflicting traffic 

Approach/departure ends ........................................Scan for approaching traffic 

Crossing runway - 

Expedite ...........Until entire aircraft clear of runway holding position markings 

Arrival at parking -

Shut-down checklist