16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

1850 1900 1950 2000

32

28

24

20

16

12

8

4

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As a Percentage

of the U.S.

Population

In Millions

(Left scale)

CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES

CONGRESSIONAL BUDGET OFFICE

A Description of the

Immigrant Population

NOVEMBER 2004

© Thinkstock

The Congress of the United States O Congressional Budget Office

CBO

A Description of the Immigrant 

Population

November 2004

A

PAPER
Notes

Unless otherwise indicated, the years referred to in this paper are federal fiscal years, which 

run from October 1 through September 30.

Estimates reflect the populations enumerated in surveys. Data from the 2000 census are for 

the entire U.S. population. Data from the Current Population Survey refer to the civilian 

noninstitutional population. 

Data from surveys are based on responses from a sample of the population and may vary from 

the actual values because of sampling variation and other factors. Thus, small differences in 

levels or ratios might not be statistically significant. In addition, estimates may be subject to 

error because of difficulties in counting the foreign-born population.

Numbers in the text and tables may not add up to totals because of rounding.

For the purposes of this paper, Latin America comprises Mexico, Central and South America, 

and the Caribbean. The category “other areas” includes Canada, Africa, and Oceania.
Preface

The number of foreign-born people in the United States now constitutes 12 percent of 

the population––the highest share since about 1930. The rise in the number of recently 

arrived residents—nearly half of the immigrants in the United States have arrived since 

1990—has raised broad questions about the potential effects of immigration on labor markets 

and economic performance in general. Immigration increases the pressures for federal, state, 

and local government spending. Immigrants also contribute to the economy and pay taxes. A 

major question is whether immigration has the potential to lessen the strain on the federal 

budget as the baby-boom generation retires. 

This paper is the first of several reports by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) intended 

to present the facts and research on immigration to help inform the agency’s projections of the 

federal budget and the economy. The paper focuses on the characteristics of immigrants, 

including where they come from, where they reside, and how those patterns have changed 

over time, as well as immigrants’ level of education, the industries and occupations in which 

they work, and their earnings. In keeping with CBO’s mandate to provide objective, nonpartisan analysis, this paper makes no recommendations.

Douglas Hamilton is coordinating CBO’s series of reports on immigration. David Brauer 

wrote this paper with research assistance from Tumi Coker, Adam Gordon, and Amrita

Palriwala. Carol Frost provided programming advice. Nabeel Alsalam, Selena Caldera, Paul 

Cullinan, Bob Dennis, Meena Fernandes, Teri Gullo, Arlene Holen, Melissa Merrell, Noah 

Meyerson, John Peterson, Elizabeth Robinson, J.C. Rodriguez, Kathy Ruffing, and Ralph 

Smith provided comments on early drafts of the paper, as did Joseph M. Costanzo of the Census Bureau. (The assistance of external reviewers implies no responsibility for the final product, which rests solely with CBO.) 

Janey Cohen edited the paper, and John Skeen proofread it. Maureen Costantino prepared the 

paper for publication and designed the cover, Lenny Skutnik printed the initial copies, and 

Annette Kalicki produced the electronic version for CBO’s Web site (www.cbo.gov). 

Douglas Holtz-Eakin

Director

November 2004

Summary 1

How Large Is the Foreign-Born Population? 1

Legal Immigrants, Refugees, and Asylees 3

Visitors and Temporary Residents 4

Emigration 5

Unauthorized Immigrants 5

Where Does the Immigrant Population Come From? 7

Where Does the Foreign-Born Population Live? 8

Demographic Characteristics 13

Educational Attainment 13

Employment and Earnings 14

Income and Poverty Status 16

CONTENTS
vi A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Tables

1. Immigrants Admitted to the United States, by Major Category

of Admission, 2001 to 2003 4

2. Nonimmigrants Admitted to the United States, 2001 to 2003 6

3. The Foreign-Born Population, by Region of Origin and Period

of Arrival, 2003 7

4. Top Ten Countries of Origin of the Foreign-Born Population, 2000 8

5. Immigration to the United States, by Period of Arrival, Region,

and Country, 1821 to 2000 9

6. The Ten States with the Largest Foreign-Born Populations, 2000 13

7. States with the Largest and Smallest Foreign-Born Shares of Their

Population, 2000 14

8. States with the Largest Percentage Increases in the Foreign-Born

Population, 1990 to 2000 15

9. Native and Foreign-Born Populations, by Place of Residence, 2003 16

10. Native and Foreign-Born Populations, by Region of Origin

and Age, 2003 17

11. Fertility of Native and Foreign-Born Women, Ages 15 to 44, 2002 17

12. Educational Attainment of the Population Age 25 or Older,

by Region of Origin and Sex, 2003 18

13. Employment Status of the Native and Foreign-Born Working-Age

Populations, by Region of Origin, March 2003 19

14. Occupations and Industries of the Native and Foreign-Born

Populations, by Region of Origin, 2003 20

15. Median Annual Earnings of Native and Foreign-Born Workers,

by Region of Origin, 2002 21

16. Earnings Distribution for Workers, 2002 22

17. Median Household Income of the Native and Foreign-Born

Populations, by Region of Origin, 2002 23

18. Percentage of the Native and Foreign-Born Populations at or Below

the Poverty Level, by Age, 2002 24
CONTENTS vii

Figures

1. The Foreign-Born Population, 1850 to 2000 3

2. Immigration to the United States, 1821 to 2000 5

3. Immigration to the United States, by Region of Origin, 1821 to 2000 12

Boxes

1. Key Definitions 2

2. Estimating the Population of Unauthorized Immigrants 10

A Description of the Immigrant Population

Summary

The Census Bureau estimated that the number of 

foreign-born people living in the United States topped 33 

million and accounted for nearly 12 percent of the population in 2003—its highest share since 1930. Half of 

those people have arrived in the United States since 1990, 

and the foreign-born population is now growing at a rate 

of about 1 million per year. Between the 1990 and 2000 

censuses, the foreign-born population grew by more than 

11 million, accounting for about 35 percent of total population growth. Estimates of the portion of immigrants 

who are unauthorized range from 7 million to 10 million, 

although in the absence of reliable data, those estimates 

are subject to considerable uncertainty.

More than half of the total foreign-born population originated in Latin America, with Mexico by far the single 

largest source. The number of immigrants from Asia has 

also grown rapidly since the 1960s. In contrast, in the 

19th and early 20th centuries, the vast majority of immigrants came from Europe. 

The foreign-born population is quite concentrated geographically, more so than people born in the United 

States. More than two-thirds of the foreign-born population reside in one of six states (California, Texas, New 

York, Florida, Illinois, and New Jersey), and the majority 

of newly admitted legal immigrants continue to settle in 

those states. However, that concentration has diminished 

somewhat since 1990, and new major destinations include Arizona, Nevada, North Carolina, Georgia, and 

Colorado. The foreign-born population also tends to be 

more concentrated in urban areas—especially central cities—than the native-born is, but as is the case generally in 

the United States, more than half of the foreign-born 

population now live in suburban areas. 

Because children are underrepresented in the foreignborn population, the median age of the foreign-born 

population is older than that of the native-born population. However, foreign-born adults as a group are 

younger than native-born adults. That difference is greatest for those from Latin America and exists to a lesser extent for those from Asia. 

The skill distribution among the foreign-born population 

is bifurcated, with both a much larger fraction than natives lacking a high school diploma, yet a slightly higher 

than average percentage having an advanced degree. Immigrants from Asia more frequently possess a bachelor’s 

or higher degree, while less than half of those from Latin 

America have completed high school. 

Nearly half of the growth in the labor force since 1995 is 

attributable to immigrants. Foreign-born men are active 

participants in the labor market, with those from Latin 

America more heavily represented in service and blue-collar occupations and those from Europe and Asia in professional occupations. However, foreign-born women are 

less likely to participate in the labor force than are women 

born in the United States.

The earnings of foreign-born workers, particularly nonU.S. citizens, are on average well below those of natives. 

Immigrants from Latin America are predominantly at the 

low end of the earnings distribution. That circumstance 

translates into below-average incomes and a higher incidence of poverty in households with foreign-born heads. 

However, the earnings gap tends to diminish as immigrants spend more time in the United States. 

How Large Is the Foreign-Born

Population?

Data from the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey (CPS) indicate that the foreign-born population living in the United States stood at about 33 million in 

March 2003 (see Box 1 for a more complete definition of
2 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

key terms).1 Of that total, about 38 percent had become 

U.S. citizens. 

The total foreign-born population stood at 2 million in 

the 1850 census, then grew rapidly over the next 60 years 

(see Figure 1). Subsequently, the rate of growth slowed 

substantially before the population reached 14 million in 

1930. The foreign-born population subsequently declined, reaching a 20th century low of less than 10 million in 1970. Since then, however, the foreign-born population has more than tripled, with an average annual 

growth rate of about 4 percent. As a share of the total 

population, the number of foreign-born people rose from 

10 percent to 13 percent between 1850 and 1860, then 

remained in the 13 percent to 15 percent range through 

1920. That share then plunged to just under 5 percent in 

1970 but has since rebounded steadily and substantially. 

By 2002, it stood at nearly 12 percent—the highest share 

since about 1930.

Those census estimates are measures of the total number 

of immigrants in the population. Changes in that number represent net inflows—that is, the number of people 

newly arriving minus the number of residents who emigrate from the United States. During the 1990s, the total 

foreign-born population rose by 11 million, or slightly 

over 1.1 million annually, with net inflows apparently accelerating toward the end of the decade. As a consequence, in its latest population estimates, the Census Bureau assumed that net migration into the United States 

Box 1.

Key Definitions

The foreign-born population, as defined by the 

Census Bureau, refers to all residents of the United 

States who were not U.S. citizens at birth, regardless 

of their current legal or citizenship status. 

Natives are those who were born in one of the following areas—the United States, Puerto Rico, Guam, 

American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands, or the 

Northern Mariana Islands—or were born abroad to 

at least one parent who was a U.S. citizen. All residents are either natives or foreign born, but not both.

Immigrants are defined by the Office of Immigration Statistics (OIS) as persons legally admitted to the 

United States as permanent residents.

Refugees and asylees, as defined by OIS, are people 

admitted to the United States because they are unable 

or unwilling to return to their country of nationality 

because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution. Refugees apply for admission at an overseas 

facility and enter the United States only after their 

application is granted; asylees apply for admission 

when already in the United States or at a point of entry. 

Legal temporary residents are foreign citizens authorized to enter and reside temporarily in the 

United States for a specific purpose.

Unauthorized immigrants are foreign citizens illegally residing in the United States. They include both 

those who entered without inspection and those who 

violated the terms of a temporary admission without 

having gained either permanent resident status or 

temporary protection from removal. (Also referred to 

as illegal or undocumented immigrants.)

Nonimmigrants, as defined by OIS, are foreign citizens admitted to the United States for a specified 

purpose and a temporary period, including both legal 

temporary residents and visitors.

The residual foreign-born population consists of 

foreign-born residents who are neither naturalized 

citizens nor legal permanent residents.

1. These figures refer to the civilian noninstitutional population. 

Excluded are residents of institutions (that is, prisons, mental 

health facilities, and nursing homes) and most active-duty military 

personnel. Unauthorized residents are included to the extent that 

they participated in the census.
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 3

Figure 1.

The Foreign-Born Population, 1850 to 

2000

Source: Congressional Budget Office using data from Campbell J. 

Gibson and Emily Lennon, Historical Census Statistics on 

the Foreign-Born Population of the United States: 1850-

1990, Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 

Population Division, Working Paper No. 29 (February 

1999); and Nolan Malone and others, The Foreign-Born 

Population: 2000, Census 2000 Brief (Department of 

Commerce, Bureau of the Census, December 2003).

was about 1.3 million annually between 2000 and 2003. 

The Census Bureau arrived at this figure by separately estimating the number of newly arriving legal immigrants, 

refugees, and asylees; the number of foreign-born U.S. 

citizens and legal permanent residents who emigrated; 

and net flows of nonimmigrants (which include unauthorized residents as well as legal temporary residents and 

those with quasi-legal status).2

Legal Immigrants, Refugees, and Asylees

In considering flows of legal immigrants, one must distinguish between people who physically arrive in the 

United States and people who are awarded legal permanent resident status and thus are legally admitted as immigrants. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services 

(CIS) admitted about 700,000 people as immigrants in 

fiscal year 2003, down sharply from the more than 1 million admitted in both 2001 and 2002 (see Table 1).3

However, only about half of those admitted in 2003, and 

slightly more than a third of those admitted in 2002, 

were new arrivals. Indeed, last year’s decline in the total 

number of immigrants admitted to the United States primarily stemmed from a reduction in the number of people adjusting to immigrant status after arrival rather than 

in the number of new arrivals. Many of those people became immigrants after entering the United States legally 

as nonimmigrants—for instance, as visitors, temporary 

workers, students, workers affected by intracompany 

transfers, fiancés or fiancées of U.S. citizens, refugees, and 

asylees. 

Most immigrants admitted to the United States are sponsored by their families. In 2003, more than two-thirds 

were admitted as family-sponsored immigrants, with the 

majority as immediate relatives (spouses, children, or parents) of U.S. citizens.4 The family preference category 

consists of adult sons and daughters of U.S. citizens, as 

well as their spouses and children; spouses and children of 

permanent residents; and siblings of U.S. citizens. By 

contrast, only 12 percent were admitted under specific 

employment-based preferences, and just 6 percent were 

refugees and asylees who adjusted to immigrant status. 

According to CIS’s records, 9.1 million people were admitted as legal immigrants during the 1990s—the largest 

number of immigrants admitted in any decade since 

records were kept beginning in 1820, and significantly 

more than the 7.3 million admitted during the previous 

decade.5 The level of immigration rose from negligible 

levels in the 1820s until it exceeded 5 million during the 

1880s (see Figure 2). Then, after falling back during the 

1890s, the immigration level peaked at 8.8 million be2. Examples of the latter include those who are in the United States 

awaiting action on applications for legal status. 

(Right scale)

(Left scale)

1850 1900 1950 2000

0

4

8

12

16

20

24

28

32

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

As a Percentage

of the U.S.

Population

(Right scale)

In Millions

(Left scale)

3. The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) was until 

recently responsible for immigration services as well as border 

enforcement and inspections. In response to the events of September 11, 2001, nearly all of INS’s functions were transferred to the 

newly established Department of Homeland Security. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services is now responsible for immigration and naturalization services; border enforcement functions 

were split between two other agencies within the Department of 

Homeland Security.

4. That category includes about 21,000 orphans who were either 

adopted overseas or whose adoption was pending. 

5. Note that CIS’s figures exclude nonimmigrants and refer to gross

flows of immigrants over some interval. In contrast, the figures 

from the Census Bureau cited earlier include nonimmigrants and 

represent net flows.
4 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Table 1.

Immigrants Admitted to the United States, by Major Category of Admission,

2001 to 2003

(Thousands)

Source: Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, 2003 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics (September 2004).

a. Refugees and asylees who adjust to immigrant status as opposed to people newly admitted as refugees or asylees.

tween 1901 and 1910. From there it dropped off dramatically, reaching a low of just over 500,000 in the 1930s 

before rebounding at first gradually and then more rapidly in the late 20th century until it surpassed its previous 

high during the 1990s. When placed in the context of a 

large and growing population, the impact of immigration 

during the 1990s was considerably smaller than in earlier 

periods of history. The number of immigrants during the 

1990s represented 3.7 percent of the 1990 population, 

up from 3.2 percent during the 1980s but well below the 

11.6 percent peak attained between 1900 and 1910. The 

number of immigrants also exceeded 10 percent of the 

population (as measured at the start of the decade) in 

both the 1850s and 1880s.

Aside from those admitted as legal immigrants, about 

28,000 people were newly admitted as refugees in fiscal 

year 2003, and another 15,000 were granted asylum. Refugees normally apply for admission at an overseas facility 

(such as an embassy), and travel to the United States only 

after their application is granted. By contrast, requests for 

asylum can come only from people already in the United 

States (whether legally present in the United States or 

otherwise) or who present themselves to authorities at a 

border crossing or other point of entry.6

 The number of 

refugees was slightly above that of a year earlier but much 

lower than the 69,000 figure for fiscal year 2001. That 

decline was attributed to heightened safety concerns and 

enhanced security procedures following the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, which affected both the 

processing of applications at some overseas locations and 

the travel of those whose applications had already been 

approved. The number of people granted asylum was little changed between 2001 and 2002 but declined significantly in 2003.

Visitors and Temporary Residents

Aside from immigrants, refugees, and asylees, an estimated 181 million people were admitted to the United 

States as nonimmigrants in 2003. The vast majority were 

short-term visitors from Canada and Mexico who were 

not required to fill out arrival forms. Excluding those visitors, nearly 28 million people were recorded as having 

entered the United States as nonimmigrants in 2003. Of 

those, the vast majority were temporary visitors—mostly 

for pleasure (see Table 2 on page 6). Those figures were 

essentially unchanged from 2002 but about 5 million below their 2001 levels. Another 550,000 were admitted

706 100.0 1,064 100.0 1,064 100.0

New arrivals 358 50.8 384 36.1 411 38.6

Adjustments of status 347 49.2 679 63.9 653 61.4

492 69.7 674 63.3 676 63.5

Family-sponsored preferences 159 22.5 187 17.6 232 21.8

Immediate relatives of U.S citizens 333 47.2 487 45.8 444 41.7

82 11.6 175 16.4 179 16.8

46 6.6 43 4.0 42 3.9

85 12.0 172 16.2 167 15.7

Refugees and asyleesa 45 6.4 126 11.9 109 10.2

2003 2002 2001

Number Percent

Total

Category of Admission Number Percent Number Percent

Other Categories

Family-Sponsored Immigrants

Employment-Based Preferences

Diversity Program

6. Refugees are eligible to adjust to legal permanent resident status 

after one year of residence in the United States. Asylees may apply 

for legal permanent resident status beginning one year after being 

granted asylum. 
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 5

Figure 2.

Immigration to the United States, 1821 to 2000

(Millions, by five-year spans)

Source: Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, 2003 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics (September 2004).

Note: Arrivals by land were not completely enumerated until 1908.

as transit aliens—aliens in immediate and continuous 

transit through the United States. Roughly 3 million people were admitted as temporary residents, in-cluding 

about 950,000 admitted either as temporary workers or 

as workers affected by intracompany transfers (plus their 

nearly 300,000 family members); 625,000 admitted as 

students; and 320,000 as exchange visitors.

Emigration

Because information on departures is not systematically 

recorded, estimates of emigration must necessarily be derived from incomplete source data. In fact, as noted earlier, the Census Bureau attempts to estimate emigration 

only by legal permanent residents; for temporary residents and other nonimmigrants, it estimates net flows. 

The best estimates suggest that one-fourth to one-third of 

legal immigrants eventually leave the United States, with 

most emigration occurring within several years of admission. Census Bureau researchers estimated that an average 

of about 190,000 foreign-born residents per year emigrated during the 1980s, and about 220,000 per year emigrated during the 1990s.7 (In addition, the Census Bureau assumes that about 50,000 people born in the 

United States emigrate annually to other countries.) 

Unauthorized Immigrants

Deriving estimates of the number of unauthorized, or illegal, immigrants is difficult because the government 

lacks administrative records of their arrival and departure, 

and because they tend to be undercounted in the census 

and other surveys of the population. Unauthorized immigrants generally fall into one of two categories: those who 

entered the United States illegally and without inspection 

and those who were admitted legally as visitors or temporary residents but overstayed their visa. 

The unauthorized resident population was recently estimated by the Immigration and Naturalization Service 

(INS)—whose immigrant services operations are now 

performed by CIS—at 7.0 million in January 2000, up 

from 3.5 million in 1990. Alternatively, researchers at the 

Urban Institute estimated an undocumented population

1821-1830 1841-1850 1861-1870 1881-1890 1901-1910 1921-1930 1941-1950 1961-1970 1981-1990

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

7. Tammany J. Mulder, Betsy Guzman, and Angela Brittingham, 

Evaluating Components of International Migration: Foreign-Born 

Emigration, Working Paper No. 62 (Bureau of the Census, Population Division, April 2002).
6 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Table 2.

Nonimmigrants Admitted to the United States, 2001 to 2003

(Thousands)

Source: Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, 2003 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics (September 2004).

Notes: Within the figures, the people admitted can be counted multiple times. Most visitors from Canada and Mexico are excluded.

Categories of admission not specifically enumerated include those for officials of foreign governments and NATO (the North Atlantic 

Treaty Organization), international representatives, representatives of foreign media, traders and investors operating under various 

treaties, and people admitted under the Legal Immigration Family Equity Act and the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection 

Act.

n.a. = not available; NAFTA = the North American Free Trade Agreement.

a. Admitted on the basis of professional education, skills, or equivalent experience.

b. Including agricultural workers when authorized workers are unavailable in the United States and nonagricultural workers when unemployed persons capable of performing the services cannot be found in the United States.

c. Including people transferred within companies.

d. Of students, temporary workers and trainees, exchange visitors, and people transferred within companies (besides such transferees under 

NAFTA).

of 9.3 million in March 2002.8 A third estimate, by the 

Census Bureau, put the “nonimmigrant” population at 

8.7 million in 2000. However, in addition to unauthorized immigrants, that estimate includes refugees and 

asylees who have not yet adjusted to legal permanent resident status, and others who are awaiting action on applications to become immigrants or who have been permitted to stay in the United States under court order.

INS’s estimate implies that during the 1990s, the number 

of illegal immigrants in the United States rose by 3.5 million. The gross inflow over the decade was estimated at a 

much larger 7.1 million, but that number was reduced by 

voluntary emigration, subsequent adjustments to legal 

status, and, to a lesser extent, deportations and deaths 

(for further discussion of estimates of the unauthorized 

population, see Box 2 on page 10).

2001 2002 2003

32,824 27,907 27,849

29,420 24,344 24,359

For pleasure n.a. 19,967 20,143

For business n.a. 4,377 4,216

456 615 555

699 646 625

688 656 650

People in "specialty occupations"a 384 370 360

People performing services unavailable in United Statesb 100 103 117

Business people carrying out activities sanctioned under NAFTAc 95 74 59

340 326 322

328 314 298

Spouses and Children 406 382 364 d

Total

Temporary Visitors

Transit Aliens

Students

Temporary Workers and Trainees

Exchange Visitors

Workers Affected by Intracompany Transfers

8. Jeffrey S. Passel, Randolph Capps, and Michael E. Fix, “Undocumented Immigrants: Facts and Figures” (Washington, D.C.: 

Urban Institute, January 2004).
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 7

Table 3.

The Foreign-Born Population, by Region of Origin and Period of Arrival, 2003

(Thousands)

Source: Congressional Budget Office using data from Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey: Annual 

Social and Economic Supplement (March 2003).

Note: n.a. = not applicable.

Where Does the Immigrant Population 

Come From?

Data from the March 2003 CPS indicate that 53 percent 

of foreign-born residents were born in Latin America, 25 

percent in Asia, and 14 percent in Europe (see Table 3). 

(As will become evident later in this paper, the demographic characteristics and indicators of skill vary significantly by immigrants’ region of origin.) Many of the foreign-born residents have arrived fairly recently: about half 

have entered the United States since 1990. 

In general, immigrants from Europe were the most likely, 

and those from Latin America the least likely, to have 

taken U.S. citizenship. Given that most permanent residents must wait at least five years for naturalization, it is 

not surprising that this pattern is largely linked to period 

of arrival, with Europeans as a group having arrived much 

earlier than those from other regions. If the period of arrival is taken into account, immigrants from Asia are 

slightly more likely than Europeans, and substantially 

more likely than those of Latin American origin, to have 

attained U.S. citizenship. Overall, about 38 percent of 

the foreign-born population has been naturalized.

The 2000 census provides more detail on the foreignborn population’s country of origin (see Table 4 on 

page 8). Mexico was by far the largest single source, with 

the 9.2 million Mexican-born residents accounting for 

nearly 30 percent of the foreign-born population. The 

next nine largest source countries together accounted for 

29 percent of the foreign-born population, with China 

ranking a distant second as the birthplace of 1.5 million 

residents, followed by the Philippines with 1.4 million 

and India and Vietnam with 1 million each. Estimates of 

the legal permanent resident population recently released 

by the Office of Immigration Statistics present a mostly 

similar picture.9

 Of the estimated 11.4 million total population of legal permanent residents, about 3.1 million 

were from Mexico. The Philippines was a distant second 

with just over 500,000, followed closely by India, the 

People’s Republic of China, the Dominican Republic, 

and Vietnam.

The pattern of immigration to the United States has 

shifted dramatically over the past nearly two centuries. 

Throughout the 19th century and into the early part of 

the 20th century, the vast majority of newly admitted immigrants came from Europe (see Table 5 on page 9 and 

Figure 3 on page 12). Until 1890, the most important 

33,471 11.7 4,066 4,600 8,035 12,235 4,536

Naturalized U.S. citizens 12,837 4.5 3,290 3,202 3,884 2,206 255

Not U.S. citizens 20,634 7.2 776 1,398 4,151 10,029 4,281

Europe 4,593 1.6 1,576 559 656 1,361 440

Asia 8,372 2.9 502 1,439 2,285 2,981 1,164

Latin America 17,840 6.2 1,538 2,292 4,536 6,910 2,563

Other areas 2,667 0.9 449 309 558 983 368

Total U.S. Population 285,933 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Total Foreign-Born Population

Total U.S. Population Before 1970 1970-1979

Memorandum:

Region of Origin

Percentage of

2000 or Later

Period of Arrival

1980-1989 1990-1999

9. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, Estimates of the Legal Permanent Resident Population and Population Eligible to Naturalize in 2002 (May 2004).
8 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Table 4.

Top Ten Countries of Origin of the

Foreign-Born Population, 2000

Source: Nolan Malone and others, The Foreign-Born Population: 

2000, Census 2000 Brief (Department of Commerce, 

Bureau of the Census, December 2003).

a. Includes those who responded China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and 

the Paracel Islands.

b. The estimated foreign-born population from Cuba does not differ statistically from that of Korea.

c. Includes those who responded Korea, North Korea, and South 

Korea.

d. The estimated foreign-born population from Canada does not 

differ statistically from that of El Salvador.

single-country sources of immigrants were Ireland, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Over the next three decades, the surge in the total number of immigrants could 

be attributed largely to Italy and Eastern Europe.10 However, the number of immigrants from Europe declined 

dramatically after limits on the total number of immigrants were imposed under the Quota Law of 1921. Over 

the next several decades, overall immigration remained at 

very low levels and was dominated by Germany and Canada. The rapid rise in immigration starting in the late 

1960s was largely attributable to the Western Hemisphere—especially Mexico—and Asia.

Where Does the Foreign-Born

Population Live?

The foreign-born population is quite concentrated geographically, though less so than in 1990. Some 9 million 

of the 31 million foreign-born people counted in the 

2000 census lived in California; more than half of that 

population were in three states (California, New York, 

and Texas); and more than two-thirds were in six states 

(those three states plus Florida, Illinois, and New Jersey) 

(see Table 6 on page 13). Recent immigrants are continuing to settle in those states; about 63 percent of those 

newly admitted in 2003 listed as their intended residence 

one of those states. Moreover, in 2000, INS estimated 

that nearly half of the unauthorized population was in either California or Texas.

The concentration of foreign-born people in those states 

is partly attributable to each state’s size, but also reflects 

an above-average foreign-born share of the population 

within those states. That is especially true of California, 

where 26.2 percent of the population in 2000 was foreign 

born, the highest percentage of any state and more than 

double the national figure of 11.1 percent (see Table 7 on 

page 14). New York ranked second in terms of both the 

total foreign-born population and the foreign-born share 

of the overall population. However, several smaller states, 

including Hawaii, Nevada, and Arizona, also had immigrant population shares significantly above the national 

average. On the other hand, the foreign-born population 

represented 2 percent of the population or less in seven 

states.

Over the past 10 years, migration patterns have shifted 

somewhat, and some new states have emerged as important destinations for the immigrant population. Between 

1990 and 2000, the foreign-born population more than 

tripled in three states (North Carolina, Georgia, and Nevada) and more than doubled in 16 others—none of 

which were among the six states where two-thirds of the 

foreign-born population is concentrated (see Table 8 on 

page 15). Measured in percentage terms, the growth in 

the foreign-born population during the 1990s was especially pronounced in the Southwest and Southeast. Although the foreign-born share of the population in 2000 

was still below the national average in both North Carolina and Georgia, it rose dramatically between 1990 and 

2000—from 1.7 percent to 5.3 percent in North Carolina, and from 2.7 percent to 7.1 percent in Georgia. And 

in Nevada, the foreign-born share surged from 8.7 percent—just slightly above the national average—in 1990 

to 15.8 percent in 2000.

10. It should be noted, however, that according to the Office of Immigration Statistics, land arrivals were not completely enumerated 

until 1908.

31.1 100

18.2 58.4

Mexico 9.2 29.5

Chinaa 1.5 4.9

Philippines 1.4 4.4

India 1.0 3.3

Vietnam 1.0 3.2

Cubab 0.9 2.8

Koreac 0.9 2.8

Canadad 0.8 2.6

El Salvador 0.8 2.6

Germany 0.7 2.3

13.0 41.6

Percentage of Foreign-Born

Population

Number

Country of Birth

Total Foreign-Born

Top Ten Countries

All Other Countries

(Millions)

Population
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 9

Table 5.

Immigration to the United States, by Period of Arrival, Region,

and Country, 1821 to 2000

(Thousands)

Source: Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, 2003 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics (September 2004).

Notes: Numbers do not necessarily add up to totals because of unspecified immigrants from various countries.

Arrivals by land were not completely enumerated until 1908.

The source country for immigrants arriving before 1906 refers to the last country from which the immigrant came, which is not necessarily the person’s country of origin.

a. The Americas comprise Latin America and Canada.

A comparison between the 1990 and 2000 censuses also 

reveals significantly less geographic concentration among 

the most recent arrivals. Thirty-eight percent of the immigrants who arrived between 1985 and 1990 and who 

were counted in the 1990 census resided in California, 

but only 22 percent of those who arrived between 1995 

and 2000 lived in California in 2000.11 In fact, although 

California still represented by far the largest single destination state in the late 1990s, it was the only state in 

which the absolute number of entrants was smaller than 

it had been a decade earlier. Much of the change was 

driven by recent immigrants from Mexico, whose overall 

numbers roughly doubled to about 2.5 million. With 

California’s share of the recent arrivals from Mexico declining from 61 percent to 31 percent between 1990 and 

2000, virtually all of the increased flow was dispersed 

among other states, including both “traditional” destinations (notably Texas and Arizona) and “nontraditional” 

destinations (notably North Carolina, Georgia, and

Colorado).

Period of 

Arrival Country Country

1821-1830 143.4 98.8 0 11.6 0 Ireland 50.7 United Kingdom 25.1

1831-1840 599.1 495.7 0.1 33.4 0.1 Ireland 207.4 Germany 152.5

1841-1850 1713.3 1,597.4 0.1 62.5 0.1 Ireland 780.7 Germany 434.6

1851-1860 2,598.2 2,452.6 41.5 74.7 0.4 Germany 951.7 Ireland 914.1

1861-1870 2,314.8 2,065.1 64.8 166.6 0.5 Germany 787.5 United Kingdom 606.9

1871-1880 2,812.2 2,271.9 124.2 404.0 11.3 Germany 718.2 United Kingdom 548.0

1881-1890 5,246.6 4,735.5 69.9 427.0 13.4 Germany 1,453.0 United Kingdom 807.4

1891-1900 3,687.6 3,555.4 74.9 39.0 4.3 Italy 651.9 Austria-Hungary 592.7

1901-1910 8,795.4 8,056.0 323.5 361.9 20.4 Austria-Hungary 2,145.3 Italy 2,045.9

1911-1920 5,735.8 4,321.9 247.2 1,143.7 21.9 Italy 1,109.5 Soviet Union 921.2

1921-1930 4,107.2 2,463.2 112.1 1,516.7 15.0 Canada 924.5 Mexico 459.3

1931-1940 528.4 347.6 16.6 160.0 4.2 Germany 114.1 Canada 108.5

1941-1950 1,035.0 621.1 37.0 354.8 21.9 Germany 226.6 Canada 171.7

1951-1960 2,515.5 1,325.7 153.2 996.9 27.1 Germany 477.8 Canada 378.0

1961-1970 3,321.7 1,123.5 427.6 1,716.4 54.1 Mexico 453.9 Canada 413.3

1971-1980 4,493.3 800.4 1,588.2 1,982.7 122.0 Mexico 640.3 Philippines 355.0

1981-1990 7,338.1 761.6 2,738.2 3,615.2 222.1 Mexico 1,655.8 Philippines 548.8

1991-2000 9,095.4 1,359.7 2,795.7 4,486.8 410.8 Mexico 2,249.4 Philippines 503.9

Number from of Immigrants Largest Source of Immigrants

Second-Largest Source

All Countries Europe Asia Americas Other Number Number a

11. Katherine Bartley, “Changes in the Age Structure and Occupation 

Distribution of New Immigrant Destinations: 1990-2000” (paper 

presented at Population Association of America’s 2004 annual 

meeting, Boston, April 1, 2004).
10 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Box 2.

Estimating the Population of Unauthorized Immigrants

In the absence of records on the number of unauthorized immigrants, their numbers must be estimated 

by indirect means. Thus, those estimates are subject 

to a considerable degree of uncertainty. The typical 

method is to start with a base year estimate of the 

unauthorized immigrant population, subtract the 

number who subsequently left that population, add 

the number of newly arrived foreign-born residents, 

then subtract those within that group who are 

known to be in the United States legally. But that approach has problems, including uncertainty over the 

rate at which that population is undercounted in the 

census, the need to make assumptions about emigration and mortality, and the treatment of immigrants 

in the United States legally but whose status is ambiguous.

The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) 

estimated that 7.0 million unauthorized residents 

lived in the United States in January 2000.1

 To obtain that figure, INS developed an estimate of the 

number of unauthorized residents who entered the 

United States during the 1990s and separately estimated the number who entered before 1990 and still 

lived here illegally in 2000. Its estimate of the number who entered during the 1990s was derived by 

subtracting estimates of the legally resident foreignborn population who entered between 1990 and 

1999 from the total foreign-born population who arrived during the 1990s, with an adjustment for an 

estimated undercount in the census. For unauthorized residents who entered before 1990, the estimate was based on the population believed to have 

resided illegally in January 1990, reduced by the 

number who left the unauthorized population during the 1990s.

INS’s latest estimate for 2000 begins with about 3.5 

million unauthorized immigrants present in the 

United States in January 1990. Of those, 2.0 million 

left the unauthorized population (through adjustment to legal status, emigration, or death), yielding a 

total of 1.5 million still illegally residing in the 

United States. Separately, the 2000 census counted 

12.6 million foreign-born residents who reported 

having entered between 1990 and 1999. Adjusting 

for the census undercount and suspected misreporting of year of entry yields an estimated foreign-born 

population of nearly 13.5 million who entered in the 

1990s.2

 But according to INS, 5.8 million of those 

people were admitted as legal permanent residents, 

0.9 million as refugees, 1.5 million as legal nonimmigrants, and 0.5 million in other categories, including asylees and special agricultural workers. Another 

200,000 were unauthorized but applied for legal permanent residency; in those estimates they are treated 

as legal residents. Adjusting for deaths, emigration, 

and misclassification of new arrivals results in an estimate of 8.0 million legally resident foreign-born 

people who arrived between 1990 and 1999. That 

leaves 5.5 million unauthorized new arrivals, which, 

when added to the 1.5 million who entered before 

1990, yields an estimate of 7.0 million.

The approach underlying the latest estimates differs 

from INS’s previous estimates, which were based primarily on estimates of unauthorized residents 

counted in the 1980 census; administrative records 

of adjustments to lawful status under the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986; and 

estimates of nonimmigrants overstaying from the 

INS’s Nonimmigrant Information System, which 

was designed to record arrivals and departures of visitors and temporary residents. However, the collection and processing of departure forms were incomplete, making it hard to distinguish overstaying from 

a failure to collect departure forms and match them 

to arrival forms. The last estimate using the old 

methodology showed about 5.0 million unauthorized immigrants residing in the United States in October 1996; the latest estimates suggest 5.8 million 

1. Immigration and Naturalization Service, Office of Policy in that month.

and Planning, Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: 1990 to 2000 (January 

2003), available at http://uscis.gov/graphics/shared/aboutus/

statistics/Ill_Report_1211.pdf.

2. INS assumes an overall undercount of 2.5 percent for legal 

permanent residents, 10 percent for unauthorized residents, 

and 10 percent for all other categories of non-U.S. citizens.
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 11

Box 2.

Continued

An alternative calculation by INS sheds light on the 

gross flows of unauthorized immigrants. In the 

1990s, about 7.1 million people entered the unauthorized population but 3.6 million left via emigration (1.5 million), death (200,000), removal by INS 

(400,000), or adjustment to legal status (1.5 million). The estimated number of entrants rose from 

556,000 in 1992 to 772,000 in 1995, retreated over 

the next two years, then surged to 968,000 in 1999.

Rather than estimating the number of unauthorized 

residents, the Census Bureau estimated the number 

of “nonimmigrants”—all foreign-born residents except naturalized U.S. citizens and legal permanent 

residents. Thus, in addition to unauthorized residents, its estimate includes refugees and asylees who 

have not adjusted to legal permanent resident status, 

plus others with pending applications for permanent 

resident status. The bureau’s approach was similar to 

INS’s latest approach in that it estimated the nonimmigrant population as a residual, subtracting the 

number of naturalized citizens and legal permanent 

residents from the total foreign-born population. It 

first estimated a residual foreign-born population in 

1990 by taking an earlier estimate of 2.1 million in 

1980, which dropped to 1.8 million after adjusting 

for deaths and emigration. It then added the number 

of foreign-born residents counted in the 1990 census, subtracting those legally admitted between 1980 

and 1990 as well as those legalized under IRCA and 

temporary residents admitted between 1987 and 

1990. Adjusting for misclassification, deaths, and 

emigration yielded a 1990 estimate of 3.8 million. 

For 2000, the bureau carried forward its 1990 estimate reduced by emigration, deaths, and adjustments to legal status, then followed the same methodology as in the 1990 estimate to determine the 

residual population entering during the 1990s. The 

result was an overall estimate of 8.7 million. 

However, bureau analysts noted a number of limitations to their estimate. First, it does not adjust for 

the undercount; a 15 percent undercount adjustment would yield estimates of 4.4 million in 1990 

and 10.2 million in 2000. A 20 percent undercount 

would increase those totals to 4.7 million and 10.9 

million, respectively. Also, the bureau’s estimates 

were based on incomplete data from the 2000 census: in particular, the number of nonimmigrant legal 

residents counted in 2000 appears to have been too 

low, implying an overstatement of the residual population. Further, the Census Bureau’s estimate of the 

residual population in 1980—the starting point for 

its analysis—is subject to uncertainty. Other limitations that apply equally to INS’s estimates involve 

uncertainty about emigration and mortality rates 

among the unauthorized or residual population. 

And the inclusion of quasi-legal migrants awaiting 

action on their legal migration requests makes direct 

comparisons with INS’s data on unauthorized residents problematic.

A third estimate, by researchers at the Urban Institute, shows 9.3 million “undocumented immigrants” 

in March 2002. That estimate assumes that the total foreign-born population was undercounted by 

about 2 million in the March 2002 Current Population Survey. The authors note, however, that their estimate includes some people—possibly up to 10 percent of their total estimate—who were in fact 

authorized to live and work in the United States. 

They also note that this population includes an estimated 1.6 million children under 18, and that another 3 million U.S.-born children have parents who 

are undocumented immigrants.

Estimates of the number of people leaving the unauthorized 

resident population include both those who were present in 

January 1990 and those who entered subsequently. Some 

people may be counted as entering and/or leaving the unauthorized population more than once during the decade. 

Joseph M. Costanzo and others, Evaluating Components of 

International Migration: The Residual Foreign Born, Working 

Paper No. 61 (Bureau of the Census, Population Division, 

June 2002).

Jeffrey S. Passel, Randolph Capps, and Michael E. Fix, 

“Undocumented Immigrants: Facts and Figures” (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, January 2004).

The 3 million U.S.-born children of undocumented immigrants are not included in the 9.3 million estimate of the 

undocumented population.

3

4

5

6

3.

4.

5.

6.
12 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Figure 3.

Immigration to the United States, by Region of Origin, 1821 to 2000

(Millions, by decade)

Source: Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, 2003 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics (September 2004).

Notes: Arrivals by land were not completely enumerated until 1908.

The Americas comprise Latin America and Canada.

The composition of the foreign-born population across 

states and regions varies by region of origin. Mexicans, 

who in 2000 constituted about 30 percent of the total 

foreign-born population, accounted for 72 percent of the 

foreign-born population in New Mexico, 66 percent in 

Arizona, and 65 percent in Texas, but just 4 percent of 

that population in the Northeast. In contrast, those from 

other countries in Latin America accounted for nearly 

two-thirds of the foreign-born population in Florida, 45 

percent in New York, and 38 percent in New Jersey, but 

10 percent or less in both the Midwest and West. The 

European share of the foreign-born population tended to 

be larger in the Northeast and Midwest than in the South 

and West. The Asian share of the foreign-born population was somewhat less concentrated than that from 

Latin America and Europe; its share was largest in the 

West and Midwest and smallest in the South.

Aside from concentrating in particular states, the foreignborn population tends to gather in urban areas to a significantly greater extent than does the U.S.-born population 

(see Table 9 on page 16). In 2003, 44 percent of the foreign-born population lived in central cities, compared 

with 27 percent of their U.S.-born counterparts. Although immigrants have traditionally settled in central 

cities, about half now live in suburbs—much like the rest 

of the population. But only 5 percent of the foreign-born 

population resided outside of metropolitan areas in 

2003—far less than the 20 percent figure for those born 

in the United States. 

According to the 2000 census, 27 percent of the foreignborn population was located in four distinct urban locations—Los Angeles County, California (3.4 million, including 1.5 million in the city of Los Angeles); New York 

City (2.9 million); Cook County, Illinois (1.1 million, 

including 629,000 in Chicago); and Miami-Dade 

County, Florida (1.1 million). Miami-Dade County is 

particularly notable in that it is the only county in the nation in which more than half of the population in 2000 

was foreign born. 

1821-1830 1841-1850 1861-1870 1881-1890 1901-1910 1921-1930 1941-1950 1961-1970 1981-1990

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Asia

Europe

Americas

Other
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 13

Table 6.

The Ten States with the Largest

Foreign-Born Populations, 2000

Source: Congressional Budget Office using data from Nolan Malone and others, The Foreign-Born Population: 2000, Census 2000 Brief (Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 

Census, December 2003).

Demographic Characteristics

On average, the foreign-born population is older than the 

U.S.-born population: their median age of 38.4 years is 

more than three years older than natives’ median age (see 

Table 10 on page 17). However, a closer look at the age 

distribution reveals that only 9 percent of the foreignborn population is younger than 18 years of age, compared with 28 percent of the native population.12 Adjusting for that fact, the adult foreign-born population is in 

fact younger than the native population. Thirty-six percent of the adult foreign-born population is in the 18-to34 age bracket, compared with 31 percent of natives; a 

correspondingly smaller fraction of the foreign-born population is 55 or older. And OIS’s statistics indicate that of 

the immigrants legally admitted in 2003, 37 percent were 

between the ages of 25 and 39, and 28 percent were under 21, but just 11 percent were 55 or older.

The age distribution varies greatly on the basis of region 

of origin. The median age of European immigrants is 50 

years, much higher than that of any other category even 

when the number of children is taken into account. At 

the opposite end of the spectrum, the median age of the 

Latin American population is slightly lower than that of 

the U.S.-born population, even with the much smaller 

fraction of children. Some 43 percent of adults from 

Latin America are between the ages of 18 and 34, and 

only 16 percent are 55 or older. The Asian adult population is also somewhat younger than its U.S.-born counterpart.

Foreign-born women have a slightly higher rate of fertility compared with women born in the United States (see 

Table 11 on page 17). On average, foreign-born women 

between the ages of 35 and 44 had given birth to 2.1 children, compared with 1.9 children for U.S.-born women 

in that age group. That difference partly reflects the fact 

that there is a higher percentage of foreign-born women 

within that age group who are or have been married.

Educational Attainment

The skill distribution among the foreign-born population 

is bifurcated. On the one hand, nearly a third of the foreign-born population ages 25 or older did not complete 

high school, compared with just 12.5 percent of those 

born in the United States (see Table 12 on page 18). On 

the other hand, the percentage of foreign-born people 

with at least a bachelor’s degree is equal to that of the 

U.S.-born population, and the percentage with an advanced degree is slightly higher.

The variation in educational attainment across regions of 

origin is extremely pronounced. Half of Asian immigrants possessed at least a bachelor’s degree, including 19 

percent with an advanced degree, while the percentage 

lacking a high school diploma was comparable to that of 

the U.S.-born population. Europeans were both slightly 

more likely than natives to lack a high school diploma 

and to possess a college degree (and much more likely to 

have attained an advanced degree). At the same time, less 

than half of those who were born in Latin America had 

completed high school, and just 12 percent possessed a 

college degree.

12. U.S.-born children of foreign-born parents are considered natives, 

regardless of the citizenship or legal status of their parents.

California 33.9 8.9 26.2

New York 19.0 3.9 20.4

Texas 20.9 2.9 13.9

Florida 16.0 2.7 16.7

Illinois 12.4 1.5 12.3

New Jersey 8.4 1.5 17.5

Massachussetts 6.3 0.8 12.2

Arizona 5.1 0.7 12.8

Washington 5.9 0.6 10.4

Georgia 8.2 0.6 7.1

Memorandum:

United States 281.4 31.1 11.1

As a Percentage

 of State Population

Foreign-Born

Total 

 (Millions)

Population

Population

Millions

In
14 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Table 7.

States with the Largest and Smallest 

Foreign-Born Shares of Their

Population, 2000

Source: Congressional Budget Office using data from Nolan Malone and others, The Foreign-Born Population: 2000, Census 2000 Brief (Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 

Census, December 2003).

Employment and Earnings

Foreign-born men of working age are active participants 

in the U.S. labor market, but foreign-born women tend 

to be significantly less attached to the labor market than 

their native counterparts (see Table 13 on page 19). 

Among foreign-born men ages 20 to 64, the employment-to-population ratio in March 2003 was 83 percent, 

slightly higher than the 80 percent ratio for U.S.-born 

men in that age group. That reflects a somewhat higher 

labor force participation rate for foreign-born men than 

for those born in the United States (partly offset by a 

slightly higher unemployment rate among the foreign 

born). Men from Latin America had both a higher participation rate and a higher unemployment rate than did 

both natives and immigrants from other regions. The picture is quite different for women, as foreign-born women 

had both a substantially lower participation rate and a 

higher unemployment rate than native-born women had. 

Although the differences were again most pronounced for 

women from Latin America—only 55 percent were employed, compared with 70 percent of women born in the 

United States—women from Asia also exhibited significantly lower participation and higher unemployment 

than natives.

Among the employed, the occupational distribution is 

consistent with the data on educational attainment (see 

Table 14 on page 20). Foreign-born workers are more 

likely than those born in the United States to be in service 

or blue-collar occupations and less likely to work in managerial, professional, sales, or office occupations. Those 

differences in occupational distribution are entirely 

driven by immigrants from Latin America, who, as noted 

above, have very low levels of formal education. In fact, 

among Europeans, the occupational distribution is fairly 

similar to that of the U.S.-born population, with a 

slightly higher percentage in professional and managerial 

occupations. And Asians are significantly more likely 

than either those born in the United States or other foreign-born residents to be in professional occupations.

The distribution of employment by industry also differs 

somewhat between the foreign-born and U.S.-born populations. Compared with natives, the foreign born are 

more likely to be employed in construction, manufacturing, and leisure and hospitality, and less commonly employed in financial activities, educational and health services, and public administration. As with occupational 

distribution, the differences are largely driven by immigrants from Latin America. 

One avenue by which new immigrants can succeed in the 

U.S. economy is by establishing their own businesses. 

Data from the March 2003 CPS indicate that 6.8 percent 

of foreign-born workers were self-employed, compared 

with 7.3 percent of U.S.-born workers. Immigrants from 

Europe, who have been in the United States the longest, 

were most likely to be self-employed (9 percent), while

California 26.2

New York 20.4

New Jersey 17.5

Hawaii 17.5

Florida 16.7

Nevada 15.8

Texas 13.9

District of Columbia 12.9

Arizona 12.8

Illinois 12.3

Missouri 2.7

Louisiana 2.6

Wyoming 2.3

Kentucky 2.0

Alabama 2.0

North Dakota 1.9

Montana 1.8

South Dakota 1.8

Mississippi 1.4

West Virginia 1.1

Percentage of State's Total

Smallest Share

Largest Share

Population That Is Foreign Born
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 15

Table 8.

States with the Largest Percentage Increases in the Foreign-Born Population, 

1990 to 2000

Source: Congressional Budget Office using data from Nolan Malone and others, The Foreign-Born Population: 2000, Census 2000 Brief 

(Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, December 2003).

those from Latin America were least likely (6 percent).13

Results from a 1992 survey of business owners indicated 

that many of the foreign-born self-employed owned small 

firms, particularly in retail trade and transportation. 

The distribution of skills and occupations is reflected in 

annual earnings (see Table 15 on page 21). In 2002, the 

median annual earnings of foreign-born wage and salary 

workers who were employed year-round and full time 

were about $27,000, or 75 percent of median earnings 

among natives. The gap was larger for men, whose median annual earnings were 71 percent of native men’s 

earnings. Earnings of naturalized citizens were higher 

than noncitizens’ earnings and only slightly below those 

of natives, while noncitizens’ earnings were well below 

the earnings of natives. As with educational attainment 

and occupational distribution, differentials in annual 

earnings between foreign-born and U.S.-born workers 

were driven entirely by immigrants from Latin America, 

whose median annual earnings were just 61 percent of 

the average among natives (56 percent among men).

A more complete examination of annual earnings in 2002 

reveals that the entire earnings distribution among the 

foreign born is skewed toward the low end of the overall 

distribution (see Table 16 on page 22). Thirty-one percent of the foreign-born workers who were employed 

year-round and full time earned less than $20,000, compared with 17 percent of natives. The difference was 

much less pronounced at the high end of the distribution, 

as 10 percent of the foreign born and 13 percent of natives earned at least $75,000. The distribution was especially skewed toward the low end for noncitizens and for 

Latin American natives. By contrast, among naturalized 

citizens, the overall distribution was fairly similar to that 

of natives, with a moderately higher concentration in 

both the upper and lower tails.

Although the relatively low average earnings of immigrants are largely attributable to their observed belowaverage skill level, the low earnings may also reflect the 

situation of having to establish oneself in the labor market shortly after arriving in the country. However, as immigrants gain experience, the earnings gap tends to narrow. One study shows that although new immigrants 

earn significantly less than natives with similar observed 

skills, on average their relative earnings rise by at least 20 

North Carolina 115.1 1.7 430.0 5.3 273.7

Georgia 173.1 2.7 577.3 7.1 233.4

Nevada 104.8 8.7 316.6 15.8 202.0

Arkansas 24.9 1.1 73.7 2.8 196.3

Utah 58.6 3.4 158.7 7.1 170.8

Tennessee 59.1 1.2 159.0 2.8 169.0

Nebraska 28.2 1.8 74.6 4.4 164.7

Colorado 142.4 4.3 369.9 8.6 159.7

Arizona 278.2 7.6 656.2 12.8 135.9

Kentucky 34.1 0.9 80.3 2.0 135.3

of Total of Total 

In Thousands

Percentage Change 

in the Foreign-Born

Population, 1990 to 2000

Foreign-Born Population in 1990

As a Percentage

State Population In Thousands

Foreign-Born Population in 2000

As a Percentage

State Population

13. Those figures are based on CBO’s calculations using the official 

definition of self-employed. That definition counts only those 

whose business is unincorporated as self-employed. Under a 

broader definition, which includes both the incorporated and 

unincorporated self-employed, about 10 percent of the foreignborn population was self-employed, compared with 11 percent of 

the U.S.-born population. By that definition, about 15 percent of 

European-born, and 13 percent of Asian-born, but just 7 percent 

of Latin American-born workers were self-employed.
16 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Table 9.

Native and Foreign-Born Populations, 

by Place of Residence, 2003

(Percent)

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current 

Population Survey: Annual Social and Economic Supplement (March 2003).

percent over their first 10 years of experience.14 Other 

studies indicate smaller but nonetheless significant gains 

as workers assimilate.15 Assimilation also appears to continue in the second generation, as children of immigrants 

tend to obtain more education and to earn more than 

children of native parents with similar levels of education.16

Income and Poverty Status

The fact that annual earnings are lower for foreign-born 

workers than for natives translates into lower household 

income (see Table 17 on page 23). The median income of 

families with a foreign-born head was about $43,000—

79 percent of the median income of families headed by a 

native. The median income of families with a head of 

household born in Latin America was just 64 percent of 

that of families headed by a native. On the other hand, 

families headed by immigrants from Asia had higherthan-average income.

The foreign born are more likely to be defined as poor 

than are natives. Among all ages and both sexes, 17 percent of the foreign born are in households with income 

below the poverty line in 2002, compared with 12 percent of natives (see Table 18 on page 24). The differences 

are most pronounced for children under 18 but are also 

quite clear for both those in the prime working ages and 

for the relatively small number of foreign-born people age 

65 or older.

14. Robert J. LaLonde and Robert H. Topel, “The Assimilation of 

Immigrants in the United States: Immigrant Quality and the 

Changing Price of Skills,” in George Borjas and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration and the Workforce: Economic Consequences 

for the United States and Source Areas (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).

15. For example, Darren H. Lubotsky, Chutes or Ladders? A Longitudinal Analysis of Immigrant Earnings, Princeton University, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs (August 

2000).

Inside central city 29.0 26.9 44.4

Outside central city 52.6 52.9 50.3

18.4 20.2 5.3 ____ ____ ____

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Population

Metropolitan Area

Nonmetropolitan Area

Total Native Foreign-Born

16. David Card, John DiNardo, and Eugena Estes, “The More 

Things Change: Immigrants and the Children of Immigrants in 

the 1940s, the 1970s, and the 1990s,” in George J. Borjas, ed., 

Issues in the Economics of Immigration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). This study focuses on children born in the 

United States to foreign-born parents before 1972.
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 17

Table 10.

Native and Foreign-Born Populations, by Region of Origin and Age, 2003

(Percent)

Source: Congressional Budget Office using data from Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey: Annual 

Social and Economic Supplement (March 2003).

Table 11.

Fertility of Native and Foreign-Born Women, Ages 15 to 44, 2002

Source: Congressional Budget Office using data from Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey: Fertility 

Supplement (June 2002).

25.6 27.9 8.9 6.0 7.8 10.3 8.0

23.3 22.0 33.2 18.5 30.3 38.4 33.1

29.5 28.4 37.3 32.6 40.8 36.8 38.2

21.6 21.7 20.5 42.9 21.1 14.5 20.5 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

35.7 35.1 38.4 50.4 40.0 35.5 38.7

Under 18

18 to 34

35 to 54

55 and Older

Memorandum:

Median Age (Years)

Total Native

Age Population Population Asia Areas

 Region of Origin of Foreign-Born Population

Foreign-Born

Population Europe Latin America

Other

All Marital Classes 331 20.9 1,310 64.1 1,891 81.0 

Ever Married 974 60.2 1,570 76.1 2,047 87.3 

Never Married 222 14.2 734 37.3 901 40.8 

All Marital Classes 316 20.0 1,294 63.5 1,851 80.6 

Ever Married 973 59.7 1,565 76.2 2,008 87.1 

Never Married 217 14.0 735 37.2 886 40.9 

All Marital Classes 460 28.5 1,382 66.8 2,115 82.9 

Ever Married 979 62.4 1,589 75.9 2,254 88.3 

Never Married 283 16.9 728 38.4 1,004 40.3 

1,000 Women

All Women

Native Women

Foreign-Born Women

Percentage of

Women with

One Child

Children per

1,000 Women

Ages 15 to 24

Children per

Women with

at Least

Percentage of

Ages 25 to 34 Ages 35 to 44

at Least

1,000 Women

Percentage of

Women with

at Least

One Child One Child

Children per
18 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Table 12.

Educational Attainment of the Population Age 25 or Older,

by Region of Origin and Sex, 2003

(Percent)

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey: Annual Social and Economic Supplement (March 

2003).

Note: Data are by years of school completed, not attended.

Less than High School Diploma 15.4 12.5 32.8 15.1 12.6 50.9 16.5

High School Graduate 32.0 33.3 24.5 30.9 20.7 24.5 24.6

Some College or Associate's Degree 25.3 27.0 15.5 18.6 16.7 13.0 21.7

Bachelor's Degree 17.9 18.1 17.2 19.9 30.9 8.3 24.2

Advanced Degree 9.3 9.1 10.0 15.5 19.1 3.3 13.0

Less than High School Diploma 15.9 12.7 33.8 14.4 10.3 52.1 17.7

High School Graduate 30.9 32.3 23.1 28.6 18.3 23.9 23.1

Some College or Associate's Degree 24.3 26.0 14.8 17.8 16.1 12.7 19.1

Bachelor's Degree 18.5 18.8 16.4 20.4 30.2 7.6 25.0

Advanced Degree 10.4 10.2 12.0 18.8 25.1 3.6 15.1

Less than High School Diploma 15.0 12.3 31.8 15.6 14.6 49.5 15.3

High School Graduate 33.1 34.3 25.8 32.8 22.8 25.2 26.2

Some College or Associate's Degree 26.2 27.9 16.2 19.3 17.2 13.3 24.5

Bachelor's Degree 17.5 17.4 18.0 19.5 31.5 9.1 23.3

Advanced Degree 8.2 8.2 8.1 12.8 13.9 2.9 10.7

Population

Total Population

Men

Women

Europe Asia Areas

Other

Latin America

Region of Origin of Foreign-Born Population

Population

Native

Population

Foreign-Born
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 19

Table 13.

Employment Status of the Native and Foreign-Born Working-Age Populations,

by Region of Origin, March 2003

(Thousands)

Source: Congressional Budget Office using data from Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey: Annual 

Social and Economic Supplement (March 2003).

Note: The data cover people ages 20 to 64.

170,011 143,999 26,012 2,860 6,800 14,245

133,879 114,104 19,775 2,166 5,062 10,922

78.7 79.2 76.0 75.7 74.4 76.7

126,059 107,705 18,354 2,066 4,745 10,011

74.1 74.8 70.6 72.2 69.8 70.3

7,820 6,399 1,421 100 316 911

5.8 5.6 7.2 4.6 6.3 8.3

83,306 70,064 13,242 1,373 3,182 7,564

71,201 59,470 11,732 1,162 2,742 6,858

85.5 84.9 88.6 84.6 86.2 90.7

66,723 55,789 10,933 1,092 2,598 6,323

80.1 79.6 82.6 79.5 81.7 83.6

4,479 3,680 799 70 144 536

6.3 6.2 6.8 6.0 5.2 7.8

86,705 73,935 12,770 1,487 3,618 6,681

62,678 54,634 8,044 1,004 2,320 4,063

72.3 73.9 63.0 67.5 64.1 60.8

59,337 51,916 7,421 974 2,147 3,688

68.4 70.2 58.1 65.5 59.3 55.2

3,341 2,718 623 30 173 375

5.3 5.0 7.7 3.0 7.4 9.2

Women

Number Unemployed

Labor Force 

Labor Force Participation Rate (Percent)

Number Employed 

Employment/Population Ratio (Percent)

Civilian Population

Unemployment Rate (Percent)

Civilian Population

Number Unemployed

Unemployment Rate (Percent)

Employment Status Asia

Number Employed

Employment/Population Ratio (Percent)

Total Population

Men

Latin America

Region of Origin of 

Total Foreign-Born Population

Population

Native

Population

Foreign-Born

Population Europe

Civilian Population 

Labor Force 

Labor Force Participation Rate (Percent)

Labor Force 

Labor Force Participation Rate (Percent)

Number Employed

Employment/Population Ratio (Percent)

Unemployment Rate (Percent)

Number Unemployed
20 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Table 14.

Occupations and Industries of the Native and Foreign-Born Populations,

by Region of Origin, 2003

(Percent)

Source: Congressional Budget Office using data from Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey: Annual 

Social and Economic Supplement (March 2003).

14.8 15.5 10.4 16.7 16.4 5.1 16.9

20.1 20.8 16.5 24.6 30.5 7.5 20.6

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

34.9 36.2 26.9 41.3 47.0 12.7 37.6

11.7 12.1 9.1 10.9 12.4 7.1 9.5

14.4 15.3 9.0 10.9 9.7 8.1 10.0

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

26.1 27.4 18.0 21.8 22.0 15.1 19.4

16.1 14.9 23.3 15.4 15.0 29.3 20.4

13.0 12.1 18.4 11.8 12.0 23.5 14.7

9.4 9.0 11.8 9.4 3.5 16.9 7.1

0.6 0.5 1.6 0.3 0.4 2.5 0.7 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Agriculture 1.5 1.5 1.8 1.1 0.9 2.6 0.9

Mining 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.0

Construction 7.2 6.8 9.5 6.9 2.4 13.7 7.2

Manufacturing 12.0 11.7 14.4 13.2 13.2 15.7 11.6

Wholesale and Retail Trade 14.8 15.1 12.9 12.2 14.8 12.0 14.3

Transportation and Utilities 5.1 5.1 4.7 4.7 4.2 4.7 6.0

Information 2.6 2.7 1.8 2.3 2.8 1.3 1.5

Financial Activities 7.2 7.5 5.5 9.2 6.9 3.8 6.8

Professional and Business Services 10.3 10.2 11.4 12.7 12.1 10.6 12.5

Education and Health Services 21.0 21.6 17.4 20.7 23.9 12.9 21.8

Leisure and Hospitality 8.5 7.9 12.3 9.5 10.2 14.3 9.4

Other Services 4.9 4.7 6.1 5.8 5.0 6.8 5.4

Public Administration 4.4 4.8 2.0 1.5 3.3 1.4 2.5 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Native

Total Population Latin America

Other

Region of Origin of Foreign-Born Population

Foreign-Born

Population Europe Asia Areas

Management, Professional, and Related 

Sales and Office Occupations

.Management, business, and financial

Occupation

Service Occupations

.Professional and related

.Sales and related

.Office and administrative

Subtotal

Subtotal

Production, Transportation, and Material Moving 

Construction, Extraction, and Maintenance

Farming, Fishing, and Forestry

Employing Industry
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 21

Table 15.

Median Annual Earnings of Native and Foreign-Born Workers, by Region of Origin, 2002

(Dollars)

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey: Annual Social and Economic Supplement (March 

2003).

Note: The data cover earnings by year-round, full-time workers.

Total Median Median Earnings Median Earnings

Earnings of Men of Women

35,038 39,429 30,203

35,956 41,015 30,635

27,047 28,994 25,195

Naturalized U.S. citizens 35,032 39,341 30,388

Not U.S. citizens 22,687 24,576 20,774

Europe 36,738 45,474 31,399

Asia 38,383 43,296 31,833

Latin America 21,943 22,941 20,374

Other 32,348 35,802 30,484

All Workers

Native Workers

Foreign-Born Workers

Region of Origin of Foreign-Born Workers
22 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Table 16.

Earnings Distribution for Workers, 2002

(Percentage of workers)

Source: Congressional Budget Office using data from Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey: Annual 

Social and Economic Supplement (March 2003).

Note: The distribution described in this figure covers year-round, full-time workers.

Earnings Bracket

$1 to $19,999 18.6 16.5 30.5 18.3 38.9 17.2 41.0

$20,000 to $34,999 31.3 31.2 32.1 31.6 32.5 27.0 35.3

$35,000 to $49,999 21.1 22.0 15.6 19.4 13.0 18.6 13.0

$50,000 to $74,999 16.5 17.4 11.7 16.3 8.5 18.0 7.0

$75,000 and Above 12.5 12.9 10.1 14.5 7.1 19.3 3.8

$1 to $19,999 15.0 12.5 27.8 14.8 35.3 13.9 37.4

$20,000 to $34,999 27.4 26.6 31.7 28.3 33.7 23.7 36.6

$35,000 to $49,999 21.1 22.3 15.3 19.3 13.0 18.2 13.6

$50,000 to $74,999 19.5 20.8 12.4 18.2 9.1 18.7 7.7

$75,000 and Above 17.0 17.9 12.8 19.5 8.9 25.4 4.6

$1 to $19,999 23.7 22.0 35.2 23.0 46.6 21.9 48.3

$20,000 to $34,999 36.8 37.4 32.9 36.2 29.8 31.8 32.5

$35,000 to $49,999 21.0 21.8 16.1 19.4 13.1 19.1 11.6

$50,000 to $74,999 12.4 12.7 10.4 13.7 7.3 17.0 5.5

$75,000 and Above 6.0 6.1 5.3 7.6 3.2 10.3 2.1

Total

Men

Women

Breakdown for Breakdown of the Among the

 All Workers Foreign-Born Foreign-Born

All Workers From Asia

From Latin 

Natives Foreign-Born America

Naturalized U.S. 

Citizens

Not U.S. 

Citizens
A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION 23

Table 17.

Median Household Income of the 

Native and Foreign-Born Populations, 

by Region of Origin, 2002

(Dollars)

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current 

Population Survey: Annual Social and Economic Supplement (March 2003).

Note: Data are based on the characteristics of the head of the 

household.

a. Households in which at least one member is related to the person who owns or rents the household residence.

b. A subset of family households in which the owner or renter is 

married and both spouses live at that address.

52,704 61,254

54,686 63,158

42,980 47,486

Naturalized U.S. citizens 53,393 59,756

Not U.S. citizens 36,580 40,037

Europe 53,184 58,658

Asia 61,792 66,126

Latin America 34,798 37,011

Other 50,009 55,578

Householdsa

Married Couple 

Householdsb

Total Population

Native Population

Foreign-Born Population

Region of Origin

of Foreign-Born Population

Family 
24 A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION

Table 18.

Percentage of the Native and Foreign-Born Populations at or Below the Poverty 

Level, by Age, 2002

Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey: Annual Social and Economic Supplement (March 

2003).

All Ages 12.1 11.5 16.6 10.0 20.7

Under 18 16.7 16.2 28.5 16.4 31.0

18 to 64 10.6 9.7 15.6 9.2 19.2

65 and Older 10.4 9.9 14.7 11.9 21.0

All Ages 10.9 10.2 15.4 9.3 18.8

Under 18 16.8 16.3 29.0 19.1 30.8

18 to 64 8.9 7.9 14.1 8.7 16.8

65 and Older 7.7 7.1 13.4 9.6 21.8

All Ages 13.3 12.7 17.9 10.6 22.9

Under 18 16.6 16.1 28.1 14.0 31.2

18 to 64 12.2 11.4 17.1 9.6 21.9

65 and Older 12.4 12.0 15.8 13.6 20.4

Total

Population

Native

Population Population Naturalized U.S. Citizens Not U.S. Citizens

Foreign-Born Foreign-Born Population

Men

Women

Total Population