Distribution of Oxycodone in 

Postmortem Fluids and Tissues

Sabra R. Botch

Robert D. Johnson

Arvind K. Chaturvedi

Russell J. Lewis

Civil Aerospace Medical Institute

Federal Aviation Administration

Oklahoma City, OK 73125

June 2010

Final Report

DOT/FAA/AM-10/11

Office of Aerospace Medicine

Washington, DC 20591
NOTICE

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship 

of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest 

of information exchange. The United States Government 

assumes no liability for the contents thereof.

___________

This publication and all Office of Aerospace Medicine 

technical reports are available in full-text from the Civil 

Aerospace Medical Institute’s publications Web site: 

www.faa.gov/library/reports/medical/oamtechreports
i

Technical Report Documentation Page 

1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No. 

DOT/FAA/AM-10/11 

4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

June 2010 

6. Performing Organization Code 

Distribution of Oxycodone in Postmortem Fluids and Tissues 

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No. 

Botch SR, Johnson RD, Chaturvedi AK, Lewis RL

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS) 

FAA Civil Aerospace Medical Institute 

P.O. Box 25082 11. Contract or Grant No. 

Oklahoma City, OK 73125 

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered 

Office of Aerospace Medicine 

Federal Aviation Administration 

800 Independence Ave., S.W. 

Washington, DC 20591 14. Sponsoring Agency Code 

15. Supplemental Notes 

This work was accomplished under the approved task AM-B-10-TOX-204. 

16. Abstract 

Introduction: Oxycodone is a heavily used and abused analgesic agent. Its pharmacological effects, including 

euphoria, respiratory depression, nausea, and drowsiness, have the potential to adversely affect performance. The 

postmortem distribution of oxycodone has not been well characterized, particularly at sub-lethal levels. 

Therefore, an attempt was made to evaluate the distribution of oxycodone in postmortem specimens collected 

from aviation accidents. 

Methods: A search of our database identified 4 oxycodone-positive fatalities from separate civil aviation accidents 

that occurred during a period of 6 years that had numerous biological tissues and fluids available (blood, urine, 

vitreous humor, liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, lung, spleen, heart muscle, and brain). These specimens were 

extracted using solid-phase extraction and were analyzed for oxycodone by GC/MS. 

Results: Oxycodone concentration ranges (μg/mL, μg/g) found in the different tissues and fluids were: blood 

0.027-0.742, urine 2.20 - 12.5, vitreous humor 0.048 - 0.118, liver 0.103-3.35, lung 0.047-1.35, kidney 0.045-

3.12, spleen 0.115-2.43, muscle 0.017-0.400, brain 0.032-1.36, and heart 0.038-3.19. 

Conclusion: The blood concentrations found indicate that the oxycodone in these cases ranged from therapeutic 

to above therapeutic, but all were below lethal levels. Tissue/fluid to blood distribution coefficients were found 

to have large coefficients of variation (ranging from 26-128%), thereby rendering them unreliable for estimating 

a blood oxycodone concentration from a tissue value when no blood is available for analysis. 

17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement 

Forensic Toxicology, Oxycodone, 

Distribution, GC/MS, 

Aircraft Accident Investigation 

Document is available to the public through the 

Defense Technical Information Center, Ft. Belvoir, 

VA 22060; and the National Technical Information 

Service, Springfield, VA 22161

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price 

Unclassified Unclassified 9 

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized 

iii

Contents

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

 Chemicals and Reagents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Gas Chromatographic/Mass Spectroscopic Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

 Sample Selection and Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

 Calibrator and Control Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

 Sample Preparation and Extraction Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Results and Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1

Distribution of Oxycodone in Postmortem Fluids and Tissues

Introduction

Oxycodone, a semi-synthetic opioid agonist, is availableinseveralformulations,including controlledrelease

(OxyContin®),immediaterelease(OxyIR®, OxyFast®),

or in combination with other non-narcotic analgesics

such as acetaminophen (Percocet®, Tylox®, Roxicet®)

and aspirin (Percodan®). It is used for the treatment of

postoperative pain, pain associated with cancer, and

other pain management.

1-3 Oxycodone is commonly

employed as a valuable alternative to morphine due to

itslonger analgesic action.

4,5 Abuseofthissemi-synthetic

opiodanditsroleinfataloverdoseshasbeendocumented

in the literature.

6-11 In addition to the analgesic effects,

numerous sideeffects have been associated with the use

of oxycodone. Dizziness, drowsiness, headache, nausea,

vomiting, and muscle weakness have been linked with

the use of this drug. 

Oxycodoneisreadily absorbed after oral administration and has pharmacokinetics that differs from that of

morphine.

5

 The volume of distribution (Vd) of oxycodoneis 277 ± 187 L/kg and it is a highly protein-bound

drug (45%).

4,12,13 The large Vd for oxycodone suggests

substantial distribution among all tissues and fluids in

the body. The half-life (t1/2) for the controlled-release

oral formulation of oxycodone has been documented

to range from approximately 3.5 to 8 hours,1,4,5 and

peak therapeutic plasma concentrations typically occur within 1 to 3 hours, depending on inter-individual

variation.

14-16 Thedurationof actionofimmediaterelease

oxycodone is ~4 hours.

5

 Up to 19% of ingested oxycodone is excreted unchanged after oral administration.

1

Within 24 hours, 30 to 60% of the original dose has

been reported to be excreted in the urine as free and/

or conjugated oxycodone, conjugated oxymorphone,

and noroxycodone.

14

Scientific informationconcerning thedistributionof

oxycodonein various body compartments is limited.

7,9

Postmortemsamplesfromaviation accident victims are

analyzed for drugs at the Federal Aviation Administration’s Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI). A 

searchofourlaboratory accidentdatabaseidentifiedfour

aviation fatalities that were positive for oxycodone in

blood. These cases also had a full complement of other

tissue and fluid types available for additional analysis. 

Therefore, this study was pursued to determine the

distribution of oxycodone in postmortem tissues and

fluids of the four aviation accident victims. 

Materials and Methods

Chemicals and Reagents

All aqueous solutions were prepared using double

deionized water (DDW), which was obtained using a

water purification system (Elga Water Systems; High

Wycombe, UK). All chemicals used were purchased in

the highest possible purity and used without any further purification. Oxycodone and oxycodone-d3 were

obtained from Cerilliant Corporation (Round Rock,

TX) as methanolic standards at concentrations of 1.00

mg/mL and 0.100 mg/mL, respectively, in sealed glass

ampoules. Propionic anhydride was obtained from

Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO). The pH of all solutions

was measured using a Corning Life Sciences model 430

pH meter (Acton, MA), connected to a Corning 3-in-1

model pH electrode.

Gas Chromatographic/Mass Spectroscopic Conditions

Analyses were performed using a bench-top gas chromatograph/massspectrometer(GC/MS),whichconsisted

of a HewlettPackard(HP)6890seriesGC,interfacedwith

a HP 5973 quadrupoleMS (Agilent; Palo Alto, CA). The

GC/MS was operated with a transfer linetemperature of

280°C and a source temperature of 250°C. The MS was

tuned on a daily basis using perfluorotributylamine. The

electron multiplier voltage was set at 106 eV above the

tune value. Chromatographic separation was achieved

using a Varian FactorFour crosslinked 100% methyl

siloxane capillary column 12 m x 0.2 mm i.d., 0.33 μm

film thickness (Varian Co.; Harbor City, CA.). Helium

was employed as the carrier gas at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/

min. An HP 6890 autosampler was used to inject 1 μL 

of extract into the GC/MS. The GC was equipped with

a split/splitless injection port operated at 250°C in the

splitless mode with the purge time of 0.5 min. The oven

temperature profileemployed forthe oxycodone analysis

was: 130°C – 240°C @ 20°C/min, 240°C – 244°C @

2°C/min, 244°C – 290°C @ 40°C/min,with a final hold

time of1.35min. Quantitationandqualifierionsforeach

analyte werethen selected based on both abundance and

mass-to-chargeratio(m/z). Toincreasereproducibilityand

reduce interference, high-mass ions were selected when

possible. Theions chosenforoxycodonewere371(quant),

314, 372, and for oxycodone-D3 were 374 (quant), 317,

375. Upon selection of unique ions, the MS was run in

selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode with a dwell time

of 30 msec for each recorded ion.
2 

Sample Selection and Storage

A searchofthe CAMI ToxFloTM database(DiscoverSoft

Development, LLC; Oklahoma City, OK) identified

four oxycodone-positive fatalities from separate civil

aviation accidents that occurred during a period of 6

years(2003-2008). Thesefour cases had amajority ofthe

desiredbiologicaltissues andfluids(blood,urine, vitreous

humor, liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, lung, spleen, heart

muscle, and brain) were used for the study. In all cases,

blood was stored at -20°C in tubes containing 1.00%

(w/v) sodium fluoride/potassium oxalate until analysis. 

All other specimens were stored without preservation at

-20°C until analysis. 

Calibrator and Control Preparation

Calibration curves for oxycodone were prepared by

serial dilution utilizing bovine whole blood as the diluent. Calibrators were prepared from one set of original

stock standard solutions, while controls were prepared

in a similar manner as calibrators but from a second set

of uniquestock solutions. The calibration curve was prepared at concentrationsranging from 3.13 – 800 ng/mL. 

A minimum of seven calibrators were used to construct

the calibration curve. Controls were prepared at concentrations of 80 and 320 ng/mL and extracted with the

unknowns to verify the accuracy of the calibration curve

and the validity of the extraction. The internal standard

solution, oxycodone-d3

, was prepared at a concentration

of 400 ng/mL in DDW.

Quantitation was achieved via an internal standard

calibrationprocedure. Responseratiosforeachcompound

were determined forevery sample analyzed. Theresponse

ratio was calculated by dividing the area of the analyte

peak by the area of the internal standard peak. Calibration curves were derived by plotting a linear regression

of the analyte/internal standard response ratio versus

the analyte concentration for each respective calibrator. 

These calibration curves were then used to determine

the concentrations of each compound in the prepared

controls and biological specimens. Acceptability criteria

employedfor analyteidentificationandquantitationwere

as follows: 1) ion ratios for a given analyte, measured as

the peak area of a qualifier ion divided by the peak area

of the quantitation ion, were required to be within ±

20% of the average of the ion ratios for each respective

calibrator used to construct the calibration curvefor that

analyte; 2) each ion monitored was required to have a

minimum signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of 10; and 3) the

analyte was required to have a retention time within ±

2.00% of the average retention time for each respective

calibrator used to construct the calibration curvefor that

analyte. Analytes notmeeting these criteriawerereported

as either negative or inconclusive. 

Sample Preparation and Extraction Procedure

Postmortemspecimens, calibrators, and controlswere

extracted in thefollowingmanner. Tissuespecimenswere

homogenized in DDW (1.00% NaF) with a 1:2 dilution

tissue:DDW,using an Omnipost-mountedhomogenizer

(Marietta,GA). Thegeneratorusedwiththishomogenizer

was 30 mm in diameter and set to rotate at 22,000 rpm. 

Three-mL aliquots of fluid, calibrator, and control, and

3.0 g aliquots of each tissue homogenate (1.0 g tissue)

were transferred to individual 16 x 150 mm screw-top

tubes. To each specimen, calibrator, and control, 1.00

mL of the internal standard 400 ng solution was added. 

Sampleswerevortexedbrieflyandallowedtostandatroom

temperature for 10 min. Six mL of 0.10 M phosphate

buffer, pH 6.00 was added to each sample, and thetubes

were then shaken by hand for 2 min. Centrifugation at

1230χg for 45 min provided removal of cellular debris

and proteins. 

The extracts were transferred to Bond Elute Certify®

solid-phaseextraction(SPE) columns(Varian Co.; Harbor

City, CA.),whichhadbeenpre-conditionedwith2.00mL 

methanol, followed by 2.00mL water. Carewastaken not

to dry the column prior to adding the extract. Column

flow rates of 1-2 mL/min were maintained in each SPE 

step using a Varian 24 port Cerex SPE processor (Varian Co.; Harbor City, CA.) with a nitrogen pressure of 3

psi. Once each sample had passed through its respective

column, the columns were washed with 1.00 mL of water, followed by 1.00 mL of 0.10 M sodium acetate, pH 

4.00. The columns were again washed by adding 2.00

mL methanol to each. Following the methanol wash,

the columns were dried completely with 25 psi nitrogen

for 5 min. The analytes were eluted off the columns with

3.00 mL of 2.00% ammonium hydroxide in an 80:20

mixture of methylene chloride/isopropanol, which was

prepared fresh daily. Eluents were evaporated to dryness

in a TurboVap Concentration Workstation at 40°C 

(Caliper Life Sciences; Hopkinton,MA)under a streamof

dry nitrogen. The procedure used is a standard analytical

procedure of our laboratory for multi-opiate analysis, requiringderivatization. Therefore,eventhoughoxycodone

maybe analyzedwithoutderivatization,thederivatization

step was performed so that analytical parameters could

be directly compared to those that had been previously

obtained. The derivatizationwas accomplished by adding

50 μL of pyridine, followed by 50 μL of propionic anhydride to each specimen tube. The samples were capped

tightly, vortexed, and incubated at 40°C for 60 min. The

tubes were allowed to cool to room temperature, and

the contents were evaporated to dryness under a stream

of dry nitrogen in a TurboVap set at 40°C. Once dry,

the contents of each tube were reconstituted in 50 μL of

ethyl acetate and transferred to GC/MS vials for analysis.
3

Results and Discussion

The procedure used for the analysis of oxycodone was

reproducible and sensitive. Oxycodone and oxycodoned3 chromatographic peaks suffered no interference from

endogenous/exogenous matrix components. The mass

spectra of oxycodone andoxycodone-d3providednumerous highmassions. Itshould be noted that an isotopeion

was used as one of the qualifier ions for both oxycodone

and oxycodone-d3

. This approach was necessary due to

cross-contribution between the analyte and oxycodoned3 when other ions were evaluated. The linear dynamic

range (LDR), limit of detection (LOD), and limit of

quantitation (LOQ) for oxycodone were determined

while utilizing bovine whole blood as the matrix. The

LDR were determined to be 3.13 – 800 ng/mL. Correlation coefficients for the calibration curves used were

greater than 0.997 when a weighting factor of 1/X was

employed. The LOD was defined as the lowest analyte

concentration detectable that met the above-discussed

identification criteria. The LOQ was defined as the lowest analyte concentration detectable that not only met

all identification criteria, as discussed above, but also

had an experimentally determined concentration within

± 20% of its prepared value. The LOD for oxycodone

was determined to be 1.56 ng/mL. The LOQ for this

compound was determined to be 3.13 ng/mL.

Carryover was not found to be a problem on the GC/

MS;however,itwasinitially investigatedandsubsequently

monitored by the use of ethyl acetate blank injections. 

Theinjection of an ethyl acetate blank following the 800

ng/mL calibrator showed no carryover contamination. 

Subsequently, ethyl acetate blanks were utilized between

each postmortem specimen throughout the sample sequencetoverify thatnosample-to-sample contamination

had occurred.

Whole blood oxycodone concentrations found in the

four cases examined ranged from 0.027 to 0.742 mg/mL 

and were within 10% of the value originally determined. 

This finding verified that no deterioration in oxycodone

blood concentration had occurred during storage. Therapeutic concentrations of oxycodone in whole blood range

from 0.010 to 0.100 mg/mL.17 Toxic levels of oxycodone

have been reported to be 0.200 - 5.000 mg/mL and vary

greatly.

17Bloodconcentrationsinthese cases couldgenerally

be above therapeutic and neared possibly toxic levels. The

concentration of oxycodonein each postmortem specimen

from these four cases is given in Table 1. With a relatively

large Vd (277 ± 186 L/kg),4 oxycodone was expected to be

found at high concentrations in thetissues analyzed, which

was consistent with our findings. The mean concentrations

(μg/mL, μg/g) of oxycodone found were: blood 0.408

(0.027-0.742, n=4); urine 7.36 (2.20 and 12.5, n=2);

vitreous humor 0.083 (0.048 and 0.118, n=2); liver 1.46

(0.103-3.35, n=4); lung 0.477 (0.047-1.35, n=4), kidney

0.991 (0.045-3.12, n=4), spleen 1.10 (0.115-2.43, n=4);

muscle0.165(0.017-0.400,n=4);brain0.437(0.032-1.36,

n=4); and heart 0.900 (0.038-3.19, n=4). The distribution

coefficientsforoxycodone,expressedasspecimentype/blood

ratio ± SD, are summarized in Table 2. The oxycodone

Table 1. Oxycodone concentrations obtained from 4 pilot fatalities.*

Case Blood Urine VH†

 Liver Lung Kidney Spleen Muscle Brain Heart 

1 0.317 12.5 —‡ 3.35 1.35 0.312 2.43 0.400 1.36 3.19 

2 0.741 — — 2.12 0.315 0.638 1.58 0.157 0.220 0.273 

3 0.027 — 0.048 0.103 0.047 0.045 0.115 0.017 0.033 0.038 

4 0.137 2.20 0.119 0.403 0.195 0.155 0.272 0.085 0.136 0.099 

* All concentrations shown in units of g/mL or g/g 

†

 Vitreous Humor

‡ Specimen type not available for analysis 

Table 2. Postmortem tissue distribution coefficients for oxycodone. 

Urine/ 

Blood 

VH*

/ 

Blood 

Liver/ 

Blood 

Lung/ 

Blood 

Kidney/ 

Blood 

Spleen/ 

Blood 

Muscle/ 

Blood 

Brain/ 

Blood 

Heart/ 

Blood 

n 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 

Mean 27.8 1.32 5.04 1.96 1.16 4.00 0.68 1.69 3.14 

s.d. † 11.7 0.45 3.22 1.41 0.30 2.30 0.38 1.53 4.02 

CV‡ 42 34 64 72 26 57 55 90 128 

* Vitreous Humor 

† Standard deviation 

‡

 Coefficient of variation 
4 

distribution coefficients for thesespecimen types had coefficient of variation (CV) values between 26 and 128%. 

Although blood drug concentrations may aid in determining impairment and/or cause or manner of death,

the availability of blood samples from aviation accident

fatalities may not be always an option. This limitation

is primarily due to the destructive nature of aviation accidents on the human body. In fact, the FAA laboratory

receives blood from only approximately 70% of thefatal

cases, and the majority of the blood samples are collected

from the chest cavity. Such blood samples can not only

readily experience postmortem redistribution, but they

can easily be contaminated with drug(s) from ruptured

organs. Therefore, caution must beexercised when using

drug values obtained from chest cavity blood.

Based upon the present study, an attemptwas madeto

establish distribution coefficientsfor oxycodone between

the various tissue/fluids and blood. Those coefficients

might be useful to potentially estimate a blood concentration in cases where blood is not available. Though

the CV values varied considerably (Table 2), the results

obtained from the limited number of cases suggest that

oxycodone blood concentrations cannot be estimated

from any of the tissue types examined.The large range

in distribution values within a given specimen/blood

ratio could be due to the postmortem redistribution of

the drug with respect to the different postmortem intervals, the blood collection sites, and/or presence of other

drugs.

18 It might also be affected by whether the victim

was a chronic or an acute user of oxycodone. It is well

established that the postmortem redistribution of drugs

is more pronounced with basic drugs as they have large

apparent volumes of distribution. For oxycodone, the

Vd is 277 ± 187 l/kg.

4,12,13 In spite of these limitations

and variations, it is still important to gain knowledge of

drug concentrations in tissues as these analytical values

may help in differentiating therapeutic use of the drugs

from their overdose.

19 Additionally, such information

will contribute to the limited tissue distribution data

availablein theliteraturefor this drug. However, one has

to be careful when drawing final conclusions from this

data because the blood collection sites and postmortem

intervals were often not known or not established. 

References

1. Brunton, L.L., Lazo, J.S., and Parker, K.L., Eds. 

Goodman & Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis 

of Therapeutics, Eleventh ed. (McGraw-Hill, New

York, 2006).

2. Nuutinen, L.S., Wuolijoki, E., and Pentikainen,

I.T. Diclofenac and Oxycodone in Treatment of

Postoperative Pain: A Double-Blind Trial. Acta 

Anaesthesiol Scand, 30: 620-4 (1986).

3. De Conno, F., Ripamonti, C., Sbanotto, A.,et al. A 

Clinical Study on the Use of Codeine, Oxycodone,

Dextropropoxyphene, Buprenorphine, and Pentazocine in Cancer Pain. J Pain Symptom Manage,

6: 423-7 (1991).

4. Poyhia, R., Seppala, T., Olkkola, K.T., et al. The

Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism of Oxycodone

After Intramuscular and Oral Administration to

Healthy Subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 33: 617-21

(1992).

5. Lugo, R.A. and Kern, S.E. The Pharmacokinetics

of Oxycodone. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother,

18: 17-30 (2004).

6. Wolf, B.C., Lavezzi, W.A., Sullivan, L.M., et al. 

One Hundred Seventy-Two Deaths Involving the

Use of Oxycodonein PalmBeach County. J Forensic 

Sci, 50: 192-5 (2005).

7. Anderson, D.T., Fritz, K.L., and Muto, J.J. Oxycontin: The Concept of a “Ghost Pill” and the

Postmortem Tissue Distribution of Oxycodone in

36 Cases. J Anal Toxicol, 26: 448-59 (2002).

8. Drummer, O.H., Syrjanen,M.L., Phelan,M.,et al. 

A Study of DeathsInvolving Oxycodone. J Forensic 

Sci, 39: 1069-75 (1994).

9. Spiller, H.A. Postmortem Oxycodone and Hydrocodone Blood Concentrations. J Forensic Sci, 48:

429-31 (2003).

10. Thompson,J.G.,Vanderwerf, S., Seningen,J.,et al. 

Free Oxycodone Concentrationsin 67 Postmortem

Cases from the Hennepin County Medical Examiner’s Office. J Anal Toxicol, 32: 673-9 (2008).

11. Cone, E.J., Fant, R.V., Rohay, J.M., et al. Oxycodone Involvement in Drug Abuse Deaths II. Evidence for Toxic Multiple Drug-Drug Interactions. 

J Anal Toxicol, 28: 616-24 (2004).
5

12. Leow, K.P., Wright, A.W., Cramond, T., et al. 

Determination of the Serum Protein Binding of

Oxycodone and Morphine Using Ultrafiltration. 

Ther Drug Monit, 15: 440-7 (1993).

13. Villesen, H.H., Banning, A.M., Petersen, R.H., et

al. Pharmacokinetics of Morphine and Oxycodone

Following Intravenous Administration in Elderly

Patients. Ther Clin Risk Manag, 3: 961-7 (2007).

14. Moffat, A.C., Osselton, M.D., and Widdop, B.,

Eds. Clarke’s Analysis of Drugs and Poisons in Pharmaceuticals, Body Fluids, and Postmortem Materials,

Third ed. (Pharmaceutical Press, London, UK,

2004).

15. Reder, R.F., Oshlack,B.,Miotto,J.B.,et al. SteadyState Bioavailability of Controlled-Release Oxycodone in Normal Subjects. Clin Ther, 18: 95-105

(1996).

16. Mandema, J.W., Kaiko, R.F., Oshlack, B., et al. 

Characterization and Validation of a Pharmacokinetic Model for Controlled-Release Oxycodone. 

Br J Clin Pharmacol, 42: 747-56 (1996).

17. Winek, C.L., Wahba, W.W., Winek, C.L., Jr., et

al. Drug and Chemical Blood-Level Data 2001. 

Forensic Sci Int, 122: 107-23 (2001).

18. Prouty, R.W. and Anderson, W.H. The Forensic

Science Implications of Site and Temporal Influences on PostmortemBlood-Drug Concentrations. 

J Forensic Sci, 35: 243-70 (1990).

19. Apple, F.S. Postmortem Tricyclic Antidepressant

Concentrations: Assessing Cause of Death Using

Parent Drug to Metabolite Ratio. J Anal Toxicol,

13: 197-8 (1989).