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| Technical Fact Sheet: Final Rule for (Non-Radon) Radionuclides in Drinking WaterEPA 815-F-00-013November 20001. What are we announcing?
EPA is promulgating the final drinking water standards for (non-radon)radionuclides in drinking water: combined radium-226/-228, (adjusted) grossalpha, beta particle and photon radioactivity, and uranium. This promulgationconsists of revisions to the 1976 rule, as proposed in 1991.
2. What are the requirements of this final rule?
Community water systems (CWSs), which are water systems thatserve at least 15 service connections or 25 residents regularly year round, are requiredto meet the final MCLs and to meet the requirements for monitoring andreporting.

Non-transient, non-community water systems (NTNCWSs) will not be regulatedat this time. EPA will further consider this matter and may propose toregulate radionuclides at these systems in the future. NTNCWSs are publicwater systems that are not a CWS and serve at least 25 of the same peoplemore than 6 months per year (e.g., schools and nursing homes). 	  
The final rule requires that all new monitoring be conducted at eachentry point to the distribution system under a schedule designed to beconsistent with the Standardized Monitoring Framework.
3. How soon after publishing the final rule will the changes takeeffect?
The rule will become effective on December 8, 2003, three years after the publication date (December 7, 2000). New monitoring requirements willbe phased-in between that date and the beginning of the next StandardizedMonitoring Framework period, December 31, 2007. "Phased-in monitoring"refers to the fact that States will require some fraction of water systemsto complete their initial monitoring requirements each year of the periodbetween the effective date (December 8, 2003) and the beginning of thenew cycle (December 31, 2007). Water systems will determine initial complianceunder the new monitoring requirements using the average of four quarterlysamples or, at state discretion, using appropriate grandfathered data.Compliance will be determined immediately based on the annual average ofthe quarterly samples for that fraction of systems required by the stateto monitor in any given year or based on the results from the grandfathereddata. Water systems with existing radionuclides monitoring data demonstratingthat the system is out of compliance with new provisions will be out ofcompliance on the effective date of December 8, 2003. Water systems withexisting data that demonstrates non-compliance with the current (1976)rule are currently in violation of the radionuclides National Primary DrinkingWater Regulations.
4. Why is this rule significant?
This rule promulgates new monitoring provisions that will ensure thatall customers of community water systems will receive water that meetsthe Maximum Contaminant Levels for radionuclides in drinking water. Underthe 1976 rule, water systems with multiple entry points to the distributionsystem were not required to test at every entry point, but rather to testat a "representative point to the distribution system." While the 1976requirement did ensure that the "average customer" was protected, it didnot ensure that all customers were protected. Under the new rule, all entrypoints will be tested and all CWS customers will be ensured of receivingwater that meets the MCLs for radionuclides in drinking water. In addition,this requirement is more consistent with the monitoring requirements forother comparable drinking water contaminants.

This rule promulgates a new standard for uranium in drinking water,which will result in reduced uranium exposures for 620,000 persons. Theuranium standard, which is required by the Safe Drinking Water Act, willprotect drinking water customers from uranium levels that may cause toxiceffects to the kidney and will reduce cancer risk. In addition, the newrule promulgates separate monitoring requirements for radium-228, whichis expected to result in reduced exposure to 420,000 persons. This monitoringcorrection is based on sound science and is necessary for ensuring compliancewith the combined radium-226/-228 standard.
5. What health effects are associated with exposure to radionuclidesfrom drinking water?
Exposure to radionuclides from drinking water results in the increasedrisk of cancer. The radioactive particles (alpha, beta and gamma particles)emitted by radionuclides are called "ionizing radiation" because they ionize("destabilize") nearby atoms as they travel through a cell or other material.In living tissue, this ionization process can damage chromosomes or otherparts of the cell. This cellular damage can lead to the death of the cellor to unnatural reproduction of the cell. When a cell reproduces uncontrollably,it becomes a cancer. Certain elements accumulate in specific organs: radium(like calcium) accumulates in the bones and iodine accumulates in the thyroid.

For uranium, we must consider not only the carcinogenic health effectsfrom its radioactive decay and the decay of its daughter products ("radiotoxicity"),but also damage to the kidneys from exposure to the uranium itself ("chemicaltoxicity"). Exposure to elevated uranium levels in drinking water has beenshown to lead to changes in kidney function that are indicators of potentialfuture kidney failure.
6. What are the sources of radionuclides in water?
Most drinking water sources have very low levels of radioactive contaminants("radionuclides"), levels low enough not to be considered a public healthconcern. Of the radionuclides that have been observed to occur in drinkingwater sources, most are naturally occurring. However, contamination ofdrinking water sources by anthropogenic ("human-made") nuclear materialsalso occurs. Naturally occurring radionuclides are found in the Earth'scrust and are created in the upper atmosphere. For example, trace amountsof long-lived isotopes (e.g., uranium-238, which has a half-life of almostfive billion years) have been present in earth's crust since the crustfirst formed. As these long-lived trace radionuclides decay, shorter-lived("more radioactive") daughter products are formed. Of particular concernare naturally occurring uranium and the naturally occurring radium isotopes,radium-226 and radium-228, which have been observed to accumulate to levelsof concern in drinking water sources.

Most of the naturally occurring radionuclides are alpha particle emitters(e.g., the uranium isotopes and radium-226), but naturally occurring betaparticle emitters do occur (e.g., radium-228 and potassium-40). Certainrock types contain trace amounts of the radioactive isotopes of uranium,thorium, and/or actinium. As these parent rocks weather, the resultingclays and other aquifer-forming materials may become a source of naturally-occurringradionuclides to drinking water sources. Other naturally occurring radionuclidesinclude tritium, a beta particle emitter, which forms in the upper atmospherethrough interactions between cosmic rays (nuclear particles coming fromouter space) and the gases comprising the atmosphere. Tritium can be depositedfrom the atmosphere onto surface waters via rain or snow and can accumulatein ground water via seepage. Tritium is also formed from human activities,as described below. Natural tritium tends not to occur at levels of concern,but contamination from human activities can result in relatively high levels.

The man-made radionuclides, which are primarily beta and photon emitters,are produced by any of a number activities that involve the use of concentratedradioactive materials. These radioactive materials are used in variousways in the production of electricity, nuclear weapons, nuclear medicinesused in therapy and diagnosis, and various commercial products (such astelevisions or smoke detectors), as well as in various academic and governmentresearch activities. Release of man-made radionuclides to the environment,which may include drinking water sources, are primarily the result of improperwaste storage, leaks, or transportation accidents.
7. How many people and how many systems will be affected by thisrule?
Higher levels of radionuclides tend to be found more in ground watersources than in surface water sources, like rivers and lakes. While mostwater systems do not have detectable radionuclide activities, there aresome areas of the country that have levels significantly higher than thenational average levels. For example, some areas of the midwest have elevatedradium-226 levels and some western states have elevated uranium levelscompared to the rest of the United States. Separate monitoring for radiumis expected to result in roughly half of one percent of the nation's 54,000CWSs needing to take measures to lower radium in their drinking water.The uranium standard is expected to result in slightly less than one percentof CWSs needing to take measures to reduce uranium in their drinking water.Table 1 below shows the estimated number of CWSs that would be affectedby this rule and the estimated population served by these  watersystems.
Table 1. Estimates of the Community Water Systems That Would Need to MitigateContaminant Levels and the Population Served by These CWSs**Regulatory Action****Number of CWSs Affected****Total Population Served**Radium-228 Monitoring Correction~ 300~ 420 thousandUranium MCL of 30 µg/L~ 500~ 620 thousand8. How much will this rule cost?
Over 96% of the cost of this final rule is expected to come from themitigation of radionuclide levels through treatment, purchasing water,developing alternate water sources, and other compliance measures. Table2 below shows the total annualized costs of mitigation, monitoring, reporting,recordkeeping, and administration for this rule.
Table 2. Total NationalAnnualized Costs of the Radionuclides Rule (Mitigation, monitoring, reporting, recordkeeping, and administration)**Regulatory Action****Annual Costs**Radium-228 Monitoring Correction, Mitigation Costs~ $ 26 millionUranium MCL of 30 µg/L, Mitigation Costs~ $ 50 millionNew Monitoring, Reporting, Recordingkeeping, and AdministrationCosts for all Radionuclides~ $ 5 million-  For systems that need to take corrective action to comply with the newrule, the annual costs per system will range from $9,000 annually for thesmallest community water systems to over $150,000 annually for systemsserving 3,300 to 10,000, and over $500,000 annually for larger systems.  
-  For the small percentage of households that are served by water systemsthat will be required to take corrective actions because of this rule,it is estimated that households served by typical large water systems willexperience increased water bills of less than $30 per year and that householdsserved by typical small water systems (those serving 10,000 persons orfewer) will experience increased water bills of $50 - $100 per year. Costswill vary depending on the system size. 
9. What are the benefits of this rule?-  The requirement for separate radium-228 monitoring is expected to resultin the avoidance of 0.4 cancer cases per year, with estimated monetizedhealth effects benefits of $ 2 million annually. Water mitigation for radiumalso tends to reduce iron and manganese levels and hardness, which alsohas significant associated benefits. 
-  The kidney toxicity benefits for the uranium standard can not be quantifiedbecause limitations in existing health effects models at levels near theMCL. In addition to these non-quantified kidney toxicity benefits, 0.8cancer cases per year are expected to be avoided, with estimated monetizedcancer health effects benefits of $ 3 million annually. Water mitigationfor uranium also removes other contaminants, which has associated benefits. 
10. Is there funding associated with this rule?
Since 1996, the Drinking Water State Revolving Loan Fund has made over$3.6 billion available for loans to help water systems improve their infrastructure.This program has now made over 1000 loans. EPA also provides funding tostates that have primary enforcement responsibility for their drinkingwater programs through the Public Water Systems Supervision (PWSS) grantsprogram. Other federal funds are available through Housing and Urban Development'sCommunity Development Block Grant Program, and the Rural Utilities Serviceof the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
11. How did EPA consult with stakeholders?
In 1997, EPA conducted a public meeting regarding the finalization ofportions of the 1991 radionuclides proposal. This meeting was advertisedin the *Federal Register*. During the meeting, we discussed a rangeof regulation development issues with the stakeholders, including the statutoryrequirements, court stipulated agreement, MCLs for each of the radionuclides,the current and proposed monitoring frameworks, and new scientific informationregarding health effects, occurrence, analytical methods, and treatmenttechnologies. The presentations generated useful discussion and providedus feedback regarding technical issues, stakeholder concerns and possibleregulatory options. Participants in the stakeholder meeting included representativesfrom water utilities, environmental and citizens groups, State drinkingwater programs and health departments, other federal agencies, and othergroups.

In addition, during the regulation development process, we gave presentationson the radionuclides regulation at various professional conferences, meetingsbetween State programs and EPA Regions, the American Water Works Association'sTechnical Advisory Workgroup (TAW), and at Tribal meetings in Nevada, Alaska,and California. Finally, we held a one-day meeting with associations thatrepresent State, county, and local government elected officials on May30, 2000 and discussed five upcoming drinking water regulations, includingradionuclides.

Stakeholders were also asked to comment on a variety of issues in theApril 21, 2000 Notice of Data Availability. We utilized the feedback receivedfrom the stakeholders during all these meetings and comments from the NODAin developing the final radionuclides rule.
12. Where can the public get more information about the final radionuclidesrule?
For general information on radionuclides in drinking water, contactthe Safe Drinking Water Hotline, at (800) 426-4791, or visit the EPA Safewaterwebsite at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/ or the radionuclides website athttp://www.epa.gov/safewater/radionuc.html.

In addition to this technical fact sheet, the following documents andfact sheets are available to the public at EPA's web site on radionuclidesin drinking water:
- Federal Register notice of the Notice of Data Availability
- A Technical Support Document

A copy of the *Federal Register* notice of the final regulation, theNotice of Data Availability, or supporting material can be obtained bycontacting the Safe Drinking Water Hotline at (800) 426-4791. The SafeDrinking Water Hotline is open Monday through Friday, excluding Federalholidays, from 9:00 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. Eastern Time.

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